Waste Water Treatment :

Historically, human waste was disposed of directly into the environment, leading to
severe pollution and health issues. By the 19th century, measures were taken to treat
wastes, initially to prevent water-borne diseases like typhoid and cholera. Waste
treatment involves chemical and biological harmonization to prevent disease
transmission, land contamination, and water pollution. Food industry wastes often
undergo added-value processes, recovering marketable materials or converting waste
into valuable products. Analytical tests assess the polluting strength of waste,
including biological oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, total suspended
solids, and total solids, and specific components like nitrogen, phosphorus, heavy
metals, insecticides, and chlorinated compounds.
BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) and COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) are two
important parameters used to measure the organic content of wastewater. They both
provide an indication of the amount of organic pollutants present in water, but they
differ in terms of the testing methodology and the types of organic compounds they
measure. BOD is a measure of the amount of dissolved oxygen that bacteria will
consume while decomposing organic matter in water under aerobic (oxygen-requiring)
conditions. High BOD levels indicate a large amount of biodegradable organic
material in the water, which can lead to oxygen depletion if not properly treated. This
depletion can harm aquatic life in the receiving water body.
OD is a measure of the amount of oxygen required to chemically oxidize both
biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter in water. COD provides a more
rapid assessment of the organic load in water than BOD because it involves a
chemical oxidation process rather than a biological one. However, COD does not
distinguish between biodegradable and non-biodegradable organic matter, and it can
sometimes overestimate the actual oxygen demand.
In summary, BOD and COD are important parameters in assessing the pollution level
of wastewater. BOD gives an indication of the amount of organic material that can be
biologically degraded, while COD provides a measure of the total oxygen demand,
including both biodegradable and non-biodegradable components. Both parameters
are essential for evaluating the effectiveness of wastewater treatment processes and
ensuring the protection of aquatic ecosystems.
Options for the treatment of waste-waters include:
1 biological treatments, involving aerobic and/or anaerobic processes;
2 chemical treatments, such as coagulation, flocculation, precipitation and
electrochemical processes; and
3 physical treatments, often in the form of screening, sedimentation or incineration.
The method of treatment chosen is normally a function of the waste-water
characteristics and more than one method is usually employed. For example, in
sewage treatment, all three categories can be utilized at some stage . Generally, any
biological wastewater treatment plant treating either domestic sewage or industrial
waste-waters can be divided into three main stages:
1 primary treatment (preliminary treatments and primary sedimentation);
2 secondary treatment (aerobic and/or anaerobic biological treatment and secondary
sedimentation); and
3 tertiary treatment, which includes processes that, where necessary, remove any
remaining inorganic nutrients, especially phosphate and nitrate. These inorganic
nutrients have often been discharged into rivers and other water bodies where they can
cause excessive higher plant and algal growth. Some algae can also produce toxins
that poison fish and livestock. However, not all components of these stages,
particularly tertiary treatments, are necessarily employed at every plant, the selection
being waste-water dependent.
Preliminary treatment :
Preliminary steps involve the removal of larger floating debris, along with a high
percentage of suspended material. Strategies adopted depend on the nature of the
specific waste-water and the subsequent treatment processes. The first step normally
involves screens that are designed to remove large objects such as rags, papers, etc.
Both coarse (6–24mm apertures) and fine (2–6 mm apertures) microscreens are placed
in the inflow channel to the treatment works. The average velocity of liquid in the
channels is normally 0.7m/s and must be maintained above 0.5m/s to prevent
settlement. Solid materials collected on the screens are removed manually or
automatically and are either incinerated or buried in landfill sites. Any large particles
not removed by screens are reduced to below 0.3mm in diameter using comminutors
(large-scale mechanical blenders). The wastewaters may also pass through grit
chambers, which are designed to remove more than 95% of particles greater than
0.2mm diameter. These are constant velocity chambers that are trapezoidal or V-
shaped in crossection. A constant velocity of 0.3m/s allows the grit to settle, but other
solids remain in suspension. Settled grit is removed from the bottom of the channel
and is either washed for use as building material or is disposed of in landfill.
Primary treatment :
Primary treatment is the initial stage in the treatment of wastewater, where physical
processes are used to remove solid materials and reduce the pollutant load. This
treatment is designed to remove larger particles and allow for the separation of
settleable solids from the wastewater. The primary treatment process typically
involves the use of physical methods such as screening, sedimentation, and sometimes
flotation. Sedimentation tanks are normally circular (radial flow) or rectangular tanks
(horizontal flow) equipped with mechanical sludge crapping devices to remove the
settled sludge.
Screening:
 Purpose: The primary purpose of screening is to remove large objects and
debris from the wastewater. This helps protect downstream equipment from
damage and prevents interference with subsequent treatment processes.
 Equipment: Bar screens or mechanical screens are commonly used to capture
large objects like sticks, leaves, plastics, and other debris.
Primary Sedimentation:
Purpose: After screening, the wastewater flows into a sedimentation tank or clarifier.
In this tank, the velocity of the wastewater is reduced, allowing heavier particles to
settle to the bottom. Sedimentation is employed to allow suspended particles to settle
to the bottom of a basin, forming a sludge layer. This process helps separate solids
from the liquid phase of the wastewater.( The sedimentation stage of domestic sewage
reduces suspended solid concentration and overall BOD by placing effluent in a tank
under quiescent conditions, resulting in 50-70% removal.)
Process: The settleable solids, called primary sludge, are collected at the bottom of the
tank, while the clarified water, known as effluent, moves on to the next stage of
treatment.
1. Inlet:
 Wastewater flows into the primary clarifier, and the velocity is reduced
to allow settling.
2. Settling:
 Heavy particles, both organic and inorganic, settle to the bottom as
sludge.
 Lighter materials float to the surface and form a scum layer.
3. Effluent:
 The clarified water, known as effluent, is collected from the middle layer
and is discharged for further treatment.

