KARTHIK S CHOURI

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF MCA

SUBJECT: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR

SUBJECT CODE: 20MCA15

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND IPR
Syllabus
Module Content
1 Research Methodology: Introduction, Meaning of Research, Objectives of Research,
Motivation in Research, Types of Research, Research Approaches, Significance of
Research, Research Methods versus Methodology, Research and Scientific Method,
Importance of Knowing How Research is Done, Research Process, Criteria of Good
Research, and Problems Encountered by Researchers in India.

2 Defining the Research Problem: Research Problem, Selecting the Problem, Necessity of
Defining the Problem, Technique Involved in Defining a Problem, An Illustration.
Reviewing the literature: Place of the literature review in research, Bringing clarity and
focus to your research problem, Improving research methodology, Broadening knowledge
base in research area, Enabling contextual findings, How to review the literature, searching
the existing literature, reviewing the selected literature, Developing a theoretical
framework, Developing a conceptual framework, Writing about the literature reviewed.

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Syllabus
Module Content
3 Research Design: Meaning of Research Design, Need for Research Design, Features of a
Good Design, Important Concepts Relating to Research Design, Different Research Designs, Basic
Principles of Experimental Designs, Important Experimental Designs.
Design of Sample Surveys: Introduction, Sample Design, Sampling and Non-sampling
Errors, Sample Survey versus Census Survey, Types of Sampling Designs

4 Data Collection: Experimental and Surveys, Collection of Primary Data, Collection of Secondary Data,
Selection of Appropriate Method for Data Collection, Case Study Method.
Interpretation and Report Writing: Meaning of Interpretation, Technique of Interpretation,
Precaution in Interpretation, Significance of Report Writing, Different Steps in Writing Report, Layout.
Types of Reports, Oral Presentation, Mechanics of Writing a Research Report, Precautions
for Writing Research Reports.

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Syllabus

Module Content
5 Intellectual Property (IP) Acts: Introduction to IP: Introduction to Intellectual Property (IP),
different types of IPs and its importance in the present scenario, Patent Acts: Indian patent
acts 1970. Design Act: Industrial Design act 2000. Copy right acts: Copyright Act 1957.
Trade Mark Act, 1999

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 Research Methodology & IPR
MODULE 1:
Research Methodology:
1.1 Introduction, Meaning of Research
1.2 Objectives of Research, Motivation in Research
1.3 Types of Research, Research Approaches,
1.4 Significance of Research
1.5 Research Methods versus Methodology
1.6 Research and Scientific Method,
1.7 Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
1.8 Research Process,
1.9 Criteria of Good Research
1.10Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
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 1.1 Meaning of Research

 Research refers to a search for knowledge.

 Research is an art of scientific investigation.
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense.
 It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment.
 As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating
the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions.

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 1.2 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet.
The general objectives of research is mentioned below:
1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it(exploratory)
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a
group(descriptive research)
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs(diagnostic research)
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables.(hypothesis testing)

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.2 MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
4. Desire to be of service to society;
5. Desire to get respectability.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.3 TYPES OF RESEARCH
The basic type of research are as follows:
(i) Descriptive vs. Analytical
(ii) Applied vs. Fundamental
(iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative
(iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical
(v) Some Other Types of Research
1)one-time research
2)longitudinal research
3)field setting research/laboratory research
4)clinical/diagnostic research
5)Historical research 6)exploratory/formalized
7)conclusion oriented and decision oriented(operations research)
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.3 Research Approaches
 There are two basic approaches to research, viz., quantitative approach and the
qualitative approach.
Quantitative approach: generation of data in quantitative form
 Quantitative approach can be further sub-classified into:
inferential: database(survey research)
experimental: variables can be manipulated(skill evaluation, adm exams)
simulation approaches to research(airplanes, traffic)
 Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of
attitudes, opinions and behaviour. focus group interviews, depth interviews.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.4 Significance of Research
 Research is applied across several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased.
 Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.
* cost of needs=revenue generated
* alternative policies
* trade unions, size and nature of defence services
* social and economic structure
research as a tool has three distinct phases of operation in economic policy.
i)investigation of economic structure through compiliation of facts ii) diagnosis
of events that are taking place iii) prediction of future development.
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.4 Significance of Research
 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.
 Operations research: mathematical techniques for cost minimisation/profit maximisation
 market research: purchasing. production and sales
 motivational research:motivations on consumer behaviour
 Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships
and in seeking answers to various social problems.
Research in social sciences in concerned with:
i) development of principles that helps in understanding human interactions.
ii)practical guidance in solving immediate problems in human relations.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.4 Significance of Research
The significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following
points:
(a)research may mean a careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social
structure.
(b)To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of
livelihood.
(c)To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights.
(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles
and creative work
(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new
theories.
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.5 Research Methods versus Methodology
Research methods refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research
operations. research methods can be put into the following three groups:
1. In the first group we include those methods which are concerned with the collection
of data.
2. The second group consists of those statistical techniques which are used for
establishing relationships between the data and the unknowns;
3. The third group consists of those methods which are used to evaluate the accuracy of
the results obtained.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
Researcher need to know the criteria by which they can decide that certain techniques
and procedures will be applicable to certain problems.
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.5 Research Methods versus Methodology
Research Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may
be understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically.
Researcher must know the methods as well as methodology
Researcher must know how to calculate mean, median, standard deviation or chi-
square.
Researcher must know how to apply research techniques, which techniques are
relavant.
When we talk of the research methods we must talk about the logic as well.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.5 Research Methods versus Methodology

