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Lecture 1 Measurement

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Lecture 1 Measurement

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and: Meas- By www www EasyEngineering net [DATTA Bell] Blectronic_insirumentation —_— Units, Dimensions, and Standards Objectives You willbe able to: 4, Discuss the three fundamental mechanical unis in the SI system, define the basic ST ‘mechanical detived units; and identify the various metric pefines. 2 Define the SI units for the following electrical and magnetic quantities: current, charge, emf, resistance, conductance, magnetic fs, ux density, inductance, capaci: tance. 3 Explain the two S! temperatare scales ‘A. Convert from non-SI to SI units, and determine the dimensions of vasious quantities. 5. Define the various measurement standards and thelr applications. Introduction Before standard systems of measurement were invented, many approximate units were ‘used. A long distance was often measured by the number of dys it would take to ride a bhorse over the distance; a horse's height was measured in Aands; liquid was measured by the bucket or barre. ‘of science and engineering, mare accurate units had to be de- ‘peoples adopted the foot and the mile for measuring dis- ‘and the gallon for liquid. Other nations followed the lead of system, in whieh large and small units are very conve- niently related by a factor of 10. ‘With the increase of world trade and the exchange of scientific information between nations, it became necessary 10 establish a single system of units of measurement that Would be acceptable internationally. After several world conferences on the matte, a met- wow BasyEngineering net 10/25/2020, 3:27 PM file://D:/Dr Samir/Measurements/[Dafid_A. Bell] Flectronic_Ins € Be Certats Pimits avd sams ened leaSyve men? Cros . Be ecckenrat Tpstramen!s vol) malr une . obmde hl Tastyaments Lsnubkers Notes oy. mers §- Tydoclence deel Gye a fone Mev orenetls 4. Dy 6- ac. Brive ee Aa ee. syidose, Msape z _ pave and eed measurement. 9. Fans ducers - lo ely - cen = 2 Petrovic Insteomeatlion ond [Yeesuceme? Devil 1. bell Se the id_A_Bell]_Electronic_Ins.. " wrww.Easytingineering.net 12 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFLEES Scientific Notation. numbers are conveniently written as a number multiplied by 10 100= 1x 10x10 =1x 10 10000 = 1 x 10x 10x 10% 10 [ / «1x10 a = cA 0.001 = To10x10 1 a: =1x107 ——S 1500 = 1.5 10 .- KK _ 0015 = 1.5107 ‘Note that in the SI system of units, spaces are used instead of commas when writing large numbers, Four-numeral numbers re an exception, One thousand is written as 7000, while ten thousand is 10 000. ‘Metric Prefixes f p : ‘Metric prefixes and the levier symbols for the various multiples and submaultiples of 10 ‘ae listed in Table 1-1, with those most commonly used with electrical units shown in ‘bold type. The ‘employed to simplify the writing of very large and very small ‘quantities. Thus, 1000 £2 can be expressed as / kilohrm, or 1 £12. Here kilo is the prefix that represents 7006, and k is the symbol for kilo. Similarly, 1 x JO” A ean be written as I miltiampere, / y Engineering Notation As already discussed, 1 Lis 1 10? 2, and J mA is'] x 10 A. Note also from Table 1 that 1 x 10° 0 is expressed as 1 MQ, and J x 10° A can be written a8 J WA, These ‘quantities, and most of the metric prefixes in Table 1-1, involve multiples of 10? or 10”. ‘ae said (0 be writen in engineering notation. A quantity ly expresed as 10 x 10° 92, or 10 k22. Also, 47 x electrical ‘engineering a ‘www.EasyBngineering net ‘I the body is to be accelerated vertically from the earth's surface, the acceleration due to _gravity (g) must be overcome before any vertical motion is possible, In SI units: [= 981 mist a2) / “Thus, a mass of 1 kg has 2 gravitational force of 9.81 N. Work \ ‘When a body is move, a forces ested to ovtrcome the body's resistance ro mation The werk done in movie bod the prot of te fore and te divans Thtgh which the bods moved ic ib lveton of ie }, (1-3) The SI unit of work is the, defined as the amount of work done when a force of | newton acis ti ce of I meter “Thus, the joule may Steed dnewtonmeter Fr the equation W = Fd work is pressed in Joules Pa kawaueadd in meters. doing work. i ‘Power i the ime rat of doing work 7 ceri onan a Wivohe date tain: Geyer ii work rhe >> ic_Instrumentation nd Metis. By www. file:///D:/Dr Samir/Measurements/[David_A_Bell}_Electronic_Ins. ee eee Sh Hasy Engineering, net ‘ie aystem which uses the meter kilogram, and second as fundamental units has now been ‘Benerally adopted around the world, This is known, from the French term “systeme inter ‘ational,” as the Sf or intemational system. 