2

General Relativity Theory

2.1 Some Differential Geometry

Problem 2.1 Show that the function f (x,y) = x 2 + y is a smooth function on the
unit sphere S2 ⊂ R3 .

Problem 2.2 On the unit sphere M = S2 , we use the spherical coordinates θ

and φ, except at the poles θ = 0,π . A curve can then be parametrized as (θ (s),φ(s)).
A tangent vector v ∈ Tp S2 is given by its components v = (vθ ,vφ ) with vθ = θ̇ (s0 ),
vφ = φ̇(s0 ), and p = (θ (s0 ),φ(s0 )). How would you describe a tangent vector at the
poles θ = 0,π ?

Problem 2.3 Find the metric tensor and the Christoffel symbols in the two-
dimensional Euclidean plane in the following coordinates
a) s and t defined by x = set and y = se−t .
b) u and v defined by x = u and y = v 2 .
In both cases, discuss where in the Euclidean plane the new coordinates provide a
well-defined coordinate system.

Problem 2.4 Let α(t) and β(t) be a pair of smooth curves on a manifold M such
that α(t0 ) = β(t0 ). Show that the condition
 
d i  d i 
x (α(t)) = x (β(t)) for i = 1,2, . . . ,n, (2.1)
dt t=t0 dt t=t0

is independent of the choice of local coordinates x i , i.e., if the curves are tangential
in one coordinate system, then they are tangential in any other coordinate system.

Problem 2.5 Show that the system of first-order ordinary differential equations

ẋ k ∇k Y i = Ẏ i (s) + kj
i
(x(s))ẋ k (s)Y j (s) = 0, i = 1,2, . . . ,n, (2.2)

defining the parallel transport along a curve on a manifold M is coordinate indepen-

dent in the sense that if the system is valid in one coordinate system, then it is also
valid in any other coordinate system.

43
44 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.6 The distance between two points a and b on the unit sphere S2 along
a curve γ (s) = (θ (s),φ(s)) is given by
 b  b 
[γ ] ≡ gγ (s) (γ̇ (s), γ̇ (s)) ds = gθθ θ̇ (s)2 + gφφ φ̇(s)2 ds
a a
 b 
= θ̇(s)2 + sin2 θ (s) φ̇(s)2 ds. (2.3)
a

Use Euler–Lagrange equations to derive the geodesic equations on S2 .

Problem 2.7 Compute the Christoffel symbols on the unit sphere S2 with metric
given by ds 2 = dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2
a) directly from the metric.
b) using the general formula for the geodesic equations.

Problem 2.8 We define the Christoffel symbols on the unit sphere S2 , using spher-
ical coordinates (θ,φ). When θ = 0,π , we find (see Problem 2.7)
1 φ φ
θ
φφ = − sin 2θ, θφ = φθ = cot θ, (2.4)
2
and all other  are equal to zero. Show that the apparent singularity at θ = 0,π can
be removed by a better choice of coordinates at the poles of the sphere. Thus, the
above affine connection extends to the whole S2 .

Problem 2.9 a) Let M = S2 and  be the affine connection in Problem 2.8. The
coordinates θ (s) and φ(s) of a geodesic then satisfy the geodesic equations, i.e.,
1
θ̈ (s) − sin 2θ (s) φ̇(s)φ̇(s) = 0, (2.5)
2
φ̈(s) + 2 cot θ (s) θ̇ (s)φ̇(s) = 0. (2.6)
Find the general solution to the geodesic equations.
b) Let M and  be as in a). Furthermore, let (θ,φ) = (αs + β,φ0 ), where s is
the curve parameter and α, β, and φ0 are constants. Determine the parallel transport
equations for a vector field X = (Xθ ,Xφ ) and solve this set of equations. In addition,
if u is the tangent vector (1,1) at the point (θ,φ) = π4 ,0 , then determine the parallel
transported vector v at the point (θ,φ) = π2 ,0 .

Problem 2.10 Determine the shortest path on the conical surface r = −az which
connects the points z = −h, ϕ = 0 and z = −h, ϕ = π/2, where (r,ϕ,z) are
cylindrical coordinates and a > 0 and h > 0 constants.

Problem 2.11 A ship starts from a position in the Atlantic Ocean with coordinates
10◦ N 30◦ W (Cape Verde). It sails directly to the north to the 45◦ northern latitude
(Azores, Portugal) and then it turns abruptly to the west and sails until it hits the 60◦
western longitude (Nova Scotia, Canada). Suppose a vector is parallel transported
along the route of the ship (with the help of a gyroscope). Its initial direction is 45◦
(north-east). What is its final direction?
 2.1 Some Differential Geometry 45

Problem 2.12 A vector is first parallel transported along a great circle on a sphere
from a point A on the equator to the North Pole N , then again along a great circle
from N to another point B on the equator, and finally, along the equator back to the
point A. Use the standard Riemannian metric on the sphere and prove that the vector
is rotated in the above process by an angle θ, which is directly proportional to the
area of the geodesic triangle ANB.

Problem 2.13 Let M = S2 ⊂ R3 . Determine the metric g on M in terms of the

spherical coordinates θ and φ. In particular, compute the inner product of the vectors
(1,2) and (2,−1) at the point (θ,φ).

Problem 2.14 Compute the Riemann curvature tensor R of the unit sphere S2 .
Problem 2.15 Consider the vector fields
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
X=x −y and Y =x +y , (2.7)
∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
in the xy-plane.
a) Determine the commutator [X,Y ].
b) Assume that an affine connection in the plane satisfies ∇X X = −Y , ∇Y Y = Y ,
∇Y X = X, and that the torsion tensor T vanishes. Compute the Riemann curvature
tensor R.

Problem 2.16 Let x 1 and x 2 be a pair of local coordinates and

∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
X = x2 1
− x1 2 , Y = x1 1
+ x2 2 , (2.8)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x
be a pair of vector fields in R2 \{0}. Assume that
∇X X = 0, ∇X Y = X + Y,
∇Y X = X − Y, ∇Y Y = 0. (2.9)

Compute the components R 11ij in the local coordinate basis, where i,j = 1,2, of the
Riemann curvature tensor.

Problem 2.17 A manifold M of dimension 3 has a basis of orthonormal vector

fields {L1,L2,L3 } with commutation relations
 
Li ,Lj = ij k Lk , where i,j,k = 1,2,3. (2.10)
Determine the Levi-Civita connection ∇i = ∇Li (1 ≤ i ≤ 3) and its Riemann curva-
ture tensor R.
Hint: The Levi-Civita connection is the unique metric-compatible torsion-free con-
nection. Use the symmetry properties of the Christoffel symbols coming from this,
several times, to evaluate them.

Problem 2.18 Let x and y be local coordinates on a surface S with x + y = 0.

Define a metric tensor g by gxx = 1, gxy = gyx = x + y, and gyy = 1 + (x + y)2 .
Let ∇ be an affine connection defined by
46 General Relativity Theory

∇x ∂x = (x + y)∂x − ∂y , (2.11)
∇x ∂y = [2 + (x + y) ]∂x − (x + y)∂y ,
2
(2.12)
∇y ∂x = (x + y)(x + y + 1)∂x − (x + y + 1)∂y , (2.13)
∇y ∂y = {(x + y + 1)[1 + (x + y) ] + 1}∂x − (x + y)(x + y + 1)∂y .
2
(2.14)
a) Compute the Christoffel symbols in the orthonormal basis
e1 = ∂x , e2 = −(x + y)∂x + ∂y . (2.15)
b) Consider the parallel transport of a pair of vectors starting from the point
(x,y) = (1,1), √ counterclockwise along the full circle with center at (x,y) = (2,2)
and radius r = 2. Assume that the initial angle between the vectors is π/3. What
is the angle after the parallel transport around the loop?

Problem 2.19 Three ants are walking on a two-dimensional surface embedded in a

flat three-dimensional Euclidean space as
2 3/2
x = r cos φ, y = r sin φ, z= r . (2.16)
3
Assume that the ants are walking on the surface along curves parametrized by λ
such that

• Ant #1: r = λ, φ = 0;
• Ant #2: r = λ2/3 − 1, φ = π/2, λ > 1;
• Ant #3: r = λ1/2 , φ = ln λ, λ > 0.
a) Compute the induced metric on the two-dimensional surface.
b) Investigate if the ants are walking along geodesics or not.

Problem 2.20 Derive the explicit form of the geodesic equation on the hyperboloid
x 2 + y 2 − z2 = a 2 with x, y, and z being Cartesian coordinates on the flat Euclidean
three-dimensional space (i.e., the metric is ds 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 ) and a > 0 a
constant. Using the coordinates r and ϕ such that x = r cos(ϕ) and y = r sin(ϕ),
compute also all Christoffel symbols for this hyperboloid.

Problem 2.21 Consider the surface (ct)2 −x 2 −y 2 = −K 2 in the three-dimensional

Minkowski space R3 with metric signature + − −.
a) Compute the metric tensor on the surface in a suitable coordinate system. Is it
positive definite? If not, of what type?
b) Find the geodesic equations. In particular, find a geodesic starting from the
point (0,0,K) and going in the direction of the tangent vector (c,0,0).

Problem 2.22 Consider the pseudo-Riemannian metric

ds 2 = (dx 1 )2 + (dx 2 )2 − (dx 3 )2 − (dx 4 )2, (2.17)

in R4 . This induces a pseudo-Riemannian metric g on the surface

S: (x 1 )2 + (x 2 )2 − (x 3 )2 − (x 4 )2 = 1. (2.18)
 2.1 Some Differential Geometry 47

a) Show that the metric g on S is Lorentzian, i.e., it has one timelike and two
spacelike directions at each point.
b) Construct a pair of constants of motions for freely falling bodies by integrating
the geodesic equations on S once.

Problem 2.23 The flow lines generated by a vector field X are smooth curves γ (t)
such that
γ̇ (t) = X(γ (t)), (2.19)
along the curve. Assume that all flow lines for a vector field X are geodesics with
respect to a connection determined by the Christoffel symbols ijk . Derive a set
of partial differential equations for the components of X giving a necessary and
sufficient condition for the above property of X.

