energies

Article
Research on Physico-Chemical Properties of Diethyl
Ether/Linseed Oil Blends for the Use as Fuel in
Diesel Engines
Krzysztof Górski 1 , Ruslans Smigins 2 and Rafał Longwic 3, *
1 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kazimierz Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom,
ul. Chrobrego 45, 26-200 Radom, Poland; krzysztof.gorski@uthrad.pl
2 Faculty of Engineering, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies, J. Cakstes blvd 5,
Jelgava, LV3001 Latvia; ruslans.smigins@llu.lv
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Lublin University of Technology, ul. Nadbystrzycka 38D,
20-618 Lublin, Poland
* Correspondence: r.longwic@pollub.pl; Tel.: +48-81-538-42-68




Received: 13 November 2020; Accepted: 10 December 2020; Published: 12 December 2020


Abstract: Physico-chemical properties of diethyl ether/linseed oil (DEE/LO) fuel blends were
empirically tested in this article for the first time. In particular, kinematic viscosity (ν), density (ρ),
lower heating value (LHV), cold filter plugging point (CFPP) and surface tension (σ) were examined.
For this research diethyl ether (DEE) was blended with linseed oil (LO) in volumetric ratios of 10%,
20% and 30%. Obtained results were compared with literature data of diethyl ether/rapeseed oil
(DEE/RO) fuel blends get in previous research in such a way looking on differences also between oil
types. It was found that DEE impacts significantly on the reduction of plant oil viscosity, density and
surface tension and improve low temperature properties of tested oils. In particular, the addition
of 10% DEE to LO effectively reduces its kinematic viscosity by 53% and even by 82% for the blend
containing 30% DEE. Tested ether reduces density and surface tension of LO up to 6% and 25%
respectively for the blends containing 30% DEE. The measurements of the CFPP showed that DEE
significantly improves the low temperature properties of LO. In the case of the blend containing 30%
DEE the CFPP can be lowered up to −24 ◦ C. For this reason DEE/LO blends seem to be valuable
as a fuel for diesel engines in the coldest season of the year. Moreover, DEE/LO blends have been
tested in the engine research. Based on results it can be stated that the engine operated with LO
results in worse performance compared with regular diesel fuel (DF). However, it was found that
these disadvantages could be reduced with DEE as a component of the fuel mixture. Addition of this
ether to LO improves the quality of obtained fuel blends. For this reason, the efficiency of DEE/LO
blend combustion process is similar for the engine fuelled with regular diesel fuel. In this research it
was confirmed that the smoke opacity reaches the highest value for the engine fuelled with plant
oils. However, addition of 20% DEE reduces this emission to the value comparable for the engine
operated with diesel fuel.

Keywords: linseed oil; diethyl ether; fuel properties; engine; testing

1. Introduction
Vegetable oil as a diesel engine fuel has been a subject of study for a long time, probably from
the first usage of it in Rudolf Diesel invented engine. Although vegetable oils did not become so
important a fuel source as fossil fuel as diesel predicted during exploitation of his engine with peanut
oil, there was and still exist some areas where vegetable oils are requested and used, maintaining
return to the idea of plant oils [1]. Usage of vegetable oils is usually outpointed by its main advantages

Energies 2020, 13, 6564; doi:10.3390/en13246564 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2020, 13, 6564 2 of 16

over conventional diesel fuels: domestic production allowing to reduce dependency from imported
diesel fuel, renewability, better lubricity, biodegradability and increasing of flash point. As any other
alternative fuel it could outpoint also some disadvantages, which did not allow its rapid usage during
the last decade: lower energy content, higher viscosity, compatibility, higher production price, etc.
Despite different application problems vegetable oils can be successfully used in engines based on
fuel or engine modification. More and more attention is turned on inedible vegetable oils affected by
depletion of resources and necessity for edible oils as a food. Linseed instead of most popular rapeseed
oil is practically used for industrial purposes, but based on its technical characteristics it can be used
also as a fuel under certain conditions.
There are not many practical research or on-road trials concerning linseed oil due to previously
mentioned factors, while there are also some research for oils with similar composition allowing one
to make general conclusions. For example, Beg et al. [2] reported an increase of fuel consumption,
exhaust gas temperature, CO emissions, smoke density and decrease of NOx using diesel fuel-linseed
blends compared to regular diesel fuel. Other researchers [3] demonstrated significant difference in
engine emissions in tests with mixtures of fuels having 5% and 9% of linseed oil addition to diesel
fuel. Realizing experimental researches on D-245.12C diesel engine Markov et al. [3] found that even
small addition of linseed oil to diesel fuel allows reduced toxic components in diesel exhaust, i.e.,
nitric oxides NOx, carbon monoxide CO and unburned hydrocarbons HC.
Agarwal et al. [4] tested different blends of linseed oil (10%, 20%, 30% and 50%, v/v) with diesel fuel
and has found that blends with higher linseed oil addition are more efficient. Overall it is concluded
that vegetable oils are not ideal fuels for diesel engine in case of operational (ignition, performance,
etc.) and durability (deposit formation, lubrication oil dilution, etc.) problems, but also based on
additional impact left by other physicochemical properties: viscosity, polyunsaturated character and
extremely low volatility [4]. Based on that diesel engine operation with vegetable oil could be resulted
in poor atomization, non-ideal fuel-air mixing and combustion, and finally in decrease in power and
increase in fuel consumption. Different solutions exist to overcome such problems: transesterification,
emulsification and blending. One of the most popular is transesterification allowing one to convert
vegetable oil in ester in such a way of creating fuel with properties close to diesel fuel [5]. Another,
more simplified and attractive alternative is blending vegetable oil with diesel fuel or oxygenate,
which allow one to drastically reduce viscosity and increase the cold filter plugging point and cetane
number. For one of the main blending problems, which is observed, its molecular structure remains
unchanged hence the polyunsaturated character remains [4].
Improvement of oil properties could be realized using different oxygenated additives such as
ethanol, methanol, ethyl-tert buthyl ether, diethyl ether (DEE), etc. The last one was chosen for this
research. Diethyl ether, which is an organic compound and historically used as an anesthetic agent
is expressed by its chemical formula CH3CH2–O–CH2CH3. Produced from ethanol obtained from
biomass in the dehydrating process, it also can be known as bio–DEE [6], showing its main advantages
over diesel fuel. First of all, this type of fuel stands up with low viscosity values allowing one to
reduce viscosity of the blend, where base fuel has viscosity higher than that of conventional diesel
fuel, like plant oils. Combination of these values of both mentioned fuel types could give optimal
viscosity necessary for diesel engine operation without preheating in the same time keeping lubricity
at a reasonable level [7].
Research carried out with DEE as a fuel for diesel engines confirm that it can be used in
different blends with other fuel types, i.e., diesel fuel, ethanol, biodiesel, biodiesel–diesel and
ethanol–biodiesel–diesel. The literature shows that a limited number of works exists on the usage
of vegetable oil/DEE fuel blends in diesel engines, which also provides limited information on its
physicochemical and combustion properties.
Rakopoulos [7] used a standard, experimental, single-cylinder, four-stroke, high-speed direct
injection (HSDI) diesel powered with cottonseed oil and its biodiesel (methyl ester) in blends with 20%
(v/v) of diethyl ether for research of combustion and exhaust emission characteristics. He reported
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 3 of 16