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
attitude scaling example:

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
Sociometric scaling example:

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
Open-ended and Close-ended questions example:

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Telephone survey example:

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.6 Research and Scientific Method
The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related.
In research, we study the natural reasons and the consequences which are controlled
experimentally.
Researcher is usually interseted in perticular results, the repetitions of results, and
generalizations.
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations.
The ideal of science of to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method
attempts to achieve this by experimentation and observation.
Experimentation is done to test hypotheses and to discover new relationships.
conclusions may be misleading for either faulty assumptions, poorly designed
experiments and badly designed experiments.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.6 Research and Scientific Method
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:
1. It relies on empirical evidence;
2. It utilizes relevant concepts;
3. It is committed to only objective considerations;
4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
5. It results into probabilistic predictions;
6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;
7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific
theories.
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.7 Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
Importance of knowing the methodology of research or how research is done stems
from the following considerations:
The knowledge of methodology provides good training specially to the new
research worker and enables him to do better research.
Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use
research results with reasonable confidence.
It enables us to make intelligent decisions concerning problems facing us in
practical life at different points of time.
The knowledge of methodology helps the consumer of research results to evaluate
them and enables him to take rational decisions.

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1.8 Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Activities overlap continuously rather than following a strictly prescribed sequence.

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 1.8 Research Process

The following order concerning various steps provides a useful procedural guideline
regarding the research process:
(1) formulating the research problem;
(2) extensive literature survey;
(3) developing the hypothesis;
(4) preparing the research design;
(5) determining sample design;
(6) collecting the data;
(7) execution of the project;
(8) analysis of data;
(9) hypothesis testing;
(10) generalisations and interpretation, and
(11) preparation of the report or presentation of the results,i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.
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(1) formulating the research problem:
There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature and those
which relate to relationships between variables.
The researcher must decide the area of interest, the problem is to be stated in a broad general
way, and ambiguities is to be solved, then the feasibility of a perticular solution has to be
considered.
A researcher has to narrow down the problem which is put in general terms to operational
terms.
Two steps are involved in formulating the research: understanding the problem and rephrasing
the same into meaningful terms.
There are two types of literature to be reviewed:
•The conceptual literature: concepts and theories
•Empirical literature: studies made earlier
The statement of the objective is of basic importance
The formulation of the problem is a sequential pattern
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1.8 Research Process
2. Extensive literature survey:
Once the problem is formulated, a synopsis of it should be written and submitted it to the
necessary Committee.
The researcher should undertake extensive literature survey connected with the problem,
academic journals, conference procedings, government books., must be tapped.
3. Development of working hypotheses:
Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences.
Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand because it has
to be tested.
To develop working hypothesis:i) Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem,
(b) Examination of data and records, (c) Review of similar studies in the area
(d) Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on a limited
scale with individuals.
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 1.8 Research Process
4. Preparing the research design: The function of research design is to provide for the collection
of relevant evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
It is a conceptual structure it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and
analysis of data
Research purposes may be grouped into four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii)
Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental hypothesis
Testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as before-and-after without
control, after-only with control, before-and-after with control) or formal designs(completely
randomized design, latin square design)
The preparation of the research design, involves usually the consideration of the following:
(i) the means of obtaining the information;
(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff (if any);
(iii) explanation of the way in which selected means of obtaining information will be organised
(iv) the time available for research; and
(v) the cost offactor
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 1.8 Research Process
5. Determining sample design:
In inquiry if not all items are covered, it leads to highest degree of inaccuracy
even the slighest amount of bias leads to loss in time, money and energy.
Ex: selecting drug store.
probability samples and non-probability samples
probability samples: simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster/area sampling
non-probability samples: convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota
sampling.