Problem 2.24 Parametrize the points on the spin group SU(2) as

1 σ +x 2 σ +x 3 σ ) sin(r)
g(x) = ei(x 1 2 3 = 1 cos(r) + i x · σ, (2.20)
r
where x = (x 1,x 2,x 3 ) ∈ R3 , r = |x| and the σk ’s are the Hermitian 2 × 2 Pauli
matrices
     
0 1 0 −i 1 0
σ1 = , σ2 = , and σ3 = . (2.21)
1 0 i 0 0 −1

We can identify the point g(x) as a point on the 3-dimensional unit sphere S3 ⊂ R4 ,
the first coordinate is cos(r) and the remaining three coordinates are sin(r)x/r. Show
that the 1-parameter subgroups t → eit a·σ , where a ∈ R3 , are geodesics with respect
to the standard metric on S3 coming from the Euclidean metric in R4 .
Hint: It is more convenient to use the Euler–Lagrange equations coming from the
metric element (derive the formula!) in terms of the angular coordinates θ, φ of the
vector x ∈ R3 and the radial coordinate r.
λ and the
Problem 2.25 a) Derive the relation between the Christoffel symbols μν
metric tensor gμν from the following conditions: (i) Dλ gμν = 0, where Dλ is the
λ =  λ . (The result is the so-called “fundamental
covariant derivative, and (ii) μν νμ
theorem” in Riemannian geometry.)
b) Consider the vector field (V μ ) = (x,−t), i.e., V 0 = x and V 1 = −t, in two-
dimensional Minkowski spacetime with coordinates (x μ ) = (t,x) and metric ds 2 =
ν
dt 2 − dx 2 . Compute all components of the tensor Tμ = Dμ V ν in this coordi-
nate system. Compute also the component T  01 of this tensor in Rindler coordinates
(x  μ ) = (λ,a) defined as
t = a sinh(λ), x = a cosh(λ). (2.22)

Problem 2.26 a) Write the transformation law for a tensor with components S μν
under a general coordinate transformation x μ → x  μ , i.e., give a general formula for
S  μν .
b) Write Dμ S μν in terms of partial derivatives and Christoffel symbols.
48 General Relativity Theory

c) Consider the tensor with components S 12 = −S 21 = 2xy and S 11 = S 22 = 0

on the two-dimensional plane with coordinates (x μ ) = (x,y) and metric ds 2 =
dx 2 + dy 2 . (i) Compute the components S  μν of this tensor in polar coordinates
(x  μ ) = (r,ϕ). (ii) Compute Dμ S μν .

Problem 2.27 Consider AdS2 which is a two-dimensional curved spacetime with

coordinates (x μ ) = (x 0,x 1 ) = (t,r) and the metric given by
 
1
ds = v (r − 1)dt − 2
2 2 2 2
dr , (2.23)
r −1
where v > 0 is some constant. Consider also on AdS2 and in the coordinates x μ , a
tensor field Sμν with the following components S00 = a(r 2 − 1), S11 = −a/(r 2 − 1),
and S01 = S10 = 0 for some constant a > 0.
a) Compute all Christoffel symbols for AdS2 in the coordinates x μ .
b) Compute S μν and Dμ S μν .
c) Consider another coordinate system (x  μ ) = (x  0,x  1 ) = (θ,η) on AdS2 defined
by θ = at and r = cosh(η) with a being the same constant as above. Transform the
tensor Sμν to this new coordinate system, i.e., compute Sμν  .

Problem 2.28 Consider the so-called Rindler coordinate system (x  μ ) =

(x  0,x  1 ) = (λ,a) in two-dimensional Minkowski space defined by
t = a sinh(λ), x = a cosh(λ), a > 0,λ ∈ R, (2.24)

where (x μ ) = (t,x) are the usual coordinates, i.e., ds 2 = dt 2 − dx 2 .

a) Find the metric tensor and the Christoffel symbols in this coordinate system.
b) Determine expressions for the divergence of a vector field and the Laplacian of
a scalar field in two-dimensional Minkowski space in Rindler coordinates.
c) A tensor of rank two on two-dimensional Minkowski space has the following
components in the coordinates (x μ ) = (t,x): T 00 = −T 11 = x 2 − t 2 and T 10 =
T 01 = 0. Compute the component T  00 , i.e., T  μν for μ = ν = 0, of this tensor in
Rindler coordinates.

Problem 2.29 Consider the metric

ds 2 = dt 2 − dr 2 − r 2 dφ 2 . (2.25)
Find expressions for the covariant derivative ∇μ Vν and the divergence ∇μ V μ .

Problem 2.30 The parallel transport of a vector V μ along a curve parametrized by

λ is given by the condition
dx μ
∇μ V ν = 0. (2.26)
dλ
a) Obtain the geodesic equation
μ
ẍ μ + νλ ẋ ν ẋ λ = 0, (2.27)
from parallel transporting a tangent vector.
 2.2 Christoffel Symbols, Curvature, and Einstein’s Equations 49

b) If one allows the tangent vector T μ to change in size, one can generalize the
μ
dλ ∇μ V = 0 to
condition dx ν

dx μ
T μ ∇μ T ν = αT ν , where T μ = dλ . (2.28)
Show that one can get back the original condition, where one has zero on the right-
hand side, by making a reparametrization λ → τ (λ). Show also how the geodesic
equation is modified by the extra term on the right-hand side.

Problem 2.31 A conformal transformation of the metric tensor is defined as

gμν −→ f (x)gμν , (2.29)
for an arbitrary positive function f .
a) Show that a conformal transformation preserves the angle between any two
vectors.
b) A null curve is a curve for which all tangent vectors are null vectors. Show that
all null curves remain null curves after performing a conformal transformation.

Problem 2.32 A sphere is described locally by the two coordinates θ and ϕ is

embedded in R3 according to
x = R cos(ϕ) sin(θ ), y = R sin(ϕ) sin(θ ), z = Rα cos(θ ), (2.30)
where R and 0 < α < 1 are constants (note that while the topology of this manifold
is a sphere, this is not the standard embedding of the sphere in Euclidean space).
Compute the induced metric tensor and the Christoffel symbols.

2.2 Christoffel Symbols, Riemann and Ricci Tensors,

and Einstein’s Equations
λ be the Levi-Civita connection associated to a metric
Problem 2.33 a) Let μν
tensor gμν . Show that μν = 12 g −1 ∂ν g, where g = det(gμν ).
μ

b) Derive from the definition of covariant differentiation the transformation rule

for the Christoffel symbols with respect to general coordinate transformations.
c) Show directly from the definition of parallel transport that in a parallel transport
λ = 1 g λω (∂ g
defined by the Levi-Civita connection, μν 2 μ νω + ∂ν gμω − ∂ω gμν ), the
length of a parallel transported vector is constant.

Problem 2.34 For any two vector fields U μ and V μ on a manifold with metric gμν
equipped with the Levi-Civita connection, show that if
W ν = U μ ∇μ V ν , (2.31)
then
Wν ≡ gνσ W σ = U μ ∇μ Vν . (2.32)

Problem 2.35 The nonzero Christoffel symbols on a unit sphere S2 in spherical

coordinates are
50 General Relativity Theory
1 φ φ
θ
φφ = − sin 2θ, θφ = φθ = cot θ . (2.33)
2
j j
a) Compute the Christoffel symbols θi and φi in the orthonormal basis e1 = ∂θ ,
j j
e2 = 1
sin θ ∂φ , ∇θ ei = θi ej , and ∇φ ei = φi ej .
 
u1
b) Prove that the parallel transport of a vector u = u1 e1 + u2 e2 = around a
u2
closed loop γ (t) on S2 is given by the operation u = Ru, where R is a rotation by
an angle  equal to the area of the region bounded by the loop γ .
Hint: First, write the solution as a line integral of the Christoffel symbols around the
loop, and then, apply Green’s formula in the plane.

Problem 2.36 The Christoffel symbols for the flat Euclidean metric in R3 vanish.
Compute the Christoffel symbols in the spherical coordinates (r,θ,ϕ).

Problem 2.37 A sphere can be projected onto a plane using stereographic

projection. We use the metric

ds 2 = R 2 (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 ), (2.34)

for the sphere. The x and y coordinates of the plane can be expressed in terms of the
spherical coordinates as

x = 2R tan(θ/2) cos φ, y = 2R tan(θ/2) sin φ. (2.35)

a) Express the metric of the sphere in terms of the x and y coordinates.

b) Compute the Christoffel symbols using the metric obtained in a).
c) Draw a picture illustrating the stereographic projection.

Problem 2.38 A two-dimensional hyperbolic subspace x 2 + y 2 − t 2 = 1, z = 0 is

embedded into the four-dimensional Minkowski space.
a) Parametrize the surface using only two parameters.
b) Compute the induced metric on the subspace.
c) Compute the Christoffel symbols in the subspace.

Problem 2.39 a) Starting from the definition of the curvature tensor

R(X,Y )Z = [∇X,∇Y ]Z − ∇[X,Y ] Z, (2.36)

derive the formula for the components R ωμνλ in terms of the Christoffel symbols.
Prove the first Bianchi identity

R ωμνλ + R ωνλμ + R ωλμν = 0, (2.37)

in the case when the torsion T = 0.

b) Prove the second Bianchi identity

Rαβμν;λ + Rαβνλ;μ + Rαβλμ;ν = 0, (2.38)

 2.2 Christoffel Symbols, Curvature, and Einstein’s Equations 51

and use this to show that the covariant derivative of the energy–momentum tensor
T μν in Einstein’s equations
8π G μν
Gμν = T , (2.39)
c4
vanishes.
Motivate that the vanishing of the covariant derivative of T μν coincides with local
energy–momentum conservation for flat spacetime.

Problem 2.40 Derive the formula relating the Riemann curvature tensor to the
parallel transport around an infinitesimal parallelogram.

