Table of Contents ii

Table of Contents – Part 2

35 | Ecology and the Biosphere...........................................................................................845

Review Questions.................................................................................................................................................845

Critical Thinking Questions...................................................................................................................................855

Test Prep for AP® Courses....................................................................................................................................866

Science Practice Challenge Questions..................................................................................................................870

36 | Population and Community Ecology.............................................................................873

Review Questions.................................................................................................................................................873

Critical Thinking Questions...................................................................................................................................888

Test Prep for AP® Courses....................................................................................................................................906

Science Practice Challenge Questions..................................................................................................................931

37 | Ecosystems...................................................................................................................936

Review Questions.................................................................................................................................................936

Critical Thinking Questions...................................................................................................................................941

Test Prep for AP® Courses....................................................................................................................................946

Science Practice Challenge Questions..................................................................................................................952

38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity..........................................................................954

Review Questions.................................................................................................................................................954

Critical Thinking Questions...................................................................................................................................961

Test Prep for AP® Courses....................................................................................................................................968

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual

845 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

35 | ECOLOGY AND THE BIOSPHERE

REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 C, H, O, and N are nutrients that cycle through Earth in different forms. Which level of
ecology includes the study of nutrient cycling though the environment?
A Organismal ecology
B Population ecology
C Community ecology
D Ecosystem ecology
Solution The solution is (D). Ecosystem ecology is the study of interactions of abiotic (nutrient
cycling) and biotic factors.
2 What is arranged from least inclusive to most inclusive?
A Population > ecosystem > community > biosphere
B Ecosystem < population < biosphere < community
C Biosphere < ecosystem < community < population
D Population < community < ecosystem < biosphere
Solution The solution is (D). Biosphere includes all of the other levels of biological
organization in a sequential order. Populations form a community, a community is
part of the ecosystem, and the biosphere includes population, community, and
ecosystem.
3 An ecologist is studying the ways that patterns on the wings of an endangered butterfly
species allow it to escape predators such as birds. This is an example of —
A mimicry
B organismal ecology
C mutualism
D community ecology
Solution The solution is (B). Organismal ecology is a study of a particular type of organism,
such as the butterfly in this case.
4 Each year, Lake Michigan beach visitors are warned of possible exposure to E. coli, which
can cause illness. To understand how both biotic and abiotic environmental conditions
affect the risk of E. coli abundance, which type of individual should an infectious disease
specialist collaborate with?
A An ecosystem ecologist
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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 846

B A podiatrist
C A community ecologist
D A population ecologist
Solution The solution is (A). He would collaborate with an ecosystem ecologist, who studies
the interaction of biotic and abiotic factors.
5 Some bacterial species can use nitrogen directly from the atmosphere. In their ecosystem,
the bacteria are a(n) —
A biotic factor
B abiotic factor
C infectious factor
D symbiotic partner
Solution The solution is (A). Bacterial species are living, so they are biotic factors.
6 Photosynthetic organisms are important to most ecosystems because they —
A synthesize organic compounds that they obtain from decaying heterotrophs
B can use carbon dioxide and sunlight and synthesize their own food
C use wind energy to synthesize organic compounds
D synthesize inorganic compounds from organic compounds
Solution The solution is (B). Plants are primary producers and use carbon dioxide and sunlight
to synthesize glucose.
7 What does study of population ecology focus on?
A The number of individuals of one species in an area and how and why that number
changes over time
B The processes driving interactions within and among different species within an area
C The adaptations that enable individuals to live in specific habitats
D Plants and animals living in an enclosed area
Solution The solution is (A). Population ecology focuses on a population, a group of
interbreeding organisms living in the same area at the same time.
8 The study of the effect of abiotic factors such as rain and temperature on the distribution
of living organisms is known as —
A community ecology
B biogeography
C ecosystem
D geography

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847 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

Solution The solution is (B). Biogeography is the study of how abiotic factors such as rainfall
and temperature affect the flora and fauna of a region.
9 Individuals within a single species of pine tree are often found in different geographical
locations in North America and Canada. Why?
A They were not separated geographically over millions of years and did not evolve to
become different species.
B Plant breeders carried seeds to different areas.
C Pollen from pine trees traveled to distant locations.
D Pine tree species were present widely and died out in some areas.
Solution The solution is (A). Pine trees were not separated geographically and did not evolve
to be different species.
10 An ecologist hiking up a mountain may notice different biomes along the way due to
changes in all of the following except —
A elevation
B rainfall
C latitude
D temperature
Solution The solution is (C). Latitude remains the same as the ecologist climbs up the
mountain.
11 Temperate forests have plants of varying sizes. In this particular environment, understory
plants in a temperate forest are notable for adaptations to capture limited —
A water
B nutrients
C heat
D sunlight
Solution The solution is (D). Sunlight is a limiting factor because understory plants are
covered with a canopy.
12 Which body of water lacks temperature stratification?
A Estuaries
B Lakes
C Seas
D Oceans
Solution The solution is (A). Temperature stratification does not take place in estuaries.
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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 848

13 Plants living in deserts have adaptations such as hair on their leaves and a thick cuticle.
What purpose do these adaptations serve?
A To conserve water
B To prevent exposure to sunlight
C To increase oxygen intake
D To decrease carbon dioxide intake
Solution The solution is (A). The cuticle and hair help to prevent water loss.
14 Which biome would have the highest net primary production?
A Deciduous forests
B Deserts
C Arctic tundra
D Savannas
Solution The solution is (A). Deciduous forests have more aboveground biomass and thus
have higher net primary production than the other choices.
15 When the net primary productivity was measured in the presented graph, what was
included in those measurements?

