KINEMATICS

Mechanism  A number of bodies are assembled in such a way that the motion
of one causes constrained and predictable motion to the others
 Part of a machine, which transmits and modifies motion and
power from input point to output point
 When one of the links of a kinematic chain is fixed
Types of 1. Simple- 4 links
Mechanism 2. Compound – More than 4 links
Classification of 1. Complex- Ternary or Higher Order Links
Mechanisms 2. Planar- All links lie in the same plane; all links of a mechanism
have plane motion; all links move in planes parallel to the
reference plane

3. Spatial- Links of a mechanism lie in different planes

ALL MACHINES ARE MECHANISMS, BUT NOT ALL MECHANISMS ARE
MACHINES
Relevance of  Motion requirements
Kinematic Study  Design requirements
Machine  A mechanism or combination of mechanisms, which transmit
force from the source of power to the resistance to be overcome
 Transforms energy available in one form to another to do certain
type of desired useful work
Structure  Assembly of a number of resistant bodies meant to take up loads
 No relative motion between the members
Kinematic Link - A resistant body transmitting the required forces with negligible
deformation
- Any rigid body which has motion relative to another
Linkage A mechanism used to define motion or transfer energy using links and
joints
Types of Links - Rigid Link (doesn’t undergo deformation: connecting rod,
crank)
- Flexible Link ( partially deformed link: belts, ropes, chains)
- Fluid Link (formed by having a fluid in a receptacle and the
motion is transmitted through the fluid by pressure or
compression: jacks, brakes)
Kinematic Joint Connection between two links by a pin
Types of Joints - Binary Joint (2 links are connected at a joint)
- Ternary Joint (3 links are connected)
- Quaternary Joint (4 links are connected)
Kinematic Pair The two links of a machine in contact with each other, where the relative
motion between them is completely or successfully constrained
Kinematic pairs 1. Sliding Pair (DOF=1)
according to the 2. Turning or Revolving Pair (collared shaft revolving in a circular
relative motion hole; DOF=1)
3. Rolling Pair ( pairs have rolling motion relative to each other)
 4. Screw or Helical Pair (pair has turning as well as sliding motion
between them)
5. Spherical Pair (when one link in the form of a sphere turns inside
a fixed link; DOF=3)
6. Planar Pair
Kinematic pairs 1. Lower Pair ( the joint by which two members are connected has
according to the surface contact)
type of contact 2. Higher Pair ( the contact between the pairing elements takes
place at a point or along a line : toothed gearing, belt and rope
drives, ball and roller bearings, and cam and follower)
Kinematic pairs 1. Closed pair (two elements of pair are held together mechanically
according to type to get required relative motion: all lower pairs)
of constraint 2. Unclosed Pair (elements are not held mechanically but held in
contact by the action of external forces: cam and spring loaded
follower pair)
Constrained 1. Completely Constrained Motion- motion in definite direction
Motion irrespective of the direction of the force applied
2. Successfully Constrained Motion- constrained motion is not
completed by itself but when compressive load is applied on the
shaft of the foot step bearing
3. Incompletely Constrained Motion- motion between a pair can
take place in more than one direction
Kinematic Chain Group of links joined together or arranged in a manner that permits them
to move relative to one another

l= 2p – 4
j= 3/2l -2

Where:
p: number of lower pairs
l: number of links
j: number of binary joints

LHS>RHS, locked chain or redundant chain; no relative motion

possible/ structure
LHS=RHS, constrained chain; motion is completely constrained
LHS<RHs, unconstrained chain; the relative motion is not completely
constrained
For kinematic chain having higher pairs, each higher pair is equal to tow
lover pairs and an additional link
Degrees Of - The number of independent coordinates required to describe the
Freedom/ Mobility position of a body
- If 0, structure
- If 1, mechanism can be driven by a single input motion
- If 2, two separate input motions are necessary to produce
constrained motion for the mechanism
 - -1 or less, redundant constraints in the chain and forms a
statically indeterminate structure
Kutzbach Criterion DoF= 3(l-1)-2j-h
Grubler’s criterion - Applies to mechanisms having 1 DoF
- 1=3(l-1)-2j or 3l-2j-4=0
Grashof’s law for a - The sum of the shortest and longest link lengths should not be
four bar greater than the sum of the remaining two link lengths if there is
mechanism to be continuous relative motion between 2 links
- For at least one link to be capable of full revolution:
- s + L < p + q or s + L = p + q
- For s + L > p + q, no link will be able to make a complete
revolution ( Triple Rocker Mechanism- all the three links other
than the fixed link are oscillating)
- For s + L < p + q
a. Crank Rocker Mechanism: Shortest link adjacent to fixed
link
b. Double Crank Mechanism: Shortest link is the fixed link
c. Double Rocker Mechanism: Shortest link is opposite to the
fixed link
- For s + L = p + q, the links become collinear ( all links are along
a straight line) at least once per revolution of input crank.
Motion Study Study of position, displacement, velocity and acceleration of different
elements of mechanism
Inversions of - Different mechanisms obtained by fixing different links of the
Mechanism same kinematic chain
- Created by grounding a different link in a kinematic chain
INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE DESIGN
Machine design Creation of new and better machines and improving the existing ones
Classification of 1. Adaptive design- adaptation , minor alteration, and modification
machine design of existing designs, thus, no need for special knowledge
2. Development design- needs considerable scientific training and
design ability to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture
3. New design- needs a lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking
a. Rational design- depends upon mathematical formula orf
principle of mechanics
b. Empirical design- depends upon empirical formula based on
the practice and past experience
c. Industrial design- depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry
d. Optimum design- minimizing undesirable effects
e. System design- the design of any complex mechanical
system like a motor car
f. Element design- design of any element of the mechanical
system like piston
 g. Computer aided design- depends upon the use of computer
systems