Problem 2.41 Fix a metric on the paraboloid z = x 2 + y 2 induced by the standard

Euclidean metric in R3 . Compute the components of the Riemann curvature tensor
on the paraboloid.
Hint: Use polar coordinates in the xy-plane.

Problem 2.42 Consider the two-dimensional metric

ds 2 = r 2 (dr 2 + r 2 dφ 2 ). (2.40)
a) Calculate the component R rφrφ of the Riemann tensor.
b) In flat Euclidean space, the relation between area and circumference of a circle
is C 2 = 4π A. What is the relation for
√ a circle around the origin for the above metric?
The area is given by the integral det(g) drdφ.

Problem 2.43 Let M be a Lorentzian manifold of dimension n = 3. Assume that

there is an orthogonal basis of vector fields X,Y,Z such that
1. g(X,X) = g(Y,Y ) = −g(Z,Z) = −1,
2. [X,Y ] = −Z, [Y,Z] = X, [Z,X] = Y ,
where g is the metric tensor. Compute the Christoffel symbols of the Levi-Civita
connection and the Riemann curvature tensor in this basis.
Hint: Use the symmetry properties of the Christoffel symbols coming from the
torsion-free property of the connection together with ∇X g = ∇Y g = ∇Z g = 0.

Problem 2.44 a) Show that the Ricci tensor Rμν = R λμλν (and thus also the
Einstein tensor) is symmetric when the Riemann curvature tensor R αμβν has been
constructed from a metric.
b) Show that in two spacetime dimensions the tensor Rμν − kgμν R vanishes for
some number k. Determine k.
c) Show that any metric in a 1+1-dimensional spacetime satisfies Einstein’s
equations in vacuum (Tμν = 0), i.e, Gμν = 0.
Hint: Use the (anti)symmetries
Rαβμν = −Rβαμν = −Rαβνμ = Rμναβ , (2.41)
of the Riemann curvature tensor.
52 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.45 Consider the two-dimensional curved spacetime with the metric
given by
1
ds 2 = dt 2 − dy 2 , (2.42)
y2

in coordinates (x μ ) = (x 0,x 1 ) = (t,y) with t ∈ R and y ≥ 0.

a) Find the geodesic equations and the Christoffel symbols.
b) Compute the Riemann curvature tensor and the Ricci scalar.

Problem 2.46 Calculate the Christoffel symbols, the Riemann curvature tensor, the
Ricci tensor, and the Ricci scalar for the metric

ds 2 = dρ 2 + (a 2 + ρ 2 )dφ 2, (2.43)

where a > 0 is a constant and the coordinates ρ and φ vary in the intervals
−∞ < ρ < ∞ and 0 ≤ φ < 2π, respectively.

Problem 2.47 Show by direct computation of the Riemann curvature tensor that
the curvature of the Rindler space with coordinates λ and a and line element

ds 2 = a 2 dλ2 − da 2, (2.44)

is zero.

Problem 2.48 Consider the curved two-dimensional spacetime t 2 − x 2 − y 2 = −1

embedded in three-dimensional Minkowski spacetime with coordinates (x μ ) =
(t,x,y) and the metric ds 2 = dt 2 − dx 2 − dy 2 . Compute the metric tensor gμν and
the Ricci tensor Rμν for this two-dimensional spacetime and thus prove that

Rμν = −gμν , (2.45)

for some constant  to be determined. Perform this computation in the coordi-

nate system (x μ ) = (λ,ϕ), where t = sinh(λ), x = cosh(λ) cos(ϕ), and y =
cosh(λ) sin(ϕ).

Problem 2.49 Compute the Ricci tensor for the two-dimensional spacetime AdS2
and in the coordinates x μ as defined in Problem 2.27.

Problem 2.50 Consider the 2-dimensional manifold M defined by being the surface
t 2 + u2 − x 2 = α 2 (with α > 0 being a constant) embedded in a 3-dimensional flat
manifold with coordinates t, u, and x, and line element ds 2 = dt 2 + du2 − dx 2 .
a) Introduce suitable coordinates on M and compute the line element for M in
terms of those coordinates.
b) Compute the Christoffel symbols in M in the coordinates introduced in a).
c) Compute the Ricci scalar in M.

Problem 2.51 a) Derive the geodesic equations and determine the metric tensor,
the Christoffel symbols, the Riemann curvature tensor, the Ricci tensor, and the Ricci
scalar for the spherically symmetric metric
 2.3 Maxwell’s Equations and Energy–Momentum Tensor 53

ds 2 = gtt (t,r)c2 dt 2 + grr (t,r)dr 2 − r 2 dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 , (2.46)

using the following parametrization

gtt = eν , grr = −eρ , (2.47)

with the arbitrary functions ν = ν(t,r) and ρ = ρ(t,r).

b) Derive the so-called Schwarzschild solution to Einstein’s equations in empty
space, i.e., solve Gαβ = 0 with the spherically symmetric metric given in a).
Hint: Assume that Birkhoff’s theorem holds, which states that any spherically sym-
◦
metric solution to Gαβ = 0 must be static (and asymptotically flat), i.e., ν = 0 and
◦
ρ = 0, where a circle denotes partial differentiation with respect to time t.

Problem 2.52 Prove Birkhoff’s theorem, i.e., prove that any spherically symmetric
solution to Einstein’s equations in empty space must be static.

2.3 Maxwell’s Equations and Energy–Momentum Tensor

Problem 2.53 The energy–momentum tensor associated with the electromagnetic
field strength tensor F μν is

μ 0 μν
T μν = 0 F λ F λν + g Fλω F λω, (2.48)
4
where g μν is the inverse of the metric tensor gμν . Maxwell’s equations in general rel-
ativity are written as in Minkowski space, except that partial derivatives are replaced
by covariant derivatives, i.e., ∇μ F μν = J ν . Show that

∇μ T μν = 0 Jμ F μν . (2.49)
μν
Note that this does not violate the relation ∇μ Ttot = 0, since the T μν considered in
this problem is just the electromagnetic part of the total energy–momentum tensor.

Problem 2.54 Show that half of Maxwell’s equations, i.e.,

∂α Fβγ + ∂β Fγ α + ∂γ Fαβ = 0, (2.50)

can be written precisely in the same form in general relativity; the equations trans-
form covariantly in general coordinate transformations. Why is it unnecessary to
write

∇α Fβγ + ∇β Fγ α + ∇γ Fαβ = 0? (2.51)

Problem 2.55 Show that the covariant form ∇μ j μ = 0 of the current conservation
1 1
law can be written as ḡ − 2 ∂μ ḡ 2 j μ = 0, where ḡ = − det(gμν ); gμν is a Lorentzian
metric. Show that this is compatible with the generally covariant form ∇μ F μν = j ν
of Maxwell’s equations.
54 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.56 Assume that in a three-dimensional spacetime, there is a basis of

vector fields {X0,X1,X2 } with orthogonality relations g(Xμ,Xν ) = 0 for μ = ν and
g(X0,X0 ) = −g(X1,X1 ) = −g(X2,X2 ) = 1. In this basis (which is not a coordinate
basis!), we define an affine connection by
1
∇X0 X1 = −∇X1 X0 = X2, (2.52)
2
1
∇X1 X2 = −∇X2 X1 = − X0, (2.53)
2
1
∇X2 X0 = −∇X0 X2 = X1 . (2.54)
2
We also assume that [X0,X1 ] = X2 , [X1,X2 ] = −X0 , and [X2,X0 ] = X1 .
a) Show that ∇ is the Levi-Civita connection associated to the metric g.
b) Compute the energy–momentum tensor Tμν corresponding to the metric g from
Einstein’s equations in the above basis.

Problem 2.57 The action for a point particle of mass M in a curved spacetime is
given by

SM = M g(γ̇ , γ̇ ) dτ, (2.55)

where τ is the proper time and γ̇ the 4-velocity of the particle. What is the energy–
momentum tensor corresponding to such a point particle? Check that your expression
takes the expected form in the case of standard coordinates in Minkowski space.

Problem 2.58 The Lagrangian density for an electromagnetic field Aμ is given by

1
L = − Fμν F μν + J μ Aμ, (2.56)
4
where Fμν = ∂μ Aν − ∂ν Aμ and J μ is an external 4-current density that does not
depend on Aμ . Use this to derive the equations of motion for an electromagnetic
field in a general spacetime.

Problem 2.59 The Lagrangian for a free massive scalar field φ in a general space-
time is given by
1  μν 
Lφ = g (∂μ φ)(∂ν φ) − m2 φ 2 . (2.57)
2
Find the equation of motion for φ in the curved spacetime based on the principle of
stationary action.

Problem 2.60 A massless scalar field φ can be described by the Lagrangian density
1 μν
L= g (∂μ φ)(∂ν φ) − V (φ), (2.58)
2
where V (φ) is the potential density, which is a function of φ only (i.e., it does not
depend on the metric). Compute the components of the stress–energy tensor Tμν
 2.4 Killing Vector Fields 55

and then simplify your expression in the case where g μν (∂μ φ)(∂ν φ) is negligible
compared to V (φ).

Problem 2.61 Consider the Robertson–Walker spacetime with metric

ds 2 = dt 2 − cosh2 (H t)dx2, (2.59)

where dx2 is the standard Euclidean line element in three dimensions. Show that this
spacetime is not a vacuum solution to Einstein’s field equations.

Problem 2.62 The Lagrangian density of a free electromagnetic field Aμ is

given by
1
L = − Fμν F μν . (2.60)
4
Starting from this Lagrangian density, determine the stress–energy tensor related to
the electromagnetic field.

2.4 Killing Vector Fields

Problem 2.63 A Killing vector field X by definition satisfies the differential
equation
∇i Xj + ∇j Xi = 0. (2.61)
For a geodesic x(s), show that there is a conserved quantity
dx μ
W (s) = Xμ (x(s)) , (2.62)
ds
i.e., the derivative of W with respect to the curve parameter s vanishes.
Hint: Use the symmetry of the Christoffel symbols from the Levi-Civita connection.

