Cogeneration

Cogeneration or combined heat

and power (CHP) is the use of a
heat engine[1] or power station to
generate electricity and useful heat
at the same time.
 Whycogenerationismoreefficientthanconventionalcoalpowerplants
Comparingtheenergyefficiencyofcogenerationwithconventionalcoalpowerplantandheatingsystem
Source:ASUE

Separatepowerandheatsupply Cogeneration
Efficiency55% Efficiency87%

8 Usefulenergy

8
Usefulenergy
Coal-firedplant
SOSS888

Cogeneration
Usefulenergy
naturalgas

ENERGY ENERGY
Boiler LOSS LOSS
(heatingoil)

Withacoalfiredpowerplant,morethanhalftheenergyinputiswasted.
Cogenerationreducestheprimaryenergydemandby36%.

EnergyTransition

Diagram comparing losses from conventional generation vs.

cogeneration

Cogeneration is a more efficient

use of fuel or heat, because
otherwise-wasted heat from
electricity generation is put to
some productive use. Combined
heat and power (CHP) plants
recover otherwise wasted thermal
energy for heating. This is also
called combined heat and power
district heating. Small CHP plants
are an example of decentralized
energy.[2] By-product heat at
moderate temperatures (100–
180 °C, 212–356 °F) can also be
used in absorption refrigerators for
cooling.

The supply of high-temperature

heat first drives a gas or steam
turbine-powered generator. The
resulting low-temperature waste
heat is then used for water or space
heating. At smaller scales (typically
below 1 MW), a gas engine or
diesel engine may be used.
Cogeneration is also common with
geothermal power plants as they
often produce relatively low grade
heat. Binary cycles may be
necessary to reach acceptable
thermal efficiency for electricity
generation at all. Cogeneration is
less commonly employed in
nuclear power plants as NIMBY
and safety considerations have
often kept them further from
population centers than
comparable chemical power plants
and district heating is less efficient
in lower population density areas
due to transmission losses.

Cogeneration was practiced in

some of the earliest installations of
electrical generation. Before central
stations distributed power,
industries generating their own
power used exhaust steam for
process heating. Large office and
apartment buildings, hotels, and
stores commonly generated their
own power and used waste steam
for building heat. Due to the high
cost of early purchased power,
these CHP operations continued
for many years after utility
electricity became available.[3]

Overview

Masnedø CHP power station in Denmark. This

station burns straw as fuel. The adjacent
greenhouses are heated by district heating
from the plant.
Many process industries, such as
chemical plants, oil refineries and
pulp and paper mills, require large
amounts of process heat for such
operations as chemical reactors,
distillation columns, steam driers
and other uses. This heat, which is
usually used in the form of steam,
can be generated at the typically
low pressures used in heating, or
can be generated at much higher
pressure and passed through a
turbine first to generate electricity.
In the turbine the steam pressure
and temperature is lowered as the
internal energy of the steam is
converted to work. The lower-
pressure steam leaving the turbine
can then be used for process heat.

Steam turbines at thermal power

stations are normally designed to
be fed high-pressure steam, which
exits the turbine at a condenser
operating a few degrees above
ambient temperature and at a few
millimeters of mercury absolute
pressure. (This is called a
condensing turbine.) For all
practical purposes this steam has
negligible useful energy before it is
condensed. Steam turbines for
cogeneration are designed for
extraction of some steam at lower
pressures after it has passed
through a number of turbine
stages, with the un-extracted
steam going on through the turbine
to a condenser. In this case, the
extracted steam causes a
mechanical power loss in the
downstream stages of the turbine.
Or they are designed, with or
without extraction, for final exhaust
at back pressure (non-
condensing).[4][5] The extracted or
exhaust steam is used for process
heating. Steam at ordinary process
heating conditions still has a
considerable amount of enthalpy
that could be used for power
generation, so cogeneration has an
opportunity cost.

A typical power generation turbine

in a paper mill may have extraction
pressures of 160 psig (1.103 MPa)
and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical
back pressure may be 60 psig
(0.41 MPa). In practice these
pressures are custom designed for
each facility. Conversely, simply
generating process steam for
industrial purposes instead of high
enough pressure to generate power
at the top end also has an
opportunity cost (See: Steam
supply and exhaust conditions).
The capital and operating cost of
high-pressure boilers, turbines, and
generators is substantial. This
equipment is normally operated
continuously, which usually limits
self-generated power to large-
scale operations.

