ABSTRACT

This report takes a pedagogical stance in demonstrating how results from

theoretical computer science may be applied to yield significant insight into the behavior
of the devices computer systems engineering practice seeks to put in place, and that this is
immediately attainable with the present state of the art.
The focus for this detailed study is provided by the type of solid state signaling and
various communication systems currently being deployed throughout mainline railways.
Safety and system reliability concerns dominate in this domain. With such motivation,
two issues are tackled: the special problem of software quality assurance in these data-
driven control systems, and the broader problem of design dependability. In the former
case, the analysis is directed towards proving safety properties of the geographic data
which encode the control logic for the railway interlocking; the latter examines the fidelity
of the communication protocols upon which the distributed control system depends.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 ABOUT INDIAN RAILWAYS
1.2 GENESIS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
1.4 THE NEED FOR A RAILWAY NETWORK
1.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

CHAPTER 2 :OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2.1 OPTICAL FIBER
2.2 FIBER GEOMETRY PARAMETERS
2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION
2.4 PULSE CODE MODULATION
2.5 MULTIPLEXING
2.6 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES
2.7 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS
2.8 OPTICAL NETWORK CONFIGURATION
2.9 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
2.10 FIBER OPTIC SPLICING

CHAPTER: 3 NETWORKING
3.1 LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
3.2 WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
3.3 HISTORY OF LAN
3.4 OSI REFERENCE MODEL
3.5 DYNAMIC IP ADDRESS
3.6 STATIC IP ADDRESS

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 3.7 DOMAIN NAMES
3.8 LAN DEVICES

CHAPTER 4: SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

4.1 RAILWAY SIGNALING
4.2 OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

CHAPTER 5 :AUTO EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION

5.1 ELECTRONIC EXCHANGE
5.2 ISDN
5.3 ISDN IN INDIA
5.4 TYPES OF COMM. THROUGH ISDN
5.5 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE RING TONES
5.6 THE HISTORY OF DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
5.7 PDH: PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITA HIERARCHY
5.8 SDH : SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERACHY
5.9 DSL TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER 6 :PUBLIC AMENITIES

6.1 PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS)
6.2 NATIONAL TRAIN ENQUIRY SERVICE (NTES)
6.3 BOOKING OF TICKETS ON INTERNET
6.4 UNRESERVED TICKETING SYSTEM (UTS)
6.5 INTERACTIVE VOICE RESPONSE SYSTEM
6.6 BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONCLUSION

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 CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 About Indian Railways

Indian Railways, a historical legacy, are a vital force in our economy. The first
railway on Indian sub-continent ran from Bombay to Thane on 16th April 1853. Fourteen
railway carriages carried about 400 guests from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of
21 miles (34 Kilometers). Since then there has been no looking back. Today, it covers
6,909 stations over a total route length of more than 63,028 kilometers. The track
kilometers in broad gauge (1676 mm) are 86, 526 kms, meter gauge (1000 mm) are 18,
529 kms and narrow gauge (762/610 mm) are 3,651 kms. Of the total route of 63,028
kms, 16,001 kms are electrified. The railways have 8000 locomotives, 50,000 coaching
vehicles, 222,147 freight wagons, 6853 stations, 300 yards, 2300 goodsheds, 700 repair
shops, and 1.54 million work force. Indian Railways runs around 11,000 trains every day,
of which 7,000 are passenger trains. Presently, 9 pairs of Rajdhani and 13 pairs of
Shatabdi Express Trains run on the rail tracks of India.
It is interesting to note that though the railways were introduced to facilitate the
commercial interest of the British, it played an important role in unifying the country.
Railways are ideally suited for long distance travel and movement of bulk commodities.
Regarded better than road transport in terms of energy efficiency, land use, environment
impact and safety it is always in forefront during national emergency.
Indian railways, the largest rail network in Asia and the world's second largest
under one management are also credited with having a multi gauge and multi traction
system. The Indian Railways have been a great integrating force for more than 150 years.
It has helped the economic life of the country and helped in accelerating the development
of industry and agriculture. Indian Railways is known to be the largest railway network in
Asia.
The Indian Railways network binds the social, cultural and economic fabric of
the country and covers the whole of country ranging from north to south and east to west
removing the distance barrier for its people.

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1.1.1 Organization Overview

The Ministry of Railways under Government of India controls Indian Railways.

The Ministry is headed by Union Minister who is generally supported by a Minster of
State. The Railway Board consisting of six members and a chairman reports to this top
hierarchy. The railway zones are headed by their respective General Managers who in turn
report to the Railway Board. For administrative convenience Indian Railways is primarily
divided into 16 zones:

1.1.1 The Ministry of Railways has following nine undertakings:

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1. Rail India Technical & Economic Services Limited (RITES)
2. Indian Railway Construction (IRCON) International Limited
3. Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC)
4. Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)
5. Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL)
6. Indian Railway Catering & Tourism Corporation Ltd (IRCTC)
7. Railtel Corporation of India Ltd. (Rail Tel)
8. Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MRVNL)
9. Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL)
10. Indian Railway Finance Corporation Limited (IRFC)
11. Container Corporation of India Limited (CONCOR)
12. Konkan Railway Corporation Limited (KRCL)
13. Indian Railway Catering & Tourism Corporation Ltd (IRCTC)
14. Railtel Corporation of India Ltd. (Rail Tel)
15. Mumbai Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (MRVNL)
16. Rail Vikas Nigam Ltd. (RVNL)

1.1.2 Passenger Traffic

The passenger traffic has risen from leaps and bounds from 1284 million in 1950-
51 to 5112 million in 2002-2003.

1.1.3 Freight Traffic

The revenue fright traffic has also grown immensely from 73.2 million tons in 1950-
51 to
557.39 million tones. Indian railways carry huge variety of goods such as mineral ores,
fertilizers, petrochemicals, agricultural produce and others. It has been made
possible with measures such as line capacity augmentation on certain critical sectors and

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modernization of signaling system and increase in roller bearing equipped wagons. Indian
Railways make huge revenue and most of its profits are from the freight sector and uses
these profits to augment the loss-making passenger sector.

Here, it is important to note that computerization of freight operations --- Freight

Operations Information System (FOIS) has been achieved with the implementation of
Rake Management System.

1.1.4 Facilities for Passengers

Computer based unreserved ticketing takes care of the large chunk of unreserved
segment of passengers. This facility allows issuance of unreserved tickets from locations
other than boarding station.

1.1.5 Indian Railway Catering and Tourism Corporation (IRCTC):

IRCTC has launched on line ticketing facility with the aid of Center for Railway
Information System, which can be booked on www.irctc.co.in. For the convenience of
customers queries related to accommodation availability, passenger status, train schedule
etc are can all be addressed online. Computerized reservation facilities have made the life
easy of commuters across India.
National Train Enquiry system is another initiative of Indian Railways which
offers train running position on a current basis through various output devices such as
terminals in the station enquiries and Interactive Voice Response Systems (IVRS) at
important railway stations.

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 Indian Railways are committed to provide improved telecommunication system to
its passengers. For this Optical Fibre Communication (OFC) system has been embraced,
which involves laying optical fibre cable along the railway tracks. In recent years Indian
Railways have witnessed the marked rise of collaboration between private and public
sectors. Few of the notable examples here are the broad gauge connectivity to Pipya Port
where a joint venture company is formed with Pipava Port authority. Similarly
Memorandums of Understanding has been signed between Railways and State
governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and
Jharkhand.