Problem 2.64 The symmetries of a spacetime metric are associated to so-called

Killing vector fields. A vector field X is a Killing vector field if LX g = 0; this
means that
Xλ ∂λ gμν = −gλν ∂μ Xλ − gμλ ∂ν Xλ, (2.63)
for all indices μ,ν.
a) Show that this condition can be written without reference to any specific choice
of local coordinates as
X · g(A,B) = g([X,A],B) + g(A,[X,B]), (2.64)
for all vector fields A,B.
b) Show that the coordinate vector field X = ∂λ is a Killing vector field if and
only if
∂λ gμν = 0, ∀μ,ν. (2.65)
c) Show that the vector fields Xμ in Problem 2.56 are all Killing vector fields.
56 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.65 Find the flows of the following vector fields and determine if they
are Killing vector fields or not.
a) The field K = y∂x − x∂y in the Euclidean plane with Cartesian coordinates x
and y.
b) The field K = x∂t − t∂x in two-dimensional Minkowski space with standard
coordinates t and x.

Problem 2.66 Consider the paraboloid z = α(x 2 +y 2 ) as a submanifold embedded

in Euclidean three-dimensional space (R3 ).
a) Using coordinates r and ϕ such that x = r cos(ϕ) and y = r sin(ϕ), compute
the induced metric tensor on the paraboloid.
b) Verify that the vector field K = ∂ϕ is a Killing vector field and find an expres-
sion for the corresponding conserved quantity for a geodesic in terms of the coordi-
nates and their derivatives along the geodesic.

Problem 2.67 A torus can be parametrized using two angles θ and ϕ. The metric
induced by a typical embedding in R3 corresponds to the line element

ds 2 = [R + ρ sin(ϕ)]2 dθ 2 + ρ 2 dϕ 2 . (2.66)

a) Find the Christoffel symbols corresponding to the Levi-Civita connection of

this metric.
b) Find a Killing vector field for the torus and the corresponding conserved quan-
tity along geodesics of the Levi-Civita connection.
c) It is possible to introduce a flat connection ∇˜ with all connection coefficients
˜
abc = 0 in the θ-ϕ coordinate system. This connection is not metric compatible.

Compute the components of the derivative ∇˜ a g for this connection.

Problem 2.68 A wavy two-dimensional surface locally described by the coordi-

nates ρ and ϕ is embedded in R3 according to

x = ρ cos(ϕ), y = ρ sin(ϕ), z = R0 cos(ρ/R0 ), (2.67)

where R0 > 0 is a constant.

a) Compute the induced metric tensor and the Christoffel symbols.
b) Find the flow for each of the following vector fields and determine whether or
not they are Killing vector fields:

K = ∂ρ , Q = ∂ϕ . (2.68)

Problem 2.69 The 2-dimensional de Sitter space dS2 may be defined as the surface
t 2 −x 2 −y 2 = −r02 in 1+2-dimensional Minkowski space, where r0 > 0 is a constant.
a) Introduce suitable coordinates on dS2 .
b) Compute the components of the metric tensor induced by the embedding in
Minkowski space in your selected coordinates.
c) Find (at least) two Killing vector fields on dS2 .
 2.5 Schwarzschild Metric 57

2.5 Schwarzschild Metric

Problem 2.70 The Schwarzschild metric, when restricted to the plane θ = π
2, is
given by
 α  α −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − (dx 0 )2 − 1 − dr − r 2 dφ 2 . (2.69)
r r
Derive the geodesic equations of motion for a test particle in this metric.

Problem 2.71 The Schwarzschild metric is normally written in terms of time

and spherical coordinates. Transform this metric to coordinates (x 1,x 2,x 3 ) =
r(sin θ cos φ, sin θ sin φ, cos θ ).

Problem 2.72 Consider the Schwarzschild metric

   
2GM  0 2 2GM −1 2
ds 2 = c2 dτ 2 = 1 − 2 dx − 1− 2 dr − r 2 d2, (2.70)
c r c r

where τ is the proper time, x 0 = ct, and d2 = dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 .

a) Assuming circular motion in the equatorial plane, i.e., r = r0 , where r0 is a
constant, derive Kepler’s third law

r03
t = 2π , (2.71)
GM
where t is the period. Compare with the classical result.
b) Compute the proper time τ for one period of circular motion.

Problem 2.73 The Schwarzschild metric is given by

 r∗   r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − (dx 0 )2 − 1 − dr − r 2 d2, (2.72)
r r
where d2 = dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 and r∗ ≡ 2GM/c2 is the Schwarzschild radius.
Find the worldlines for bodies, outside of the Schwarzschild horizon, radially freely
falling toward the black hole.

Problem 2.74 Show that there are no circular free fall orbits inside of the radius
r = 3r∗ /2 in the Scwharzschild spacetime.

Problem 2.75 For the Schwarzschild solution in the limit r  r∗ and approx-
imately circular orbits such that r = r0 + ρ, where ρ  r0 , determine the ratio
between the period of oscillations in ρ to the orbital period.

Problem 2.76 The optical size of a black hole is given by 4π b2 , where b is the
minimal impact parameter such that the past-null geodesics originate at r → ∞.
58 General Relativity Theory

Find the optical size of the Schwarzschild black hole for which the line element is
given by
   
R R −1 2
ds = 1 −
2
dt − 1 −
2
dr − r 2 d2 . (2.73)
r r
Hint: For null geodesics in the Schwarzschild spacetime, the angular momentum is
equal to the impact parameter (i.e., b = L) for ṙ = 1 at r → ∞.

Problem 2.77 Show that the Schwarzschild solution of Einstein’s equation

 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2  
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 dθ 2 + sin(θ )2 dϕ 2 , (2.74)
r r
where r∗ = 2GM and c = 1, can be embedded in 5+1-dimensional Minkowski
spacetime with coordinates (Z1,Z2, . . . ,Z6 ) and metric
ds 2 = dZ12 − dZ22 − dZ32 − dZ42 − dZ52 − dZ62 . (2.75)
Hint: Make the ansatz Z1 = 2r∗ sinh(t/(2r∗ ))f (r), Z2 = 2r∗ cosh(t/(2r∗ ))f (r),
Z3 = g(r), Z4 = r sin(θ ) cos(ϕ), Z5 = r sin(θ ) sin(ϕ), and Z6 = r cos(θ ) and
determine the functions f (r) and g(r) [see C. Fronsdal, Phys. Rev. 116, 778 (1959)].
The answer may contain an integral.

2.6 Metrics, Geodesic Equations, and Proper Quantities

Problem 2.78 The restriction of the Minkowski metric (ημν ) to the three-
dimensional hyperboloid M3 , i.e.,
(x 0 )2 − (x 1 )2 − (x 2 )2 − (x 3 )2 = −a 2, (2.76)
defines a curved metric on M3 . Determine the lightlike geodesics with constant spher-
ical angle φ (where x 1 = r sin θ cos φ, x 2 = r sin θ sin φ, and x 3 = r cos θ as usual).

Problem 2.79 The Minkowski metric ds 2 = (dx 0)2 − (dx 1 )2 − (dx 2 )2 in R3

induces a nonflat Lorentzian metric on the surface S = (x ,x ,x ) : (x ) −(x ) −
0 1 2 0 2 1 2

(x 2 )2 = −1 . Let φ be the polar angle in the (x 1,x 2 )-plane. Compute the global time
difference x 0 needed for a light signal to travel from a point φ0 = 0 to a point
φ = π/2 on S.

Problem 2.80 Let (x 0 (s),r(s),θ (s),φ(s)) be a lightlike geodesic for the Schwarz-
schild metric, expressed in the spherical coordinates (r,θ,φ). Derive a differential
equation for r(s) in the form
dr
= f (r), (2.77)
ds
when restricted to the plane θ = π2 .
Hint: The following nonzero Christoffel symbols for the Schwarzschild metric when
0 = − r = 1 dα ,  r = α dα ,  r =  r = −rα, and
θ = π2 might be useful: 0r rr 2α dr 00 2 dr θθ φφ
θ = φ
rφ = r , where α = α(r) = 1 −
1 2GM
rθ c2 r
.
 2.6 Metrics, Geodesic Equations, and Proper Quantities 59

Problem 2.81 Consider the metric ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − S(t)2 (dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 ), where

S(t) is an increasing function of time t with S(0) = 0. Find the geodesic equations
of motion. In particular, construct explicitly the lightlike geodesic when S(t) = t/t0
for some constant t0 > 0. What are the points (ct,x,y,z) ∈ R4 for a fixed t > t0 ,
which are causally related to the event p = (ct0,ct0,0,0), i.e., the points which are
connected to p by a future-directed timelike (or lightlike) curve?

Problem 2.82 The line element on the unit sphere S2 is given by

ds 2 = dθ 2 + sin2 (θ )dϕ 2, (2.78)

and the nonzero Christoffel symbols are

ϕ ϕ
θ
ϕϕ = − sin(θ ) cos(θ ), θϕ = ϕθ = cot(θ ). (2.79)

Consider two geodesics separated by a small distance δ and both orthogonal to the
equator θ = π/2, compute the rate of acceleration of the geodesics toward each other
through the geodesic deviation equation

Aa = R abcd χ̇ b χ̇ c Xd , (2.80)

where Xd is the infinitesimal separation of the geodesics at the equator and χ a are
the coordinates.

Problem 2.83 The metric for the de Sitter universe can be expressed in the form
ds 2 = dt 2 − e2t/R (dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 ), (2.81)

where R > 0 is a constant and x, y, and z can be treated as rectangular coordinates

and t as time.
a) Show that the trajectories of freely falling particles and photons are straight
lines.
b) A body at a point x = X > 0 on the x-axis emits a photon toward the
origin at time t = 0. Show that, if X < R, the photon arrives at the origin at
t = −R log(1 − X/R).