lower smoke, NOx and CO emissions, but higher HC emissions for DEE blends than neat cottonseed
oil or its neat biodiesel.
Krishna et al. [8] used diethyl ether as an oxygenated additive mixed with karanja oil in various
proportions of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% by volume in dual fuel operation 4 cylinder 39 kW diesel
engine. They observed that for blends up to 15%, CO emissions are lower than the corresponding
values for diesel, while NOx emissions were significantly lower for the blends at lower loads. They also
found that fuel consumption at a higher engine loads for the blend is higher than for pure diesel
explaining it with the lower calorific value of the blends.
Geo et al. [9] used a single cylinder diesel engine with rated output of 4.4 kW at 1500 rpm
converted for operation in the DEE injection mode. Engine was operated on rubber seed oil as a single
fuel with DEE injection at the flow rate of 100 g/h, 150 g/h and 200 g/h. They reported an increase of
NOx emissions and reduction of hydrocarbon, carbon monoxide and smoke emissions, the last one
explaining with “better combustion of injected fuel in the hotter combustion chamber by the early
combustion of DEE”. Besides that he confirmed that DEE injection to rubber seed oil results in reduced
combustion duration from 47 to 44 crank angle (CA) degree due to the fast diffusion combustion rate
in comparison to neat oil.
Delalibera et al. [10] analyzed diesel engine performance and emissions when fueled with pure
linseed oil, preheated at 100 ◦ C, at the injection pump inlet and at engine working temperature (60 ◦ C)
in short duration tests. Results confirmed a slight increase in exhaust gas temperature generally for
preheated oil and slight reduction of smoke for non-preheated oil compared to diesel fuel, while smoke
increased for preheated oil compared to diesel fuel. Fuel consumption for preheated oil presented
lower variation when compared to non-preheated oil indicating that the engine operation for them
was more stable. He confirmed that the engine without linseed oil preheating presents greater power
loss compared to diesel fuel at the same time.
Krishnamoorthi et al. [11] used a single cylinder direct injection variable compression ratio
test engine Kirloskar VCR in tests with blends of diesel fuel, bael oil and diethyl ether in various
blending ratios. They confirmed that addition of DEE to bael oil and diesel reduced the peak cylinder
pressure due to a lower calorific value of the DEE and wider spray pattern. It was also observed CO
emission reduction explaining it with enhancement of the combustion process with the effect of DEE.
There was also reported reduction of NOx emissions associated with an adequately lower value of
peak combustion temperature due to DEE addition in such a way that reduces the calorific value of
the blend.
Ibrahim [12] evaluated the effect of DEE/diesel fuel blends on diesel engine performance, selected
combustion parameters and stability of engine work. He highlighted that DEE blended with diesel fuel
improves engine performance. Additionally, higher thermal efficiency increased for the engine operated
with DEE/diesel fuel blends. It should be pointed that the engine stability was slightly reduced.
Carvalho et al. [13] studied the effects of DEE in biodiesel-ethanol blends on emissions and
performance of direct injection diesel engine. They concluded that DEE added in moderate concentration
to the ethanol biodiesel mixture improves the engine efficiency and reduces NOx emissions.
There are not research on detailed analysis of physicochemical and combustion properties of
linseed oil and DEE blends, while there exist research on physicochemical properties of rapeseed oil
and DEE blends [14,15]. Therefore, the objective of this study was to test the effect of DEE/linseed oil
fuel blends to evaluate the possibility for the use of such mixtures in diesel engines, and also making a
comparison of obtained results with DEE/RO blends [14].

2. Physicochemical Properties of Linseed Oil

Linseed oil is one of the oils, which has an inherently high amount of mono- and polyunsaturated
fatty acids [16] resulting in one of the longest ignition delays between all vegetable oils. Detailed
research [16] of nine different vegetable oils has confirmed that mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 4 of 16

those with two or more double bonds had mostly a greater effect on ignition delay than fatty acids
with just one single double bond.
Possible linseed oil usage in diesel engine is strongly connected to the engine sensitivity on fuel
injection and combustion, and one of the main parameters is viscosity. Viscosity, which is a measure of
the resistance of fluid to a flow, is the most important parameter for all vegetable oils as it leaves an
impact on the quality of fuel atomization. Linseed oil unlike the main vegetable oils stands out with
lower viscosity, which is closer to the similar diesel fuel characteristics, if it is added to diesel fuel in a
small amount, like 5% and 9% [3]. In spite of this linseed oil viscosity is still higher compared to diesel
having higher resistance to break-up therefore increase of fuel density together with viscosity results in
the decrease of the spray angle [17]. A viscosity increase requires more energy from the fuel pump and
reduces the net power output from the engine [18].
Density, a measure of the mass per unit volume, is a temperature dependent parameter,
which decreases linearly with increasing the temperature [19] and knowledge of this tendency
is highly important in provision of fuel combustion and its analysis. Viscosity dependency could be
observed also in the case of the addition of other fuels, like DEE [14], where values of density decrease
with an increase of DEE by volume. In the case of blending it could be more simplified solution against
heating, where Esteban et al. [19] have found that vegetable oils require preheating to 120 ◦ C minimally
to match physical properties of diesel fuel concluding that temperature requirement depends on engine
types and configurations. Besides the reduction of density during the heating it should be expected
an increase of consumption based on lower energy content per volume in systems with mechanical
injection control, where the fuel is volumetrically applied in the combustion chamber. This was also
observed in research, where preheating reduced density of canola oil by 5.18% reflecting in the increase
of consumption [20].
Besides viscosity and density, surface tension of fuel also leaves an impact on spray formation
and especially on the formation of fuel drops. Higher surface tension coefficient increases the cohesive
force, which circumvents the formation of smaller drops [18], which increase the evaporation rate
and enhances the mixing of fuel vapor and air. Realization of such a process must be supported also
by an adequate spray cone angle, which strongly depends on the nozzle size and liquid properties
for a given injection pressure [21]. Research with biodiesel–diesel blends [18] confirmed that the
spray cone angle increases with an increase in both ambient density and injection pressure differential
suggesting using preheating of different fuel blends to achieve values equal to those of diesel fuel.
Like other parameters, surface tension also is affected by the number of unsaturated bands and the
fatty acid hydrocarbon chain length, where long fatty acid hydrocarbon chain tends to increase the
surface tension [22]. Additionally, here preheating is not the best solution, as research [19] on different
vegetable oil types shows that vegetable oils requires preheating at temperatures not lower than 120 ◦ C
to reach surface tension values corresponding to diesel fuel at 40 ◦ C.
Cetane number is a dimensionless descriptor of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel, determined by
unbranched chains of fatty acids similar to those of the n-alkanes of diesel fuel [23]. Chain length leaves
an impact on cetane number, where decreasing of chain length reduce cetane number. There could be
determined also the relationship between cetane number and ignition delay, where the higher cetane
number determines shorter ignition delay. As previously it was mentioned, linseed oil has one of the
longest ignition delays between vegetable oils and one of the smallest cetane number, 34.6 instead of
37.6 for rapeseed oil or 42.0 for palm oil [23]. Therefore, influence of increased unsaturation on the
lowest cetane number is proven for linseed oil. An increase of cetane number is possible by blending
oil with alcohols (like DEE), while the heating value of the blends will be practically in the same range.
Operability of diesel engine in low temperature climate zones is characterized by the cold filter
plugging point (CFPP). The improper value of this parameter of fuel used in the low temperature
climate and seasonal conditions can lead to crystal formation resulting in the restriction of flow through
fuel lines and filters. This further can promote ignition problems. Like other analyzed parameters,
also CFPP is mainly dependent on the fatty acid profile of the feedstock. The CFPP decreases with the
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 5 of 16