A cogeneration plant in Metz,

France. The 45MW boiler uses
waste wood biomass as an energy
source, providing electricity and
heat for 30,000 dwellings.

A combined cycle (in which several

thermodynamic cycles produce
electricity), may also be used to
extract heat using a heating system
as condenser of the power plant's
bottoming cycle. For example, the
RU-25 MHD generator in Moscow
heated a boiler for a conventional
steam powerplant, whose
condensate was then used for
space heat. A more modern system
might use a gas turbine powered
by natural gas, whose exhaust
powers a steam plant, whose
condensate provides heat.
Cogeneration plants based on a
combined cycle power unit can
have thermal efficiencies above
80%.

The viability of CHP (sometimes

termed utilisation factor), especially
in smaller CHP installations,
depends on a good baseload of
operation, both in terms of an on-
site (or near site) electrical demand
and heat demand. In practice, an
exact match between the heat and
electricity needs rarely exists. A
CHP plant can either meet the
need for heat (heat driven
operation) or be run as a power
plant with some use of its waste
heat, the latter being less
advantageous in terms of its
utilisation factor and thus its overall
efficiency. The viability can be
greatly increased where
opportunities for trigeneration exist.
In such cases, the heat from the
CHP plant is also used as a primary
energy source to deliver cooling by
means of an absorption chiller.
CHP is most efficient when heat
can be used on-site or very close to
it. Overall efficiency is reduced
when the heat must be transported
over longer distances. This requires
heavily insulated pipes, which are
expensive and inefficient; whereas
electricity can be transmitted along
a comparatively simple wire, and
over much longer distances for the
same energy loss.

A car engine becomes a CHP plant

in winter when the reject heat is
useful for warming the interior of
the vehicle. The example illustrates
the point that deployment of CHP
depends on heat uses in the
vicinity of the heat engine.

Thermally enhanced oil recovery

(TEOR) plants often produce a
substantial amount of excess
electricity. After generating
electricity, these plants pump
leftover steam into heavy oil wells
so that the oil will flow more easily,
increasing production.
Cogeneration plants are commonly
found in district heating systems of
cities, central heating systems of
larger buildings (e.g. hospitals,
hotels, prisons) and are commonly
used in the industry in thermal
production processes for process
water, cooling, steam production or
CO2 fertilization.

Trigeneration or combined cooling,

heat and power (CCHP) refers to
the simultaneous generation of
electricity and useful heating and
cooling from the combustion of a
fuel or a solar heat collector. The
terms cogeneration and
trigeneration can also be applied to
the power systems simultaneously
generating electricity, heat, and
industrial chemicals (e.g., syngas).
Trigeneration differs from
cogeneration in that the waste heat
is used for both heating and
cooling, typically in an absorption
refrigerator. Combined cooling,
heat, and power systems can attain
higher overall efficiencies than
cogeneration or traditional power
plants. In the United States, the
application of trigeneration in
buildings is called building cooling,
heating, and power. Heating and
cooling output may operate
concurrently or alternately
depending on need and system
construction.

Types of plants
 Hanasaari Power Plant, a coal-
fired cogeneration power plant in
Helsinki, Finland

Topping cycle plants primarily

produce electricity from a steam
turbine. Partly expanded steam is
then condensed in a heating
condensor at a temperature level
that is suitable e.g. district heating
or water desalination.

Bottoming cycle plants produce

high temperature heat for industrial
processes, then a waste heat
recovery boiler feeds an electrical
plant. Bottoming cycle plants are
only used in industrial processes
that require very high temperatures
such as furnaces for glass and
metal manufacturing, so they are
less common.

Large cogeneration systems

provide heating water and power
for an industrial site or an entire
town. Common CHP plant types
are:
Gas turbine CHP plants using
the waste heat in the flue gas of
gas turbines. The fuel used is
typically natural gas.
Gas engine CHP plants use a
reciprocating gas engine, which
is generally more competitive
than a gas turbine up to about 5
MW. The gaseous fuel used is
normally natural gas. These
plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged
units that can be installed within
a plantroom or external plant
compound with simple
connections to the site's gas
supply, electrical distribution
network and heating systems.
Typical outputs and efficiencies
see [6] Typical large example see
[7]