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 1.8 Research Process
5. Determining sample design: a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data
are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population,
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples
Different sample designs are given as follows:
(i) Deliberate sampling:
(ii) Simple random sampling:
(iii) Systematic sampling:
(iv) Stratified sampling:
(v) Quota sampling:
(vi) Cluster sampling and area sampling:
(vii) Multi-stage sampling:
(viii) Sequential sampling:

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 1.8 Research Process
Different sample designs are given as follows:
a) Deliberate sampling: Deliberate selection of particular units of the universe.
1) convenience sampling: Ex: population census, gasoline buyers.
2) judgement sampling: Ex: judgement samples of college students.
b) Simple random sampling/chance sampling: Ex: lottery method
c) Systematic sampling: Ex- selecting every 15th name on the list/10th house on one
side of the street. starts by selecting a random number.\
d) Stratified sampling: selecting samples from non-homogeneous group, selection of
the sample is based on simple random sampling, hence known as stratified
random sampling.
e) quota sampling: selection of the item for sample is left to the interviewer’s
judgement.
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 1.8 Research Process
Different sample designs are given as follows:
f) cluster sampling and area sampling: grouping the clusters and then selecting a cluster
Ex: credit card holders.
area sampling: geographical clusters.

g) Multi-stage sampling: Large geographical area like an entire country, sampling done in
multiple stages like states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns.

h) sequential sampling: Size of the sample is not fixed in advance but is determined
according to mathematical decisions on the information yielded as survey progresses.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
6. Collecting the data: Primary data can be collected either through experiment or
through survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:
(i) By observation: participant and non-participant, direct and in-direct observation
direct observation collects information only from an individual's senses. In indirect
observation, on the other hand, the observer bases the information on his or her
previous knowledge.
(i) Through personal interview: informal, structured standardized, indepth
(ii) Through telephone interviews: industrial surveys
(iii) By mailing of questionnaires: economic and business surveys, questionnaires test
(iv) Through schedules: enumerators are appointed

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
Five Hypotheses as to why Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning projects
fail
Hypothesis #1: Data Science initial models don’t scale or are too experimental to be
used by internal or external customers.
Hypothesis #2: Data science/ML models while brilliant and innovative don’t meet the
business requirements or are too fragile to respond to change in the supporting data.
Hypothesis #3: AI initiatives are driven by the company’s internal IT organizations and
inherit “waterfall” challenges.
Hypothesis #4: Companies don’t have the patience for the time it takes to deliver on
AI/ML projects.
Hypothesis #5: A lack of a “Product” approach to AI/ML projects is core to project
failure and increased risk.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
Questionnaire and Schedule comparision

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
Through schedules

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
(i) Through schedules: enumerators are appointed
Persons 14 Years Old and Over - Employment Status
Occupation, Industry and Class of Worker:
Income in 1939 (12 months ended December 31, 1939):
Location:
Household Data:
Name:
Relation:
Personal Description:
Education:
Place of Birth:
Citizenship:
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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
7. Execution of the project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the
research process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be
collected would be adequate and dependable.
If the data is collected through:
questionnaires- data is machine processed.
interviewers- selection and training of the interviewers through instruction manuals,
with occational field checks.
statistical control is done
make a list of non-respondants.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
8. Analysis of data:The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations
such as establishment of categories, the application of these categories to rawdata
through coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
Coding:- data is transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted-
survey responses
Editing:- improves the quality of the data(error free)
Tabulation:- classified data is put in the form of tables.
Analysis: check for the validity of the data which leads to conflicts with original or
new hypothesis Ex: samples of weekly wages
Ex: analysis of variance in varieties of seeds.

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a
position to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support
the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose.
The tests are selected based on nature and object of research.
The hypothesis tests results in either it being accepted or rejected.
Generalizations established on the basis of data may be stated as hypothesis.
Generalizability amounts to nothing more than making predictions based on a
recurring experience. If something occurs frequently, we expect that it will continue
to do so in the future Ex: Operating an automobile in traffic

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
9. Hypothesis-testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
10. Generalisations and interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several
times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a
theory. The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in
turn may lead to further researches.
Example:
Company X is struggling with the problem that many online customers do not return to
make subsequent purchases. Management wants to increase customer loyalty and
believes that improved customer satisfaction will play a major role in achieving this
goal.
‘What is the relationship between customer loyalty and customer satisfaction?’
‘How satisfied and loyal are company X’s online customers currently?’
‘What factors affect the satisfaction and loyalty of company X’s online customers?’

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11. Preparation of the report or the thesis:
a)the preliminary pages; the main text and end matter.
preliminary pages: title date followed by acknowledgement and foreword. Then there should
be table of contents followed by list of tables and list of figures.
the main text of the report:
(a) Introduction: Objective of research
(b) Summary of findings: Non-technical Language
(c) Main report: logical sequence and broken down into readily identifiable sections.
(d) Conclusion: results of the research.
At the end of the report, appendices, bibliography, list of books, journals, reports consulted, index
should also be given.
b) report should be written in concise and objective style and should avoid expressions such as ‘it
seems’, ‘there may be’, and the like
c) charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if needed
d) calculated confidence limits and various constraints may as well be mentioned
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11. Best topics for research and thesis
Artificial Intelligence: quantum computing, Healthcare, autonomous vehicles, robotics
Machine Learning: Supervised Machine Learning, Unsupervised machine learning
Deep Learning, Reinforcement Learning, Computer Vision, IoT.