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual

849 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

A Above and underground biomass are included in net primary productivity

B Net primary productivity is he total amount of carbon fixed
C Net primary productivity is the amount of carbon fixed minus the amount used during
cellular respiration, including only the aboveground biomass in terrestrial biomes
D Net primary productivity refers to the amount of total amount of carbon fixed
Solution The solution is (C). Net primary productivity is the amount of carbon fixed minus the
amount used during cellular respiration and includes only the aboveground biomass
in terrestrial biomes.
16 Biogeography is the study of the geographic distribution of living things as well as the
_____ that affect their distribution.
blank

A Abiotic factors
B Biotic factors
C Biomes
D Conspecifics
Solution The solution is (A). Biogeography is defined as the study of the geographic
distribution of living things and the abiotic factors that affect their distribution.
17 In which biome are plants unable to grow because the soil is frozen most of the year?
A Arctic tundra
B Boreal forests
C Grasslands
D Chaparrals
Solution The solution is (A). Soil frozen is frozen in the Arctic tundra due to low temperatures
year-round.
18 In grasslands, fires are a common occurrence. Which statement regarding grasslands
is true?
A They have the ability to withstand fires.
B They have a well-developed root system, which allows them to regrow after a fire.
C Grasses are tall and only their top portions are destroyed.
D Trees shield some of the grass, thus protecting it from fire.
Solution The solution is (B). Grasslands have a well-developed root system, which allows
them to regrow after a fire.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 850

19 Savannas are grasslands with scattered trees. Which statement is correct about savannas?
A They receive abundant rainfall.
B The temperatures are cold throughout the year.
C They have relatively long dry seasons.
D Savannas are dominated by fluctuations in temperature.
Solution The solution is (C). Savannas have long dry seasons between rains, which do not
allow trees to grow well.
20 The boreal forest, also known as taiga or coniferous forest, is found south of the Arctic
Circle and across most of Canada, Alaska, Russia, and northern Europe. What is a
characteristic of the boreal forest?
A High temperature
B Deciduous trees
C High humidity
D Acidic soil
Solution The solution is (D). The soil in boreal forests tends to be acidic, with little nitrogen
available.
21 The amount of sunlight and rainfall affects the growing season of plants in different
biomes. Which biome is characterized by short growing seasons?
A Savanna
B Temperate grasslands
C Arctic tundra
D Tropical wet forest
Solution The solution is (C). Plants growing in the Arctic tundra have a 10- to 12-wk growing
period in which they get nearly 24 h of sunlight each day.

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851 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

22 The figure shows different zones present in the ocean.

Which statement about marine biomes is true?

A The benthic zone includes the ocean’s open water and shore.
B The pelagic realm includes all of the ocean’s open water.
C The majority of the ocean includes the photic zone.
D The deepest zone of the ocean is known as the aphotic zone.
Solution The solution is (B). The pelagic realm includes all of the ocean’s open water.
23 Corals have a mutualistic relationship with photosynthetic algae in the photic zones of
water. What purpose does this serve?
A Corals are able to derive their nutrition from the algae and thus survive in the
nutritionally poor water.
B Corals are able to accumulate calcium carbonate from the algae.
C Corals and algae can form coral reefs because of this association.
D Corals provide food to the algae.
Solution The solution is (A). Corals are able to derive their nutrition from the algae and thus
survive in the nutritionally poor water.
24 Which abiotic factor is most important for sustaining life in marine biomes?
A Wind
B Soil
C Salt
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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 852

D Warmth
Solution The solution is (C). Salt is essential for marine life.
25 There are several different marine zones. In which zone are organisms exposed to air and
sunlight at low tide but are underwater most of the time, especially during high tide?
A Intertidal zone
B Neritic zone
C Oceanic zone
D Abyssal zone
Solution The solution is (A). It occurs in the intertidal zone, closest to the shore.
26 Which group of photosynthetic organisms is more likely to grow in a lake as opposed to
a river?
A Fungi
B Phytoplankton
C Moss
D Lichens
Solution The solution is (B). Phytoplankton can grow in lakes, but not in the flowing waters of
a river. Additionally, fungi are not photosynthetic.
27 Water flow can vary in wetlands. Freshwater marshes and swamps are characterized by —
A Dry soil
B Rapid water flow
C Slow water flow
D Irregular water flow
Solution The solution is (C). Freshwater swamps and marshes have slow and steady
water flow.
28 Water bodies can differ in the amount of salt present. What is a characteristic of an
estuary?
A A continuous body of water with high salinity
B An area where the salinity varies
C A body of water with low salinity
D A body of water with low salt entering land
Solution The solution is (B). Estuaries are areas in which a source of freshwater meets the
ocean. The salinity in the area varies based on the amount of freshwater flowing
from the source.

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual

853 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

29 Earth’s geological past has witnessed many important events. Which period was
associated with global warming?
A Permian period
B Cambrian period
C 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C.
D 20th century
Solution The solution is (A). The Permian period showed a rise in global temperature, leading
to mass extinctions.
30 What is one of the indirect consequences of global warming?
A Loss of biodiversity
B Increase in temperature
C Change in water quality
D Increase in the temperature tolerance of plants
Solution The solution is (A). Many animals and birds have not been able to survive the change
in temperatures.
31 Which fuel was used extensively during the Industrial Revolution, leading to increases in
levels of carbon dioxide?
A Coal
B Petroleum
C Natural gas
D Solar energy
Solution The solution is (A). Coal was used extensively during the Industrial Revolution and
produced carbon dioxide.
32 Global warming is due to many factors. What is known to change with carbon dioxide
concentration?
A Solar intensity
B Wind intensity
C Temperature
D Humidity
Solution The solution is (C). Temperature is known to fluctuate with carbon dioxide
concentration.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 854