1.2 GENESIS OF INDIAN RAILWAYS

The story of the Indian Railways (IR) is not just a saga of mundane statistics and
miles of rolling stock. It is the glorious tale of a pioneering institution that has blazed a
trail for nearly a century and a half, making inroads into far-flung territory and providing a
means of communication.
More than a hundred years ago, on the 16 April 1853, a red-letter day appeared in
the glorious history of the Indian Railways. On the day, the very first railway train in India
ran over a stretch of 21 miles from Bombay to Thane. This pioneer railway train
consisting of 14 railway carriages carrying about 400 guests, steamed off at 3:30 pm
amidst the loud applause of a vast multitude and to the salute of 21 guns. It reached Thane
at about 4.45 pm. The guests returned to Bombay at 7 pm on the next day, that is, April
17. On April 18, 1853, Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy, Second Baronet, reserved the whole
train and traveled from Bombay to Thane and back along with some members of his
family and friends. This was the humble beginning of the modern Indian Railway system
known today for its extraordinary integration of high administrative

efficiency, technical skill, commercial enterprise and resourcefulness.

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1.3 THE NEED FOR A RAILWAY NETWORK

The British rule in India was governed by three principal considerations to expand
the IR system. These were the commercial advantages, the political aspect and even more
importantly, the inexorable imperial defense of India against the possible military attacks
from certain powerful countries showing signs of extending their orbit of influence into
Central Asia.

1.4 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Now, to further improve upon its services, the Indian Railways have embarked upon
various schemes, which are immensely ambitious. The railway has changed from meter
gauge to broad gauge and the people have given it a warm welcome. Now, there are the
impressive- looking locomotives that haul the 21st-century harbingers-the Rajdhanis and
Shatabdis-at speeds of 145 kmph with all amenities and comfort. With these, the
inconvenience of changing to a different gauge en route to a destination will no longer be
felt. The Research, Designing, and Standardizing Organization at Lucknow-the largest
railway research organization in the world- was constituted in 1957. It is constantly
devising improvements in the signaling systems, track design and layout, coach interiors
for better riding comfort and capacity, etc., along with improvements in locomotives.
Improvements are being planned by engineers. The workshops of the railways too have
been given new equipment to create sophisticated coaches at Perambur and Kapurthala
and diesel engine parts at Patiala. Locomotives are being made at Chittaranjan and
Varanasi. This is in sharp contrast to the earlier British conviction that only minor repairs
would be possible in India, so all spare parts including nuts and bolts for locomotives
would have to be imported from England. More trains and routes are constantly being
added to the railway network and services. The British legacy lives on in our railway
system, transformed but never forgotten. Long live the Romance of the Rails! The
network of lines has grown to about 62,000 kilometers. But, the variety of Indian
Railways is infinite. It still has the romantic toy trains on narrow gauge hill sections, meter

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gauge beauties on other and broad gauge bonanzas as one visits places of tourist interest
courtesy Indian Railways! They are an acknowledgement of the Railways that tourism as
an industry has to be promoted and that India is full of unsurpassed beauty. The Calcutta
Metro is a fine example of highly complex engineering techniques being adopted to lay an
underground railway in the densely built-up areas of Calcutta city. It is a treat to be seen.
The Calcuttans keep it so clean and tidy that not a paper is thrown around! It only proves
the belief that a man grows worthy of his superior possessions. Calcutta is also the only
city where the Metro Railway started operating from September 27, 1995 over a length of
16.45 km. There is also a Circular Railway from Dum Dum to Princep Ghats covering
13.50 km to provide commuter trains.

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CHAPTER 2 : OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

2.1 OPTICAL FIBRE

An optical fiber is a cylindrical dielectric

waveguide made of low-loss materials
such as silica glass. It has a central core
in which the light is guided, embedded in
an outer cladding of slightly lower
refractive index. Light rays incident on
the core-cladding boundary at angles
greater than the critical angle undergo
total internal reflection and are guided
through the core without refraction.
Rays of greater

inclination to the fiber axis lose part of

their power into the cladding at each
reflection and are not guided.
As a result of recent
technological advances in fabrication,
light can be guided through 1 km of glass
fiber with a loss as low as
= 0.16 dB (= 3.6 %). Optical fibers are
replacing copper coaxial cables as the
preferred transmission medium for
electromagnetic waves, thereby
revolutionizing terrestrial communicatin.
communications. Single-mode and

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 multimode optical fibres

 Multimode is 50/125 or 62.5/125

 50 micron is the CORE
 125 micron is the Cladding

 Single mode is 8‐10/125

 8‐10 micron is the CORE
 125 micron is the Cladding

2.1.2 Operational Parameters

 1 st Window – 850 nm allows cheap LED‘s to operate over reasonable distances (km)
 2 nd Window – 1300nm more expensive LED‘s and Lasers operate over longer
distances (10‘s of Km). Fiber attenuation at this level is less than at 850nm
 3 rd Window – 1550nm employs expensive sophisticated laser /detected systems.
Long distance without repeaters (100‘s of Km)

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 Multimode optical fibers are dielectric waveguides which can have many propagation
modes. Light in these modes follows paths that can be represented by rays as shown in Figure 1-1a
and 1-1b, where regions 1, 2 and 3 are the core, cladding and coating, respectively. The cladding
glass has a refractive index, a parameter related to the dielectric constant, which is slightly lower
tha n the refractive index of the core glass.

Figure 1-1 – The three principal types of fibres

xiii
 2.1.3 The Design of Fiber Core and Cladding

An optical fiber consists of two different types of highly pure, solid glass,
composed to form the core and cladding. A protective acrylate coating (see Figure 1) then
surrounds the cladding. In most cases, the protective coating is a dual layer composition.

A protective coating is applied to the glass fiber as the final step in the manufacturing
process. This coating protects the glass from dust and scratches that can affect fiber strength.
This protective coating can be comprised of two layers: a soft inner layer that cushions the
fiber and allows the coating to be stripped from the glass mechanically and a harder outer
layer that protects the fiber during handling, particularly the cabling, installation, and
termination processes.

2.1.1 Single-Mode and Multimode Fibers

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 Multimode fiber was the first type of fiber to be commercialized. It has a much
larger core than single-mode fiber, allowing hundreds of modes of light to propagate
through the fiber simultaneously. Additionally, the larger core diameter of multimode
fiber facilitates the use of lower-cost optical transmitters (such as light emitting diodes
[LEDs] or vertical cavity surface emitting lasers [VCSELs]) and connectors.
Single-mode fiber, on the other hand, has a much smaller core that allows only one
mode of light at a time to propagate through the core. While it might appear that
multimode fibers have higher capacity, in fact the opposite is true. Singlemode fibers are
designed to maintain spatial and spectral integrity of each optical signal over longer
distances, allowing more information to be transmitted. Its tremendous information-
carrying capacity and low intrinsic loss have made single-mode fiber the ideal
transmission medium for a multitude of applications. Single-mode fiber is typically used
for longer-distance and higher-bandwidth applications (see Figure 3).

2.1.2 Optical Fiber Sizes

The international standard for outer cladding diameter of most single- mode
optical fibers is 125 microns (μm) for the glass and 245 μm for the coating. This
standard is important because it ensures compatibility among connectors, splices,
and tools used throughout the industry.
Standard single-mode fibers are manufactured with a small core size,
approximately 8 to 10 μm in diameter. Multimode fibers have core sizes of 50 to
62.5 μm in diameter.

xv
2.2 Fiber Geometry Parameters

The three fiber geometry parameters

that have the greatest impact on
splicing performance include the
following:

 core/clad concentricity (or core-to-cladding offset): how well the

core is centered in the cladding glass region.

fiber curl: the amount of curvature over a fixed length of fiber These
parameters are determined and controlled during the fiber-manufacturing
process. As fiber is cut and spliced according to system needs, it is important
to that fiber cores will be misaligned during splicing, thereby impacting splice loss.
Some mass fusion splicers use fixed v- grooves for fiber alignment, where the effect
of fiber curl is most noticeable to count on consistent geometry along the entire
length of the fiber and between fibers and not to rely solely on measurements
made.