increase of the total unsaturated fatty acid contents [24], which could be also confirmed in the case of
LO instead of RO.
Lower heating value (LHV) is another parameter, which increases with chain length [23] while
impact of its values is not so rapid as in the case of cetane number. Like density, heating value can
be calculated if weighted averaging of the property values of the original components is known [18].
Most impact could be left by two components: hydrogen and oxygen. LHV decreases with an increase
of oxygen and it could increase with an increase of hydrogen [25]. Most researchers [26] observed a
drop of rated brake power in the case of reduced lower heating value of vegetable oils. LO presents
lower heating value than diesel fuel, but almost similar to RO.

3. Materials and Methods

Linseed oil used in this study was produced by Iecavnieks and Co Ltd. situated in Iecava (Latvia),
while DEE with purity 99.5% was bought from the POCH S.A. (Gliwice, Poland) chemical company.
Selected physicochemical properties of the tested LO and DEE are listed in Table 1.

Table 1. Physicochemical characteristics of tested linseed oil and diethyl ether [3,23,27].

Properties Linseed Oil Diethyl Ether Diesel Fuel

Kinematic viscosity at 40 ◦ C, mm2 /s 24.994 0.23 2.84
Density at 15 ◦ C, g/mL 0.9319 0.71 0.83
Lower heating value, MJ/kg 37.9 33.9 42.8
Cold filter plugging point, ◦ C 16 −40 −10
Surface tension, mN/m 31.5 16.9 25.8
Flash point, ◦ C 220 −40 71
Cetane number 34.6 >125 51.3
Cloud point, ◦ C 1.7 - -
Pour point, ◦ C −15.0 - -
% content by mass
C 77.8 64.9 86
H 12.0 13.5 14
O 10.2 21.6 0

DEE was blended with LO in volumetric ratios of 10%, 20% and 30%. These DEE/LO fuel blends
are coded as follows: LO10, LO20 and LO30, respectively.
Measurements of physicochemical properties of DEE/LO blends were carried out at the Kazimierz
Pulaski University of Technology and Humanities in Radom. Especially, the density and kinematic
viscosity of the blends were tested according to requirements of EN ISO 3838 [28] and EN ISO 3104 [29]
standards, respectively. Density determination of tested fuels was carried out by weighing pycnometer
with a capacity 25 cm3 . For kinematic viscosity measurements a capillary viscometer and the constant
temperature bath made by Tamson Instruments BV were used. The heat of combustion of all fuel
blends was expressed by the lower heating value (LHV) measured in agreement with the ASTM
D240-02:2007 [30] procedure. In this test method the bomb calorimeter KL-10 made by PRCYZJA-BIT
Co. was utilized. Temperature dependent parameter i.e., the cold filter plugging point (CFPP) was
examined according to EN 116:2015 [31] standard. These necessary measurements were done with the
ISL FPP 5Gs portable instrument. In this study, the surface tension was measured with the LAUDA
TD-1C tensiometer in accordance with the requirements of ISO 304:1985 [32].
All measurements were repeated three times. The average value calculated for these repetitions
was used to prepare necessary figures with empirical results of this research.
Engine research was carried out in the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering at the Kazimierz Pulaski
University of Technology and Humanities in Radom. Figure 1 shows view of the engine test stand
equipped with 3—cylinder, water—cooled and 4—stroke, naturally aspirated Perkins AD3.152 diesel
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 6 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16

engine. In this engine

diesel engine. In thisa engine
fuel is injected directly
a fuel is intodirectly
injected the maininto
combustion
the mainchamber. Fundamental,
combustion chamber.
technical details of the AD3.152 diesel engine are listed in Table 2.
Fundamental, technical details of the AD3.152 diesel engine are listed in Table 2.

Figure 1. View
Figure 1. View of
of test
test stand
stand equipped
equipped with
with the
the AD3.152
AD3.152 engine.
engine. 1—PC
1—PC workstation
workstation equipped
equipped with
with
KPCI 3110 measurement board; 2—sensors signals amplifier; 3—AVL 465 diGas analyzer;
KPCI 3110 measurement board; 2—sensors signals amplifier; 3—AVL 465 diGas analyzer; 4—crankshaft
4—
encoder;
crankshaft5—AD3.152 engine; 6—dynamometer;
encoder; 5—AD3.152 7—engine and
engine; 6—dynamometer; dynamometer
7—engine controller; 8—fuel
and dynamometer tank.
controller;
8—fuel tank.
Table 2. Technical specification of the AD3.152 diesel.