General 1. Type of load and stresses caused by the load

considerations in 2. Motion of the parts or kinematics of the machine ( rectilinear,
machine design curvilinear, constant velocity, constant or variable acceleration)
3. Selection of materials
4. Form and Size of the Parts
5. Frictional resistance and lubrication
6. Convenient and Economical features
7. Use of standard parts
8. Safety of operation
9. Workshop facilities
10. Number of machines to be manufactured
11. Cost of construction
12. Assembling
General procedure 1. Recognition of need
in machine design 2. Synthesis
3. Analysis of forces
4. Material selection
5. Design of element
6. Modification
7. Detailed drawing
8. production
ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES
Classification of 1. Metals and their alloys
Engineering 2. Non metals
Materials a. Ferrous metals
b. Non-ferrous metals
Selection of 1. Availability of Materials
Materials for 2. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service
Engineering 3. Cost of materials
Purposes
Physical Properties 1. Luster
of Metals 2. Color
3. Size and shape
4. Density
5. Electric and Thermal conductivity
6. Melting point
Mechanical - Ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load
Properties of 1. Strength- resist the externally applied forces without breaking or
Metals yielding
*stress- internal resistance offered by a part to an externally
applied force
2. Stiffness- resist deformation under stress; measured by the
modulus of elasticity
 3. Elasticity- regain original shape after deformation when external
forces are removed
*steel is more elastic than rubber
4. Plasticity- retains deformation produced under load permanently
5. Ductility- enables material to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force; strong and plastic; measured by
percentage elongation and reduction
*Aluminum, copper, mild steel, nickel, zinc, tin, lead
6. Brittleness- opposite to ductility; property of breaking of a
material with a little permanent distortion
*cast iron
7. Malleability- permits material to be rolled or hammered into thin
sheets
* lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and aluminum
8. Toughness- resist fracture due to high impact loads; decreases
when heated
9. Machinability- relative case with which a material can be cut
10. Resilience- absorb energy to resist shock and impact loads
11. Creep – slow and permanent deformation when a part is
subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a long
period of time
12. Fatigue- a material is subjected to repeated stress and fails at
stresses below the yield point stresses
13. Hardness- resistance to wear, scratching, deformation; cut
another metal
*can be determined by Brinell hardness test, Rockwell hardness test,
Vickers harness, shore scleroscope
Ferrous Metals -cast iron, wrought iron, steels, alloy steels
Cast iron - Obtained by remelting pig iron with coke and limestone in a
cupola furnace
- Alloy of iron and carbon
- Carbon: 1.7%-4.5% and present in the forms of free carbon
(graphite) and combined carbon (cementite)
- Tensile strength = 100-200 MPa
- Compressive strength= 400-1000 MPa
- Shear Strength= 120 MPa
Types of Cast Iron 1. Grey cast Iron- grey color is due to free graphite which acts as a
lubricant
2. White cast iron- shows a white fracture, due to no graphite and
carbon in the form of carbide
3. Chilled cast iron- white produced by quick cooling of molten
iron
4. Mottled cast iron- product between grey and white cast iron
Impurities on Cast 1. Silicon- makes the iron soft and easy machinable
Iron 2. Sulphur- makes iron hard and brittle
3. Manganese- makes the iron white and hard
 4. Phosphorus- aids fusibility and fluidity in cast iron
Alloy Cast Iron Nickel
Chromium
Molybdenum
Copper
manganese
Wrought Iron - Purest iron with at least 99.5% iron
- Pig iron remolten in a puddling furnace of reverberatory type
- Tensile strength= 250-500 MPa
- Compressive strength= 300 MPa
Steel Alloy of iron and carbon (iron carbide)
Types of Carbon 1. Dead mild steel- 0.15% carbon
Steel 2. Low carbon or mild steel- 0.15-0.45% carbon
3. Medium carbon steel -0.45-0.8% carbon
4. High carbon steel- 0.8-1.5% carbon
Alloying Elements 1. Nickel- increases strength and toughness
on Steel 2. Chromium- combine hardness with high strength and high elastic
limit
3. Tungsten- prohibits grain growth
4. Vanadium- aids in fine grain structure
5. Manganese- improves strength in hot rolled and heat treated
condition
6. Cobalt- gives red hardness by retention of hard carbides at high
temperatures
7. Silicon- behaves like nickel steels
8. Molybdenum- used for airplane fuselage and automobile parts
Stainless Steel - Resists oxidation and corrosive attack
1. Martensitic stainless steel- 12-14% chromium 0.12-0.35%
carbon
2. Ferritic stainless steel- 16-18% chromium and 0.12% carbon
3. Austenitic Stainless Steel- high chromium and nickel content
Heat-Resisting - Resist creep and oxidation at high temperatures and retain
Steels sufficient strength
1. Low alloy steels
2. Valve Steels
3. Plain chromium steel
4. Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Steel
High Speed Tool - Used for cutting metals at a much higher cutting speed
Steels 1. 18-4-1 High Speed Steel- 18% W, 4% Cr
2. Molybdenum High Speed Steel- 6% W, 6% Mo, 4% Cr, 2% Va
3. Super High Speed Steel- cobalt high speed (2-15%)
Spring Steel Store maximum amount of energy without permanent deformation
1. High carbon steel
2. Chrome-vanadium steel
3. Silicone-manganese steel
Heat Treatment of Heating and cooling of metal to obtain certain desirable conditions
Steel without change in chemical composition
Aims of heat - Increase hardness
treatment - Relieve stresses
- Improve machinability
- Soften metal
- Improve electrical and magnetic properties
- Change grain size
- Improve resistance to heat, corrosion, and wear
Heat Treatment 1. Normalising
Processes 2. Annealing (Full annealing and Process annealing)
Commonly 3. Spheroidising
Employed In 4. Hardening
Engineering 5. tempering
Practice:
Non Ferrous 1. ease of fabrication
Metals 2. resistance to corrosion
characteristics 3. electrical and thermal conductivity
4. weight