Problem 2.84 The de Sitter universe dS4 is defined as the hyperboloid

t 2 − (x 1 )2 − (x 2 )2 − (x 3 )2 − (x 4 )2 = −T02, (2.82)

in units with c = 1 and where T0 > 0 is a constant. The metric on dS4 is defined by
restricting the five-dimensional Minkowski metric to the hyperboloid.
a) Find an explicit expression for the four-dimensional metric in a suitable coordi-
nate system on dS4 .
b) Derive the geodesic equations in dS4 .
c) Compare the metric tensor with the Robertson–Walker metric

ds 2 = dt 2 − S(t)2 d2, (2.83)

by writing down your metric in a coordinate system where the coefficient in front of
the timelike coordinate is identically equal to one.
60 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.85 Consider AdS2 and the coordinates x μ defined in Problem 2.27.
a) Find the trajectory of a light ray in this spacetime.
b) A particle at rest in r = r0 > 2 starts to fall freely at t = 0. What is the proper
time it takes for the particle to freely fall and reach r = r1 , where 1 < r1 < r0 ?
Also compute the coordinate time for this fall, i.e., the time t at which the particle
reaches r1 . Discuss your result in the limit r1 → 1, and in particular, a possible
physical interpretation of what you find. (Your answers may contain integrals and
functions defined by implicit equations.)

Problem 2.86 Four-dimensional anti-de Sitter space, which is also called AdS4 , is
a four-dimensional curved space that can be defined as follows: Consider the five-
dimensional space with coordinates (Xa ) = (U,V ,X,Y,Z), where a = 1,2,3,4,5,
and metric
ds 2 = dU 2 + dV 2 − dX2 − dY 2 − dZ 2 ≡ dXa dXa . (2.84)
Then, AdS4 is the subspace of this space defined by the relation
Xa Xa = U 2 + V 2 − X2 − Y 2 − Z 2 = 1. (2.85)
Hint: Note that (Xa ) = (U,V ,−X,−Y,−Z).
a) Compute the metric of AdS4 in the coordinate system (x μ ) = (α,λ,θ,ϕ), where
μ = 0,1,2,3, defined as follows: Let (r,θ,ϕ) be spherical coordinates for (X,Y,Z),
i.e., X = r sin(θ ) cos(ϕ), Y = r sin(θ ) sin(ϕ), and Z = r cos(θ ), and (t,α) polar
coordinates for (U,V ), i.e., U = t cos(α) and V = t sin(α). Then, t = cosh(λ) and
r = sinh(λ).
b) Compute all possible trajectories λ(α) of light rays on AdS4 moving along the
subspace Y = Z = 0.
c) Prove that all lightlike geodesics on AdS4 are straight lines in the embedding
space, i.e., they obey the equations
Ẍa = 0, (2.86)
with the dot indicating differentiation with respect to proper time τ.
Hint: You can find these trajectories by extremizing the functional L dτ with
1 a
L= Ẋ Ẋa + λ(Xa Xa − 1), (2.87)
2
and λ a Lagrange multiplier (explain why this is so!). One key step in the proof is to
show that Ẋa Ẋa is conserved and you can assume that it is identically equal to zero
for a lightlike trajectory.

Problem 2.87 Consider the 1 + 1-dimensional Robertson–Walker spacetime

described by the metric
ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 dx 2, (2.88)
for some function a(t).
 2.6 Metrics, Geodesic Equations, and Proper Quantities 61

a) Compute the Ricci tensor Rμν for this spacetime.

b) Derive the trajectory x(t) of a light ray on this spacetime for a(t) = 1/(A2 +
B t 2 ) and some constants A and B. Assume that the light ray is emitted at t = 0
2

from x = x0 with dx/dt > 0.

Problem 2.88 Consider the 1 + 2-dimensional Robertson–Walker spacetime

described by the metric
 
dr 2
ds = dt − a(t)
2 2 2
+ r dφ ,
2 2
(2.89)
1 − kr 2

where a(t) is some function and k is a constant. Derive the geodesic equations and
determine the Christoffel symbols.

Problem 2.89 The Robertson–Walker metric describing a particular closed uni-

verse is given by
 
1
ds 2 = dt 2 − e−2t/a dr 2
+ r 2
(sin2
θ dϕ 2
+ dθ 2
) , (2.90)
1 + (r/a)2

for some parameter a > 0.

a) Determine all nonzero Christoffel symbols μνr , μ,ν = t,r,θ,ϕ for this metric.

Moreover, for the vector field with the components At = t/a, Ar = r/a, Aθ =
Aϕ = 0 in the coordinate vector basis, compute the components ∇μ Ar , μ = t,r, of
the covariant derivative.
b) Find the trajectory r(t) of a light pulse emitted at time t = 0 at r = a and
moving radially outward such that θ = π/2 and ϕ = 0 at all times.

Problem 2.90 The Robertson–Walker metric is defined by

 
dr 2
ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − S(t)2 + r 2
d2
, (2.91)
1 − kr 2

for some smooth function S(t) and d2 = dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 . We consider the case
k = 1. After a coordinate transformation χ = arcsin r (with 0 ≤ χ ≤ π/2), this can
be written as

ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − S(t)2 (dχ 2 + sin2 χ d2 ). (2.92)

a) Derive first integrals for the geodesic equations when d = 0.

b) Derive a formula expressing the distance a light ray emitted at r = 0 at universal
time t0 travels (in the r coordinate) in the time interval [t0,t0 + T ].

Problem 2.91 A spaceship is freely falling (along a geodesic) toward the true
singularity at r = 0 in a Schwarzschild black hole. The initial velocity is θ̇ = φ̇ = 0,
ṙ = α, and t˙ = β, where the dot means differentiation with respect to the path
62 General Relativity Theory

parameter (which can be taken to be the proper time) and the standard Schwarzschild
metric is used, i.e.,
   
2GM 2GM −1 2
ds = 1 − 2
2
c dt − 1 − 2
2 2
dr − r 2 d2 . (2.93)
c r c r
The proper time τ needed to reach the singularity r = 0, when starting from r =
r0 < 2GM/c2 , can be written as
 r0
τ= f (r) dr. (2.94)
0
What is the function f (r)?

Problem 2.92 A Schwarzschild black hole has a mass M = 13.5 · 1030 kg (about
seven times the solar mass). An observer is freely falling (along a geodesic) radially
toward the black hole. The initial radial coordinate is r = r0 = 1010 km and the
initial coordinate velocity is c(dr/dx 0 ) = −v0 = −10 km/s. Derive the formula for
the proper time needed to reach the Schwarzschild horizon and give the order of mag-
nitude of this time. Newton’s gravitational constant is G ≈ 6.67 · 10−11 m3 /(kg · s 2 )
and the speed of light is c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s.
Hint: The following integral can be useful
  !"
dx 1 bx b b bx
 =√ x2 + − ln x + + x2 + + C, (2.95)
a+x b a a 2a 2a a

where a, b, and C are constants.

Problem 2.93 A particle of mass m > 0 is freely falling radially toward the horizon
of a Schwarzschild black hole of mass M. Show that p0 = mcg00 ẋ 0 is a constant of
motion. Find the proper time s (as a function of p0 = E/c) needed for the particle
to reach r = 2GM/c2 from r = 3GM/c2 . Show that the result can be written as
 3r∗ /2
dr
s =   , (2.96)
r∗ 2
r∗
E
mc2
− 1− r

where r∗ ≡ 2GM/c2 .

Problem 2.94 An observer in the Schwarzschild spacetime moves with fixed radial
coordinate r = r0 and fixed angular velocity ϕ̇ = ω in the plane θ = π/2. Compute
the 4-acceleration A and the proper acceleration α of the observer as a function of
the proper period ω.

Problem 2.95 A particle of mass m > 0 is freely falling radially toward the event
horizon r = 2GM of a Schwarzschild black hole of mass M (we set c = 1), i.e., θ
and ϕ are constant in the standard coordinates where the metric is
     
2GM 2GM −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt 2 − 1 − dr − r 2 dθ 2 + sin(θ )2 dϕ 2 . (2.97)
r r
 2.6 Metrics, Geodesic Equations, and Proper Quantities 63

a) Compute the trajectory of this particle.

b) Find also formulas for the coordinate time t and proper time τ it takes for
the particle to reach the event horizon from some position r = r0 . Determine for each
of these times if it is finite or infinite, and discuss the physical significance of your
results.
Integration constants can be fixed so that the results have a simple form, but if so
a physical interpretation of what the choice amounts to should be given.

Problem 2.96 Consider an observer in the Schwarzschild spacetime with line

element
 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 d2 . (2.98)
r r
The observer starts out at r = r0 and initially moves tangentially with a local velocity
v0 relative to the stationary frame.
a) Determine the minimal value of v0 such that the observer does not fall into the
black hole region of the solution.
b) Assuming that v0 = 0, compute the proper time it takes for the observer to
reach the singularity.
Hint: The local velocity v of an observer relative to the stationary frame has a γ factor
of γ = V · U , where V is the 4-velocity of the observer, U = α∂t , and U 2 = 1.

Problem 2.97 You are sending up a satellite around the Earth. You want it to be
directed such that when you turn off its engines, it will follow a geodesic around the
Earth with fixed radius. The metric around the Earth is
 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 dθ 2 − r 2 sin2 θ dφ 2, R0 > r∗, (2.99)
r r
where R0 is the radius of the Earth. Your initial data when you turn off the engines at
τ = 0 are the following
  
dr  dθ  dφ 
= 0, = 0, = B, (2.100)
dτ τ =0 dτ τ =0 dτ τ =0
r|τ =0 = R, θ |τ =0 = π/2, φ|τ =0 = 0.

Is this possible? If so, determine how your initial condition B, which you have to
choose, depends on R and r∗ .

Problem 2.98 A satellite moves at a constant radial distance from the Earth with
a constant orbital coordinate speed v = rdφ/dt. Assume that the metric is the
Schwarzschild metric and let the orbit be in the plane with angle θ = π/2 such that
 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 dφ 2, (2.101)
r r
where r∗ ≡ 2GM is the Schwarzschild radius.
a) Calculate the proper time τ for the satellite to complete one orbit around the
Earth. Express the answer in terms of the coordinate speed v and the radius r.
64 General Relativity Theory

b) Use the result in a) to calculate t/τ and show that if this is series expanded to
first order in v and the gravitational potential, it holds that

t v2
−1 − s , (2.102)
τ 2
where s is the gravitational potential at the satellite.