Table 2. Technical specification of the AD3.152

Parameter Value diesel.
Cylinder
Parameternumber 3, in line
Value
Engine capacity 2502 cm3
Cylinder number 3, in line
Compression value 16.5
Engine capacity
Maximum power 34.6 kW2502 cmrpm
at 2150
3

Compression
Maximum torquevalue 145–165 Nm16.5 at 1200 rpm
Crankshaft
Maximum speed at idle run
power 750 rpm
34.6 kW at 2150 rpm
Fuel injection
Maximum torquesystem Lucas–CAV
145–165 Nmtype DPArpm
at 1200
Crankshaft speed at idle run 750 rpm
Fuel injection system
During research the engine was loaded by a hydraulic dynamometer. Lucas–CAV type DPA The in-cylinder pressure
was measured by an AVL QC34D piezosensor with a sensitivity of 190 pC/bar and a measuring range of
0–25 During
MPa. The research
engine the
wasengine was loaded
also equipped withby a hydraulic
a CL80 needle dynamometer.
lift sensor with The in-cylinder
a sensitivity pressure
of 0.5 V/mm
was measured by an AVL QC34D piezosensor with a sensitivity of 190
and a measuring range of 0–2 mm. A needle lift sensor was made by polish company ZEPWN. Sensors’pC/bar and a measuring range
of 0–25 were
signals MPa. sampled
The engine was0.8
every also equipped
crank angle with
degree ◦
a CL80
( CA). needle
Researchlift sensor with a sensitivity
were carried of 0.5
out for nominal
V/mm and
settings a measuring
of tested engine inrange of 0–2 conditions
stationary mm. A needle lift sensor
of work at 1000,was made
1200, by1600,
1400, polish company
1800 and 2000 ZEPWN.
rpm of
Sensors’
the signals
crankshaft werea sampled
under load of 120 every
Nm.0.8 crank
These angle degree
measurement (°CA).
points are Research
typical forwere carried out
the AD3.152 for
engine
nominal settings
operated in middleof tested engineloads.
and higher in stationary conditions
In all such conditionsof work at 1000, 1200,
100 consecutive 1400,of
cycles 1600, 1800work
engine and
2000 recorded
were rpm of the andcrankshaft under to
then processed a load of 120
calculate theNm.
averageThese measurement
value points parameters.
of each analyzed are typical for the
In this
AD3.152
study the engine operated
main analysis infocused
was middle on andthehigher loads. Incombustion
fundamental all such conditions 100 i.e.,
parameters consecutive cycles
the ignition of
delay
engine
(ID) andwork were recorded
the engine and then(EOE).
overall efficiency processed to calculate
The ignition delaythewasaverage value as
determined ◦ CAanalyzed
of aeach elapsed
parameters.
between In this study
the beginning the main
of needle liftanalysis was focused
and the beginning on the fundamental
of combustion process. combustion parameters
The smoke opacity (SO)
i.e., the
from ignition
tested delay
engine (ID)
was and
also the engine
measured overall
with efficiency
the AVL (EOE).analyzer
465 diGAS The ignition
withdelay
accuracywas 1%.
determined
In each
as a °CA elapsed
measurement between
point the beginning
the opacity was sampled of needle
at 15-slift and theand
intervals beginning
averaging of combustion
10 consecutive process. The
readings.
smoke opacity (SO) from tested engine was also measured with the AVL 465
The overall efficiency of the engine was calculated based on the fuel consumption measurement. In this diGAS analyzer with
accuracy
study the 1%. In each
amount measurement
of fuel combustedpoint by thethe opacity
engine was was sampledvolumetrically
measured at 15-s intervals and averaging
in three consecutive 10
consecutive readings. The overall efficiency of the engine was
readings. The engine fuel supply and return pipes were connected with the cylindrical 500 mL calculated based on the fuel
consumption
dropping measurement.
funnel with graduationIn this studyIn
marks. theeach
amount
singleoftest
fuelthe
combusted
time of 200 bymL
the fuel
engine was measured
consumption was
volumetrically in three consecutive readings. The engine fuel supply and return pipes were
connected with the cylindrical 500 mL dropping funnel with graduation marks. In each single test
the time of 200 mL fuel consumption was measured and then the average value was calculated.
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 7 of 16
Energies 2020, 13, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16

Knowing and
measured the density
then theand LHVvalue
average of allwas
tested fuels theKnowing
calculated. engine overall efficiency
the density (EOE)
and LHV of was calculated
all tested fuels
by the
the following
engine overallequation:
efficiency (EOE) was calculated by the following equation:
EOE = 1 /( BSFC ⋅ LHV ) (1)
EOE = 1/(BSFC · LHV ) (1)
where:
where:
BSFC—brake-specific fuel consumption;
LHV—lower heating value.
BSFC—brake-specific fuel consumption;
LHV—lower heating value.
4. Results and Discussion
Physicochemical
4. Results properties of all tested DEE/LO blends are listed in Table 3 and discussed
and Discussion
below.
Physicochemical properties of all tested DEE/LO blends are listed in Table 3 and discussed below.
Table 3. Selected physicochemical properties of tested DEE/LO blends.
Table 3. Selected physicochemical properties of tested DEE/LO blends.
Properties LO10 LO20 LO30
Properties LO10 LO20 LO30
Kinematic viscosity at 40 °C, mm2/s 11.793 7.392 4.457
Kinematic viscosity at 40 ◦ C, mm2 /s 11.793 7.392 4.457
Density at 15 °C, g/mL 0.9107 0.8943 0.876
Density at 15 ◦ C, g/mL 0.9107 0.8943 0.876
Lowervalue,
Lower heating heating value,
MJ/kg 3 MJ/kg3 37.4 37.4 3737 36.636.6
Cold filter plugging
◦
Cold filter plugging point, C point, °C −8 −8 −16
−16 −24 −24
SurfacemN/m
Surface tension, tension, mN/m 29.9 29.9 27.1
27.1 23.623.6
Flash point, ◦
FlashCpoint, °C <25 <25 <25
<25 <25 <25

The resulting
The resulting dependencies
dependencies onon the
the kinematic
kinematic viscosity
viscosity of
of DEE/LO
DEE/LO fuel
fuel samples
samples are
are shown
shown in
in
Figure 2. It should be noted that the following figures contain data of DEE/RO blend. These data were
Figure 2. It should be noted that the following figures contain data of DEE/RO blend. These data were
adoptedfrom
adopted fromref.
ref.[14].
[14].

Figure 2. Kinematic viscosity (v) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend at 40 ◦ C.

Figure 2. Kinematic viscosity (v) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend at 40 °C.