33 All of the following are natural factors that have led to slow increases in global
temperatures except —
A volcanic eruptions
B change in solar intensity
C earthquakes
D changes in Earth’s orbit
Solution The solution is (C). Earthquakes do not cause long-term changes in global climate.
34 Global temperatures have been steadily increasing since the Industrial Revolution largely
as a result of —
A agricultural production
B burning fossil fuels
C increase in the movement of people
D use of pesticides
Solution The solution is (B). The burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution has built
up greenhouse gases that increase average global temperatures.
35 Which gas is NOT considered a significant contributor to global warming?
A Carbon dioxide
B Methane
C Nitric oxide
D Oxygen
Solution The solution is (D). Oxygen is not a greenhouse gas.
36 Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide are considered greenhouse gases because —
A they trap solar radiation released from the sun in its entirety as it reaches Earth’s
surface, similar to the glass in a greenhouse
B they are found mostly in greenhouses
C they are essential for plant growth in a greenhouse
D they trap solar radiation, which is converted into thermal radiation on Earth’s surface,
some of which is reradiated back into the atmosphere
Solution The solution is (D). They trap solar radiation, which is converted into thermal
radiation on Earth’s surface of which some is reradiated back into the atmosphere.

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855 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

37 The Medieval Climate Anomaly occurred between A.D. 900 and 1300. Temperatures
during this time were between 0.10 and 0.20 higher, which allowed —
A the Vikings to colonize Greenland
B the rapid development of new technologies
C advances in agriculture
D harsh winters
Solution The solution is (A). The slightly higher temperatures freed seas of ice and allowed
the Vikings to sail to Greenland to colonize.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

38 What is community ecology? Give an example.
A It is the study of the number of individuals of one species in an area as well as how
and why the number changes over time. An example would be counting the number
of individual Karner blue butterflies, a federally endangered species whose population
density is highly influenced by the abundance of wild lupine.
B It is the study of the processes and consequences of interactions within and among
different species within an area. An example would be the work of scientists who
study the various interactions of several populations of birds, crabs, and grasses in a
marsh without studying the water or air quality.
C It is the study of the physiological, morphological, and behavioral adaptations that
enable individuals to live in specific habitats. An example would be the work of
scientists who study the various interactions of several populations of birds, crabs, and
grasses in a marsh without studying the water or air quality.
D It is the study of the processes and consequences of interactions within and among
different species within an area. An example would be counting the number of Karner
blue butterflies, a federally endangered species whose population density is highly
influenced by the abundance of wild lupine.
Solution The solution is (B). Community ecologists study the interactions within and among
different species within an area. Community ecologists also look at the processes
that drive these interactions and the consequences of such interactions. For
example, in a marsh, scientists are studying several populations, including two
species of birds, different species of crabs, and tall grasses, but they are not studying
the water or air quality in their study. Community ecologists would focus on the
various species in the marsh and their interactions with one another.
39 Ecologists often collaborate with other researchers interested in ecological questions.
Which levels of ecology would most easily lend to collaborative research because of the
similarities in the scope of questions asked?

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 856

A It is easier to study community and ecosystem ecology as the effect of biotic and
abiotic factors can be studied in a community or ecosystem more easily. Organismal
and population ecology might be more difficult for collaboration.
B It is easier to study organismal and population ecology as the effect of biotic and
abiotic factors can be studied in an organism or population more easily. Community
and ecosystem ecology might be more difficult for collaboration
C It is easier to study community and population ecology as the effect of biotic and
abiotic factors can be studied in easily in a community or population more easily.
Organismal and ecosystem ecology might be more difficult for collaboration
D It is easier to study organismal and ecosystem ecology as the effect of biotic and
abiotic factors can be studied in an organism or ecosystem more easily. Community
and population ecology might be more difficult for collaboration
Solution The solution is (A). Community and ecosystem ecology are neighboring ecological
levels. Therefore, the scope of the questions asked by two researchers collaborating
in these areas would be closer than any of the other pairs of levels in the answer
choices.
40 How do organisms return nutrients and water to the environment?
A By cycling between the abiotic and biotic environment
B By cycling between evaporation and transpiration
C By cycling between the flora and fauna of the Earth
D By cycling between temperature and moisture
Solution The solution is (A). Organisms return nutrients and water by cycling between the
abiotic and biotic environments, which include the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus,
and water cycles. For example, in the carbon cycle, carbon dioxide is used by plants
to produce organic compounds. Dead, decaying matter returns carbon back to the
environment. Similarly, water cycles between biotic and abiotic factors in a liquid,
ice, or vapor form.
41 What are organismal, population, and community ecology? Give an example of each.
A Organismal ecology includes the study of the number of individuals in an area as well
as how and why population size changes over time, such as a study of the drop in
antelope population. Population ecology includes the study of adaptations that enable
individuals to live in specific habitats, such as a study of the use of opposable thumbs.
Community ecology includes the study of the processes and consequences of
interactions within and among different species in an area, such as a study of
interactions between wolves and deer.
B Organismal ecology includes the study of the processes and consequences of
interactions within and among different species in an area, such as a study of the
interactions between wolves and deer. Population ecology includes the study of the