Biofuel engine CHP plants use

an adapted reciprocating gas
engine or diesel engine,
depending upon which biofuel is
being used, and are otherwise
very similar in design to a Gas
engine CHP plant. The
advantage of using a biofuel is
one of reduced fossil fuel
consumption and thus reduced
carbon emissions. These plants
are generally manufactured as
fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plantroom or
external plant compound with
simple connections to the site's
electrical distribution and
heating systems. Another variant
is the wood gasifier CHP plant
whereby a wood pellet or wood
chip biofuel is gasified in a zero
oxygen high temperature
environment; the resulting gas is
then used to power the gas
engine.
Combined cycle power plants
adapted for CHP
Molten-carbonate fuel cells and
solid oxide fuel cells have a hot
exhaust, very suitable for
heating.
Steam turbine CHP plants that
use the heating system as the
steam condenser for the steam
turbine
Nuclear power plants, similar to
other steam turbine power
plants, can be fitted with
extractions in the turbines to
bleed partially expanded steam
to a heating system. With a
heating system temperature of
95 °C it is possible to extract
about 10 MW heat for every MW
electricity lost. With a
temperature of 130 °C the gain is
slightly smaller, about 7 MW for
every MWe lost.[8] A review of
 cogeneration options is in [9]
Czech research team proposed a
"Teplator" system where heat
from spent fuel rods is recovered
for the purpose of residential
heating.[10]

Smaller cogeneration units may

use a reciprocating engine or
Stirling engine. The heat is
removed from the exhaust and
radiator. The systems are popular in
small sizes because small gas and
diesel engines are less expensive
than small gas- or oil-fired steam-
electric plants.

Some cogeneration plants are fired

by biomass,[11] or industrial and
municipal solid waste (see
incineration). Some CHP plants use
waste gas as the fuel for electricity
and heat generation. Waste gases
can be gas from animal waste,
landfill gas, gas from coal mines,
sewage gas, and combustible
industrial waste gas.[12]

Some cogeneration plants combine

gas and solar photovoltaic
generation to further improve
technical and environmental
performance.[13] Such hybrid
systems can be scaled down to the
building level[14] and even
individual homes.[15]

MicroCHP

Micro combined heat and power or

'Micro cogeneration" is a so-called
distributed energy resource (DER).
The installation is usually less than
5 kWe in a house or small business.
Instead of burning fuel to merely
heat space or water, some of the
energy is converted to electricity in
addition to heat. This electricity can
be used within the home or
business or, if permitted by the grid
management, sold back into the
electric power grid.

Delta-ee consultants stated in

2013 that with 64% of global sales
the fuel cell micro-combined heat
and power passed the
conventional systems in sales in
2012.[16] 20.000 units were sold in
Japan in 2012 overall within the
Ene Farm project. With a Lifetime of
around 60,000 hours. For PEM fuel
cell units, which shut down at night,
this equates to an estimated
lifetime of between ten and fifteen
years.[17] For a price of $22,600
before installation.[18] For 2013 a
state subsidy for 50,000 units is in
place.[17]

MicroCHP installations use five

different technologies:
microturbines, internal combustion
engines, stirling engines, closed-
cycle steam engines, and fuel cells.
One author indicated in 2008 that
MicroCHP based on Stirling
engines is the most cost-effective
of the so-called microgeneration
technologies in abating carbon
emissions.[19] A 2013 UK report
from Ecuity Consulting stated that
MCHP is the most cost-effective
method of using gas to generate
energy at the domestic level.[20][21]
However, advances in reciprocation
engine technology are adding
efficiency to CHP plants,
particularly in the biogas field.[22]
As both MiniCHP and CHP have
been shown to reduce emissions
[23] they could play a large role in
the field of CO2 reduction from
buildings, where more than 14% of
emissions can be saved using CHP
in buildings.[24] The University of
Cambridge reported a cost-
effective steam engine MicroCHP
prototype in 2017 which has the
potential to be commercially
competitive in the following
decades.[25] Quite recently, in some
private homes, fuel cell micro-CHP
plants can now be found, which
can operate on hydrogen, or other
fuels as natural gas or LPG.[26][27]
When running on natural gas, it
relies on steam reforming of natural
gas to convert the natural gas to
hydrogen prior to use in the fuel
cell. This hence still emits CO2 (see
reaction) but (temporarily) running
on this can be a good solution until
the point where the hydrogen is
starting to be distributed through
the (natural gas) piping system.