2.2.1 Cladding Diameter

The cladding diameter tolerance controls the outer diameter of the fiber, with
tighter tolerances ensuring that fibers are almost exactly the same size. During splicing,
inconsistent cladding diameters can cause cores to misalign where the fibers join, leading
to higher splice losses. The drawing process controls cladding diameter tolerance, and
depending on the manufacturer‘s skill level, can be very tightly controlled.

xix
2.2.2 Core/Clad Concentricity

Tighter core/clad concentricity tolerances help ensure that the fiber core is
centered in relation to the cladding. This reduces the chance of ending up with cores that
do not match up precisely when two fibers are spliced together. A core that is precisely
centered in the fiber yields lower-loss splices more often.
Core/clad concentricity is determined during the first stages of the manufacturing
process, when the fiber design and resulting characteristics are created. During these
laydown and consolidation processes, the dopant chemicals that make up the fiber must be
deposited with precise control and symmetry to maintain consistent core/clad
concentricity performance throughout the entire length of fiber.

2.2.2 Fiber Curl

Fiber curl is the inherent curvature along a specific length of optical fiber that is
exhibited to some degree by all fibers. It is a result of thermal stresses that occur during
the manufacturing process. Therefore, these factors must be rigorously monitored and
controlled during fiber manufacture. Tighter fiber-curl tolerances reduce the possibility.

2.2.3 Single-Mode Fiber Performance Characteristics

The key optical performance parameters for single-mode fibers are attenuation,
dispersion, and mode-field diameter. Optical fiber performance parameters can vary
significantly among fibers from different manufacturers in ways that can affect your
system‘s performance. It is important to understand how to specify the fiber that best
meets system requirements.

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2.2.4 Attenuation

Attenuation is the reduction of signal strength or light power over the length of the
light- carrying medium. Fiber attenuation is measured in decibels per kilometer (dB/km).
Optical fiber offers superior performance over other transmission media because it
combines high bandwidth with low attenuation. This allows signals to be transmitted over
longer distances while using fewer regenerators or amplifiers, thus reducing cost and
improving signal reliability.
Attenuation of an optical signal varies as a function of wavelength (see Figure 9).
Attenuation is very low, as compared to other transmission media (i.e., copper, coaxial
cable, etc.), with a typical value of 0.35 dB/km at 1300 nm for standard single-mode fiber.
Attenuation at 1550 nm is even lower, with a typical value of 0.25 dB/km. This gives an
optical signal, transmitted through fiber, the ability to travel more than 100 km without
regeneration or amplification. Attenuation is caused by several different factors, but
primarily scattering and absorption. The scattering of light from molecular level
irregularities in the glass structure leads to the general shape of the attenuation curve (see
Figure 9). Further attenuation is caused by light absorbed by residual materials, such as
metals or water ions, within the fiber core and inner cladding.

xxi
2.2.5 Dispersion

Dispersion is the time distortion of an optical signal that results from the time o
flight differences of different components of that signal, typically resulting in pulse
broadening (see Figure 10). In digital transmission, dispersion limits the maximum data
rate, the maximum distance, or the information-carrying capacity of a single-mode fiber
link. In analog transmission, dispersion can cause a waveform to become significantly
distorted and can result in unacceptable levels of composite second-order distortion
(CSO).

2.3 OPTICAL FIBRE COMMUNICATION

2.3.1 Historical perspective of optical communication

The use of light for transmitting information from one place to another place is a
very old technique. In 800 BC., the Greeks used fire and smoke signals for sending
information like victory in a war, alertting against enemy, call for help, etc. Mostly only
one type of signal was conveyed. During the second century B.C. optical signals were
encoded using signaling lamps so that any message could be sent. There was no
development in optical communication till the end of the 18th century. The speed of the
optical communication link was limited due to the requirement of line of sight
transmission paths, the human eye as the receiver and unreliable nature of transmission
paths affected by atmospheric effects such as fog and rain. In 1791, Chappe from France
developed the semaphore for telecommunication on land. But that was also with limited
information transfer.

xxii
 In 1872, Alexander Graham Bell proposed the photo phone with a diaphragm
giving speech transmission over a distance of 200 m. But within four years, Graham Bell
had changed the photophone into telephone using electrical current for transmission of
speech signals. In 1878, the first telephone exchange was installed at New Haven.
Meanwhile, Hertz discovered radio waves in 1887. Marconi demonstrated radio
communication without using wires in 1895. Using modulation techniques, the signals
were transmitted over a long distance using radio waves and microwaves as the carrier.
In the old optical communication system, the bit rate distance product is only
about 1 (bit/s)-km due to enormous transmission loss (105 to 107 dB/km). The
information carrying capacity of telegraphy is about hundred times lesser than a
telephony. Even though the high- speed coaxial systems were evaluated during 1975, they
had smaller repeater spacing. Microwaves are used in modern communication systems
with the increased bit rate distance product. However, a coherent optical carrier like laser
will have more information carrying capacity. So the communication engineers were
interested in optical communication using lasers in an effective manner from 1960
onwards. A new era in optical communication started after the invention of laser in 1960
by Maiman. The light waves from the laser, a coherent source of light waves having high
intensity, high monochromaticity and high directionality with less divergence, are used as
carrier waves capable of carrying large amount of information compared with radio waves
and microwaves. Subsequently H M Patel, an Indian electrical engineer designed and
fabricated a CO2 laser.

2.3.2 The birth of fiber optic systems

To guide light in a waveguide, initially metallic and non-metallic wave guides

were fabricated. But they have enormous losses. So they were not suitable for
telecommunication. Tyndall discovered that through optical fibers, light could be
transmitted by the phenomenon of total internal reflection. During 1950s, the optical
fibers with large diameters of about 1 or 2 millimeter were used in endoscopes to see the
inner parts of the human body.

xxiii
 Optical fibers can provide a much more reliable and versatile optical channel than
the atmosphere, Kao and Hockham published a paper about the optical fiber
communication system in 1966. But the fibers produced an enormous loss of 1000 dB/km.
But in the atmosphere, there is a loss of few dB/km. Immediately Kao and his fellow
workers realized that these high losses were a result of impurities in the fiber material.
Using a pure silica fiber these losses were reduced to 20 dB/km in 1970 by Kapron, Keck
and Maurer. At this attenuation loss, repeater spacing for optical fiber links become
comparable to those of copper cable systems. Thus the optical fiber communication
system became an engineering reality.

2.3.3 Basic optical fiber communication system

Figure 2 shows the basic components in the optical fiber communication system. The
input electrical signal modulates the intensity of light fromthe optical source. The optical
carrier can be modulated internally or externally using an electro-optic modulator (or)
acousto-optic modulator. Nowadays electro-optic modulators (KDP, LiNbO3 or beta
barium borate) are widely used as external modulators which modulate the light by
changing its refractive index through the given input electrical signal. In the digital optical
fiber communication system, the input electrical signal is in the form of coded digital
pulses from the encoder and these electric pulses modulate the intensity of the light from
the laser diode or LED and convert them into optical pulses. In the receiver stage, the
photo detector like avalanche photodiode (APD) or positive-intrinsic negative (PIN) diode
converts the optical pulses into electrical pulses. A decoder converts the electrical pulses
into the original electric signal.

xxiv
Figure Basic analog optical fiber communication system.

Table Different generations of optical fiber communication systems

Table 2 shows the different generations of optical fiber communication. In generation I,

mostly GaAs based LEDs and laser diodes having emission wavelength 0.8 micrometer
were used from 1974 to 1978, graded index multimode fibers were used.