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual

857 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

number of individuals in an area as well as how and why population size changes over
time, such as a study of the drop in antelope population. Community ecology includes
the study of adaptations that enable individuals to live in specific habitats, such as a
study of the use of opposable thumbs.
C Organismal ecology includes the study of adaptations that enable individuals to live in
specific habitats, such as a study of the use of opposable thumbs. Population ecology
includes the study of the number of individuals in an area as well as how and why
population size changes over time, such as a study of the drop in antelope population.
Community ecology includes studies of the processes and consequences of
interactions within and among different species in an area, such as a study of the
interactions between wolves and deer.
D Organismal ecology includes studies of the adaptations that enable individuals to live
in specific habitats, such as a study of the use of opposable thumbs. Population
ecology includes studies of the processes and consequences of interactions within and
among different species in an area, such as a study of the interactions between wolves
and deer. Community ecology includes studies of the number of individuals in an area
as well as how and why population size changes over time, such as a study of the drop
in antelope population.
Solution The solution is (C). Organismal ecology emphasizes the adaptations that enable
individuals to live in specific habitats. These adaptations can be morphological, like
opposable thumbs. Population ecology focuses on a population, a group of
interbreeding organisms living in the same area at the same time. The interest lies in
the number of individuals in an area as well as how and why population size changes
over time. An example would be how ecologists are trying to figure out the dramatic
drop in the antelope population. Community ecology focuses on the processes
driving interactions within and among different species within an area. For example,
a community ecologist would be interested in the interactions between wolves
and deer.
42 Many endemic species are found in areas that are geographically isolated. Which option is
a plausible scientific explanation why this is so?
A Geographically isolated areas are usually warmer than other areas, and high
temperatures promote rapid mutation and development of unique characteristics
compared with cooler temperatures. Over time, these species retain their unique
characteristics because they remain separated from other species.
B Geographically isolated areas have provided a unique environment for certain species
to evolve. Over time, these species retain their unique characteristics because they
remain separated from other species.
C Certain species are introduced into some geographically isolated areas that provide
them unique environments. Over time, these species retain their unique
characteristics because they remain separated from other species.
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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 858

D A unique environment is provided for certain species to evolve in vitro, and these
species are introduced into geographically isolated areas. Over time, these species
retain their unique characteristics because they remain separated from other species.
Solution The solution is (B). Geographically isolated areas that have existed for long periods
of time have provided a unique environment for certain species to evolve, such as
the marsupials of Australia. Over time, these species retain their unique
characteristics because they remain separated from other species.

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859 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

43 The American white pelican migrates from North America to Central America in the
winter months. Why do these birds follow an annual migration pattern?
A The American white pelican follows an annual migration pattern in search of cooler
climates. Cooler climates make it easier for them to maintain a constant body
temperature than if they stayed somewhere warm.
B The American white pelican follows an annual migration pattern in search of food,
saltwater, and cooler climates. Cooler climates help these birds reproduce.
C The American white pelican follows an annual migration pattern in search of food and
warmer climates. Warmer climates and greater food availability make it easier to
maintain a constant body temperature than if they stayed somewhere cold.
D The American white pelican follows an annual migration pattern in search of food
only. Warmer climates have greater food availability, and pelicans can maintain their
body temperature equally easily in cold versus warm temperatures.
Solution The solution is (C). Many birds such as the American white pelican follow an annual
migration pattern in search of food and warmer climates. Moving to warmer
climates that also have greater food availability makes it easier for them to maintain
their body temperature than if they had stayed somewhere cold.
44 Why is it essential for organisms to maintain a relatively constant body temperature?
Describe adaptations that help the organisms cope with changes in environmental
temperature.
A The rate of metabolic processes increases at very high or low temperatures. So,
organisms have to maintain a constant body temperature. This can be achieved only
by migration to avoid seasonal temperature changes.
B Enzymes that carry out metabolic processes are denatured at very high temperatures
and work more slowly at lower temperatures. So, organisms have to maintain a
constant body temperature. This can be achieved by hibernation, aestivation, or
migration.
C The rate of metabolic processes increases at very high or low temperatures. So,
organisms have to maintain a constant body temperature. This can be achieved by
hibernation, aestivation, or migration.
D Enzymes that carry out metabolic processes are denatured at very high temperatures.
So, organisms have to maintain a constant body temperature. This can be achieved
only by migration to avoid seasonal temperature changes.
Solution The solution is (B). Most organisms are not able to survive at very high or low
temperatures as the enzymes that carry out metabolic processes denature at those
temperatures. Animals will hibernate or undergo aestivation to avoid hostile
temperatures. Some will migrate to avoid seasonal temperature changes.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 860

45 The extremely low precipitation of subtropical desert biomes might lead one to expect
fire to be a major disturbance factor. However, fire is more common in the temperate
grassland biome than in the subtropical desert biome. Why is this?
A Due to higher net primary productivity, biomass in deserts is significantly more than in
temperate grassland biomes. However, it is easier for fire to spread in grasslands as
biomass is abundant.
B Due to lower net primary productivity, biomass in deserts is significantly less than in
temperate grassland biomes. It is easier for fire to spread in grasslands as biomass is
abundant.
C Due to lower net primary productivity, biomass in deserts is significantly less than in
temperate grassland biomes. It is easier for fire to spread in grasslands as they have
very low precipitation and high temperatures.
D Due to higher net primary productivity, biomass in deserts is significantly more than in
temperate grassland biomes. However, it is easier for fire to spread in grasslands as
they have very low precipitation and high temperatures.
Solution The solution is (B). Even though deserts have very low precipitation and high
temperatures, the biomass in deserts is significantly less than in temperate grassland
biomes because of lower net primary productivity. It is easier for fire to spread in
grasslands as biomass is abundant.
46 What are endemic species? Give an example and explain how endemic species differ from
generalist species.
A Endemic species are found naturally in specific geographic areas that are usually
restricted in size. For example, the raccoon is found only in Australia. Generalist
species are found in a wide range of geographical locations. For example, the koala is
native to most of North and Central America.
B Endemic species are defined as those that are likely to be extinct. For example, the
Tasmanian tiger (a marsupial) was found only in Australia but became extinct.
Generalist species are those found in a wide range of geographical locations and are
less likely to become extinct. For example, the raccoon is native to most of North and
Central America and is not endangered.
C Endemic species are found in a wide range of geographical locations. For example, the
raccoon is native to most of North and Central America. Generalist species are found
naturally in specific geographic areas that are usually restricted in size. For example,
the koala is only found in some regions of Australia.
D Endemic species are found naturally in specific geographic areas that are usually
restricted in size. For example, the koala (a marsupial) is found only in some regions in
Australia. Generalist species are found in a wide range of geographical locations. For
example, the raccoon is native to most of North and Central America.