1 SI MECHANICAL UNITS Fundamental Units ‘The three basic units in the SI system are: | Unit ot. ‘the meter (mye kdlogram (kg) Unit of SSthe second (8) ‘These are known as fundamental units. Other units derived from the fundamental units ‘are termed derived units. For example, the unit of area is meters squared (m?), which is derived from meters, ‘The meter was originally defined as | ten-millionth of a meridian passing through ‘Paris from the north pole to the equator, The kilogram was defined as 1000 times the a eT Rect 78 to at | liter of water bas a mass of Be ‘of error in the original definitions, the meter was redefined in ‘Also, the kilogram is now defined us the mass of a certain plat- ‘kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in nd i, {1486 400) ofa mean solar day, but itis more accurately awe ‘unit of force is the mewton' (N), defined as that force which will give a mass nce of efron ped When a body is to be accelerated or decelerated, a force must be applied propor- the desired rate of change of velocity, that is, proportional to the acceleration (or www.EasyEngineering net Wo Magnetic Flux and Flux Density The weber® (Wb) is the SI unit of miag=etic flux. The weber ts défned as the magnetic fidx which, linking a single-turn coll, Pro- duces an emf of I V when the fix reduced 0 e70 ata constant rate in 15 The tesla’ (7) is the S! unit of magnetic flux density. The tesla is the fx density in a magnetic field when I weber of fx occurs im a plane of I square meter; that is, the tesla can be described as 1 W/m’. Inductance . The SI unit of inductance is the henry (H). ‘The inductance of ¢ circuit is 1 henry, when an emf of | volt is induced by the cur- rent changing at the rate of | A/s. Capacitance it 3 ‘The farad® (F) is thé S1 unt of capacitance. ‘The farad is the Capacitance of a capacitor that contains a charge of ! coulomb when the potential difference between its terminats is ! volt oe 1-4 SI TEMPERATURE SCALES ‘There are two SI temperature scales, the Celsius scale" and the Ketvin scale.' The Celsius scale bas 100 equal divisions (or degrees) between the freezing temperature and the boil- ing temperature of water. At normal atmospheric pressure, water freezes at O°C (zero de- grees Celsius) and boils at 100°C. “The Kelvin temperature scale, also known as the absolute scale, commences at ab- solute 2er0 of temperature, which corresponds to ~273.15°C. Therefore, 0°C is equal to 273.15 K, and 100°C is th 373.15 K. A temperature difference of 1 K is the same as “¢Nmed afer the German pisicst Winelm Weber (1804-1890). ‘Raster Chet Arann reread iveir NUT (136-1940), “Named forthe American physicist Joseph Henry (1797-F878). ‘named for tbe Eglh chin wd physi Mhae! Porday(1791-186). ‘tavnd by the Swed nce ad lit Ar Cea (1701744), Named for the Iish-bom acieatiat and mathematician William Thomwos, who became Lord Kelvin onan / 7 Sec. 4 “Temperature Seales www. EasyEngingering net / 10/25/2020, 3:33 PM. = 1.602% 10" © “Em, Potential Diterence, and Voltage Me rele Vi the unt of eecrrmotve force (emp and potenta! difference. y The volt (¥) is defined as the difference between two points on a conduc- J ampere when the power dissipated between is the charge carried by 6.24 x 10" electrons. One 10% electrons are moved through a potential cifer, Kee of 116.24 x 10" coulomb. If only one elec. olvedtis an electron volt (eV), which permits a current low of 1 ampere lt is applied to the resistance, Acctronic Instrumentation and_Meas- By www... file://D:/Dr Samir/Measurements/{David_A. Bell] Electronic_ Its. {work FasyEngineering net \ ‘TABLE 1-1 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION AND METRIC PREFIXES ‘Scientific ave __“notton ——Prefix__—_Symbol 1000 000 000 000 107 tera 2 1000000000 ot oe G 1000 000 io mega, M 100010 tio k 100 10° hecto b 0 deka a On aw deci d Xs ¢ 0.001 10? mill n 0,000 001 pd micro e 0.000 000.001 10° nano 2 0.000 000 000 w" pico P 1.3 SI ELECTRICAL UNITS Units of Current and Charge Electric current (7) is a flow of charge cartiets, Therefore, current could be defined in terms of the quantity of electricity (Q) that passes a given point in a conductor during a time of Is. ‘The coulomb* (C) is the unit of electrical charge or quantity of electricity. ‘The coulomb was selected 1s the fundamental electrical unit from wich all other voits were derived since it is much easier to measure current accurate~ 4y than jt is t0 measore unit of current is now the fundamental electrical unit fn the SI system. Thus, the is a derived uni, defined in terms of the unit of elee- The ampere! (A) isthe unit of elec current. ‘The ampere is defined as that constani current which. when flowing in each of two infisliely long parallel conductors I meier apart, exerts a force of 2 x 10” newton ‘per meter of length on each conductor. The coulomb is defined as that charge which passes a given point in a conductor ‘each secand, when a current of 1 ampere flows. ‘These eto show ta th om ou be teed an ampere-secnd. Com ‘Yersely the ampere can be described as «coulomb per second: “Named arth Fetch ys Cares Agua de Cesk (1736-1906) "Ne eb rch Pei we ahsan Ane Mare Ape (175-116), Sent StBecnicl ain 5 ‘www.EasyEngineering.net www.EasyEngineering.net 15 OTHER UNIT SYSTEMS. A a Bc wataces Eph tage erin age ap ok aees S In the tain bia foo for lei he own fOr as ATS 4 