• Using neuroscience to develop artificial intelligence

• Implementing neural turing machines
• Artificial Intelligence and brain theory
• Use of Magnetic resonance imaging and artificial intelligence in studies of Diagnosis of
parkinson’s disease
• Applications of artificial intelligence in neuro-oncology

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction

1.9 Criteria of Good Research:

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined
2. The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail
3. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned
4. The researcher must report flaws in procedural design and estimate their effects
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate, The validity and reliability of
the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

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11. Best topics for research and thesis

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction
1.9 Qualities of a good research as under:
(a) Good research is systematic: specified steps in specified sequence, rules out
guessing
(b) Good research is logical: logical process of induction and deduction
Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific.

Inductive reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to
broader generalizations and theories

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 Research Methodology:An Introduction

1.9 Qualities of a good research as under:

c) Good research is empirical: one or more aspects of real situation, provided data
for external validity
d) Good research is replicable: research results can be verified by replicating the
study

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 1.10 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:

1. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research: no knowledge of

methodology, short duration intensive courses
2. There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one
side and business establishments, government departments: satisfactory liason,
university-industry interaction.
3. there is the need for generating the confidence that the information/data obtained
from a business unit will not be misused.
4. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of
adequate information. proper compilation and revision at regular intervals,
5. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers: inter-university and inter
department rivalries
6. The difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial assistance, including computerial
assistance. reports, documents, meetings, UGC
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 1.10 Problems Encountered by Researchers in India:

6. Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places: tracing out
books, journals, reports rather than relevant material.
7. There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules
8. There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data
9. The problem of conceptualization and data collection

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 Research Topics:
Information Technology in Robotics:
Robot navigation
Robot-localization
Intelligent agricultural robots
Sensor information fusion
Robot vision
Human computer interface
Nano robotics

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 Research Topics:
Information Technology in Transportation Systems:
Infotainment
Traffic information systems
Telematics and ITS
GIS
Multimedia messaging
Obstacle detection
And also Driver’s safety

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 Information Technology in Signal and Image processing:
Multimedia security
Forensics
Biometrics
Speech and also biomedical signal processing
Coding and also image/video coding
Transmission
3-D imaging and also printing technologies
Algebraic biology
Bioinformatics/ bio technology
Biosensors

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 Information Technology in Signal and Image processing:
Information Technology in Human-Computer Interaction:
Learning and training for HCI
Mobile media access and sharing
Ubiquitous interactivity
Interaction for the performing arts
Human-centric and pervasive computing
Human tracking technologies
Surveillance technologies
Wearable computing

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 Information Technology in Signal and Image processing:
Information Technology in Health care:
Medical imaging also in health care
RFID and also medication safety
Electronic health records
Health information technologies
Biosensors
Biomaterials and nanotechnology
ICT also in health promotion programmers
Medical intelligence
Medical informatics
Tele surgery
Surgical informatics
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 Information Technology in Signal and Image processing:
Other Convergences:
Medicine, Agricultural informatics
Industry, Bio-surveillance
Communications
Wireless technologies
Cognitive informatics
Cellular automata
Cloud computing
Gaming technologies
Nano structure
Natural computing
Internet of Things
Marine technology
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 Formulating aims and objectives from research questions
These should reflect the sources from which your interest is derived e.g.:
an area or topic in which you have an interest
e.g. - appraisal systems
ideas or issues which you wish to explore in detail
e.g. - women's experience of appraisal
problems detected and needing a solution in practical or theoretical terms
e.g. - the 'glass ceiling' effect in promotion/advancement
questions arising from experience, reading the literature, etc.
e.g. - do women feel that the glass ceiling effect is embedded in appraisal systems?
you should clearly state the nature of the problem etc. and its known or estimated
extent if possible you should locate your questions within the context within which it is
to be studied
e.g. - do women at (company/institution/etc) feel that the glass ceiling effect is embedded in the
internal appraisal systems of their (company/institution/etc.)
For example- if you select Cyber security as your broad study area, then dissect it into network
security, web security, database security related with cyber crime , etc.
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 Formulating aims and objectives from research questions
Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing, in contrast to the rest of the country.
Department A of Company B has a high staff turnover rate, affecting productivity and team cohesion.
Non-profit organization Y faces a funding gap that means some of its programs will have to be cut.
Voter turnout in region X has been decreasing steadily over the past ten years, in contrast to other
areas of the country. According to surveys conducted by organization Y, turnout is lowest among
under-25s and people on low incomes. There have been some effective attempts at engaging these
groups in other regions, and in the last two elections parties A and B increased their campaigning
efforts in region X, but these interventions have yet to have any significant effect on turnout.
Step 2: Show why it matters
Low voter turnout has been shown to have negative associations with social cohesion and civic
engagement, and is becoming an area of increasing concern in many European democracies. When
specific groups of citizens lack political representation, they are likely to become more excluded
over time, leading to an erosion of trust in democratic institutions. Addressing this problem will have
practical benefits for region X and contribute to understanding of this widespread phenomenon.
aims and objectives
The aim of this research is to investigate effective engagement strategies to increase voter turnout in
region X. It will identify the most significant factors in non-voting through surveys and interviews,
and conduct experiments to measure the effectiveness of different strategies.