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861 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

Solution The solution is (D). Endemic species are species found naturally in specific
geographic areas that are usually restricted in size. An example of an endemic
species would be the koala. The koala is a marsupial found only in some regions of
Australia. The geographic separation that Australia offers allowed evolution to push
in a direction that favored pouched mammals and marsupials, like the koala. Unlike
the koala, the raccoon is a generalist mammal that can be found in a wide range of
locations all across North and Central America.
47 Deserts and subtropical deserts experience low precipitation and extremes in
temperature. For plants to survive and reproduce, what adaptations should they
have? Why?
A To survive, they need prop roots, reduced foliage, and fleshy leaves with sunken
stomata to reduce transpiration. Also, they should have seeds that can remain
dormant over long periods.
B To survive, they need deep roots, reduced foliage, and fleshy leaves with sunken
stomata to reduce transpiration. Also, they should have seeds that can remain
dormant over long periods.
C To survive, they need deep roots, reduced foliage, and fleshy leaves with sunken
stomata to reduce transpiration. Also, these plants need to grow in clumps.
D To survive, they need deep roots, increased foliage, and fleshy leaves with sunken
stomata to reduce transpiration. Also, the plants need seeds that can remain dormant
over long periods.
Solution The solution is (B). Plants growing in deserts have deep roots, reduced foliage to
reduce transpiration, and seeds that can remain dormant over long periods. In
addition, these plants should have fleshy leaves with sunken stomata to avoid
transpiration.
48 In what ways are the subtropical desert and the Arctic tundra similar?
A Both are characterized by animals that are adapted to burrowing.
B Both are characterized by plants that prefer to grow in clumps.
C Both are characterized by low water availability and, as a result, low net primary
productivity.
D Both are characterized by plants that are mostly perennials.
Solution The solution is (C). Subtropical deserts and Arctic tundra are characterized by low
water availability. In deserts, there is very little precipitation, and in tundra, most of
the water is frozen and unavailable to plants. As a result, there will be low net
primary productivity in both biomes.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 862

49 Describe the chaparral biome. How does it differ from subtropical deserts?
A Shrubs dominate chaparral vegetation and are well adapted to the periodic fires
in the area. Ashes left behind after fires are rich in nutrients, which promote
regrowth. Subtropical deserts are characterized by their high precipitation and water-
retaining plants.
B Shrubs dominate chaparral vegetation and are well adapted to the periodic fires
in the area. Ashes left behind after fires are rich in nutrients, which promote
regrowth. Subtropical deserts are characterized by their low precipitation and water-
retaining plants.
C Lichens dominate chaparral vegetation and are well adapted to the periodic fires
in the area. Ashes left behind after fires are rich in nutrients, which promote
regrowth. Subtropical deserts are characterized by their low precipitation and water-
retaining plants.
D Shrubs dominate chaparral vegetation but are not well adapted to the periodic fires
in the area. Ashes left behind after fires are rich in nutrients, which promote
regrowth. Subtropical deserts are characterized by their low precipitation and water-
retaining plants.
Solution The solution is (B). The chaparral is the shrub forest found in California, along the
Mediterranean Sea, and along the southern coast of Australia. Shrubs dominate
chaparral vegetation and are well adapted to the periodic fires that burn through
the area. Some of the plants only produce seeds that germinate after they have
been exposed to fire. The ashes that are left behind after a fire are rich in nutrients
like nitrogen and serve as fertilizer to promote regrowth. Subtropical deserts are
characterized by their low precipitation and water-retaining plants with seeds that
are able to remain dormant between periods of rain.
50 What happens to aquatic life in deep lakes when water freezes during the winter months?
A During winters, a layer of ice forms on the water surface, as ice is less dense than
water. Water is densest at 7 °C and retains its liquid form below the water surface.
The aquatic life can exist in liquid water.
B During winters, the aquatic life exists in liquid water, which is present between layers
of ice, by consuming more resources so they can survive during the harsh winter
season.
C During winters, a layer of ice forms on the water surface, as ice is less dense than
water. Water is densest at 4 °C and retains its liquid form below the water surface,
where the ice layer is. In liquid water, the aquatic life can survive using the resources
available.
D During winters, ice forms only on the surface and a few meters below the surface of
water. Water is densest at 4 °C and retains its liquid form below the water surface,
where the ice layer is. In liquid water, the aquatic life can exist using the resources
available.