2.3.4 Advantages of optical fiber communication

1. Wider bandwidth: The information carrying capacity of a transmission system is

directly proportional to the carrier frequency of the transmitted signals. The optical carrier

xxv
frequency is in the range 1013 to 1015 Hz while the radio wave frequency is about 106 Hz
and the microwave frequency is about 1010 Hz. Thus the optical fiber yields greater
transmission bandwidth than the conventional communication systems and the data rate
or number of bits per second is increased to a greater extent in the optical fiber
communication system. Further the wavelength division multiplexing operation by the
data rate or information carrying capacity of optical fibers is enhanced to many orders of
magnitude.
2. Low transmission loss: Due to the usage of the ultra-low loss fibers and the erbium
doped silica fibers as optical amplifiers, one can achieve almost lossless transmission. In
the modern optical fiber telecommunication systems, the fibers having a transmission loss
of 0.002 dB/km are used. Further, using erbium doped silica fibers over a short length in
the transmission path at selective points, appropriate optical amplification can be
achieved. Thus the repeater spacing is more than 100 km. Since the amplification is done
in the optical domain itself, the distortion produced during the strengthening of the signal
is almost negligible.
3. Dielectric waveguide: Optical fibers are made from silica which is an electrical
insulator. Therefore they do not pickup any electromagnetic wave or any high current
lightning. It is also suitable in explosive environments. Further the optical fibers are not
affected by any interference originating from power cables, railway power lines and radio
waves. There is no cross talk between the fibers even though there are so many fibers in a
cable because of the absence of optical interference between the fibers.
4. Signal security: The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the
signal cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore optical fiber
communication provides hundred per cent signal security.
5. Small size and weight: Fiber optic cables are developed with small radii, and they are
flexible, compact and lightweight. The fiber cables can be bent or twisted without
damage. Further, the optical fiber cables are superior to the copper cables in terms of
storage, handling, installation and transportation, maintaining comparable strength and
durability.

xxvi
2.4 PULSE CODE MODULATION
Pulse code modulation (PCM) is the process of converting an analog signal into a
2n- digit binary code. Consider the block diagram shown in Figure 8-9. An analog signal
is placed on the input of a sample and hold. The sample and hold circuit is used to
―capture‖ the analog voltage long enough for the conversion to take place. The output of
the sample and hold circuit is fed into the analog-to-digital converter (A/D). An A/D
converter operates by taking periodic discrete samples of an analog signal at a specific
point in time and converting it to a 2n-bit binary number. For example, an 8-bit A/D
converts an analog voltage into a binary number with 28 discrete levels (between 0 and
255). For an analog voltage to be successfully converted, it must be sampled at a rate at
least twice its maximum frequency. This is known as the Nyquist sampling rate. An
example of this is the process that takes place in the telephone system.
Standard telephone has a bandwidth of 4 kHz. When you speak into the telephone, your 4-
kHz bandwidth voice signal is sampled at twice the 4-kHz frequency or 8 kHz. Each
sample is then converted to an 8-bit binary number. This occurs 8000 times per second.
Thus, if we multiply
8 k samples/s × 8 bits/sample = 64 kbits/s
Temporarily store the digital codes during the conversion process. The DAC accepts an n-
bit digital number and outputs a continuous series of discrete voltage ―steps.‖ All that is
needed to smooth the stair-step voltage out is a simple low-pass filter with its cutoff
frequency set at the maximum signal frequency.

xxvii
Figure PCM (a) Block diagram (b) Digital waveforms

Figure D/A output circuit

xxix
2.5 MULTIPLEXING

The purpose of multiplexing is to share the bandwidth of a single transmission channel

among several users. Two multiplexing methods are commonly used in fiber optics:
1. Time-division multiplexing (TDM)
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

2.5.1 Time-Division Multiplexing (TDM)

In time-division multiplexing, time on the information channel, or fiber, is shared among

the many data sources. The multiplexer MUX can be described as a type of ―rotary
switch,‖ which rotates at a very high speed, individually connecting each input to the
communication channel for a fixed period of time. The process is reversed on the output
with a device known as a demultiplexer, or DEMUX. After each channel has been
sequentially connected, the process repeats itself. One complete cycle is known as a
frame. To ensure that each channel on the input is connected to its corresponding channel
on the output, start and stop frames are added to synchronize the input with the output.
TDM systems may send information using any of the digital modulation schemes
described (analog multiplexing systems also exist). This is illustrated in Figure 8-15.
Figure

xxx
2.5.2 Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM)

In wavelength-division multiplexing, each data channel is transmitted using a slightly

different wavelength (different color). With use of a different wavelength for each
channel, many channels can be transmitted through the same fiber without interference.
This method is used to increase the capacity of existing fiber optic systems many times.
Each WDM data channel may consist of a single data source or may be a combination of a
single data source and a TDM (time- division multiplexing) and/or FDM (frequency-
division multiplexing) signal. Dense wavelength- division multiplexing (DWDM) refers
to the transmission of multiple closely spaced wavelengths through the same fiber. For
any given wavelength λ and corresponding frequency f, the International
Telecommunications Union (ITU) defines standard frequency spacing Δf as 100 GHz,
which translates into a Δλ of 0.8-nm wavelength spacing. This follows from the
relationship Δλ =λ Δf / f .

DWDM systems operate in the 1550-nm window because of the low attenuation
characteristics of glass at 1550 nm and the fact that erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA)
operate in the 1530- nm–1570-nm range. Commercially available systems today can
multiplex up to 128 individual wavelengths at 2.5 Gb/s or 32 individual wavelengths at 10
Gb/s (see Figure 8-17). Although the ITU grid specifies that each transmitted wavelength
in a DWDM system is separated by 100 GHz, systems currently under development have
been demonstrated that reduce the channel spacing to 50 GHz and below (< 0.4 nm). As
the channel spacing decreases, the number of channels that can be transmitted increases,
thus further increasing the transmission capacity of the system.

xxxi
2.6 FIBER OPTIC SOURCES

Two basic light sources are used for fiber optics: laser diodes (LD) and light-
emitting diodes (LED). Each device has its own advantages and disadvantages as listed in
Table.

Fiber optic sources must operate in the low-loss transmission windows of glass
fiber. LEDs are typically used at the 850-nm and 1310-nm transmission wavelengths,
whereas lasers are primarily used at 1310 nm and 1550 nm.
LEDs are typically used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because
of their inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. They are used in
applications in which data rates are in the hundreds of megahertz as opposed to GHz data
rates associated with lasers. Two basic structures for LEDs are used in fiber optic
systems: surface-emitting and edge emitting

xxxii
 In surface-emitting LEDs the radiation emanates from the surface. An example of
this is the Burris diode as shown in Figure 8-21. LEDs typically have large numerical
apertures, which makes light coupling into single-mode fiber difficult due to the fiber‘s
small N.A. and core diameter. For this reason LEDs are most often used with multimode
fiber. LEDs are used in lower-data-rate, shorter-distance multimode systems because of
their inherent bandwidth limitations and lower output power. The output spectrum of a
typical LED is about 40 nm, which limits its performance because of severe chromatic
dispersion. LEDs operate in a more linear fashion than do laser diodes. This makes them
more suitable for analog modulation. Figure 8-22 shows a graph of typical output power
versus drive current for LEDs and laser diodes
Laser diodes (LD) are used in
applications in which longer
distances and higher data rates
are required. Because an LD has
a much higher output power than
an LED, it is capable of
transmitting information over
longer distances. Consequently,
and given the fact that the LD
has a much narrower

xxxiii
. The LD‘s smaller N.A. also allows it to be more effectively coupled with single-mode
fiber. The difficulty with LDs is that they are inherently nonlinear, which makes analog
transmission more difficult. They are also very sensitive to fluctuations in temperature and
drive current, which causes their output wavelength to drift. In applications such as
wavelength division multiplexing in which several wavelengths are being transmitted
down the same fiber, the stability of the source becomes critical. This usually requires
complex circuitry and feedback mechanisms to detect and correct for drifts in wavelength.
The benefits, however, of high-speed transmission using LDs typically outweigh the
drawbacks and added expense.
Laser diodes can be divided into two generic types depending on the method of
confinement of the lasing mode in the lateral direction.
2.6.1 Gain-guided laser diodes work by controlling the width of the drive-current
distribution; this limits the area in which lasing action can occur. Because of
different confinement mechanisms in the lateral and vertical directions, the emitted
wavefront from these devices has a different curvature in the two perpendicular
directions.
2.6.2 Index-guided laser diodes use
refractive index steps to confine the lasing
mode in both the transverse and vertical
directions. Index guiding also generally leads
to both single transverse mode and single
longitudinal-mode behavior. Typical linewidths
are on the order of 0.01 nm. Single-frequency
laser diodes are another interesting member of the
laser diode family. These devices are now available
to meet the requirements for high-bandwidth
communication. Other advantages of these
structures are lower threshold currents and lower
power requirements (Figure). With introduction of a
corrugated structure into the cavity of the laser,

xxxiv
only light of a very specific wavelength is
diffracted and allowed to oscillate. This yields
output wavelengths that are extremely narrow—a
characteristic required for DWDM systems in
which many closely spaced wavelengths are
transmitted through the same fiber. Distributed-
feedback lasers have been developed to emit light at
fiber optic communication wavelengths between
1300 nm and 1550 nm.