As mentioned before, the role of viscosity in the injection process seems to be the most important
As mentioned before, the role of viscosity in the injection process seems to be the most important
than any other parameter, therefore it must be set according to the values mentioned in standards:
than any other parameter, therefore it must be set according to the values mentioned in standards:
EN 590, ASTM D975 or EN 14214. Spray characteristics significantly can be improved with the use of
EN 590, ASTM D975 or EN 14214. Spray characteristics significantly can be improved with the use of
blends compared to the neat linseed oil. Viscosity of LO as lower than for RO allowing it to reach more
blends compared to the neat linseed oil. Viscosity of LO as lower than for RO allowing it to reach
acceptable values for the diesel engine even with the small addition of DEE, until 30%. For blends with
more acceptable values for the diesel engine even with the small addition of DEE, until 30%. For
DEE addition of 40% and more in volume variations in viscosity were not so realistic and were not
blends with DEE addition of 40% and more in volume variations in viscosity were not so realistic and
influenced by oil type. This confirms the efficiency of blending compared to preheating and engine
were not influenced by oil type. This confirms the efficiency of blending compared to preheating and
conversion for oil use.
engine conversion for oil use.
Modern automobiles must be operated in a wide range of ambient temperatures. Moreover, in
modern diesel engines fuel was compressed even up to 200 MPa or more and as a result it led to
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 8 of 16

Modern
Energies 2020, 13,automobiles must be operated in a wide range of ambient temperatures. Moreover,
x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 16
in modern diesel engines fuel was compressed even up to 200 MPa or more and as a result it led to
significantheating
significant heatingofofdiesel
dieselfuel.
fuel.In Inaddition,
addition,ititshould
shouldbe benoted
notedthat
thatincreasing
increasingofofpressure
pressureincreased
increased
activationenergy
activation energy andand reduced
reduced the concentration
the concentration of vacancies,
of vacancies, therefore therefore at high pressures
at high pressures the
the viscosity
ofviscosity of liquids Therefore,
liquids increased. increased. finding
Therefore, findingbetween
respecting respecting between
viscosity andviscosity
temperature and oftemperature
diesel fuel isof
andiesel fuel is practical
important an important practical
challenge challenge
to ensure to ensure
efficient efficient fuel injection.
fuel injection.
Density,and
Density, andalso
alsoviscosity,
viscosity,isisthe
thetemperature
temperaturedependent
dependentparameter
parameterand andthere
thereexists
existsalso
alsothe
the
dependence between viscosity and density, which is mainly used in the
dependence between viscosity and density, which is mainly used in the oil industry. Like viscosity,oil industry. Like viscosity,
densityalso
density alsohas hasaagreat
greatimpact
impactononthe theatomization
atomizationprocess.
process. Therefore,
Therefore, optimal
optimal values
values ofofthose
those
parametersmust
parameters mustbe bereached
reachedfor forcorrect
correctengine
engineoperation
operationduring
duringallalltesting
testingregimes.
regimes.
Resultsshown
Results shownininFigure
Figure33clearly
clearlyindicate
indicatedensity
densitydependence
dependencefrom fromDEE DEEaddition
additionby byaastraight
straight
linewith
line with significant
significant statistics
statistics outcomes
outcomes in allincases
all cases
with awith a confidence
confidence level Itofcould
level of 95%. 95%.beItobserved
could be
observed
that oil type that
did oilnot
type didanot
leave leaveimpact
serious a serious onimpact on the
the density ofdensity
all blends,of all blends, therefore,
therefore, LO can beLO can
used
be usedofinstead
instead of RO to
RO to ensure ensureatomization
optimal optimal atomization
process inprocess in diesel engine.
diesel engine.

Figure 3. Density (ρ) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend tested at 15 ◦ C.

Figure 3. Density (ρ) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend tested at 15 °C.
Another parameter, which could make the atomization process difficult is surface tension.
AlthoughAnother parameter,
European standardswhich do could makevalues
not define the atomization processnot
of surface tension difficult is surface
in the case tension.
of diesel fuel,
Although European standards do not define values of surface tension not in the case
neither to rapeseed oil, variation of this parameter leaves an important impact on the injection process. of diesel fuel,
neither
High to rapeseed
values oil,tension
of surface variationandof this parameter
viscosity leavesfuel
ensure worse an important
atomization impact
in theonformtheofinjection
larger
process. High values
diameter spray droplets. of surface tension and viscosity ensure worse fuel atomization in the form of
larger diameter
It could spray droplets.
be observed also in this research in the case of RO, instead of LO, which ensures significantly
It could be
lower values of surfaceobserved
tension also in this
without research
blending in the
(Figure 4).case
Like of
bothRO, insteadparameters,
previous of LO, which ensures
also surface
significantly lower values of surface tension without blending (Figure 4). Like
tension is temperature dependent, but it could be impacted also by pressure or even composition, like it both previous
isparameters,
in the case also surfaceIntension
of blends. is temperature
this research a linear dependent,
decrease of but it could
surface be impacted
tension based onalsoDEE byaddition
pressure
or even composition, like
level to LO could be observed. it is in the case of blends. In this research a linear decrease of surface tension
based on DEE addition level to LO could be observed.
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Figure 4.
Figure 4. Surface tension
tension (σ)
(σ) of
of DEE/LO
DEE/LO and
and DEE/RO
DEE/RO blend.
blend.
Figure 4. Surface tension (σ) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend.
CFPP
CFPP waswas another
another parameter,
parameter, which
which was
was analyzed
analyzed in in the
the case
case of
of LO
LO and
andDEE
DEEblends.
blends. As
As itit is
is
CFPP was another parameter, which was analyzed in the case of LO and DEE blends. As it is
one of the parameters, which is a direct indicator of engine low temperature operability
one of the parameters, which is a direct indicator of engine low temperature operability additional additional
one of the parameters, which is a direct indicator of engine low temperature operability additional
attention
attention has
has to
to be
be turned
turned by
by engine
engine operation
operation in
in problematic
problematic climate
climate conditions.
conditions. As it is
is seen
seen in in
attention has to be turned by engine operation in problematic climate conditions. As it is seen in
Figure
Figure 5,
5, LO
LO indicates
indicates dependence
dependence fromfrom DEE
DEE by
by aa straight
straight line
line with
with tendency
tendency on
on reduction
reduction based
based on on
Figure 5, LO indicates dependence from DEE by a straight line with tendency on reduction based on
DEE
DEE addition.
addition. Even 10% 10% addition
addition toto LO
LO reduced
reduced CFPP
CFPP to −8 ◦°C,
to −8 C, while RORO could
could ensure
ensure such
such usage
usage
DEE addition. Even 10% addition to LO reduced CFPP to −8 °C, while RO could ensure such usage
temperature
temperature only
only with
with 40%
40% ofof DEE
DEEaddition.
addition. Overall,
Overall, addition
addition of of DEE
DEE improved
improved low
low temperature
temperature
temperature only with 40% of DEE addition. Overall, addition of DEE improved low temperature
properties
propertiesforforboth
bothoil
oiltypes.
types.
properties for both oil types.

Figure 5. CFPP (◦ C) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend.