Another MicroCHP example is a

natural gas or propane fueled
Electricity Producing Condensing
Furnace. It combines the fuel
saving technique of cogeneration
meaning producing electric power
and useful heat from a single
source of combustion. The
condensing furnace is a forced-air
gas system with a secondary heat
exchanger that allows heat to be
extracted from combustion
products down to the ambient
temperature along with recovering
heat from the water vapor. The
chimney is replaced by a water
drain and vent to the side of the
building.

Trigeneration
 Trigeneration cycle

A plant producing electricity, heat

and cold is called a trigeneration[28]
or polygeneration plant.
Cogeneration systems linked to
absorption chillers or adsorption
chillers use waste heat for
refrigeration.[29]
Combined heat and power
district heating

In the United States, Consolidated

Edison distributes 66 billion
kilograms of 350 °F (180 °C)
steam each year through its seven
cogeneration plants to 100,000
buildings in Manhattan—the
biggest steam district in the United
States. The peak delivery is 10
million pounds per hour (or
approximately 2.5 GW).[30][31]
Industrial CHP

Cogeneration is still common in

pulp and paper mills, refineries and
chemical plants. In this "industrial
cogeneration/CHP", the heat is
typically recovered at higher
temperatures (above 100 deg C)
and used for process steam or
drying duties. This is more valuable
and flexible than low-grade waste
heat, but there is a slight loss of
power generation. The increased
focus on sustainability has made
industrial CHP more attractive, as it
substantially reduces carbon
footprint compared to generating
steam or burning fuel on-site and
importing electric power from the
grid.

Smaller industrial co-generation

units have an output capacity of 5
MW – 25 MW and represent a
viable off-grid option for a variety
of remote applications to reduce
carbon emissions.[32]
Utility pressures versus self
generated industrial

Industrial cogeneration plants

normally operate at much lower
boiler pressures than utilities.
Among the reasons are: 1)
Cogeneration plants face possible
contamination of returned
condensate. Because boiler feed
water from cogeneration plants has
much lower return rates than 100%
condensing power plants,
industries usually have to treat
proportionately more boiler make
up water. Boiler feed water must be
completely oxygen free and de-
mineralized, and the higher the
pressure the more critical the level
of purity of the feed water.[5] 2)
Utilities are typically larger scale
power than industry, which helps
offset the higher capital costs of
high pressure. 3) Utilities are less
likely to have sharp load swings
than industrial operations, which
deal with shutting down or starting
up units that may represent a
significant percent of either steam
or power demand.

Heat recovery steam

generators

A heat recovery steam generator

(HRSG) is a steam boiler that uses
hot exhaust gases from the gas
turbines or reciprocating engines in
a CHP plant to heat up water and
generate steam. The steam, in turn,
drives a steam turbine or is used in
industrial processes that require
heat.

HRSGs used in the CHP industry

are distinguished from
conventional steam generators by
the following main features:

The HRSG is designed based

upon the specific features of the
gas turbine or reciprocating
engine that it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas
temperature is relatively low, heat
transmission is accomplished
mainly through convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is
limited by the need to keep head
losses down. Thus, the
transmission coefficient is low,
which calls for a large heating
surface area.
Since the temperature difference
between the hot gases and the
fluid to be heated (steam or
water) is low, and with the heat
transmission coefficient being
low as well, the evaporator and
economizer are designed with
 plate fin heat exchangers.

Cogeneration using
biomass
Biomass refers to any plant or
animal matter in which it is possible
to be reused as a source of heat or
electricity, such as sugarcane,
vegetable oils, wood, organic waste
and residues from the food or
agricultural industries. Brazil is now
considered a world reference in
terms of energy generation from
biomass.[33]
A growing sector in the use of
biomass for power generation is
the sugar and alcohol sector, which
mainly uses sugarcane bagasse as
fuel for thermal and electric power
generation [34]

Power cogeneration in the

sugar and alcohol sector

In the sugarcane industry,

cogeneration is fueled by the
bagasse residue of sugar refining,
which is burned to produce steam.
Some steam can be sent through a
turbine that turns a generator,
producing electric power.[35]

Energy cogeneration in sugarcane

industries located in Brazil is a
practice that has been growing in
last years. With the adoption of
energy cogeneration in the sugar
and alcohol sector, the sugarcane
industries are able to supply the
electric energy demand needed to
operate, and generate a surplus
that can be commercialized.[36][37]
Advantages of the
cogeneration using
sugarcane bagasse