2.7 FIBER OPTIC DETECTORS

The purpose of a fiber optic detector is to convert light emanating from the optical
fiber back into an electrical signal. The choice of a fiber optic detector depends on several
factors including wavelength, responsively, and speed or rise time. Figure 8-30 depicts the
various types of detectors and their spectral responses.
The process by which light is converted into an electrical signal is the opposite of
the process that produces the light. Light striking the detector generates a small electrical
current that is amplified by an external circuit. Absorbed photons excite electrons from the
valence band to the conduction band, resulting in the creation of an electron-hole pair.
Under the influence of a bias voltage these carriers move through the material and induce
a current in the external circuit. For each electron-hole pair created, the result is an
electron flowing in the circuit. Typical current levels are small and require some
amplification as shown in Figure 8-31.

xxxv
2.8 OPTICAL NETWORK CONFIGURATION

2.8.1 More complex network than long-

haul point- to-point.
2.8.2 Reconfigurable add/drop
multiplexers (ROADM) are the current
technology that enable the network
bandwidth to be dynamically switched
based on need.
2.8.3 Up to 80 wavelengths separated by 100 GHz =
0.8 nm at 1550 nm, each carrying 10
Gb/s for a total of 800 Gb/sec.
2.8.4 This system has been replaced with
models offering well in excess of 1 Tb/s.

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2.9 Network architecture

 Many-layered network from internet browser on your laptop wirelessly connected

to a coffee-shop (application layer = top) to bursts of light on fiber (physical layer
= bottom).
 At the lowest, physical layer, the network is mainly static, point-to-point links.
 Circuit switching of the physical optical network is starting
 Packet switching at the physical optical layer is a research topic

xxxvii
2.10 Fiber optic splicing

Optical fibres have to be joined together to make longer lengths of fibre or existing
fibre lengths which have been broken have to be repaired. Also the ends of the fibre have
to be fitted with convenient connectors (terminations) to allow them to be easily plugged
into equipment such as power meters, data transmitters, etc. Unlike electrical cables where
all that is needed is to solder lengths of cable together, the process of joining two fibres
(splicing) or terminating the end of a fibre is more complex and requires special
equipment.
Splicing is the process of joining the two bare ends of two fibres together.

2.10.1 Possible alignment errors during splicing

There are two main types of splicing:

 Fusion Splicing
 Mechanical Splicing

2.10.2 Fusion Splicing

Figure Fusion
Splicing

Fusion Splicer

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 In fusion splicing the ends of the fibres are aligned either manually using micro-
manipulators and a microscope system for viewing the splice, or automatically either
using cameras or by measuring the light transmitted through the splice and adjusting the
positions of the fibres to optimise the transmission The ends of the fibres are then melted
together using a gas flame or more commonly an electric arc. Near perfect splices can be
obtained with losses as low as 0.02 dB (best mechanical splice 0.2 dB)

One of the systems in top of the range fusion splicers is called a Profile Alignment
System (PAS). This system uses a TV camera to view the splice before it is fused. The
image is sent to a microcomputer inside the splicer which is programmed to recognise
when the cores of the two fibres form a continuous straight line. An adjustment is made to
bring the fibres form a continuous straight line.

2.10.3 Mechanical Splicing

In mechanical splicing the two fibre ends are held together in a splice. This
consists of some device usually made of glass which by its internal design automatically
brings the two fibres into alignment. The openings at each end of the device are usually
fluted to allow the fibres to be guided into the capillary where the alignment takes place.
The splice is fist filled with optical cement whose refractive index is the same as that of
the core of the fibre. After the

xl
fibres have been entered into the splice they are adjusted to give the optimum transmission
of light. At this point they are clamped in position and the whole assembly is exposed to
ultra-violet light which cures the cement.

Figure Mechanical Splice

Mechanical splices are best used for multimode fibre. Some splices now exist which are
suitable SM fibre, but have a loss of 0.1dB. This is five times the loss of the best fusion
splice.

2.10.4 Benefits of Fusion Splicing

 Low Back Reflectance

 Low Insertion Loss
 High Reliability
 Repeatable
 Permanent
 Flexible
 Simple
 COST

There are Six Steps of preparation for fiber:

 Prepare the work area

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  Clean Fibre

 Strip Fibre

 Clean Fibre

 Cleave Fibre

 Fuse Fiber

When preparing the work area make sure you have the following items:

 Fusion Splicer
 Precision Cleaver
 Cinbin
 Lint free tissues
 Isopropyl alcohol ‐ IPA
 Miller Strippers
 Splice Protectors

xli
 CHAPTER 3 : NETWORKING
Computer networking is an integral part of business today. A network is a group of
computers, printers, and other devices that are connected together with cables.
Information travels over the cables, allowing network users to exchange documents &
data with each other, print to the same printers, and generally share any hardware or
software that is connected to the network. Each computer, printer, or other peripheral
device that is connected to the network is called a node. Networks can have tens,
thousands, or even millions of nodes.

2.1 Local Area Network (LAN):

A network is any collection of independent computers that exchange information

with each other over a shared communication medium. Local Area Networks or LANs are
usually confined to a limited geographic area, such as a single building or a college
campus. LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but can often link
hundreds of computers used by thousands of people. The development of standard
networking protocols and media has resulted in worldwide proliferation of LANs
throughout business and educational organizations.

2.2 Wide Area Network (WAN):

Often elements of a network are widely separated physically. Wide area

networking combines multiple LANs that are geographically separate. This is
accomplished by connecting the several LANs with dedicated leased lines such as a T1 or
a T3, by dial-up phone lines (both synchronous and asynchronous), by satellite links and
by data packet carrier services. WANs can be as simple as a modem and a remote access
server for employees to dial into, or it can be as complex as hundreds of branch offices
globally linked. Special routing protocols and filters minimize the expense of sending data
over vast distances.

xlii
2.3 OSI REFERENCE MODEL

The OSI reference model consists of seven layers, each of which can (and
typically does) have several sub layers. The upper layers of the OSI reference model
(application, presentation, session, and transport—Layers 7, 6, 5, and 4) define functions
focused on the application. The lower three layers (network, data link, and physical—
Layers 3, 2, and 1) define functions focused on end to end delivery of the data.

 The model was developed by the International Organisation for Standardisation

(ISO) in 1984. It is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-
computer communications.
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is a descriptive network
scheme. It ensures greater compatibility and interoperability between various types
of network technologies.
 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to
another application programme located on another network.

 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable
problems.

xliii
LAYER 7: APPLICATION

 It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI
layer, but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model.
 Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing
programs, and bank terminal programs.

 The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication

partners, synchronizes and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery
and control of data integrity.

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LAYER 6: PRESENTATION

 The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of
one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system.
 If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by
using a common format.
 Provides encryption and compression of data.
 Examples: - JPEG, MPEG, ASCII, EBCDIC, HTML.

LAYER 5: SESSION

 The session layer defines how to start, control and end conversations (called
sessions) between applications.
 This includes the control and management of multiple bi-directional messages
using dialogue control.
 It also synchronizes dialogue between two hosts' presentation layers and manages
their data exchange.
 The session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer.
 Examples: - SQL, ASP (AppleTalk Session Protocol).

LAYER 4: TRANSPORT

 The transport layer regulates information flow to ensure end-to-end connectivity

between host applications reliably and accurately.
 The transport layer segments data from the sending host's system and reassembles
the data into a data stream on the receiving host's system.
 The boundary between the transport layer and the session layer can be thought of
as the boundary between application protocols and data-
flow protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and

xlv
 session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower four layers are
concerned with data transport issues.
 Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User
Datagram Protocol).