tae Fanaa hee echanial uns derived fom hes are imi n both seers cade nu mcs Te pel glo el PPO iine es 5 adopted, CGS sing the centimeter, gram, and the SI system was systems a ial eit were employed fr ecientide purposes THE Nrere two COS systems: an electrostatic system and a magnetic system Were too small oF too large for practical engineering applications, 80 pra also used. / se sclving problems, itis sometimes réessary to conver rom the waders unit systems to SI units. Appendix | provides alist of conversion factors for this purpote. i S Se ee ‘Example 1-1 a ‘Ava magnet with 1 inch square cross section is aad to havea otal magnetic fax of ‘S00 maxwell. Determine the Oux density in tesla. ‘From Appendix 1. é soul fax, = (500 maw 17490 ie_Instrumentation_and_Meas- By www... fles//D/Dr Samin/Measurements/[David_ABell]_Eleewonic_} wor Baynes \ f=; 7 - (Celsius tempernue = F=32. $81 32 ‘Kelvin temperature = = +7315 =31015K 1-6 DIMENSIONS, “ ‘Table 1-2 gives a list of quantities, quailty unit symbols, and quantity di- mensions, The symbols and units are those approved {suse with the SI system. To un- derstand the dimensions colum, consider the fact that the'ares of « rectangle is deter- mined by multiplying the lengths of the two sides. area = length x length \ ‘The dimensions of area are (length)? \ ‘TABLE 1-2. SI UNITS, SYMBOLS, AND DIMENSIONS Quantity Symbo! ‘Unit ‘Unit symbol’ Dimensions a : ye ; eR 3 a ewes : war, ong + \ eA Po wat wo Zi ampere ~ Pe Ca Yo were, meter Vim weer rly ; aa % . } poe far / rte). E henry av wer) of 463 eee TMT Sr essremensTDavid_ A. ell. Electonics ‘Www.EasyEngineering net Similarly, [force] = [mass] x [acceleration] = = (MIT?) {work] = [force x [distance] = (MLT*IL] =r) work) (LT fame) I77 =IMET I SS For the electrical quantities, current is another fundamental Unit. So electrical quantities ‘can be analyzed to determine dimensions inthe fundamental waits of LM, 7 an J (Charge ~ current x time {charge) = 11171 =7) Oe {power} = Example 1-3, Determine the dimensions of voltage and resistance. “ver war) SZ) worn) Se EE Unis Dimensions and Stndards Chap 1 . ‘Svew.Easy Engineering net M 10/25/2020, 3:34 PM Vc rarer Meas By www “le. Sattr/Measurements/[David_A Bell] Electronic_ ‘wow EasyEngineering net STANDARDS Working Standards lectrical measurement standards are precise resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage sources, and current sources, which can be used for comparison purposes ‘hen measur- ing electrical quantities. For example, resistance can be accurately measured by means of ‘a Wheatstone bridge which uses a standard resistor (see Section 7-3). Similarly, standard ‘capacitors and inductors can be employed in bridge (or other) methods to securately mea- sure capacitance and inductance. ‘The standard resistors, capacitors, and inductors usually Sound in-an electronics laboratory are classified as working standards. Working standard resistors are normally ‘constructed of manganin or a similar material, which has »-vicy low temperature cocff- cient. They are available in resistance values ranging fom OO? to 1 MA with typ- cal accuracies of 20.01% to 20.1%. A working standard capacitct might be air diclec- tic type, or might be constructed of silvered mica. Available capacitance values are 0.001 uF to | uF with « typical accuracy of 20.02%. Standard inductors are available im values ranging from 100 wH to 10 H with typical accuracies of 20.1%. Calibrators provide standard voltages and currents for calibrating voltmeters and ammeters (see ‘Section 12-3). ‘Standard Classifications Measurement standards are classified in four levels: international stadards, primary ‘andards, secondary standards, and working standards. Thus, the working standards al- Pras Raced es nah ene ‘International standards are defined by inlematioosl agreements, and are maintained ‘tthe International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Franog: These are as accurate as it [possible to achieve They may be used for compixison with primary stan- ‘unavailable for any application. in various countries around the ‘word, such as d,» National Bureau of Standards in Washington. They are also constoct- ‘c8for the greatest pouiblesccuray, and their main fonction is checkin the accuracy of secondary standards, ‘Secondary standards are employed in industry as references for calibrating high-sc- ‘curacy equipment and components, and for verifying the accuracy of working standards. Secondary standards are periodically checked at the institutions that maintain primary andards, In summary, working standards are used as measurement references on « day-to- ay basis in virtually all electronics ‘Seegadary sandards are more accurate than ‘standards, and are used throughout industry for checking working stan- ards, and for calibrating ‘andards are more accurate than secondary standards. They are maintained to the higheh< possible accuracy by ma- ‘onal instiutions as references for calibrating Tsternational scan

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