Flotation (Optional):
 Purpose: In some cases, flotation is used to remove fats, oils, and grease
(FOG) from the wastewater. This is especially common in industries where
these substances are prevalent.
  Process: Air is introduced into the wastewater, creating small bubbles that
attach to the FOG particles, causing them to float to the surface. The floated
material can then be skimmed off.
Primary sedimentation reduces suspended solids, reducing potential problems in
subsequent stages and BOD loading, and sludges must be safely disposed of through
incineration, landfill, or further treatment.
Primary treatment effectively removes solids from wastewater, but doesn't address
dissolved pollutants. Secondary and tertiary processes are often used to reduce
pollutants before discharge . Processes and equipment vary based on wastewater
characteristics and plant design.
Secondary treatment :
Biological treatment uses a mixed microbial population to remove pollutants from
waste-waters or reduce their concentration before disposal. Microorganisms are
typically aggregates or attached biofilms, treatment process can be aerobic or
anaerobic . These may be further separated into suspended homogeneous systems,
which include the activated sludge process and anaerobic stirred tank reactor, or
attached film processes, e.g. aerobic and anaerobic trickle filters.
Activated Sludge Process:
 Aeration Tank: Wastewater from the primary treatment is transferred to an
aeration tank. In this tank, air is continuously pumped or diffused to provide
oxygen, promoting the growth of microorganisms (activated sludge) that feed
on organic matter.
 Microbial Digestion: The microorganisms in the activated sludge consume
and biologically break down the dissolved and suspended organic pollutants in
the wastewater.
 Formation of Flocs: As the microorganisms consume organic matter, they
form flocs that include both microbial cells and the particles they consume.
 Secondary Clarifier: After aeration, the wastewater and activated sludge
mixture is directed to a secondary clarifier. In this clarifier, the flocs settle,
separating from the treated water.
 Return of Activated Sludge: Some of the settled activated sludge is returned
to the aeration tank to maintain a population of active microorganisms, while
the excess is usually wasted or sent for further treatment.
Trickling Filter :-
Trickling filters operate by allowing wastewater to trickle or flow over a medium,
such as rocks, gravel, or plastic media, where microbial communities attach and form
a biofilm.
 1. Trickling Filter Components:
 Media Bed: The trickling filter consists of a bed of media, often made
of rocks, plastic, or other materials with a large surface area. This media
provides a habitat for microorganisms to attach and grow.
 Distribution System: Wastewater from the primary treatment is evenly
distributed over the surface of the media bed. This can be achieved
through the use of rotating distributors or fixed distribution pipes.
2. Biological Treatment Process:
 Microbial Growth: As the wastewater trickles over the media,
microorganisms, including bacteria and other aerobic organisms, attach
themselves to the surface of the media.
 Biological Oxidation: The attached microorganisms metabolize and
oxidize the organic pollutants in the wastewater. This biological
oxidation process converts organic matter into simpler, less harmful
substances, such as carbon dioxide and water.
3. Aeration and Oxygen Transfer:
 Aerobic Conditions: The trickling filter operates under aerobic
(oxygen-rich) conditions, supporting the growth of aerobic
microorganisms. Oxygen is essential for the microbial oxidation of
organic pollutants.
 Natural Aeration: The design of the trickling filter allows for the
natural exchange of air between the atmosphere and the wastewater,
providing the necessary oxygen for microbial activity.
4. Effluent Collection and Further Treatment:
 Effluent Collection: The treated wastewater, now containing fewer
organic pollutants, is collected at the bottom of the trickling filter.
 Further Treatment: The effluent from the trickling filter may undergo
further treatment processes, such as secondary clarification or additional
polishing steps, to meet regulatory standards before discharge or reuse.
Advantages of Trickling Filters:

Reliability: Trickling filters are known for their reliability and ease of operation.
Low Energy Requirements: They typically have lower energy requirements compared
to some other treatment processes.
Compact Design: Trickling filters can be designed in a relatively compact space
Rotating Biological Contactors :

Rotating biological contactors (RBCs) are fixed-film reactors similar to biofilters in

that organisms are attached to support media. In the case of the RBC, the support
media are slowly rotating discs that are partially submerged in flowing wastewater in
the reactor. Oxygen is supplied to the attached biofilm from the air when the film is
out of the water and from the liquid when submerged, since oxygen is transferred to
the wastewater by surface turbulence created by the discs' rotation. Sloughed pieces of
biofilm are removed in the same manner described for biofilters.
Fluidized bed system :
Fluidized bed systems are indeed used in water treatment processes, particularly in the
context of biological wastewater treatment. In the treatment of wastewater, fluidized
beds can be applied to enhance biological processes, such as the removal of organic
pollutants and nutrients. The primary mechanism involves the use of a fluidized bed
reactor where microorganisms attach to suspended particles and form a biofilm,
facilitating the breakdown of organic matter. Here's how fluidized bed systems are
utilized in water treatment:
Biological Wastewater Treatment:
 Attached Growth System: In a fluidized bed reactor, small particles, such as
sand or plastic media, are suspended and fluidized by the flow of wastewater.
Microorganisms attach to these particles and form a biofilm.
 Organic Matter Removal: The attached microorganisms in the biofilm
metabolize and digest organic pollutants in the wastewater, contributing to the
removal of biological oxygen demand (BOD) and other organic contaminants.
 Nutrient Removal: Fluidized bed systems can also be designed to promote
nutrient removal, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, through the activity of
specific microorganisms.