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863 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

Solution The solution is (C). When water freezes, a layer of ice forms on the water surface
because ice is less dense than water. Water is densest at 4 °C and retains its liquid
form below the water surface, where the ice layer is. In liquid water, the aquatic life
can survive using the resources available.
51 What are the challenges facing organisms living in the intertidal zone, and what are their
adaptations to meet these challenges?
A They are subject to constant exposure to air, sunlight, periods of dryness, and
pounding waves. For this reason, some species have an exoskeleton.
B They are subject to periodic exposure to air, sunlight, periods of dryness, and
pounding waves. For this reason, some species have an exoskeleton.
C They are subject to periodic exposure to air, sunlight, periods of dryness, and
pounding waves. For this reason, all species have an exoskeleton.
D They are subject to periodic exposure to air, sunlight, periods of dryness, and
pounding waves. For this reason, most species have an endoskeleton.
Solution The solution is (B). Organisms living in the intertidal zone are subject to periodic
exposure to air, sunlight, and periods of dryness. They are also exposed to the
pounding waves, and some species have a protective exoskeleton.
52 If algae grow out of proportion as seen during algal blooms, how does this affect the
ecosystem?
A Other photosynthetic organisms will not be able to grow. The animals and birds that
live on those organisms will be affected. As the algae die, oxygen will be depleted,
affecting fish and other aquatic animals. The pH of water will change, affecting
metabolic processes as well.
B Nonphotosynthetic organisms will not be able to grow due to lack of light. The
photosynthetic organisms that require them to live will be affected. As the algae die,
oxygen will be depleted, affecting fish and other aquatic animals. The pH of water will
change, affecting metabolic processes as well.
C Other photosynthetic organisms will not be able to grow. The animals and birds that
live on those organisms will be affected. As the algae die, carbon dioxide will be
depleted, affecting fish and other aquatic animals. The pH of water will change,
affecting metabolic processes as well.
D Nonphotosynthetic organisms will not be able to grow. The animals and birds that live
on those organisms will be affected. As the algae die, carbon dioxide will be depleted,
affecting fish and other aquatic animals. The pH of water will change, affecting
metabolic processes as well.
Solution The solution is (A). Light will not be able to penetrate, and the waters will become
aphotic. Other photosynthetic organisms will not be able to grow. The animals and

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 864

birds that consume those producers will be affected. Oxygen depletion will occur as
the algae die, depleting the waters of oxygen, which is also needed by fish and other
aquatic animals. There will be a change in the pH of the water affecting metabolic
processes as well.
53 What are some abiotic factors that affect freshwater biomes? Explain.
A Salinity and sunlight are both abiotic factors that influence life in freshwater biomes.
Because organisms living in freshwater biomes require high salt density for survival, its
depletion would kill the organisms. Many organisms that serve as food for others are
photosynthetic and would die if algae blooms obscured the light. Their decomposition
as well as the depletion of oxygen by algae would cause organisms that require oxygen
to die out as well.
B Salinity and sunlight are both abiotic factors that influence life in freshwater biomes.
Because organisms living in freshwater biomes cannot tolerate high salt levels, these
organisms would not survive if it increased. Many organisms that serve as food for
others are photosynthetic and would die if algal blooms obscured the light. Their
decomposition and the depletion of carbon dioxide by algae would cause organisms
that require carbon dioxide to die out as well.
C Salinity and sunlight are both abiotic factors that influence life in freshwater biomes.
Because organisms living in freshwater biomes cannot tolerate high salt levels, these
organisms would not survive if it were to increase significantly. Many organisms that
serve as food for others are photosynthetic and would die if algal blooms obscure
light. Their decomposition and depletion of oxygen by algae would cause organisms
that require oxygen to die out as well.
D Salinity and temperature are both abiotic factors that influence life in freshwater
biomes. Because organisms living in freshwater biomes cannot tolerate low salt
concentrations, those organisms would not survive if salt concentrations fell
significantly. Many organisms that serve as food for others are photosynthetic and
would die if algal blooms obscured the light. Their decomposition and the depletion of
oxygen by algae would cause organisms that require oxygen to die out as well.
Solution The solution is (C). Salinity and sunlight are both abiotic factors that influence life in
freshwater biomes. Organisms that inhabit freshwater biomes like lakes and ponds
cannot tolerate salty conditions. If salinity in those environments were to increase,
the organisms would not survive the change in conditions. Sunlight greatly affects
life in freshwater biomes. Many organisms that serve as food sources for others are
photosynthetic, requiring exposure to sunlight. If photic zones (areas in which light
can penetrate) are obstructed by, for example, algal blooms, photosynthetic and
aphotic organisms will not be able to carry out their respective process and will die
out. The decomposition of those organisms and the algae depletes oxygen, causing
organisms that require oxygen to also die out.

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865 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

54 Is it possible to reverse global warming? What measures may help in reducing global
climate change?
A Because it has not yet affected ecosystems, it is possible to reverse global warming by
reducing the usage of fossil fuels, using alternative fuels, using alternatives to CFCs,
and using natural sources of energy.
B It is not possible to reverse global warming since major climate changes have already
occurred and settled in the environment. Reducing fossil fuel usage, using natural
sources of energy, and using alternative fuels are sufficient to slow down future global
climate change.
C It may not be possible to reverse global warming, as we are already witnessing
changes in the environment, plants, and animal behavior. However, taking multiple
steps including reducing fossil fuel usage and using natural sources of energy may slow
down global climate change.
D It is possible to reverse global warming by working on new technologies that will help
in preventing temperature changes worldwide. Using wind power and high-efficiency
natural gas generation will be sufficient to achieve this goal.
Solution The solution is (C). It may not be possible to reverse global warming, as we are
already witnessing melting of glaciers, changes in temperatures worldwide, and
changes in plant and animal behavior as well as other changes. However, taking
multiple steps such as reducing the usage of fossil fuels, using alternative fuels, using
alternatives to CFCs, and using natural sources of energy may help slow down the
global climate change.
55 As global temperatures change, many flowering plants are flowering earlier. What change
would most likely occur if the insect pollinators are NOT around at the same time?
A Insects will be deprived of their nectar, leading to decrease in numbers; but flowering
plants will not be affected because other animals will pollinate them.
B Flowering plants will not be pollinated, resulting in a decrease in population; but
insects will not be affected because they will feed on other organisms.
C Neither plants nor pollinators will be affected because new or different species of
insects are going to pollinate the flowering plants.
D Both plant and pollinator numbers would decrease because insects will be deprived of
nectar and plants will not be pollinated.
Solution The solution is (D). Insects will be deprived of their nectar, and flowering plants will
not be pollinated, leading to a lack of seed production. Over time, both plant and
pollinator numbers will be significantly affected, leading to a decrease in their
numbers.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 866