Figure 5. CFPP (°C) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend.
Figure 5. CFPP (°C) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend.
Results for LHV are presented in Figure 6. Here it is possible to observe the impact of the fuel
Results on
composition forchanges
LHV are ofpresented
LHV. Like in
allFigure 6. Here itoils,
other vegetable is possible
LO also to observe
reduced LHVthecompared
impact ofwith
the fuel
DF,
Results for LHV are presented in Figure 6. Here it is possible to observe the impact of the fuel
composition
but on changes
it also increased oxygen of LHV. Like
content by all
10%other
whilevegetable oils, LO
diesel almost didalso reduced
not have LHVCombination
oxygen. compared with of
composition on changes of LHV. Like all other vegetable oils, LO also reduced LHV compared with
DF,with
LO but DEE
it also increased
allowed oxygenthe
it to increase content by 10%
total value whileindiesel
of oxygen almostresulting
the mixture did notinhave oxygen.
a decrease of
DF, but it also increased oxygen content by 10% while diesel almost did not have oxygen.
Combination
LHV of LO with
proportionally DEE allowed
of added DEE. Theit impact
to increase the total
of DEE valuetoofRO
addition oxygen
on theinvariation
the mixture resulting
of LHV had
Combination of LO with DEE allowed it to increase the total value of oxygen in the mixture resulting
in a decrease
similar of LHV
tendency proportionally
like in of added
the case of DEE/LO DEE. The impact
blends. of DEE addition
main difference is only atoshift
RO on the variation
between values
in a decrease of LHV proportionally of added DEE. The impact of DEE addition to RO on the variation
of LHV
of LHVfor hadLOsimilar
and RO.tendency like in the case of DEE/LO blends. The main difference is only a shift
of LHV had similar tendency like in the case of DEE/LO blends. The main difference is only a shift
between values of LHV for LO and RO.
between values of LHV for LO and RO.
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Figure 6. Lower heating

Figure 6. heating value
value (LHV)
(LHV) of
of DEE/LO
DEE/LO and
and DEE/RO
DEE/ROblend.
blend.
Figure 6. Lower heating value (LHV) of DEE/LO and DEE/RO blend.
In
In this
this work
work the
the selected
selected parameters
parameters of of combustion
combustionprocess
processwere
werealso
alsoinvestigated.
investigated. In
In particular
particular
the In this
in-cylinder work the
pressureselected
was parameters
recorded and of combustion
processed to findprocess
out thewere also
beginning investigated.
of
the in-cylinder pressure was recorded and processed to find out the beginning of combustion. In
combustion. particular
Figure 7
Figure
the in-cylinder
presents the pressure
heat release was
rate recorded
(HRR) and processed
calculated for to find
combustionout the
of beginning
all tested of combustion.
fuels. In
7 presents the heat release rate (HRR) calculated for combustion of all tested fuels. In this case thethis caseFigure
the
7 presentsof
beginning
beginning ofthe heat release
combustion
combustion rate (HRR)
occurred
occurred calculated
earlier
earlierfor
forDF forfor
DFthan
than combustion
forLO.
LO. of all tested fuels. In this case the
beginning of combustion occurred earlier for DF than for LO.

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Heat
Heat release
release rate
rate (HRR)
(HRR) for
for tested
tested fuels
fuels in
in AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine at
at 1200
1200 rpm
rpmand
and120
120Nm.
Nm.
Figure 7. Heat release rate (HRR) for tested fuels in AD3.152 engine at 1200 rpm and 120 Nm.
Takinginto
Taking intoaccount
account thethe beginning
beginning of injection
of fuel fuel injection
the valuetheofvalue
ignitionof delay
ignition(ID)delay (ID) was
was calculated.
Research Taking
calculated. into account
Research
confirmed confirmed
that the that
ignition beginning
delay of of
ignition LO fuel
delaywasofinjection
LO was
bigger the
bigger
(0.8–2 value
◦ CA) of
(0.8–2 ignition
°CA)
than casedelay
in than in
forcase (ID)
DF, for was
butDF,it
calculated.
but it
was Research
was observed
observed confirmed
directlydirectly
at lower that
at speeds, ignition
lower speeds,
while indelay
while of LO was
otherinconditions bigger
other conditions (0.8–2
the gapthe °CA) than
gap slightly
slightly in
narrowedcase for
narrowed
down DF,
but Figure
down
(see it (see
wasFigure
observed
8). directly
As8).it As
wasit was at lowerpreviously,
mentioned
mentioned speeds, while
previously, therein is
other
there conditions
is the
the possibility
possibility the gap
totoobserveslightly
observe the narrowed
theimpact
impact of
of
down (see Figure
polyunsaturatedfatty
polyunsaturated 8). As
fattyacids it was
acidsininLO mentioned
LOallowing previously,
allowingitittotoreach
reachsuchthere is the possibility
sucha adifference
difference between
between to observe
LOLOandand the
DF.
DF. impact
Here
Here of
it isit
polyunsaturated
is seen
seen an an impact
impact fatty acids
of physical
of physical delayin LO
delay allowing
influenced
influenced it to
by fuel reach
by fuel such a
properties
properties difference between
and composition
and composition LO and DF.
[33]. Addition
[33]. Addition Here
of DEE ofit
is seen
DEE
reduces an impact
reduces
the value ofofLO
the value physical
of
ignition delay
delayinfluenced
LO ignition delay together
together by fuel
with withproperties
viscosity
viscosity andincomposition
resulting
resulting in a wider
a wider [33].
spray Addition
spray
pattern. As itof
pattern.
DEE
As it
can reduces
becan
seen befromthe value
seenFigure of
from Figure LO ignition
8, ID of8,DF ID at delay
oflarger together
DF at engine
larger enginewith viscosity
speeds speeds
(2000 rpm) resulting
(2000wasrpm) in a wider
was similar
similar spray
to DEE/LO pattern.
to DEE/LO
blends.
As it
blends.
Here can be
it isHere seen from
it is possible
possible Figure
to observe 8,
to observe ID
the impact of DF
the of at
impact larger
cylinder engine
of cylinder speeds
temperature
temperature (2000 rpm) was
and pressure
and pressure similar to DEE/LO
on the chemical
on the chemical part of
blends.
part
the of the
delay Here
periodit is[33],
delay possible
period [33],
which toisobserve
which
more is the
moreimpact
pronounced of
atcylinder
pronounced temperature
higheratspeeds.
higher speeds. and pressure on the chemical
part of the delay period [33], which is more pronounced at higher speeds.
Energies 2020,13,
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Figure 8. Variation of ignition delay (ID) for tested fuels in AD3.152 engine operated at 120 Nm.
Figure
Figure 8. Variation of
8. Variation of ignition
ignition delay
delay (ID)
(ID) for
for tested
tested fuels
fuels in
in AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine operated
operated at
at 120
120 Nm.
Nm.
The most
The most fundamental and and important engine engine parameter is is its overall
overall efficiency
efficiency (OE).
(OE). The valuevalue
of The
this most fundamental
parameter fundamental
was and important
determined important
at all engine parameter
measurement parameter is its
conditions. itsResults
overall suggest
efficiency (OE). The
(Figure The
9) value
that the
of
of this
this parameter
parameter was
was determined
determined at
at all
all measurement
measurement conditions.
conditions. Results
Results suggest
suggest (Figure
(Figure 9)
9) that
that the
the
engine overall
engine overall efficiency powered
powered with with LO was was slightly
slightly lower
lower than
than for for DF.
DF. It can
can be
be explained
explained by by
engine
weak overall efficiency
combustion efficiency powered
characteristics with LO
stimulatedLO bywas slightly
higher lowerand
viscosity thanlow DF. It
forvolatility
It can beMoreover,
[34]. explained the by
weak
weak combustion
combustion characteristicsstimulated
characteristics stimulatedby byhigher
higherviscosity
viscosityand and low low volatility [34]. Moreover,
resistance
the of flow
resistance of waswas
flow adequately
adequately greater for for
greater moremoreviscous fuel
viscous and
fuel andforvolatility
thisthis
for
[34].
reason itMoreover,
reason impacted
it
the
impactedon
resistance
lowering of
of offlow was
the engine adequately
overall greater
efficiency. for
DEE,more viscous
asasthe low fuel and
viscosity for this
component reason it impacted
increased overall on
overall
on lowering
lowering thethe
ofespecially engine
engine overall
overall efficiency.DEE,
efficiency. DEE,as thelow
the low viscosity
viscosity component
component increased
increased overall
efficiency,
efficiency, according
especially according to high
according totohigh level
highlevel blends
levelblends
blends like
likeLO20.
LO20. It can be
It be also
canalso associated
be associated with
also associated lower
with
efficiency,
self-ignition especially
temperature and surface tension of DEE like LO20.
resulting inIt the
can complete combustion withof lower
tested
lower self-ignition temperature and surface tension of DEE resulting in the complete combustion of
self-ignition
blends.blends.temperature and surface tension of DEE resulting in the complete combustion of tested
tested
blends.