LAYER 3: NETWORK

 Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

 Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
 Defines how routing works and how routes are learned so that the packets can be
delivered.
 The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.
 Routers operate at Layer 3.
 Examples: - IP, IPX, AppleTalk.

LAYER 2: DATA LINK

 The data link layer provides access to the networking media and physical
transmission across the media and this enables the data to locate its intended
destination on a network.
 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link by using
the Media Access Control (MAC) addresses.
 The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a hardware or data link address
in order for multiple stations to share the same medium and still uniquely identify
each other.
 Concerned with network topology, network access, error notification, ordered
delivery of frames, and flow control.
 Examples: - Ethernet, Frame Relay, FDDI.

xlvi
 LAYER 1: PHYSICAL

 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the transmission medium.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for
activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data
rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar
attributes are defined by physical layer specifications.
 Examples: - EIA/TIA-232, RJ45, NRZ.

2.3 Dynamic IP address:

Dynamic IP addresses are issued to identify non-permanent devices such as

personal computers or clients. Internet Service Providers (ISPs) use dynamic allocation to
assign addresses from a small pool to a larger number of customers. This is used for dial-
up access, WiFi and other temporary connections, allowing a portable computer user to
automatically connect to a variety of services without needing to know the addressing
details of each network.

2.4 Static IP address:

Static IP addresses are used to identify semi-permanent devices with constant IP

addresses. Servers typically use static IP addresses. The static address can be configured
directly on the device or as part of a central DHCP configuration which associates the
device's MAC address with a static address.

2.5 DOMAIN NAMES:

A network lookup service, the Domain Name System (DNS), provides the ability

xlvi
i
to map hostnames to an IP address. This allows humans to easily remember a name and
not a series of numbers. DNS allows multiple addresses and names to point to one Internet
resource. Another reason for DNS is to allow, for example, a web site to be hosted on
multiple servers (each with its own IP address) provides for rudimentary load balancing.

2.6 LAN DEVICES

3.8.1 MODEM:

Modem is the short form for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or

program that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable
lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted over
telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts between
these two forms.

3.8.2 SERVER:

A computer or device is a network that manages network resources. For example,

a file server is a computer and storage device dedicated to storing files. Any user on the
network can store files on the server. A print server is a computer that manages one or
more printers, and a network server is a computer that manages network traffic. A
database server is a computer system that processes database queries. Servers are often
dedicated, meaning that they perform no other tasks besides their server tasks. On
multiprocessing operating systems, however, a single computer can execute several
programs at once. A server in this case could refer to the program that is managing
resources rather than the entire computer.

3.8.3 UTP:

Short for unshielded twisted pair, a popular type of cable that consists of two unshielded

xlvi
ii
wires twisted around each other. Due to its low cost, UTP cabling is used extensively for local-
area networks (LANs) and telephone connections. UTP cabling does not offer as high bandwidth
or as good protection from interference as coaxial or fiber optic cables, but it is less expensive
and easier to work with.

3.8.4 REPEATERS:

A repeater is a physical layer device used to interconnect the media segments of an

extended network. A repeater essentially enables a series of cable segments to be treated
as a single cable. Repeaters receive signals from one network segment and amplify,
retime, and retransmit those signals to another network segment. These actions prevent
signal deterioration caused by long cable lengths and large numbers of connected devices.
Repeaters are incapable of performing complex filtering and other traffic processing. In

xlix
addition, all electrical signals, including electrical disturbances and other errors, are
repeated and amplified.

3.8.5 BRIDGES:

Bridges connect two LAN segments of similar or dissimilar types, such as Ethernet and
Token Ring. This allows two Ethernet segments to behave like a single Ethernet allowing any
pair of computers on the extended Ethernet to communicate. Bridges are transparent therefore
computers don‘t know whether a bridge separates them.

3.8.6 ROUTER:

A router is a device that forwards data packets along networks, and determines
which way to send each data packet based on its current understanding of the state of its
connected networks. Routers are typically connected to at least two networks, commonly
two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its Internet Service Providers (ISPs) network. Routers
are located at gateways, the places where two or more networks connect.
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet
address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can
divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP
addresses can pass between segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of
intelligent forwarding. Such filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or
bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks,
overall efficiency is improved by using routers.

l
 CHAPTER 4 : SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

Solid State Interlocking is a data-driven signal control system designed for use
throughout the British railway system. SSI is a replacement for electromechanical
interlocking which are based on highly reliable relay technology---and has been designed
with a view to modularity, improved flexibility in serving the needs of a diversity of rail
traffic, and greater economy. The hugely complex relay circuitry found in many modern
signalling installations is expensive to install, difficult to modify, and requires extensive
housing---but the same functionality can be achieved with a relatively small number of
interconnected solid state elements as long as they are individually sufficiently reliable.

2.7 RAILWAY SIGNALING

Railway signaling engineers face a difficult distributed control problem. Train
drivers can know little of the overall topology of the network through which they pass, or
of the whereabouts of other trains in the network and their requirements. Safety is
therefore invested in the control system, or interlocking, and drivers are required only to
obey signals and speed limits. The task of the train dispatcher (signalman, or signal
operator) is to adjust the setting of switches and signals to permit or inhibit traffic flow,
but the interlocking has to be designed to protect the operator from inadvertently sending
trains along conflicting routes.

The network
can be operated with
more security and
efficiency if the
operators have a broad
overview of the
railway and the
distribution of trains.

li
In the last decade Solid State Interlocking has introduced computer controlled signaling,
but the task of designing a safe interlocking remains essentially unchanged.
At the signal control centre a control panel displays the current distribution of
trains in the network, the current status of {signals}, and sometimes that of point switches
(points) and other signaling equipment. The railway layout is depicted schematically on
the panel.

2.8 OPERATION OF SOLID STATE INTERLOCKING

There are seven (three aspect) main signals shown here, and three sets of points. It
is British Rail's practice to associate routes only with main signals. The operator can select
a route by pressing the button at the entrance signal (say, S7), then pressing the button at
the exit signal the consecutive main signal, being the entrance signal for the next route
(S5). This sequence of events is interpreted as a panel route request, and is forwarded to
the controlling computer for evaluation. Other panel requests arise from the points keys
which are used to manually call (and hold) the points to the specified position or from
button pull events (to cancel a route by pulling the entrance signal button).

Figure: Signals (Si) on the control panel appear on the left to the direction of travel, each
signal has a lamp indicator, and each main signal has a button. Switches (points, Pi) show
the normal position, and there is usually a points key on the panel so one can throw the

lii
points `manually'.
Lamps illuminate those track sections (Ti) over which routes are locked (white), and those in which there are
trains (red).

When the controlling computer receives a panel route request it evaluates the
availability conditions specified for the route. These conditions are given in a database by
Geographic Data which the control program evaluates in its on-going dialogue with the
network. If the availability conditions are met the system responds by highlighting the
track sections along the selected route on the display (otherwise the request is simply
discarded). At this point the route is said to be locked: no conflicting route should be
locked concurrently, and a property of the interlocking we should certainly verify is that
no conflicting route can be locked concurrently.
Once a route is locked the interlocking will automatically set the route. Firstly, this
involves calling the points along the route into correct alignment. Secondly, the route
must be proved---this includes checking that points are correctly aligned, that the
filaments in the signal lamps are drawing current, and that signals controlling conflicting
routes are on (i.e., red). Finally, the entrance signal can be switched off when the route is
clear of other traffic---a driver approaching the signal will see it change from red to some
less restrictive aspect (green, yellow, etc.), and an indicator on the control panel will be
illuminated to notify the operators.

liii
 CHAPTER 5 : AUTO EXCHANGE COMMUNICATION
2.9 Electronic exchange

 Railway has its own communication system including microwave stations and
automatic electronic exchanges.
 Power Plant (Required for exchange)
 C-DOT Exchange
 Digital Electronic Exchange
 Jaipur Division exchange consists of three main exchanges:
 First is having a capacity of 128 lines. It is based on C-DOT technology which is
an Indian Technology and it is a product of RTPL (Raj. Telematics Pvt. Ltd.).
 Second one has the capacity of 1200 lines and is based on OKI technology. It is a
collaboration product of TATA Telecom and Crompton Greaves.
 Third one has a capacity of 60 lines. It is a MKT (Multi Key Telephone) exchange.
It provides ISDN facility to Railway.