56 If scientists had to predict the rise in Earth’s temperature in the next 100 years, what
would they take into consideration?
A Scientists can predict the change in Earth’s temperature only by analyzing previous
and current data such as dimensions and locations of glaciers as well as the water
levels in lakes, rivers, and oceans.
B Scientists could predict a rise in Earth’s temperature by analyzing previous and current
data such as dimensions and locations of glaciers, water levels in lakes, rivers, and
oceans, and the number of annual rings in trees.
C Scientists could predict a rise in Earth’s temperature by measuring the greenhouse
gases present in the current atmosphere. Counting and examining the number of
annual rings in trees would provide information about past temperature changes.
D Scientists can predict the change in Earth’s atmosphere by counting and analyzing the
number of annual rings in trees. Also, analyzing ice cores for over a year would predict
the rise in Earth’s temperature in the next 100 years.
Solution The solution is (B). Scientists could predict a rise in Earth’s temperature by analyzing
previous and current data such as dimensions and locations of glaciers, as well as
the water levels in lakes, rivers, and oceans. Counting and examining the number of
annual rings in trees would also point to the climactic changes over the years.
57 Many people cannot imagine a world without fossil fuels, but fossil fuels are finite
resources and will eventually run out. This is why drilling had begun in the Arctic in an
effort to find a new source of fossil fuels, although it is currently stopped. What are the
dangers of drilling in the Arctic? What are the alternatives?
A Drilling as well as melting of ice in the Arctic affects organisms there and results in the
release of large amounts of methane, accelerating global warming. Investing in clean
energy like wind, water, and solar power, which do not release harmful gases, could
be the alternative.
B Drilling as well as melting of ice in the Arctic results in the release of large amounts of
carbon monoxide, accelerating global warming. Investing in clean energy like wind,
water, and solar power, which do not release harmful gases, could be the alternative.
C Drilling as well as melting of ice in the Arctic results in the release of large amounts of
carbon monoxide, which is lethal. Investing in clean energy like wind, water, and solar
power, which do not release harmful gases, could be the alternative.
D Drilling as well as melting of ice in the Arctic results in the release of large amounts of
methane, accelerating global warming. Investing in the mining of Earth minerals and
metal ores could be an alternative.
Solution The solution is (A). Drilling in the Arctic poses a threat to the environment and the
organisms that live in it. Though we are far removed from the Arctic, drilling there
poses a threat to people, plants, and animals around the world. Global warming has
already caused the melting of chunks of ice containing methane called clathrates.

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867 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

These clathrates release methane into the atmosphere, increasing the levels of
methane, which further accelerates the rate of global warming. Drilling in the Arctic
could also release large amounts of methane into the atmosphere, feeding into the
positive feedback loop leading to the rapid rate of increase in global temperatures.
Instead of investing in drilling for more fossil fuels, people could invest in clean
energy sources such as wind, water, and solar power. These sources of energy do
not release harmful gases into the atmosphere.

TEST PREP FOR AP® COURSES

58 The Karner blue butterfly has been declared an endangered species. It is dependent on
wild lupine for larval development. This butterfly species, which was found abundantly in
Indiana Dunes National Park, is now found farther north in Wisconsin and Michigan. Wild
lupine has been destroyed in areas where it grew abundantly because of development
and construction in the open grasslands where it prefers to grow.
Which biotic factors are present in the community?
A Karner blue butterfly
B Karner blue butterfly and wild lupine
C Karner blue butterfly, wild lupine, and fire
D Karner blue butterfly, wild lupine, and grasslands
Solution The solution is (D). Karner blue butterfly, wild lupine, and grasslands are biotic
factors present in the community.
59 In a temperate grassland system area of North America, vegetation has been destroyed by
fire. What will happen to the net primary productivity and the local ecosystem when rains
return in the next season?
A The grasses will grow back, but the herbivores that lived there will not return because
they would have found new land to live on. Therefore, the net primary productivity
would decrease.
B The grasses will not grow back; therefore, the herbivores that lived there will not
return. Thus, the net primary productivity would decrease.
C The grasses will grow back and the herbivores that lived there will probably return.
The net primary productivity should be similar to the previous season.
D The grasses will grow back and the herbivores that lived there will probably return.
The net primary productivity would be less than the previous season.
Solution The solution is (C). Grasses have perennial buds that lie under the soil, so the grasses
will grow back when favorable conditions return, and the net primary productivity
should be more or less similar to the previous season. The herbivores that lived
there will return when grasses grow back.
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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 868