Problem 2.99 The spacetime outside of the Earth may be approximately described
by the Schwarzschild line element
 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 d2, (2.103)
r r
where r∗ is the Schwarzschild radius of the Earth (approximately 9 mm). A GPS
satellite is orbiting the Earth in free fall at a stationary radius r = r0 . The motion is
assumed to occur in the plane θ = π/2.
a) Since r is constant, the motion will have a 4-velocity U = α∂t + β∂ϕ . Find the
values of the constants α and β.
b) Find an expression for the proper time it takes for the satellite to complete a full
orbit around the Earth.
c) An observer is stationary at r = r0 (note that this requires proper acceleration
of this observer). At what speed will the satellite pass by the observer?
Hint: The relative speed v between two objects with 4-velocities U and V ,
respectively, has a γ factor of γ = V · U .

Problem 2.100 Consider two observers in the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime

with line element
 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 d2 . (2.104)
r r
Both observers can be assumed to move in the plane θ = π/2. The first observer is a
stationary observer with fixed spatial coordinates r = r0 > 3r∗ and ϕ = ϕ0 , whereas
the second observer is moving on a circular geodesic with radius r = r0 .
a) Give a parametrization of the worldline for each observer and use it to find the
proper acceleration of the observers.
b) The observers meet and synchronize their clocks when they pass each other.
Find the ratio between the times shown by the respective clocks when they pass each
other the next time.
c) Find the relative velocity of the observers as they pass each other.

Problem 2.101 You have reached a fast rotating neutron star with your spaceship.
You decide that you want to go around the neutron star once. Let your orbit be at
constant radial distance and your coordinate speed v = rdφ/dt.
a) Calculate the proper time τ it takes you to go around. Express your answer in
terms of the radius R and the speed v (set c = 1). The metric describing this neutron
star is given by the Kerr metric, i.e.,
 2.6 Metrics, Geodesic Equations, and Proper Quantities 65
 
rr∗ 2arr∗ sin2 θ ρ2 2
ds = 1 − 2 dt 2 +
2
dtdφ − dr − ρ 2 dθ 2
ρ ρ2 
!
a 2 rr∗ sin2 θ
− r +a +
2 2
sin2 θ dφ 2, (2.105)
ρ2

where ρ 2 ≡ r 2 + a 2 cos2 θ ,  ≡ r 2 − rr∗ + a 2 , a ≡ J /M, and M and J are the mass

and the angular momentum of the neutron star, respectively. You choose to make the
orbit at a fixed angle of θ = π/2.
b) Now, use your result in a) to calculate T /τ , where T is the coordinate time of
your orbit, and show if you expand to first approximation in v and the gravitational
potential, you obtain
  a 2 
T v2 r∗
1+ 1+ + , if rR∗ ∼ v 2 . (2.106)
τ 2 R 2R

Problem 2.102 At the time of inflation, consider a massive free-falling particle.

Assume that the metric of spacetime is
 
ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 dρ 2 + ρ 2 (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 ) , a(t) = a0 eCt , (2.107)

where a0 and C are constants. The initial values for the free-falling particle are
given by
  
dρ  1 dθ  1 dφ  1
= , = , = ,
dτ τ =0 4 dτ τ =0 4 dτ τ =0 4 (2.108)
t|τ =0 = 0, ρ|τ =0 = 1, θ |τ =0 = 0, φ|τ =0 = 0.

a) Is the spatial geometry curved or not (at each fixed value of time)? Justify your
answer.
b) Calculate the proper time for the free-falling particle between the coordinate
times t = 0 and t = t1 .
Hint: Calculations might become simpler if another coordinate system is used! It is
also okay to give the answer expressed as an integral.

Problem 2.103 Assume a three-dimensional version of the Robertson–Walker met-

ric (with k = 0):

ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 (dr 2 + r 2 dφ 2 ). (2.109)

You are traveling in your spaceship in this universe. You decide to travel in a circle
around r = 0 on a fixed radius r = R0 .
a) Calculate the proper time for the spaceship in this geometry going around
one time (let φ go from zero to 2π ) if you have the following constant velocity
v = a(t)R0 dφ dt and a(t) = exp(t). Let the initial time be t = 0.
b) Is it always possible to get around in a finite time?
66 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.104 You are traveling in your spaceship in outer intergalactic space.
The metric can be assumed to be the Robertson–Walker metric with zero curvature:

ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 (dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 ). (2.110)

To save fuel, you do not use the spaceship’s engines. You are moving according to
the following initial conditions
  
dx  dy  dz 
= A, = 0, = 0,
dτ τ =0 dτ τ =0 dτ τ =0 (2.111)
x|τ =0 = X0, y|τ =0 = 0, z|τ =0 = 0.
Calculate the proper time it takes you to reach x = XD . It is sufficient to give your
answer in terms of an integral, which depends on the initial value A and the scale
factor a(t).

Problem 2.105 An observer (A) is stationary in Schwarzschild spacetime at a

radius r0 . A second observer (B) is initially stationary at r = r1 , but at some event
(which can be assigned t = τ = 0) suffers from a rocket failure and becomes freely
falling. On the way into the black hole, B passes right by A.
a) What is the relative velocity of A and B as they pass by each other?
b) What proper time has passed for B since the rocket failure when they pass by
each other?

Problem 2.106 For the two-dimensional spacetime with coordinates t and x and
line element ds 2 = x 2 dt 2 − dx 2 :
a) Compute the proper acceleration of an observer with worldline x = x0 , where
x0 is a constant.
b) Compute the proper time for a free-falling observer starting at x = x0 with
dx/dt = 0 to reach the coordinate singularity at x = 0.

2.7 Kruskal–Szekeres Coordinates

Problem 2.107 Show that for r > 2μ the Kruskal–Szekeres metric
16μ2 (2μ−r)/2μ
ds 2 = e dudv − r 2 (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 ), (2.112)
r
is equivalent to the standard Schwarzschild metric through the relations

x0  v
uv = (2μ − r)e(r−2μ)/2μ, t= = 2μ ln − . (2.113)
c u
Here u < 0 and v > 0, and we use units with c = 1.

Problem 2.108 Show that a spaceship cannot get out from the black hole region
u > 0 and v > 0 in Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates.
 2.7 Kruskal–Szekeres Coordinates 67

Problem 2.109 An observer is freely falling to the true singularity r = 0 of a

Schwarzschild black hole. We assume that the fall follows a radial ray d = 0.
Since the standard (spherical) coordinates become singular at the Schwarzschild
event horizon r = 2GM/c2 ≡ 2μ, we express the initial condition of the observer in
terms of the Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates
x0 v r−2μ
t= = 2μ ln , uv = (2μ − r)e 2μ , (2.114)
c u
for u,v > 0. The initial conditions are
E
u(0) = 0, v(0) = v0, u̇(0) = , (2.115)
cv0
and v̇(0) is determined by the requirement of the 4-velocity being future-directed
with modulus one. Compute the proper time s for the fall, expressed as an integral
 2μ
f (r) dr
0

for a certain function f (r) of the radius r expressed in terms of E and v0 .

Hint: From the equations of motion, it can be shown that the quantity
 
u̇v − v̇u 2μ − r
exp ,
r 2μ

is a constant of motion.

Problem 2.110 Consider a Schwarzschild black hole with metric

 r∗  2  r∗ −1 2
ds 2 = 1 − dt − 1 − dr − r 2 d2 . (2.116)
r r
a) What conclusion can you draw about the singularity r = 0 of this metric from
the fact that
3r∗2
Rμναβ R μναβ = ? (2.117)
r6
Do not forget to motivate your answer.
b) Determine what radial light cones look like using the Schwarzschild metric,
i.e., how t depends on r.
c) Instead of using the Schwarzschild coordinates to describe black holes, it can
be useful to use Kruskal–Szekeres coordinates. The metric then takes the form
4r∗3 −r/r∗
ds 2 = e (dV 2 − dU 2 ) − r 2 d2 . (2.118)
r
Determine what radial light cones look like in these coordinates.
68 General Relativity Theory

2.8 Weak Field Approximation and Newtonian Limit

Problem 2.111 a) What are the equations of motion for a massive particle in
a gravitational potential according to Newton’s mechanics and general relativity,
respectively? Derive the former from the latter in the Newtonian limit.
b) What are tidal forces in Newton’s theory of gravity? How are they related to
the gravitational potential? Why are solar tidal forces slightly weaker than lunar
tidal forces? In general relativity, explain how the tidal forces are identified with
the curvature of spacetime.

Problem 2.112 a) Compute the Ricci tensor Rμν in the linear approximation for a
metric gμν = ημν + hμν , i.e., you can ignore all but the first-order terms in hμν .
b) Show that a coordinate transformation
x μ → x μ + χ μ (x), |∂ν χ μ |  1, (2.119)
in the linear approximation described in a) corresponds to a gauge transformation of
hμν given by
hμν → hμν − ∂μ χν − ∂ν χμ . (2.120)
c) Show that, by imposing the gauge condition
h
∂ μ h̄μν = 0, where h̄μν = hμν − ημν , h = ημν hμν , (2.121)
2
the linearized Einstein equations Rμν = 0 reduce to the wave equation for h̄μν .

Problem 2.113 The spacetime metric corresponding to a weak gravitational

potential |(x)|  c2 is
   
2(x)
ds = c − 2(x) dt − 1 +
2 2 2
(dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 ). (2.122)
c2
a) Find the geodesic equation for this metric in the nonrelativistic and weak field
(where you only keep the lowest-order terms in ) limits. Discuss your result.
b) Compute the redshift of a photon with angular frequency ω moving in the
Earth’s gravitational field (x) = −gz (independent of x and y) from z = 0 to
z = h > 0 as observed by a stationary observer. You should give a detailed derivation
of your result. Discuss also how one can understand the result using the equivalence
principle.