In comparison with the electric

power generation by means of
fossil fuel-based thermoelectric
plants, such as natural gas, the
energy generation using sugarcane
bagasse has environmental
advantages due to the reduction of
CO2 emissions.[38]

In addition to the environmental

advantages, cogeneration using
sugarcane bagasse presents
advantages in terms of efficiency
comparing to thermoelectric
generation, through the final
destination of the energy produced.
While in thermoelectric generation,
part of the heat produced is lost, in
cogeneration this heat has the
possibility of being used in the
production processes, increasing
the overall efficiency of the
process.[38]
Disadvantages of the
cogeneration using
sugarcane bagasse

In sugarcane cultivation, is usually

used potassium source's
containing high concentration of
chlorine, such as potassium
chloride (KCl). Considering that KCl
is applied in huge quantities,
sugarcane ends up absorbing high
concentrations of chlorine.[39]

Due to this absorption, when the

sugarcane bagasse is burned in the
power cogeneration, dioxins [39]
and methyl chloride [40] ends up
being emitted. In the case of
dioxins, these substances are
considered very toxic and
cancerous.[41][42][43]

In the case of methyl chloride,

when this substance is emitted and
reaches the stratosphere, it ends
up being very harmful for the ozone
layer, since chlorine when
combined with the ozone molecule
generates a catalytic reaction
leading to the breakdown of ozone
links.[40]

After each reaction, chlorine starts

a destructive cycle with another
ozone molecule. In this way, a
single chlorine atom can destroy
thousands of ozone molecules. As
these molecules are being broken,
they are unable to absorb the
ultraviolet rays. As a result, the UV
radiation is more intense on Earth
and there is a worsening of global
warming.[40]
Comparison with a heat
pump
A heat pump may be compared
with a CHP unit as follows. If, to
supply thermal energy, the exhaust
steam from the turbo-generator
must be taken at a higher
temperature than the system would
produce most electricity at, the lost
electrical generation is as if a heat
pump were used to provide the
same heat by taking electrical
power from the generator running
at lower output temperature and
higher efficiency.[44] Typically for
every unit of electrical power lost,
then about 6 units of heat are
made available at about 90 °C
(194 °F). Thus CHP has an
effective Coefficient of
Performance (COP) compared to a
heat pump of 6.[45] However, for a
remotely operated heat pump,
losses in the electrical distribution
network would need to be
considered, of the order of 6%.
Because the losses are
proportional to the square of the
current, during peak periods losses
are much higher than this and it is
likely that widespread (i.e. citywide
application of heat pumps) would
cause overloading of the
distribution and transmission grids
unless they were substantially
reinforced.

It is also possible to run a heat

driven operation combined with a
heat pump, where the excess
electricity (as heat demand is the
defining factor on se) is used to
drive a heat pump. As heat demand
increases, more electricity is
generated to drive the heat pump,
with the waste heat also heating
the heating fluid.

As the efficiency of heat pumps

depends on the difference between
hot end and cold end temperature
(efficiency rises as the difference
decreases) it may be worthwhile to
combine even relatively low grade
waste heat otherwise unsuitable for
home heating with heat pumps. For
example, a large enough reservoir
of cooling water at 15 °C (59 °F)
can significantly improve efficiency
of heat pumps drawing from such a
reservoir compared to air source
heat pumps drawing from cold air
during a −20 °C (−4 °F) night. In
the summer when there's both
demand for air conditioning and
warm water, the same water may
even serve as both a "dump" for
the waste heat rejected by a/c units
and as a "source" for heat pumps
providing warm water. Those
considerations are behind what is
sometimes called "cold district
heating" using a "heat" source
whose temperature is well below
those usually employed in district
heating.[46]