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Types of Hypothesis
independent and dependent variables:
independent variable-cause, dependent variable-effect
Ex: How does the amount of makeup one applies affect how clear their skin is?
independent variable-makeup, dependent variable-skin
Types of hypothesis
Simple hypothesis: predicts the relationships
Ex: getting 8 hours of sleep can lead to more alert students.
Complex hypothesis: relationships between variables
Overweight individuals who 1)eat greasy foods and 2)eat few vegetables are more
likely to have 1) high cholestrol and 2) heart disease

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Types of Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis: no relationship between variables
Ex: there is no significant change in my work habits when I get 8 hours of sleep

Alternative hypothesis: An attempt to disprove null hypothesis

Ex: My work habits improve during the times when I get 8 hours of sleep only, as
opposed to 9 hours of sleep

statitical hypothesis:
Ex: 50% of the savannah population lives beyond the age of 70.

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 Formulating aims and objectives from research questions

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 Research Methodology & IPR
MODULE 2:
Defining the Research Problem
2.1 Research Problem, Selecting the Problem,
2.2 Necessity of Defining the Problem,
2.3 Technique Involved in Defining a Problem, An Illustration
2.4 Reviewing the literature: Place of the literature review in research,
2.5 Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem
2.6 Improving research methodology, Broadening knowledge base in research area,
2.7 Enabling contextual findings, How to review the literature
2.8 searching the existing literature, reviewing the selected literature,
2.9 Developing a theoretical framework,
2.10 Developing a conceptual framework, Writing about the literature reviewed.
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Defining the Research Problem
A researcher must find the problem and formulate it so that it becomes susceptible to
research. To define a problem correctly, a researcher must know: what a problem is?
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
A research problem, in general, refers to some difficulty which a researcher experiences
in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution
for the same.
Usually we say that a research problem does exist if the following conditions are met
with:
(i) There must be an individual (or a group or an organisation), let us call it ‘I,’ to whom
the problem can be attributed. The individual or the organisation, as the case may be,
occupies an environment, say ‘N’, which is defined by values of the uncontrolled
variables, Yj.

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(ii) There must be at least two courses of action, say C1 and C2, to be pursued. A course
of action is defined by one or more values of the controlled variables.

(iii) There must be at least two possible outcomes, say O1 and O2, of the course of
action, of which one should be preferable to the other.

(iv) The courses of action available must provides some chance of obtaining the
objective, but they cannot provide the same chance, otherwise the choice would not
matter. Thus P(Oj|I,Cj,N) represents the probability that an outcome Oj will occur, if I
select Cj in N, P(O1|I,C1,N) not equal to P(O1|I,C2,N) choices must have unequal
efficiencies for the desired outcomes.

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The individual is said to have a problem only if “I” does not know what course of
action is best, i.e., “I” must be in doubt about the solution.
thus there will be research problem, if there is one or more desired outcomes, when
faced with two or more courses of action that have some but not equal efficiency
.

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 We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
(i) There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.
(ii) There must be some objective(s) to be attained at. If one wants nothing, one cannot
have a problem. Ex: Does use of technology helps save time
(iii) There must be alternative means (or the courses of action) for obtaining the
objective(s)one wishes to attain. This means that there must be at least two means
available to a researcher for if he has no choice of means, he cannot have a problem.
Ex: Is television going to survive in digital eye or will it become obsolete like digital
camera
(iv) There must remain some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the
selection of alternatives. This means that research must answer the question concerning
the relative efficiency of the possible alternatives.
(v) There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.
A researcher must find out the best solution for the given problem. by which course of
action the objective can be attained optimally.
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 We can, thus, state the components of a research problem as under:
A researcher must find out the best solution for the given problem. by which course of
action the objective can be attained optimally.
There are several factors which may result in making the problem complicated:
1. environment may change affecting the efficiency of the course of action.
2. the number of alternative course of action may be very large.
3. persons not involved in making the decision may be affected by it and react to it
favorably or unfavorably.