* aluminum, copper, lead, tin, zinc, nickel, etc. and their alloys.
Aluminum White metal produced by electrical processes from its oxide prepared
from bauxite
Aluminum Alloys 1. Duralumin : Copper = 3.5 – 4.5%; Manganese = 0.4 – 0.7%;
Magnesium = 0.4 – 0.7%
2. Y-alloy/ Copper-aluminium alloy: Copper = 3.5 – 4.5%;
Manganese = 0.4 – 0.7%; Magnesium = 0.4 – 0.7%
3. Magnalium- melting Al with 2-10% Mg in a vacuum
4. Hindalium – produced by Hindustan aluminium corporation Ltd,
Renukoot
Copper - Soft, malleable and ductile material with a reddish brown
appearance
- SG: 8.9
Copper Alloys 1. Copper-zinc alloys (Brass)
2. Copper-tin alloys (Bronze)
Gun Metal Alloy of copper(88%), tin(10%), and zinc(2%)
Lead - Bluish grey metal that is so soft it can be cut with a knife
- No tenacity
Tin - Brightly shining white metal
Bearing Metals 1. Copper-base alloys (most important)
2. Lead-base alloys
3. Tin-base alloys
4. Cadmium-base alloys
Zinc-base alloys Produce most of die castings
Nickel-base alloys 1. Monel metal – alloy of Ni and Cu; superior to brass and bronze
in corrosion resisting properties
2. Inconel- has excellent mechanical properties at ordinary and
 elevated temperatures
3. Nichrome- high heat and oxidation resistance
4. Nimonic- operate under intermittent heating and cooling
conditions
Non Metallic 1. Plastic- synthetic materials which are molded into shape under
Materials pressure
a. Thermosetting plastics- formed into shape under heat and
pressure and results in permanently hard product
b. Thermoplastic- do not become hard with the application of
heat and pressure and no chemical change occurs
2. Rubber- resists abrasion, heat, strong alkalis and fairly strong
acids
3. Leather- very flexible and can withstand considerable wear
4. Ferrodo- asbestos lined with lead oxide
SIMPLE STRESSES IN MACHINE PARTS
Load Any external force acting upon a machine part
Types of Load 1. Dead or steady load- does not change in magnitude or direction
2. Live or variable load- changes continually
3. Suddenly applied or shock loads- suddenly applied or removed
4. Impact load- applied with some initial velocity
Stress - Internal forces per unit area set up at various sections of the body
when some external forces act on a body
- Sigma, , σ = P/A
P = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body.
Strain - Deformation per unit length undergone by a body when it is
applied with a system of forces
- Epsilon, ε = δl / l o
δl = Change in length of the body, and
l = Original length of the body.
Tensile Stress Stress induced at any section of the body when a body is subjected to
two equal and opposite axial pulls
σt = P/A
Tensile Strain Ratio of the increase in length to the original length of the body
*tensile load will cause a decrease in cross-sectional area but increase
in length of the body
ε t= δl / l
Compressive Stress Stress induced at any section of the body when a body is subjected to
two equal and opposite axial pushes
σc = P/A
Compressive Strain The ratio of the decrease in length to the original length
*compressive load will cause an increase in cross-sectional area but
decrease in length
εC= δl / l
Young’s Modulus
or Modulus of
Elasticity
Hooke’s Law - When a material is loaded within elastic limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain
- Named after Robert Hooke (1678)