5.1.1 C-dot electronic exchange

Features:
 128 terminations can be accommodated in single frame.
 The maximum subscribers accommodation is 96 with 8 Junction lines and can be
extended up-to 24 with reduction of subscriber lines.
 Fully digital exchange.
 Stored program controlled.
 Non-blocking exchange and need Less installation time.
 Low power consumption.

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2.10 ISDN

Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN) is a set of communication

standards for simultaneous digital transmission of voice, video, data, and other network
services over the traditional circuits of the public switched telephone network. It was first
defined in 1988 in the CCITT red book.[1] Prior to ISDN, the telephone system was
viewed as a way to transport voice, with some special services available for data. The key
feature of ISDN is that it integrates speech and data on the same lines, adding features that
were not available in the classic telephone system. There are several kinds of access
interfaces to ISDN defined as Basic Rate Interface (BRI), Primary Rate Interface (PRI),
Narrowband ISDN (N-ISDN), and Broadband ISDN (B- ISDN).

ISDN is a circuit-switched telephone network system, which also provides access

to packet switched networks, designed to allow digital transmission of voice and data over
ordinary telephone copper wires, resulting in potentially better voice quality than an
analog phone can provide. It offers circuit-switched connections (for either voice or data),
and packet-switched connections (for data), in increments of 64 kilobit/s. A major market
application for ISDN in some countries is Internet access, where ISDN typically provides
a maximum of 128 kbit/s in both upstream and downstream directions. Channel bonding
can achieve a greater data rate; typically the ISDN B-channels of three or four BRIs (six
to eight 64 kbit/s channels) are bonded.

Integrated services refers to ISDN's ability to deliver at minimum two

simultaneous connections, in any combination of data, voice, video, and fax, over a single
line. Multiple devices can be attached to the line, and used as needed. That means an
ISDN line can take care of most people's complete communications needs (apart from
broadband Internet access and entertainment television) at a much higher transmission
rate, without forcing the purchase of multiple analog phone lines. It also refers to
integrated switching and transmission[3] in that telephone switching and carrier wave
transmission are integrated rather than separate as in earlier technology.

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5.2.1ISDN elements

 Basic Rate Interface

 Primary Rate Interface
 Bearer channels
 Signaling channel
 X.25
 Frame Relay

2.11 ISDN IN INDIA

Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel are the
largest communication service providers, and offer both ISDN BRI and PRI services
across the country. Reliance Communications and Bharti Airtel uses the DLC technology
for providing these services. With the introduction of broadband technology, the load on
bandwidth is being absorbed by ADSL. ISDN continues to be an important backup
network for point-to-point leased line customers such as banks, Eseva Centers, Life
Insurance Corporation of India, and SBI ATMs.

lvi
2.12 Types of communications through ISDN:

Among the kinds of data that can be moved over the 64 kbit/s channels are pulse-
code modulated voice calls, providing access to the traditional voice PSTN. This
information can be passed between the network and the user end-point at call set-up time.
In North America, ISDN is now used mostly as an alternative to analog connections, most
commonly for Internet access. Some of the services envisioned as being delivered over
ISDN are now delivered over the Internet instead. In Europe, and in Germany in
particular, ISDN has been successfully marketed as a phone with features, as opposed to a
POTS phone with few or no features. Meanwhile, features that were first available with
ISDN (such as Three-Way Calling, Call Forwarding, Caller ID, etc.) are now commonly
available for ordinary analog phones as well, eliminating this advantage of ISDN. Another
advantage of ISDN was the possibility of multiple simultaneous calls (one call per B
channel), e.g. for big families, but with the increased popularity and reduced prices of
mobile telephony this has become less interesting as well, making ISDN unappealing to
the private customer. However, ISDN is typically more reliable than POTS, and has a
significantly faster call setup time compared with POTS, and IP connections over ISDN
typically have some 30–35ms round trip time, as opposed to 120–180ms (both measured
with otherwise unused lines) over 56k or V.34/V.92 modems, making ISDN more reliable
and more efficient for telecommuters.
Where an analog connection requires a modem, an ISDN connection requires a
terminal adapter (TA). The function of an ISDN terminal adapter is often delivered in the
form of a PC card with an S/T interface, and single-chip solutions seem to exist,
considering the plethora of combined ISDN- and ADSL-routers. ISDN is commonly used
in radio broadcasting.

lvii
2.13 TELEPHONE EXCHANGE RING TONES:

The status of a local telephone line (idle or busy) is indicated by on-hook or off-hook signals
as follows:
On-Hook Minimum dc resistance between tip and ring conductors of 30,000
Ohms. Off-Hook Maximum dc resistance between tip and ring conductors of
200 Ohms.

1. Dial tone (Real Audio) / Dial tone (WAV): Precise dial tone consists of 350 and 440 Hz
@
-13 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (continuous). Earlier modulated dial tone
consisted of 600 Hz amplitude modulated by 120 Hz. For Touch-Tone compatibility
reasons this was replaced with precise dial tone on many electro-mechanical exchanges
when they were converted for Touch-Tone calling.

2. Busy tone: "Precise" busy signal (Real Audio) / "Precise" busy signal (WAV): 480
and 620 Hz @ -24 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange, interrupted at 60
interruptions per minute (0.5 sec. on, 0.5 sec. off).

3. Reorder (Real Audio) / Reorder (WAV): (today's standard for "all trunks busy")
480 and 620 Hz interrupted at 120 interruptions per minute.

4. Ringback: "Precise" Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) / "Precise" Ring-Back Tone

(WAV): 440 and 480 Hz @ -19 dBm0 per tone, at telephone exchange (2 seconds on, 4
seconds off). Compare this with 420/40 Hz Modulated Ring-Back Tone (Real Audio) /
Modulated Ring-Back

5. Call waiting (Real Audio) / Call waiting (WAV): 440 Hz @ -13 dBm0, at telephone
exchange (0.3 sec. on every 10 seconds)

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2.14 The History of Digital Transmission

 ‘70s - introduction of PCM into Telecom networks

 32 PCM streams are Synchronously Multiplexed to 2.048
 Mbit/s (E1)
 Multiplexing to higher rates via PDH
 1985 Bellcore proposes SONET
 1988 SDH standard introduced.

2.15PDH: Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

Multiplex levels:
 2.048 Mbit/s
 8.448 Mbit/s
 34.368 Mbit/s
 139.264 Mbit/s
 Uses Positive justification to adapt frequency differences
 Overheads: CRC
 Defects: LOS, LOF, AIS

2.14 SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy):

The basis of Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) is synchronous multiplexing - data

from multiple tributary sources is byte interleaved.
 In SDH the multiplexed channels are in fixed locations relative to the framing byte.

 Demultiplexing is achieved by gating out the required bytes from the digital stream.

 This allows a single channel to be ‗dropped‘ from the datastream without

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 demultiplexing intermediate rates as is required in PDH.