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 2.2 Selecting the problem
The following points may be observed by a researcher in selecting are search problem or a
subject for research:
(i) Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
(ii) Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.
Are cell phones dangerous?, Are law enforcement cameras an invasion of privacy?,
Cloning, cyber bullying, politics
(iii) Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided. health care
Example: if your topic concerns vaccines, examine the theories surrounding of the rate of
failures in vaccines. Example2, if your topic is vaccines, investigate government regulations of
vaccines. Example: if your topic is genetic diversity for a specific ethnic group in Ghana,
Africa, broaden your topic by generalizing to all ethnic groups in Ghana or in West Africa.
(iv) The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research
material or sources of research are within one’s reach.
Does the Information Age mean we are losing important historical information?
How is text messaging affecting teen literacy?
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(v) The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the
costs involved, the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in
selecting a problem. A researcher must himself ask the following questions.
(a) Whether he is well equipped in terms of his background to carry out the
research?
(b) Whether the study falls within the budget he can afford?
(c) Whether the necessary cooperation can be obtained from those who must
participate in research as subjects?
(vi) The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not
be necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one
that has already been done. if the field of enquiry is new then feasibility study must be
undertaken.

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NECESSITY OF DEFINING THE PROBLEM.
A proper definition of research problem will enable the researcher to be on the track
whereas an ill-defined problem may create hurdles.
Questions like:
What data are to be collected?
What characteristics of data are relevant and need to be studied?
What relations are to be explored?.
What techniques are to be used for the purpose?
Example: impact of texting

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TECHNIQUE INVOLVED IN DEFINING A PROBLEM
Defining a problem involves that the researchers shall study the problem with in the
boundary of objective.
the research problem should be defined in a systematic manner.
The technique for the purpose involves the undertaking of the following steps generally
one after the other:
statement of the problem in a general way;
understanding the nature of the problem;
surveying the available literature
developing the ideas through discussions;
rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition.

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statement of the problem in a general way; the guide puts forth the problem in
general terms, the researcher narrow it down, the problem stated in broad general way
may contain various ambiguities which must be resolved rethinking over the problem
Ex: social research: "Income Inequality: Is the Gap Between Rich and Poor Getting
Wider?"
preliminary survey or pilot survey
the feasibility of the solution must also be considered.
understanding the nature of the problem;
understand its origin and nature clearly.
if the researcher has stated the problem himself, he should consider what made him to
take the general statement of the problem.
The researcher should also keep in view the environment.
Ex: Intelligent Technology for an Aging Population: The Use of AI to Assist Elders with
Cognitive Impairment

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surveying the available literature: all available literature concerning the problem
must be surveyed, before the problem definition is given
the researcher must be knowledgeable in relevant theories, reports and records and all
relevant literature
He must devote sufficient time in reviewing of research already undertaken on related
problems
to identify certain gaps in theories, difficulties in the present study and also analytical
shortcomings.

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developing the ideas through discussions: a researcher must discuss his problem
with his colleagues and others who are experienced in the same area known as
experience survey. only on the specific aspects of the problem of study, discussion on
the techniques used, possible outcomes
experience survey:
survey of people who have practical experience
insight into relationship between variables
respondents selected may then be interviewed.
rephrasing the research problem into a working proposition: once the nature of
the problem has been understood, the environment has been defined, discussions over
the problem has taken place, and the available literature has been surveyed, rephasing
the problem into operational terms in not difficult.

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The following points must also be observed while defining a research problem.
Technical terms and words or phrases, with special meanings used in the statement of
the problem, should be clearly defined.
Basic assumptions or postulates (if any) relating to the research problem should be
clearly stated
A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation (i.e., the criteria for the
selection of the problem) should be provided.
The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be
considered by the researcher in defining the problem.
The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied
must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

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AN ILLUSTRATION
The technique of defining a problem outlined above can be illustrated for better
understanding by taking an example as under:
“Why is productivity in Japan so much higher than in India”?
“What factors were responsible for the higher labour productivity of Japan’s
manufacturing industries during the decade 1971 to 1980 relative to India’s
manufacturing industries?”
“To what extent did labour productivity in 1971 to 1980 in Japan exceed that of India in
respect of 15 selected manufacturing industries? What factors were responsible for the
productivity differentials between the two countries by industries?”

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 The place of the literature review in research
Go through the existing literature in order to acquaint yourself with the available body
of knowledge in your area of interest.
Consolidate your knowledge base and helps you to integrate your findings with existing
knowledge
The literature review is an integral part of the research process and makes a valuable
contribution to almost every operational step.
In summary, a literature review has the following functions:
It provides a theoretical background to your study.
It helps you establish the links between what you are proposing to examine and what
has already been studied.
It enables you to show how your findings have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession.