Distributed generation
Most industrial countries generate
the majority of their electrical
power needs in large centralized
facilities with capacity for large
electrical power output. These
plants benefit from economy of
scale, but may need to transmit
electricity across long distances
causing transmission losses.
Cogeneration or trigeneration
production is subject to limitations
in the local demand and thus may
sometimes need to reduce (e.g.,
heat or cooling production to
match the demand). An example of
cogeneration with trigeneration
applications in a major city is the
New York City steam system.
Thermal efficiency
Every heat engine is subject to the
theoretical efficiency limits of the
Carnot cycle or subset Rankine
cycle in the case of steam turbine
power plants or Brayton cycle in
gas turbine with steam turbine
plants. Most of the efficiency loss
with steam power generation is
associated with the latent heat of
vaporization of steam that is not
recovered when a turbine exhausts
its low temperature and pressure
steam to a condenser. (Typical
steam to condenser would be at a
few millimeters absolute pressure
and on the order of 5 °C/11 °F
hotter than the cooling water
temperature, depending on the
condenser capacity.) In
cogeneration this steam exits the
turbine at a higher temperature
where it may be used for process
heat, building heat or cooling with
an absorption chiller. The majority
of this heat is from the latent heat
of vaporization when the steam
condenses.

Thermal efficiency in a
cogeneration system is defined as:

Where:

= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all
systems
= Total heat input into the
system
Heat output may also be used for
cooling (for example, in summer),
thanks to an absorption chiller. If
cooling is achieved in the same
time, thermal efficiency in a
trigeneration system is defined as:

Where:

= Thermal efficiency
= Total work output by all
systems
 = Total heat input into the
system

Typical cogeneration models have

losses as in any system. The
energy distribution below is
represented as a percent of total
input energy:[47]

Electricity = 45%
Heat + Cooling = 40%
Heat losses = 13%
Electrical line losses = 2%

Conventional central coal- or

nuclear-powered power stations
convert about 33-45% of their
input heat to electricity.[48][5]
Brayton cycle power plants operate
at up to 60% efficiency. In the case
of conventional power plants,
approximately 10-15% of this heat
is lost up the stack of the boiler.
Most of the remaining heat
emerges from the turbines as low-
grade waste heat with no
significant local uses, so it is
usually rejected to the environment,
typically to cooling water passing
through a condenser.[5] Because
turbine exhaust is normally just
above ambient temperature, some
potential power generation is
sacrificed in rejecting higher-
temperature steam from the turbine
for cogeneration purposes.[49]

For cogeneration to be practical

power generation and end use of
heat must be in relatively close
proximity (<2 km typically). Even
though the efficiency of a small
distributed electrical generator may
be lower than a large central power
plant, the use of its waste heat for
local heating and cooling can result
in an overall use of the primary fuel
supply as great as 80%.[48] This
provides substantial financial and
environmental benefits.

Costs
Typically, for a gas-fired plant the
fully installed cost per kW electrical
is around £400/kW (US$577),
which is comparable with large
central power stations.[50]

History

Cogeneration in Europe

A cogeneration thermal power

plant in Ferrera Erbognone (PV),
Italy

The EU has actively incorporated

cogeneration into its energy policy
via the CHP Directive. In
September 2008 at a hearing of
the European Parliament's Urban
Lodgment Intergroup, Energy
Commissioner Andris Piebalgs is
quoted as saying, “security of
supply really starts with energy
efficiency.”[51] Energy efficiency
and cogeneration are recognized in
the opening paragraphs of the
European Union's Cogeneration
Directive 2004/08/EC. This
directive intends to support
cogeneration and establish a
method for calculating
cogeneration abilities per country.
The development of cogeneration
has been very uneven over the
years and has been dominated
throughout the last decades by
national circumstances.

The European Union generates

11% of its electricity using
cogeneration.[52] However, there is
large difference between Member
States with variations of the energy
savings between 2% and 60%.
Europe has the three countries with
the world's most intensive
cogeneration economies: Denmark,
the Netherlands and Finland.[53] Of
the 28.46 TWh of electrical power
generated by conventional thermal
power plants in Finland in 2012,
81.80% was cogeneration.[54]

Other European countries are also

making great efforts to increase
efficiency. Germany reported that
at present, over 50% of the
country's total electricity demand
could be provided through
cogeneration. So far, Germany has
set the target to double its
electricity cogeneration from 12.5%
of the country's electricity to 25%
of the country's electricity by 2020
and has passed supporting
legislation accordingly.[55] The UK
is also actively supporting
combined heat and power. In light
of UK's goal to achieve a 60%
reduction in carbon dioxide
emissions by 2050, the
government has set the target to
source at least 15% of its
government electricity use from
CHP by 2010.[56] Other UK
measures to encourage CHP
growth are financial incentives,
grant support, a greater regulatory
framework, and government
leadership and partnership.