Figure 9. The
Figure 9. The overall
overall efficiency
efficiency (OE)
(OE) calculated
calculated for
for the
the AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine operated
operated at
at 120
120 Nm.
Nm.
Figure 9. The overall efficiency (OE) calculated for the AD3.152 engine operated at 120 Nm.
Figure
Figure9 9seems to be
seems toinconsistent taking taking
be inconsistent into account
into the resultsthe
account obtained at individual
results obtained at measurement
individual
Figure
points. 9 seems
Especially at to
the be inconsistent
speed of 2000 taking
rpm, the into account
obtained the
changes results
in the obtained
efficiency
measurement points. Especially at the speed of 2000 rpm, the obtained changes in the efficiency at
of individual
the engineof
measurement
work were not
the engine points. Especially
monotonic.
work were atmeasuring
the speed
notAtmonotonic.
this of 2000
point,
At this a rpm, thepoint,
mechanical
measuring obtained changes
rotational speedincontroller
a mechanical the efficiency
rotational of
started
speed
the
to enginestarted
operate,
controller work to
which were
resultednotinmonotonic.
operate, greater
which At in
this measuring
non-uniformity
resulted greater of fuelpoint,
dosing,
non-uniformity a increasing
mechanical rotational
the
of fuel dosing, measurement
increasing speed
the
controller
uncertainty.started
The to operate,
following which
Figure 10resulted
was in greater
prepared for non-uniformity
easier evaluation of
offuel
the dosing,
global
measurement uncertainty. The following Figure 10 was prepared for easier evaluation of the global increasing
impact of the
DEE
measurement
added
impactto ofLO
DEEonuncertainty.
to LOThe
the efficiency
added onoffollowing
engine
the Figure
work.
efficiency ofThe10 figure
waswork.
engine prepared
shows foroverall
Thethe
figureeasier evaluation
showsefficiency ofthe
of
the overall the global
engine
efficiency
impact
fuelled of
withDEE added
specific to
fuel, LO on the
calculated efficiency
as the of
averageengine
of work.
all The
measuring figure
points.shows
of the engine fuelled with specific fuel, calculated as the average of all measuring points. the overall efficiency
of the engine fuelled with specific fuel, calculated as the average of all measuring points.
Energies 2020,
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Figure 10.
10. Average
Average value
value of
of the
theoverall
overallefficiency
efficiency(OE
(OEavg
avg) calculated for the AD3.152
AD3.152 engine
engine fuelled
fuelled
with tested
tested
Figure
with fuels. value of the overall efficiency (OEavg) calculated for the AD3.152 engine fuelled
10. Average
fuels.
with tested fuels.
Figure 10 clearly indicates that combustion of DF in the tested tested engine
engine occurs
occurs with the the highest
highest
overall
overall efficiency
efficiency
Figure 33.8%.
33.8%.
10 clearly In
Inthethecase
indicates case
that ofofcombustion
LO
LOthis
thisefficiency
of DFwas
efficiency inwasreduced
the testedup
reduced upto to
engine32.4%.
32.4%. Such
occurs Such results
with the seem
results seemto
highest
be expected,
to be expected,
overall as
efficiencythe test
as33.8%. engine
the testInengine settings
the case settings were
of LO were adapted to
adapted to
this efficiency the conventional
thereduced
was conventional fuel supply.
fuel supply.
up to 32.4%. Research on
Research
Such results fuel
on
seem
blends
fuel
to has shown
be blends
expected, thattest
hasasshown
the the increasing
that
enginethesettings addition
increasing of DEE to
wereaddition
adapted toLO
of DEE
the makes
to LO the makes
conventional physicochemical
fuelthe properties
physicochemical
supply. Research on
of such
properties
fuel blends
blends ofhas more
such shownand that
blends more
more similar
theand moreto DF.
increasing For
similar this
to DF.
addition reason
ofFor alsoto
this
DEE the
reason
LO overall efficiency
also the
makes overall
the ofefficiency
the engine
physicochemical of
increased
the engineof
properties with the
increased addition
such blends withmore of DEE
the addition to LO.
and moreofsimilar The observed
DEE to to LO. differences
Thethis
DF. For observed in this
reasondifferences efficiency
also the overall seemed
in this to be
efficiency
efficiency of
comparable,
seemed
the engine to be but they are
comparable,
increased with important
but
thethey in engine
are
addition research.
important
of DEE in LO.
to engineTheresearch.
observed differences in this efficiency
seemed Research did not confirm
to be comparable, smoke
but they arereduction
important forinLO (Figure
engine 11), while it showed smoke reduction
research.
for blends
blends
Researchwith
with DEE
did DEE due
not dueto to
confirmits its
oxygen
oxygen
smoke content. Usage
content.
reduction of vegetable
forUsage
LO oilswhile
of vegetable
(Figure 11), can
oilslead
itcan tolead
showed higherto smoke
higher
smoke opacity
smoke
reduction
due
for to poor
opacity
blends atomization
duewith
to poor dueand
DEEatomization insufficient
to its oxygen time for Usage
and insufficient
content. oxidation,
time for but sometimes
of oxidation,
vegetable but can
oils there
leadcould
sometimes be observed
to there
higher could
smokebe
also a
observed
opacity reduction of
alsotoapoor
due smoke
reduction based
of smoke
atomization onandloads
based [35] and diffusion
on loadstime
insufficient [35] and combustion intensity.
diffusion combustion
for oxidation, but sometimes Research
intensity. confirmed
there Research
could be
that advance
confirmed
observed that
also of injectionof
a advance
reduction timing, more
ofinjection
smoke pronounced
timing,
based onmore for LO
loadspronounced
[35] andand LO10,
for
diffusion results
LOcombustion
and LO10, to oxidation
results
intensity.toofoxidation
the soot
Research
particles
of the soot
confirmed due
thatto advance
a longer
particles duration
dueof to and
a longer
injection higher
duration
timing, temperatures
more and higherduring
pronounced expansion
temperatures
for LO stroke
during
and LO10, allowing
expansion
results one to
stroke
to oxidation
conclude
allowing
of the soot that
one an increase
to conclude
particles due toin ignition
thata an delay
increase
longer leads to
in ignition
duration poor combustion
delay temperatures
and higher [36].
leads to poor during Besides
combustion that, combustion
[36]. Besides
expansion stroke
quality
allowing decreases
that, combustion also
one to conclude withdecreases
quality unsaturation
that alsoofwith
an increase LO
in [2]. DEE addition
unsaturation
ignition delay of could
LO to
leads resolve
[2]. DEE
poor smoke
addition
combustion opacity
[36].problem,
could resolve
Besides
at least
smoke
that, at higher
opacity
combustion speeds.
problem,
qualityatdecreases
least at higher speeds.
also with unsaturation of LO [2]. DEE addition could resolve
smoke opacity problem, at least at higher speeds.