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The Place of the literature review in research
In relation to your own study, the literature review can help in four ways. It can:
1. bring clarity and focus to your research problem;
2. improve your research methodology;
3. broaden your knowledge base in your research area; and
4. contextualise your findings.
Bringing clarity and focus to your research problem
The literature review can play an extremely important role in shaping your research
problem because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the
subject area better and thus helps you to conceptualise(Ex: He conceptualizes the family
as an economic unit. Ex: feminism, bullying, population explosion). your research
problem clearly and precisely and makes it more relevant and pertinent to your field of
enquiry.

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The Improving your research methodology
A literature review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the
ones that you are proposing, which procedures and methods have worked well for them
and what problems they have faced with them
By becoming aware of any problems and pitfalls, you will be better positioned to select
a methodology that is capable of providing valid answers to your research question.
Broadening your knowledge base in your research area
The most important function of the literature review is to ensure you read widely
around the subject area in which you intend to conduct your research study.
It is important that you know what other researchers have found in regard to the same
or similar questions, what theories have been put forward and what gaps exist in the
relevant body of knowledge.
Ex: Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, Graphics and Immersive Computing,
High Performance Computing, Software Engineering and Programming Languages.

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The Enabling you to contextualise your findings
Obtaining answers to your research questions is comparatively easy:
The difficult part is examining how your findings fit into the existing body of
knowledge.
How do answers to your research questions compare with what others have found?
What contribution have you been able to make to the existing body of knowledge? How
are your findings different from those of others?
literature review will enable you to compare your findings with those of others.

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The How to review the literature
Broad area of research to a narrow field
Literature review should be focused around your research problem.
There is a danger of reviewing the literature without having an idea of what to be
studied.
must conceptualise your research problem i.e to conceptualising your research is
to define the problem that your research seeks to solve.
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1. Searching for the existing literature in your area of study.
2. Reviewing the selected literature.
3. Developing a theoretical framework.
4. Developing a conceptual framework.

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The How to review the literature
Searching for the existing literature
To search effectively for the literature in your field of enquiry, it is imperative that you
have at least some idea of the broad subject area and of the problem you wish to
investigate, in order to set parameters for your search.
There are three sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography:
a) books;
b) journals;
c) the Internet.

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 How to review the literature
Searching for the existing literature
a)Books
The main advantage is that the material published in books is usually important and of
good quality, and the findings are ‘integrated with other research to form a coherent
body of knowledge’.
The disadvantage is it is not completely up to date, as it can take a few years between
completion of work and its publication.
When librarians catalogue a book they also assign to it subject headings
Publications such as Book Review Index helps you to locate books of interest.
Use keywords to narrow your subject area,.
When you have selected 10–15 books that you think are appropriate for your topic,
examine the bibliography of each one. Identify the common books for each of them.
if a book has been referenced by multiple authors include it in your reading list
prepare a annotated bibliography: brief abstract and notes of relevance.
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b) Journals
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is often a gap
of two to three years between the completion of a research project and its publication in a
journal.
You should select as many journals as you possibly can. As with books, you need to
prepare a list of the journals you want to examine for identifying the literature relevant to
your study. Examine its contents, read its abstract
List of journals for identifying the literature relevant to the study:
•locate the hard copies
•look at citation or abstract indices
•search electronic databases
Online-journal and research papers
CORE. CORE is a multidisciplinary aggregator of open access research.
ScienceOpen.
Directory of Open Access Journals.

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b) Journals
There are several sources designed to make your search of journals easier:
indices of journals (e.g. Humanities Index); are lists of journals, organized by discipline, subject,
or type of publication.
abstracts of articles (e.g. ERIC);
citation indices (e.g. Social Sciences Citation Index).
journal of Multidisciplinary evaluation: ERIC(eric 2004) , EBSCO host(Education
Abstracts)
Note Style:
1. Joshua I. Weinstein, "The Market in Plato’s Republic," Classical Philology 104, no.2 (2009): 440.
Information in computers is classified by subject, author and title. You have also have the keyword
option(author/keyword;title/keyword;subject/keyword;expert/keyword)
There are specially prepared electronic databases in a number of disciplines(for
biblography).
Electronic databases are shown in the table
Select the database most appropriate to your area of study
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The
.