5.8.1 SDH Rates

 SDH is a transport hierarchy based on multiples of 155.52 Mbit/s

 The basic unit of SDH is STM-1:
 STM-1 = 155.52 Mbit/s
 STM-4 = 622.08 Mbit/s
 STM-16 = 2588.32 Mbit/s
 STM-64 = 9953.28 Mbit/s
 Each rate is an exact multiple of the lower rate therefore the hierarchy is
synchronous

Example: four independent and mutually unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s signals

(tributaries) are multiplexed into a single 8.448 Mbit/s signal using positive/zero/negative
justification (bit stuffing) according to ITU-T Rec. G.745.
Further multiplexing is accomplished in a similar way:
 Four 8.448 Mbit/s signals into a 34.368 Mbit/s signal

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  Consequently, a 140 Mbit/s signal can consist of a total of 64 independent 2 Mbit/s
signals.
 When 64 independent and unsynchronized 2.048 Mbit/s tributaries are multiplexed
into one 139.264 Mbit/s signal, a total of 4 + 16 + 64 = 84 ―multiplex circuits‖ are
needed.
 When a 139.264 Mbit/s signal is demultiplexed into 2.048 Mbit/s signals, a total of
84 clock synchronization circuits and ―demultiplex circuits‖ are needed.

2.15 DSL Technology

The range of DSL technologies is quite broad, and this breadth can be somewhat
confusing to the uninitiated. This section briefly describes the different types of DSL
technology that have been developed or are currently under development. Much of this
development has taken place in various regional and global standards committees, for
example, ANSI committee T1E1.4 (Digital Subscriber Loop Access), ETSI Working
Group TM6 (Transmission and Multiplexing), and ITU-T Study Group 15/Question 4, as
well as in-industry forums such as the DSL Forum.
In simple terms, DSL technologies can be subdivided into two broad classes:

 Symmetric: Within this class, the data rate transmitted in both directions
(downstream and upstream) is the same. This is a typical requirement of business
customers.
 Asymmetric: In this case, there is asymmetry between the data rates in the
downstream and upstream directions, with the downstream data rate typically
higher than the upstream (usually appropriate for applications such as Web
browsing). This division is quite crude however, and, to confuse matters, some of
the various technologies are capable of both asymmetric and symmetric operation.
To further complicate things, many DSL systems are capable of multi-rate
operation, which adds a further dimension of variability.

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FIGURE: Block diagram of ―generic‖ DSL reference model. It should be noted that DSL is an ―overlay‖ on
the existing switched telephone network.

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 CHAPTER 6 : PUBLIC AMENITIES
5.1 PASSENGER RESERVATION SYSTEM (PRS)

 PRS started in 1985 as a pilot project in New Delhi. The objective was to provide
ticketing system for reserved accommodation on any train from any counter,
preparation of train charting and keeping a proper record of the money received.
This was implemented all over Indian Railway later on. With this implementation
any passenger can get a reserved ticket from one destination to another station of
India Railway from any Passenger Reservation Systems counter of Indian
Railways.
 PRS networking of entire Indian Railways completed in April, 1999.
 PRS is running currently at 1,200 locations, Deploying 4,000 terminals, covering
journeys of 3,000 trains and executing ONE MILLION passenger transactions per
day.
 Internet booking of tickets was started In August 2002.
 Internet booking timings extended to 4:00 a.m. – 11:30 p.m. from March 2005.

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This project involves the integration of five major regional reservation centers. It therefore
enables better coordination to improve the reservation process. The major regional centers
with all the information for their regions coordinate for better planning and control. This
is a complex but comprehensive system which provides for better functioning of the
reservation process. IT enables this scale of coordination and such systems rely heavily on
a strong IT backbone. Leased lines are predominantly used to connect this system.
The large volumes of passenger traffic that the Indian Railways handles makes the PRS a
quintessential part of the Railways‘ IT infrastructure.

5.2 National Train Enquiry Service (NTES)

 National Train Enquiry System (NTES) is a centralized information system that

provides up-to-date and accurate information to passengers regarding arrival/
departure of passenger trains including expected time of arrival (ETA) of trains.

5.2.1 Why NTES?

1. Arrival and departure of passenger trains

2. Platform berthing of passenger trains
3. Facilities available at various stations ( e.g. retiring rooms)
4. Railway Rules
5. To make above information available on internet

The above information is made available to the public through:

 Display Boards
 Interactive Voice Response System ( telephone enquiry)
 Automatic Announcement System

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  Face to Face Enquiry counters
 TV display
 Web Sites

6.2.3 The above information is available at:

 Arrival Departure Information - Control Offices

 Platform Berthing - Stations
 Other Data - Designated Database Operator

5.3 BOOKING OF TICKETS ON INTERNET

 E-ticketing initiative is critical in the current scenario of rapid growth of internet

usage and technologies. This offers customers the convenience of reserving
tickets from the comfort of their homes. This is in keeping with the times. The
Indian railways are making an effort to use IT for not only higher profitability but
also for better customer facilities which will also indirectly lead to higher profits.
This is all made possible by IT.

5.4 Unreserved Ticketing System (UTS)

 More than 1.2 crore Rail passengers travel in unreserved coaches and trains every
day and thus form the bulk of rail users. For this category of passengers Railways
have introduced the facility of Computerised Unreserved Ticketing System. It was
initially provided at 10 stations of Delhi area in the first stage as a pilot project on
15 August 2002. Another 13 stations of Delhi area were provided with UTS
counters in the second stage on 2nd Oct, 2002.
 UTS will provide the facility to purchase Unreserved Ticket 3 days in advance of the
date of journey. A passenger can buy a ticket for any destination from the UTS

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 counter for all such destinations which are served by that station. The cancellation
of tickets has also been simplified. Passengers can cancel their tickets one day in
advance of the journey from any station provided with a UTS counter. On the day
of journey, the ticket can be cancelled from station from which the journey was to
commence.

 Indian Railway is constantly looking for new ideas to simplify and streamline
procedures for the convenience of passengers. In this endeavor they have
introduced several path breaking technologies on the Railway system over the
years.

5.5 Interactive Voice Response System (IVRS)

Interactive Voice Response (IVR) is a software application that accepts a

combination of voice telephone input and touch-tone keypad selection and provides
appropriate responses in the form of voice, fax, callback, e-mail and perhaps other media.
IVR is usually part of a larger application that includes database access.
An IVR application provides pre-recorded voice responses for appropriate
situations, keypad signal logic, and access to relevant data, and potentially the ability to
record voice input for later handling. Using computer telephony Integration (CTI), IVR
applications can hand off a call to a human being who can view data related to the caller at
a display.

Interactive Voice Response Features

 Simple to use Graphical System Design Interface
 Multiple telephone line support both on Analog and Digital
 Advanced call screening and call switching options
 Can be integrated with any type of database. Playback data retrieved from database
 Text to Speech

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 Call Transfer to other extensions, optionally announcing the Caller ID, allowing
the recipient to accept or decline the call
 Full logging of callers' details and all the selections made during the call
 Multi-Language support (English /Hindi)
 DNIS: (Dialed number identification service)
 ANI: (Automatic Number Identification)


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 Optical fibres, cables and system ITU-T Manual 2009

 Centre for Railway Information Systems, INDIAN RAILWAYS, AGRA
 On ―LOCAL AREA NETWORK‖
 Fundamentals of Photonics Bahaa E. A. Saleh, Malvin Carl Teich
 Signalling and Telecommunication in Indian Railways Report No. PA 26 of
200809 (Railways)
 Fiber Optic Telecommunication Nick Massa Springfield Technical Community
College Springfield, Massachusetts
 Fiber-Optic Technology, cornings
 E I M S - Interactive Voice Response System, Redox Technologies
 Chapter 11, Introduction to DSL Technology, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
 Introduction to the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH), Calyptech
 Wikipedia

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CONCLUSION

Indian Railways, as an organization is a very vast center of telecommunication in

itself. Today the telecommunicating world is getting its roots, grabbing the new era more
firmly. We think that our training was an success and we think that Indian Railways was
an excellent training institute for inquisitive emerging engineers. In Indian Railways,
training is given to engineering aspirant desiring to secure future in the dynamic world of
Telecommunication.
The main achievements of the training at Indian Railways are that we got familiar
with the latest technologies and principles of networking. The main achievement could be
said to get knowledge about recent technologies of LAN. We got experience as to how to
organize the things. After the completion of the training we consider ourselves capable of
facing any other challenge of that type. The training at Indian Railways cultivated the zeal
of inquisitiveness and the excitement to know more than more about this field in limited
duration.

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