Figure 11. Variation of smoke opacity (SO) for the AD3.152 engine operated
operated at
at 120
120 Nm.
Nm.
Figure 11. Variation of smoke opacity (SO) for the AD3.152 engine operated at 120 Nm.
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 13 of 16

Overall, DEE left a better impact on smoke reduction than LO, where apart from the dominating
factor, the molecular structure of DEE, also a positive impact of lower viscosity causing a better
atomization could be observed.

5. Conclusions
Based on the literature review it can be stated that LO possess a wide range of properties, which
could make it a considerable alternative to other vegetable oils. Results of this study showed that
viscosity of LO was significantly lower in comparison with RO allowing it to reduce the amount of DEE
added to plant oil. For example, LO containing 30% DEE had the same viscosity as RO containing 40%
of DEE. It should be pointed that both these mixtures allowed it to reach a viscosity value comparable
to DF.
Research showed that DEE reduces the density of plant oils. However, values comparable to
DF are possible only for mixtures containing more than 50% of DEE. Based on empirical data it was
confirmed that the density of the DEE/LO blend is very well described by linear regression.
The linear relationship also describes well an impact of the DEE/LO ratio on the surface tension
value. It was observed that DEE added to LO or RO reduces the surface tension of the blend. In the
case of DEE/LO it should promote better atomization of the fuel injected into the combustion chamber.
It is attributed to lower surface tension of DEE/LO blend compared with DEE/RO.
In the same time the addition of DEE to LO significantly reduced CFPP allowing one to use such
blends in the winter season without the engine fuel preheating system. In this aspect the DEE/LO
blends were more recommended compared with DEE/RO mixtures. CFPP of DEE/LO blends was also
well described by a linear relationship.
Research has confirmed that the addition of DEE slightly reduces LHV of tested plant oils.
It should be pointed that LHV of tested DEE/LO or DEE/RO blend is close to 36–38 MJ/m3 , i.e., about
12% less compared with DF. For this reason the engine performance should be adequately reduced.
It means that top power and torque of unmodified engine fuelled with alternative fuel blend will be
lower compared with DF.
Based on the engine research, it was found that ignition delay of LO is significantly increased
compared with DF. This was attributed to a considerably lower CN of plant oil. However, it was
confirmed that DEE is an effective cetane improver and it allows one to reduce the ignition delay
of LO. Simultaneously, smoke emission is also adequately reduced due the atomization quality of
less viscous blend is better, and the consequence is lower smoke emission and slightly higher engine
overall efficiency.
The results described in this paper encourage further research on DEE as an additive for diesel
fuel and for renewable biodiesel. Our experiences showed that DEE is valuable for plant oils due
to the physicochemical properties of these mixtures and are comparable with regular diesel fuel.
However, additional tests on mixtures stability are necessary. Additionally, other tests focused on
physicochemical properties mentioned in the EN 590 standard should be valuable. An impact of DEE
in a blend with plant oils on emissions of harmful gas components from diesel engines should be
continued taking into account constructions equipped with other injection systems. An impact of
tested blends on the performances of diesel engines should be validated in other tests. Our experiences
suggest that blends containing more than 20% DEE are not the best for engines operated in warm
climate. DEE can form vapor lock affecting stability of the engine work.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.G. and R.S.; methodology, R.L.; validation, K.G. and R.L.; formal
analysis, R.L.; investigation, K.G. and R.S.; resources, R.S.; data curation, R.L.; writing—original draft preparation,
R.S. and K.G.; writing—review and editing, K.G. and R.L.; visualization, K.G. and R.S.; supervision, K.G. and R.S.;
project administration, K.G.; funding acquisition, R.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interests.
Energies 2020, 13, 6564 14 of 16

Nomenclature
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
BSFC Brake specific fuel consumption
CA Crank angle
CFPP Cold filter plugging point
CN Cetane number
CO Carbon monoxide
DEE Diethyl ether
DF Diesel fuel
EOE Engine overall efficiency
HC Hydrocarbons
HSDI High-speed direct injection
ID Ignition delay
LO Linseed oil
LHV Lower heating value
NOx Nitrogen oxides
RO Rapeseed oil
SO Smoke opacity
n Crankshaft speed
ρ Density
ν Kinematic viscosity
σ Surface tension
v/v Volumetric ratio

References
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