Shear Stress - Stress induced when a body is subjected to two equal and
opposite forces acting tangentially across the resisting section
- tau,

- On rivet cross section with single shear:

- On rivet cross section with double shear:

Shear Strain Measured by angular deformation accompanying the shear stress

Double Shearing of 1. All lap joints and single cover butt joints are in single shear,
a Riveted Joint while the butt joints with double cover plates are in double shear
2. In case of shear, the area involved is parallel to the external force
applied
3. When the holes are to be punched or drilled in the metal plates,
then the tools used to perform the operations must overcome the
ultimate shearing resistance of the material to be cut.
- Area to be sheared if a hole of diameter is to be punched in a
metal plate of thickness:
A=πd×t
- maximum shear resistance of the tool or the force required to
punch a hole:
P = A × τu = π d × t × τu

Where : τu = Ultimate shear strength of the material of the plate

Shear Modulus or Within the elastic limit, shear stress is directly proportional to shear
Modulus of strain
Rigidity τ = C . φ or τ / φ = C

τ = Shear stress,
φ = Shear strain, and
C = Constant of proportionality, known as shear modulus or
modulus of rigidity. It is also denoted by N or G
Bearing Stress or - a localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between
Crushing Stress two members of a machine part that are relatively at rest

d = Diameter of the rivet,

t = Thickness of the plate,
d.t = Projected area of the rivet, and
 n = Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing.

Bearing Pressure The local compression which exists at the surface of contact between
two members of a machine part that are in a relative motion

pb = Average bearing pressure,

P = Radial load on the journal,
l = Length of the journal in contact, and
d = Diameter of the journal

Gauge Length Original distance between two reference points

Stress-Strain
Diagram

Properties of 1. proportional limit (O-A)- stress at which stress-strain curve

stress-strain begins to deviate from the straight line
diagram 2. elastic limit (A-B)- stress developed in the material without any
permanent set
3. yield point (C & D are upper and lower yield points)
4. ultimate stress(E)- the largest stress obtained by dividing the
largest value of the load reached in a test to the original cross-
sectional area of the test piece
5. breaking stress (F)- stress reduced until the specimen breaks
away
6. percentage reduction in area- difference between the original
cross-sectional area and the cross-sectional area at the neck

A = Original cross-sectional area, and

a = Cross-sectional area at the neck

7. percentage elongation- percentage increase in the standard gauge

length
 l = Gauge length or original length, and
L = Length of specimen after fracture or final length.
Working or Design - safe or allowable stress
Stress - stress lover than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure
of the material takes place
Factor of Safety - ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress

Torsional and Bending Stresses in Machine Parts

Torsional Shear Stress Setup by torsion
Stress
Torsion equation:

τ = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or

maximum shear stress,
r = Radius of the shaft,
T = Torque or twisting moment,
J = Second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or polar
moment of inertia,
C = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material,
l = Length of the shaft, and
θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length l.
Polar moment of For Solid Shaft
Inertia

For Hollow Shaft

Torque or Twisting For Solid Shaft

Moment

For Hollow Shaft

Power

Torsion When a machine member is subjected to the action of two equal and
opposite couples acting in parallel planes, then the machine member is
said to be subjected to torsion
Torsional rigidity C×J
Composite shaft - When two shafts of different diameters are connected together to
form one shaft
- If the driving torque is applied at one end and the resisting torque
at the other end, then the shafts are said to be connected in series

- When the driving torque (T) is applied at the junction of the two
shafts, and the resisting torques T1 and T2 at the other ends of
the shafts, then the shafts are said to be connected in parallel