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The Internet
Helps in identifying published material in books and journals
Internet search is carried out through search engines, commonly used are Google and
Yahoo
Use of keywords in identifying books and articles, choose words or combination of words
Most search facilities use Boolean logic, which are three types of basic search “AND”,
“OR” and “NOT.

thesis topics: https://www.techsparks.co.in/thesis-topics-for-computer-science/

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Step 1: Search for relevant literature
Before you begin searching for literature, you need a clearly defined topic.
Ex: What is the impact of social media on body image among Generation Z?
Make a list of keywords
Social media, Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, Snapchat, TikTok
Body image, self-perception, self-esteem, mental health
Generation Z, teenagers, adolescents, youth
Search for relevant sources
Your university’s library catalogue
Google Scholar
You can use boolean operators to help narrow down your search:
AND to find sources that contain more than one keyword (e.g. social media AND body
image AND generation Z)
OR to find sources that contain one of a range of synonyms (e.g. generation Z OR
teenagers OR adolescents)
NOT to exclude results containing certain terms (e.g. apple NOT fruit)
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Step 2: Evaluate and select sources
For each publication
You probably won’t be able to read absolutely everything that has been written on the topic –
you’ll have to evaluate which sources are most relevant to your questions.
For each publication, ask yourself:
What question or problem is the author addressing?
What are the key concepts and how are they defined?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the research?
Step 3: Identify themes, debates, and gaps
Themes: what questions or concepts recur across the literature?
Debates, conflicts and contradictions: where do sources disagree?
Gaps: what is missing from the literature? Are there weaknesses that need to be addressed?
Step 4: Write your literature review
Like any other academic text, your literature review should have an introduction, a main body,
and a conclusion. Example literature review1: Example literature review2:
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Reviewing the selected literature
Now that you have identified several books and articles as useful, the next step is to start reading them
critically to pull together themes and issues that are of relevance to your study.
Use separate sheets of paper for each theme or issue you identify as you go through selected books and
articles.

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Reviewing the selected literature
Research themes can for example relate to governance, environment, shipping, energy, cultural
heritage, fisheries or security issues.
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the themes so
far developed.
Keep in mind that you may need to add more themes as you go along
While going through the literature you should carefully and critically examine it with respect to the
following aspects:
Note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt.
Note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted (study design, sample size and its characteristics, measurement procedures,etc.)and the
criticisms of them.
Examine to what extent the findings can be generalised to other situations. The larger the
sample population, the more one can generalize the results.
Notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your
opinion about the validity of these differences. individual interviews and focus groups
Ascertain the areas in which littleRESEARCH
Department of MCA , RNSIT
or nothing is known–the gaps that exist in the body of
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knowledge. neural linguistic programming
Developing a theoretical framework
It is important to set parameters by reviewing the literature in relation to some main themes
pertinent to your research topic.
The information obtained from different books and journals now needs to be sorted under
the main themes and theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the
authors and identifying the unanswered questions or gaps.
You will also realise that the literature deals with a number of aspects that have a direct or
indirect bearing on your research topic.
Until you have developed a theoretical framework you cannot effectively review the
literature. The solution is to read some of the literature and then attempt to develop a
framework, even a loose one,
As you read more about the area, you are likely to change the framework.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information:
1. universal;
2. more specific(i.e. local trends or a specific programme).

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Developing a theoretical framework
In writing about such information you should start with the general information, gradually
narrowing
it down to the specific.

FIGURE3.1a Developing a theoretical

Department of MCA , RNSIT RESEARCHframework–the
METHODOLOGY & IPR relationship between mortality and94
fertility
Developing a theoretical framework

FIGURE3.1b Theoretical framework for the study ‘community responsiveness in health’

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Developing a conceptual framework
The conceptual framework is the basis of your research problem. It stems from the
theoretic framework and usually focuses on the section(s) which become the basis of
your study.
For instance, in the example cited in Figure 3.1a, the theoretical framework includes all
the theories that have been put forward to explain the relationship between fertility and
mortality. However, out of these, you may be planning to test only one, say the fear of
non-survival.
Similarly, in Figure3.1b, the conceptual framework is focused on indicators to measure
the success or failure of the strategies to enhance community responsiveness.

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Writing about the literature reviewed
two of the broad functions of a literature review are (1) to provide a theoretical background
to your study and (2) to enable you to contextualise your findings in relation to the existing
body of knowledge in addition to refining your methodology
In order to fulfil the first purpose, you should identify and describe various theories
relevant to your field; and specify gaps in existing knowledge in the area, recent advances
in the area of study, current trends and so on.
In order to comply with the second function you should integrate the results from your
study with specific and relevant findings from the existing literature by comparing the two
for confirmation or contradiction.
While reading the literature for theoretical background of your study, you will realise that
certain themes have emerged. List the main ones, converting them into subheadings. Some
people write up the entire literature review in one section, entitled ‘Review of the
literature’, ‘Summary of literature’ or ‘The literature review’, without subheadings,
literature review under subheadings based upon the main themes

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Writing about the literature reviewed
These subheadings should be precise, descriptive of the theme in question and follow a
logical progression. Now, under each subheading, record the main findings with respect to
the theme in question
The second broad function of the literature review – contextualising the findings of your
study requires you to compare very systematically your findings with those made by others.
Quote from these studies to show how your findings contradict, confirm or add to them.

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