According to the IEA 2008

modeling of cogeneration
expansion for the G8 countries, the
expansion of cogeneration in
France, Germany, Italy and the UK
alone would effectively double the
existing primary fuel savings by
2030. This would increase
Europe's savings from today's
155.69 Twh to 465 Twh in 2030. It
would also result in a 16% to 29%
increase in each country's total
cogenerated electricity by 2030.

Governments are being assisted in

their CHP endeavors by
organizations like COGEN Europe
who serve as an information hub for
the most recent updates within
Europe's energy policy. COGEN is
Europe's umbrella organization
representing the interests of the
cogeneration industry.

The European public–private

partnership Fuel Cells and
Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
Seventh Framework Programme
project ene.field deploys in
2017[57] up 1,000 residential fuel
cell Combined Heat and Power
(micro-CHP) installations in 12
states. Per 2012 the first 2
installations have taken
place.[58][59][60]
Cogeneration in the United
Kingdom

In the United Kingdom, the

Combined Heat and Power Quality
Assurance scheme regulates the
combined production of heat and
power. It was introduced in 1996. It
defines, through calculation of
inputs and outputs, "Good Quality
CHP" in terms of the achievement
of primary energy savings against
conventional separate generation
of heat and electricity. Compliance
with Combined Heat and Power
Quality Assurance is required for
cogeneration installations to be
eligible for government subsidies
and tax incentives.[61]

Cogeneration in the United

States

The 250 MW Kendall

Cogeneration Station plant in
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Perhaps the first modern use of
energy recycling was done by
Thomas Edison. His 1882 Pearl
Street Station, the world's first
commercial power plant, was a
combined heat and power plant,
producing both electricity and
thermal energy while using waste
heat to warm neighboring
buildings.[62] Recycling allowed
Edison's plant to achieve
approximately 50 percent
efficiency.
By the early 1900s, regulations
emerged to promote rural
electrification through the
construction of centralized plants
managed by regional utilities.
These regulations not only
promoted electrification throughout
the countryside, but they also
discouraged decentralized power
generation, such as cogeneration.

By 1978, Congress recognized that

efficiency at central power plants
had stagnated and sought to
encourage improved efficiency
with the Public Utility Regulatory
Policies Act (PURPA), which
encouraged utilities to buy power
from other energy producers.

Cogeneration plants proliferated,

soon producing about 8% of all
energy in the United States.[63]
However, the bill left
implementation and enforcement
up to individual states, resulting in
little or nothing being done in many
parts of the country.
The United States Department of
Energy has an aggressive goal of
having CHP constitute 20% of
generation capacity by 2030. Eight
Clean Energy Application
Centers[64] have been established
across the nation. Their mission is
to develop the required technology
application knowledge and
educational infrastructure
necessary to lead "clean energy"
(combined heat and power, waste
heat recovery, and district energy)
technologies as viable energy
options and reduce any perceived
risks associated with their
implementation. The focus of the
Application Centers is to provide an
outreach and technology
deployment program for end users,
policymakers, utilities, and industry
stakeholders.

High electric rates in New England

and the Middle Atlantic make these
areas of the United States the most
beneficial for cogeneration.[65][66]
Applications in power
generation systems

Fossil

Any of the following conventional

power plants may be converted to
a combined cooling, heat and
power system:[67]

Coal
Microturbine
Natural gas
Oil
 Small gas turbine

Nuclear

Nuclear power
Geothermal power / geothermal
heating
Radioisotope thermoelectric
generators often double as
Radioisotope heater units
partially offsetting their low
(single digit percent) efficiency
in converting thermal to electric
energy
Renewable

Solar thermal
Biomass
Hydrogen fuel cell (using green
hydrogen)
Any type of compressor or
turboexpander, such as in
compressed air energy storage

See also
Energy
portal
Renewable
energy
 portal

Air separation
Carnot cycle
Carnot method
CHP Directive
Cost of electricity by source
Distributed generation (more
general term encompassing
CHP)
District heating
Electricity generation
Electrification
Energy policy of the European
Energy policy of the European
Union
Environmental impact of
electricity generation
European Biomass Association
Industrial gas
Micro combined heat and power
New York City steam system
Rankine cycle
Organic Rankine cycle
Stirling engine
Absorption refrigerator
Boiler
Further reading
Steam, Its Generation and Use (
https://archive.org/details/steami
tsgenerat00compgoog)
(35 ed.). Babcock & Wilson
Company. 1913.

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