Problem 2.114 Consider two massive particles moving freely on two close paths
on a curved spacetime with metric ds 2 = gμν dx μ dx ν and assume that the positions
of these two particles at proper time τ are x μ (τ ) and x μ (τ ) + s μ (τ ), respectively,
with s μ small (i.e., only terms linear in s μ need to be taken into account and higher-
order terms can be ignored).
a) Derive the geodesic deviation equation
D2s μ μ
α
ν dx dx
β
= −R ανβ s . (2.123)
Dτ 2 dτ dτ
 2.8 Weak Field Approximation and Newtonian Limit 69

b) Show that in the Newtonian limit the geodesic deviation equation reduces to the
equation for tidal acceleration in Newton’s theory of gravitation, i.e.,
d 2si ∂ 2 j
= − s . (2.124)
dt 2 ∂x i ∂x j
Hint: Recall that
DV μ dV μ μ dx
α
= + αβ V β. (2.125)
Dτ dτ dτ
To derive the equation in a) it is convenient, but not necessary, to work in a local
inertial frame.

Problem 2.115 Derive a relativistic generalization of the centrifugal force as fol-

lows: Consider the motion of a free particle in Minkowski space in a coordinate
system rotating with constant angular velocity ω around the z-coordinate axis.
a) Compute the Christoffel symbols and the geodesic equations in this coordinate
system.
Hint: It is convenient to use cylindrical coordinates (r,ϕ,z).
b) From your result in a), derive the equations of motion in this rotating frame in
the nonrelativistic limit (for ωr  1).

Problem 2.116 a) Find the trajectory of a planet with mass m moving on a circle in
the gravitational potential V (r) = −GMm/|r|, according to Newton’s mechanics.
b) There is a natural generalization of the trajectory in a) to general relativity.
Explain what this generalization is. Find this generalized trajectory.
Hint: The trajectory can be computed from Hamilton’s principle
  
1 2 GMm
δ mṙ + dt = 0, (2.126)
2 r
using spherical coordinates (r,θ,ϕ) and assuming θ (t) = π/2 and r(t) = r0 =
constant. Recall that dx 2 + dy 2 + dz2 = dr 2 + r 2 (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ). Find the relation
between r and the angular momentum L = mr 2 ϕ̇.

Problem 2.117 Consider the Einstein field equations.

a) What three approximations should be made to obtain the Newtonian limit?
b) Show that, in the Newtonian limit, the Einstein field equations reduce to
∇ 2  ∝ ρ, (2.127)
where  is the gravitational potential and ρ the mass density.

Problem 2.118 Consider a satellite in circular orbit around the Earth at a distance
R1 from the surface. The metric outside of the Earth can be considered to be
ds 2 = (1 + 2)dt 2 − (1 + 2)−1 dr 2 − r 2 d2, (2.128)
where  = −GM/r is the classical gravitational potential and d2 = dθ 2 +
sin2 θ dφ 2 . What is the eigentime required for the satellite to complete a full orbit
around the Earth? How does this compare with the global time t required for the
same orbit?
70 General Relativity Theory

2.9 Gravitational Lensing

Problem 2.119 Consider a spherical body with radius R0 , constant density, and
total mass M0 . Neutrinos traveling through this body have such small masses that
their worldlines can be roughly approximated as null geodesics. Find an expression
for the angular deflection of a neutrino with an impact parameter (smallest distance to
the body’s center) b < R0 . Verify that your expression has the expected limit when
b → R0 . You may work in the low-velocity and weak field limits for computing
the metric.

Problem 2.120 For large distances from the center of the halo, the Navarro–Frenk–
White (NFW) dark matter halo profile assumes that the matter density varies as
ρ(r) = k/r 3 . Find the deflection angle α due to gravitational lensing of light that
passes such a halo at a minimum distance r0 . You may assume that the NFW density
profile is valid from some radius r = rs < r0 and that the mass inside this radius is
given by M0 .

2.10 Frequency Shifts

Problem 2.121 a) Derive the formula for the gravitational redshift between station-
ary observers in a static spacetime with line element such that the metric components
gμν are independent of a global time coordinate t.
b) Explain the origin of the gravitational redshift in the case of the Schwarzschild
metric and derive the approximative formula
λB − λA GM
z≡  2 , (2.129)
λA c rA
for the redshift observed far away at B, from a source at a radial coordinate r = rA .

Problem 2.122 A 1+1-dimensional universe is defined as the surface

(ct)2 − x 2 − y 2 = −K 2 (where K > 0), (2.130)

in R3 . The metric on the surface is induced by the Minkowski metric ds 2 = c2 dt 2 −

dx 2 −dy 2 in R3 . Analyze the frequency shift in this mini-universe between comoving
observers.

Problem 2.123 A spaceship is moving radially toward a center of mass M with a

coordinate velocity dr/dt = −0.1c, where t is the Schwarzschild universal time and
c  3 · 108 m/s2 . An observer in the spaceship is measuring the wavelength of a light
signal from a distant star at rest. The light signal travels along the same radius as the
observer. The wavelength at r → ∞ is assumed to be 4 000 Å. What is the observed
wavelength when GM = 1020 m3 /s 2 and r = 106 m?

Problem 2.124 Compute the redshift of starlight emitted from the surface of a
star with rstar = 7 · 108 m and mass M = 2 · 1030 kg. Use the approximate values
G ≈ 6.67 · 10−11 m3 /(kg · s 2 ) and c ≈ 3 · 108 m/s.
 2.10 Frequency Shifts 71

Problem 2.125 Elements in the chromosphere of the Sun emit sharp spectral lines.
A student in relativity theory observes one such known spectral line in a spectrometer
on Earth. According to general relativity, the emitted light is affected by the mass of
the Sun. Calculate, using the general theory of relativity and to lowest order in the
gravitational constant, the magnitude and sign of the relative frequency shift ν/ν
of this spectral line. The solar mass is about 2.0 · 1030 kg, Newton’s gravitational
constant is G ≈ 6.7 · 10−11 m3 /(kg · s2 ), the speed of light is c ≈ 3.0 · 108 m/s,
the solar radius is about 7.8 · 108 m, and the average distance Sun-Earth is about
1.5 · 1011 m.

Problem 2.126 A spaceship is launched from the ground station on Earth and is
moving radially upward. When it is at an altitude of 1 000 km, its velocity is only
about 0.1 km/s. At that moment, a light signal is sent from the spaceship and is
observed at the ground station. Compute the red/blue shifts of the signal from the
two most important physical effects. Newton’s gravitational constant is G ≈ 6.67 ·
10−11 m3 /(kg · s2 ) and the radius and the mass of the Earth are R ≈ 6.3 · 103 km
and M ≈ 5.98 · 1024 kg, respectively.

Problem 2.127 Compute the blueshift of a light signal sent from a very distant
spaceship and observed at the Earth. Assume that the spaceship is stationary in an
approximately static spacetime. Useful information: The distance between the Sun
and the Earth is approximately 1.5 · 1011 m, the speed of light is c  3 · 108 m/s,
GM  1.3 · 1020 m3 /s2 and the gravitational potential of the Earth on its surface
(normalized to zero at infinity) is −6.24 · 107 m2 /s2 .

Problem 2.128 A free-falling observer is moving radially away from a black hole
with a local velocity that is just large enough to escape the gravitational pull. The
free-falling observer is emitting light signals radially toward an observer stationary
at infinity. Compute the frequency of the light signal received by the second observer
if it was emitted with frequency f0 at radius r by the first observer.

Problem 2.129 In the two-dimensional spacetime introduced in Problem 2.106, a

series of light signals is emitted from a free-falling observer starting at x = x0 and
received by an observer with a worldline x = x1 , where x1 is a constant. Find the
redshift z of the light signals as a function of the position x = xe where the signal
was emitted by the free-falling observer.

Problem 2.130 Consider the Robertson–Walker metric written as

 
dr 2
ds = c dt − S(t)
2 2 2 2
+ r d ,
2 2
(2.131)
1 − kr 2
for some fixed parameter k > 0. We project the metric to two dimensions by setting
d = 0. An observer A, located at (t0,r0 ) and at rest with respect to the coordinate r,
sends a light signal. Another observer, located at (t1,r1 ) and also at rest with respect
to r, receives the light signal. After a short time , A sends another light signal, which
is received by B at the time t1 +   . Compute the ratio   / in terms of the unknown
function S(t) and deduce from this the cosmological redshift.
72 General Relativity Theory

Problem 2.131 The Robertson–Walker metric (for k = 1) can be written as

 
ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − S(t)2 dχ 2 + sin2 χ (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dφ 2 ) , (2.132)

where 0 ≤ χ ≤ π/2, 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, and 0 ≤ φ < 2π . Derive the differential equations

for the geodesics.

2.11 Gravitational Waves

Problem 2.132 Consider the weak field limit in the harmonic gauge, where gab =
ηab + εhab and g ab ∇a ∇b χ c = 0 for the coordinates χ a .
a) Show that the harmonic gauge leaves a residual gauge freedom χ a →
a
χ = χ a + εξ a , which also preserves the weak field approximation, as long as
g ab ∇a ∇b ξ c = 0 and find an expression for hab in the coordinates χ a .
b) Defining h̄ab = hab − gab h/2, where h = haa , show that

∂ a h̄ab = 0, (2.133)

in the harmonic gauge to leading order in ε.

c) A gravitational plane wave satisfies h̄ab = Aab exp(ikc χ c ), where the wave
equation can be used to conclude that ηab k a k b = 0. Using the residual gauge trans-
formation ξ a = iC a exp(ikc χ c ), find an expression for the amplitude Aab of the
gravitational wave in the χ a coordinates.
d) Choosing k0 = k3 = 1, compute the values of the constants C a for which
A0a = A3a = 0 and Aa

a = 0.
Hint: Note that the harmonic gauge condition in itself puts some constraints on the
form of Aab .