After secondary treatment, the water undergoes further clarification and

disinfection processes to meet regulatory standards before being discharged into
receiving water bodies or reused for non-potable purposes. The remaining sludge,
generated during the treatment processes, may also undergo additional treatment
steps for proper disposal or beneficial reuse.
Tertiary treatment :
Tertiary treatment is the third and final stage in the conventional wastewater treatment
process. It follows primary and secondary treatments and is designed to further
improve the quality of treated effluent before it is discharged into the environment or
reused for non-potable purposes. Tertiary treatment involves the removal of remaining
pollutants, particularly nutrients and pathogens, to meet strict water quality standards.
Various technologies and processes are employed in tertiary treatment, depending on
the specific goals of the treatment plant and regulatory requirements. Here are some
common methods used in tertiary treatment:
Chemical Coagulation and Flocculation:
 Chemical Addition: Coagulants such as alum or ferric chloride are added to
the water. These chemicals cause small particles to clump together
(coagulation) and form larger particles (flocculation).
 Flocculation Tanks: The water is then gently stirred in flocculation tanks to
promote the formation of larger, settleable flocs.
Filtration:
Sand Filtration: Water is passed through sand filters to remove fine particles and
remaining suspended solids.
Microfiltration and Ultrafiltration: These membrane-based processes use fine filters
with pore sizes smaller than those in conventional sand filters, allowing for the
removal of even smaller particles.
Disinfection:
 Chlorination: Chlorine or chlorine-containing compounds are added to the
water to disinfect and kill remaining pathogens.
 UV Disinfection: Ultraviolet (UV) light is used to disinfect water by
inactivating microorganisms. UV disinfection does not involve the use of
chemicals and is effective against bacteria and viruses.
 Ozonation: Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent that can be used for
disinfection. It also helps in breaking down organic and inorganic pollutants.
Nutrient Removal:
Phosphorus Removal: Techniques such as chemical precipitation or biological
processes can be employed to further reduce phosphorus levels, addressing
concerns related to eutrophication.
Nitrogen Removal: Methods like nitrification-denitrification processes can be
implemented to reduce nitrogen levels in the treated water.
Reverse Osmosis (RO) and Advanced Membrane Filtration:
 Membrane Processes: Advanced membrane technologies, including reverse
osmosis, ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration, can be employed to remove
dissolved contaminants, salts, and other substances not effectively addressed by
traditional treatment processes.
Tertiary treatment is not always required for all wastewater treatment plants, and its
application depends on the specific regulatory standards, the intended use of the
treated water, and the environmental conditions of the receiving water body. The
selection of tertiary treatment processes is based on the specific contaminants that
need to be addressed in the treated effluent.
Sludge treatment and disposal :
During primary sedimentation and biological treatment stages vast quantities of
sludges can be generated. These primary and secondary sludges are highly polluting
and, depending on the final method of disposal, require further treatment. The
characteristics of these two sludges vary considerably. Primary sludges are non-
biological, containing 2– 6% (w/v) TS and are easily thickened, whereas biological
secondary sludges contain 0.5–1.0% (w/v) TS and are difficult to thicken.
The properties of sludges generated during primary sedimentation and aerobic
biological treatment depend on the raw waste-water characteristics and the biological
process used. However, it is important to realize that each sludge has its own
individual characteristics and that no two sludges are the same. Also, the composition
of sludges often changes with time.
Depending on the size of the treatment plant some or all of the following sludge
treatment stages can be implemented prior to final disposal: thickening, digestion or
stabilization, conditioning and dewatering.
1.Sludge thickening:
The aim of sludge thickening is to significantly reduce the volume of sludge before
further treatment while retaining the solids content.
Sludge thickening leads to reductions in:
1 the size of stabilization vessel required;
2 quantities of stabilizing chemicals necessary;
3 heat requirements for stabilization;
4 land requirements for subsequent treatment stages; and
5 transport or pumping costs.
Routine methods available for sludge thickening include the use of gravity settlement.
This is very similar in design to primary and secondary sedimentation, as the sludges
are placed in a tank where the solids are allowed to settle under quiescent conditions.
To prevent hindered settlement, the sludges are gently agitated by rotating picket
fences to allow the liquid to pass upwards and the solids to move downwards.
Dissolved air flotation may also be employed, which involves supersaturating the
sludge with air under a pressure of 2– 4atm. When it is transferred into a tank at
atmospheric pressure the gases in solution are released. As they rise, solid particles
become attached at the gas–liquid interface and float to the surface where they can be
collected. The final choice of thickening method depends on the nature of the sludges
to be treated.
2.Sludge stabilization:
The main aims of sludge stabilization are to reduce the solids content of the sludges,
to destroy pathogens when present, and to eliminate or reduce the potential for odour
formation and putrification . Several methods are available, including:
1 biological processes, utilizing either aerobic or anaerobic microorganisms;
2 chemical oxidation, e.g. using chlorine;
3 chemical stabilization, e.g. by dosing with lime; and
4 physical treatment, e.g. heating.
Biological sludge stabilization utilizes the activity of either aerobic or anaerobic
microorganisms to biodegrade the constituent organic matter. In the case of anaerobic
treatment, the microbiology is the same as that described earlier for anaerobic waste-
water treatment . The anaerobic bacteria metabolize the primary and secondary
sludges into potentially useful methane, plus carbon dioxide and new cells.
Aerobic stabilization is suitable for secondary sludges where microbial cells are the
major components, because it relies on their ability to respire endogenously in the
absence of ‘food’ and results in the oxidation of 75–80% of the cell biomass.
However, a major disadvantage of treating primary sludges by aerobic methods is that
they contain a high proportion of biodegradable components, which will be oxidized
by the microorganisms. Consequently, the microbial biomass increases until the
external nutrients become depleted; only then will they respire endogenously.
3.Sludge dewatering:
Prior to ultimate disposal, sludges are dewatered to further increase the solids content
to 50% (w/v). The main difference between thickening and dewatering is that after
thickening the sludge still behaves as a liquid, but after dewatering it should behave as
a solid. Dewatering can be accomplished using sand beds, filter presses, centrifugation
or lagoons, and its beneficial effects include:
1 lower transport costs through a reduction in sludge volume;
2 the product is suitable for disposal onto land, as it is odourless with reduced
potential for environmental pollution; 3 increased fuel value, as it becomes easier to
incinerate and has a higher calorific value; and 4 reduced leachate problems when
disposed to landfill.
Disposal of sludges and other solid wastes:-
Methods routinely used for the disposal of final sludges and other solid wastes are as
follows.
1 Landfilling, which is also used for other agricultural, industrial and urban wastes.
However, there are potential pollution problems as materials can leach into adjacent
water courses when unsuitable or ill-prepared sites are used. Also, it is becoming
increasingly expensive due to a lack of suitable landfill sites. Nevertheless, landfilling
has potential as a means of methane production. This may be more actively pursued in
the future provided that problems associated with the establishment of suitable
microbial populations can be overcome, possibly by inoculation with appropriate
methanogens.
2 Incineration is routinely used for solids and well dewatered sludges with solids
contents in excess of 30% (w/v). For sludges, the system operates with limited energy
input due to their high calorific value, leading to self combustion. However, there may
be problems with the disposal of residue ash, as it often contains high concentrations
of heavy metals.
3 Biologically stabilized dewatered sludge may be used as a low-cost fertilizer and
soil conditioner on agricultural land, often incorporated with composted solid organic
agricultural and household wastes (see below). This mode of disposal is becoming
increasingly popular, but the regulations regarding disposal are very stringent,
particularly regarding nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metal concentrations, and
pathogen content. These factors obviously influence the period between application
and subsequent use of the land. The soil characteristics, topography of the land and
potential risk of polluting water courses are additional considerations, along with any
possible nuisance to the community.