Problem 2.133 Consider gravitational waves described by perturbations hμν of

the metric gμν such that gμν = ημν + hμν , where ημν is the Minkowski metric and
|hμν |  1.
a) In the transverse traceless gauge (TT gauge), the conditions h0i = 0 and
ημν hμν = 0 hold, which means that the Lorenz gauge condition reduces to ∂ν hν μ = 0.
Using the TT gauge conditions, show that the number of independent components of
hμν is two.
b) Consider two particles at rest at (x,y,z) = (0,0,0) and (x,y,z) = (L,0,0),
respectively. A plus-polarized gravitational wave h+ of frequency f and amplitude
h0  1 passes by, propagating in the z-direction, such that
⎛ ⎞
0 0 0 0
⎜0 h+ h× 0⎟
(hμν (t,x,y,z)) = ⎜⎝0 h× −h+ 0⎠
⎟

0 0 0 0
⎛ ⎞
0 0 0 0
  z  ⎜ ⎟
= h0 sin 2πf t − ⎜0 1 0 0⎟ . (2.134)
c ⎝ 0 0 −1 0 ⎠
0 0 0 0
 2.11 Gravitational Waves 73

Show that the distance d measured along the x-axis between the two particles (i.e.,
the spatial separation along the equal t hypersurface), as the wave passes, is given by
 
1
d = 1 − h0 sin(2πf t) L. (2.135)
2
Problem 2.134 Assuming a source described by the energy–momentum tensor
T μν , the linearized Einstein equations are given by
h̄μν = 16π Tμν , (2.136)
and the solutions in terms of Green’s functions can be written as
 
Tμν (t − |x − x |,x ) 3  4
h̄μν (t,x) = 4 d x ∼ Tμν (t − r,x ) d 3 x , (2.137)
|x − x | r
where r ≡ |x| is far away from the source. Using the conservation law for the energy–
momentum tensor, i.e., ∇ν T μν = 0, show that the spatial components are

2 d2
h̄ij (t,x) ∼ ρ(t − r,x )xi xj d 3 x , (2.138)
r dt 2
where ρ = T 00 is the mass–energy density of the source.

Problem 2.135 a) For a neutron-star binary (with total mass M  2.8M ) at

a distance of 5 kpc with orbital period P = 1 h, estimate the amplitude h of the
gravitational waves.
b) Again, for the same system, but now with P = 0.02 s (giving fGW = 2forbit =
100 Hz, which lies in the sensitive band of the gravitational wave observatory LIGO),
estimate h at a distance of 15 Mpc, which is approximately the distance to the Virgo
cluster of galaxies.
c) Estimate the orbital separation R when P = 0.02 s.
d) For a neutron star at 1 kpc with a nonspherical deformation of mass δM =
10−6 M , a spin frequency of 50 Hz, and a stellar radius of 10 km, determine the
gravitational wave amplitude h at Earth.

Problem 2.136 The first direct observation of gravitational waves was performed
on September 14, 2015. This was presented by the LIGO and Virgo Collaborations on
February 11, 2016, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2017. The original
signal was named GW150914 and it was also the first observation of a binary black
hole merger.
a) GW150914 had a maximal amplitude of h  10−21 at a frequency of f 
200 Hz. Compute the corresponding energy flux at the Earth. The binary source of
GW150914 is situated at an estimated distance of about 400 Mpc.
b) Estimate the energy flux in electromagnetic waves that is received at Earth
from a full moon. Compare this energy flux to the gravitational wave energy flux of
GW150914.
Note:
c5
 3.63 · 1052 W, (2.139)
G
is equal to 1 in geometric units, i.e., c = 1 and G = 1.
74 General Relativity Theory

2.12 Cosmology and Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–Walker Metric

Problem 2.137 Consider the linearly expanding spacetime with metric ds 2 =
dt 2 − H 2 t 2 dx 2 . You start at t = t0 , x = 0 and want to arrive at x = L at t = t1
without accelerating at any time. Find an expression for your position x(t) as a
function of the global time t. What is the largest L you can arrive at in finite
global time?

Problem 2.138 In a 2-dimensional mini-universe the metric element is given by

ds 2 = c2 dt 2 − S(t)2 dχ 2, (2.140)

where S(t) is some positive function of the time t, constant in the “space” variable χ .
Explain the cosmological redshift and derive an expression for it by studying the
emission and detection of light signals by comoving observers at two different loca-
tions χ0 and χ1 .

Problem 2.139 Consider the two-dimensional de Sitter universe with the metric
(c = 1)

ds 2 = dt 2 − e2t/R dx 2, (2.141)

where R > 0 is a constant. Find an expression for the cosmological redshift between
comoving observers at x0 > 0 and x1 > x0 .

Problem 2.140 Consider the two-dimensional de Sitter universe as defined in

Problem 2.139.
a) Compute all nonzero Christoffel symbols for this metric.
b) Find the explicit form of the wave equation gμν ∇ μ ∇ ν  = 0, where  is a
scalar field, in this universe.

Problem 2.141 Consider the Robertson–Walker spacetime described by the metric

 
ds 2 = dt 2 − e2t/tH dr 2 + r 2 (dθ 2 + sin2 θ dϕ 2 ) , (2.142)

with the coordinates (x μ ) = (t,r,θ,ϕ), where t is the universal time and tH ≈ 14 Gyr
is the Hubble time.
a) Compute the path r(t) of a light pulse emitted at time t = t0 at the origin r = 0.
You may assume that the light ray moves along the line θ = π/2 and ϕ = 0 so that
dr/dt > 0.
b) Compute the proper distance between the origin r = 0 and a point r > 0 on the
line θ = π/2 and ϕ = 0 at fixed universal time t.
c) Compute the spectral shift of the light pulse in a) during the time between
emission at the origin and arrival at a point r > 0.
Hint: The spectral shift is defined as z = λrec /λem − 1, where λem is the wavelength
of the light at emission and λrec its wavelength when it arrives.
 2.12 Cosmology and Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–Walker Metric 75

Problem 2.142 a) Derive Hubble’s law

ȧ(t)
vp = dp, (2.143)
a(t)
where ȧ(t) = da/dt and vp and dp are the proper velocity and the proper distance,
respectively, from the Robertson–Walker metric

ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 Gij dx i dx j . (2.144)

b) What are the physical consequences of Hubble’s law?

Problem 2.143 a) The first Friedmann equation can be written as

ȧ 2 k 8π G
2
+ 2 = ρ, (2.145)
a a 3
which can also be written as 1 −  = −k/ȧ 2 , where  = ρ/ρc . Assume now that
k is small compared to the energy density ρ, which mainly consists of the cosmolog-
ical constant ρ , thus leading to an inflationary universe. Show that the longer this
scenario is assumed to last, the closer  gets to one.
b) Describe the flatness problem in words and how it is solved by inflation.

Problem 2.144 Our present universe can roughly be described by a spatially flat
Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–Walker spacetime with  = 0.7, m = 0.3,
r  10−4 , being the density parameters of the cosmological constant (dark energy),
matter, and radiation, respectively.
a) How much smaller was the scale factor when the energy density of the dark
energy was equal to the energy density of matter?
b) At what redshift z did the matter–radiation equality (equal amounts of radiation
and matter energy density) occur?

Problem 2.145 Our current universe is roughly described by a dark energy compo-
nent  = 0.7 and a matter component m = 0.3. Determine an integral expression
for the future behavior of the scale factor a(t). You may assume that the scale factor
today is a0 = 1 and that the current Hubble parameter is H0 . Plot the result of your
integral for 0 ≤ a(t) ≤ 100. Compare your result to the analytic result a(t) =
exp(H0 (t − t0 )) for  = 1 and m = 0 and determine the age of the universe t0 if
a(0) = 0.
Hint: You may use numerical integration.

Problem 2.146 A toy model 1+1-dimensional circular Robertson–Walker universe

has the line element

ds 2 = dt 2 − a(t)2 dϕ 2, (2.146)

where ϕ and ϕ + 2nπ (n ∈ N) correspond to the same spatial point. An object is

thrown from ϕ = ϕ0 at time t0 with a velocity v relative to a comoving observer.
76 General Relativity Theory

a) Find a condition that must be satisfied in order for the object to complete a
full lap around the universe to reach the comoving observer again from the other
direction.
b) What is the relative velocity between the object and a comoving observer at an
arbitrary time t?
You may assume that the scale factor a(t) has a known dependence on t.

Problem 2.147 Consider a flat universe containing only matter and radiation com-
ponents such that the radiation density today corresponds to rad = x  1. Find an
expression for the time that has passed since matter and radiation had equal energy
densities.

Problem 2.148 Consider a Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–Walker universe with

curvature parameter κ = 0. Determine the condition on the
 equation-of-state
 param-
eter w = p/ρ such that the curvature parameter |K | = −1/(H a)2  decreases with
cosmological time t for an expanding universe (ȧ > 0).

Problem 2.149 For a flat single-component Friedmann–Lemaı̂tre–Robertson–

Walker universe with an arbitrary, but fixed, equation-of-state parameter w = p/ρ:
a) Compute the scale factor a(t) as a function of cosmological time t.
b) Compute the Hubble parameter H (t) as a function of t.
Hint: You may assume that, for some cosmological time t = t0 , we normalize our
parameters such that a0 = a(t0 ) = 1 and H0 = H (t0 ) are known. Your answers
should be given in terms of ω, t0 , and H0 .

Problem 2.150 A scalar field φ with potential energy density V (φ) has a
Lagrangian density given by
1 μν
L = g (∂μ φ)(∂ν φ) − V (φ). (2.147)
2
a) Derive the equation of motion for the scalar field φ.
b) Assuming that the N +1-dimensional spacetime has a metric given by
ds 2 = gμν dx μ dx ν = dt 2 − a(t)2 Gij dx i dx j , (2.148)
where Gij are the metric components on an N -dimensional Riemannian manifold,
and that the scalar field φ only depends on the time coordinate t, show that the
scalar field is an ideal fluid and find the (time-dependent) equation-of-state parameter
w = p/ρ0 .