60 The Karner blue butterfly larva secretes a carbohydrate, which is a source of energy for
ants. In turn, ants tend to the larva, increasing its likelihood to grow into an adult
butterfly. What is this an example of?
A Predation
B Competition
C Mutualism
D Parasitism
Solution The solution is (C). This is an example of mutualism: the two species have coevolved,
and each species benefits from the relationship.
61 A lake in the Midwest experiences a sudden increase in the algae population (algal bloom)
that covers the lake. This results in changes in factors that affect net primary productivity,
especially —
A light and nutrient availability
B predation by primary consumers
C pollution
D carbon dioxide
Solution The solution is (A). Light and nutrient availability affect primary productivity.
62 In bogs, paleontologists have discovered perfectly preserved bodies of humans and
animals that have been there for hundreds of years. How is this possible?
A Bogs have high oxygen content and organic acids, which lower the pH. Low pH and
high oxygen content prevent oxidation, thus slowing down decomposition.
B Bogs have low oxygen content and organic acids, which increase the pH. High pH and
low oxygen content prevent oxidation, thus slowing down decomposition.
C Bogs have low oxygen content and organic acids, which lower the pH. Low pH and low
oxygen content prevent oxidation, thus slowing down decomposition.
D Bogs have low oxygen content and organic acids, which lower the pH. Low pH and low
oxygen content prevent reduction, thus slowing down decomposition.
Solution The solution is (C). Bogs have low oxygen content and organic acids, which lower the
pH. In addition to low pH, the low oxygen content prevents oxidation, slowing down
decomposition.
63 You are asked to estimate the nutrient content of a lake and its possible effect on net
primary productivity. How will you determine the effect?
A Sample water from different parts of the lake and determine nutrient composition.
B Sample the carbon content of the phytoplankton growing.

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869 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

C Take a sample of lake water and artificially enrich it, then see the effect of the
enrichment on phytoplankton growth compared with growth in unenriched
lake water.
D Wait for spring turnover to check for nutrients found in the lake floor.
Solution The solution is (C). Artificially adding nutrients to water and checking the growth of
phytoplankton will give an idea of the lake water conditions.
64 The population of a certain species of deer has been reduced drastically because of
indiscriminate hunting. How will you determine the impact on the local ecosystem?
A To determine the effect of indiscriminate hunting on a local ecosystem, environmental
conditions should be determined. If a drastic change in environmental conditions is
observed, then indiscriminate hunting of deer should be discouraged.
B The number of predators, their effect on plants they feed on, availability of nutrients
in soil, and number of pests should be determined. If there is a drastic change in
numbers, then indiscriminate hunting of deer should be discouraged.
C Determining the number of predators alone is sufficient to determine the impact of
indiscriminate hunting on a local ecosystem. If there is a drastic change in numbers,
then indiscriminate hunting of deer should be discouraged.
D Determination of the availability of nutrients in soil helps in determining the impact of
indiscriminate hunting on a local ecosystem. If there is a drastic change in the
availability, then indiscriminate hunting of deer should be discouraged.
Solution The solution is (B). To determine the effect of indiscriminate hunting, it will be
important to determine the numbers of predators. It would also be critical to
determine the effect on the number of plants they feed on. The presence or absence
of plants will affect the nutrient availability in soil as well as the number of pests. If
there is a drastic change from previous studies in the numbers of all the entities, it
implies that indiscriminate hunting of deer should be discouraged.
65 In a forest fire, many oak trees were destroyed. After the fire, numerous taller trees
replaced the oak trees. What is the most likely explanation for this event?
A The tall trees grow faster and create a canopy, which did not allow oak trees to grow.
B The burning of the trees changed the pH of the soil, which did not allow oak to grow.
C Roots of shrubs and trees proliferate, taking over the place of the oak trees.
D Oak trees succumb to pests, thus other pest-resistant trees are able to proliferate.
Solution The solution is (A). Trees that grow faster than the oak trees can create a canopy.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 870

66 What are possible consequences if there is a big oil spill in the middle of the ocean? How
will it affect the biodiversity and the net primary productivity? What are some strategies
to clean up this oil spill?
A Oil spills increase the amount of light and oxygen entering the ocean. The
phytoplankton may perish. The presence of oil would limit mobility of marine
animals and may result in death. Some chemicals and bioremediation can help with
oil clean-up.
B Oil spills increase the amount of light and oxygen entering the ocean. The
phytoplankton may increase. The mobility of marine animals increases. Biodiversity
and, therefore, net primary productivity increases. Some chemicals and
bioremediation can help with oil clean-up.
C Oil spills cover the surface of the ocean, reducing the amount of light entering the
ocean. The marine organisms that can survive independent of light will not be
affected. Some chemicals and bioremediation can help with oil clean-up.
D Oil spills cover the surface of the ocean, reducing the amount of light and oxygen
entering the ocean. The phytoplankton may perish. The presence of oil would limit
mobility of marine animals and may result in death. Some chemicals and
bioremediation can help with oil clean-up.
Solution The solution is (D). Oil spills cover the surface of the ocean, thus reducing the
amount of light and oxygen in the ocean. The phytoplankton may perish since there
is limited light and nutrient availability. Oil on wings, fins, flippers, etc., would limit
mobility and, in some cases, result in death. Use of chemicals that remove oil spills
without leaving additional residues and bioremediation can help with oil clean-up.
67 Global climate change has led to butterflies emerging earlier and amphibians mating
earlier in the United Kingdom. What impact is climate change most likely to have on the
populations of these species in the next few years?
A There will be no impact on the butterfly and amphibian populations.
B The butterfly and amphibian numbers may increase as they adapt to the new
conditions.
C Their butterfly and amphibian numbers may decline as the plant hosts of butterflies
may not flower earlier, and young amphibians may not be viable if there is a lack of
water.
D It is hard to predict what will happen to the butterfly and amphibian populations
because there are no similar studies.
Solution The solution is (C). There may be other changes that could cause their numbers to
decline. For example, the plant hosts of butterflies may not flower earlier, and young
amphibians may not be viable if there is a lack of water.

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871 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

68 What are possible short-term and long-term effects of natural and human-induced
processes on global climate change and, consequently, on ecosystems?
A Short-term changes include melting of glaciers and rising levels of water bodies that
may cover islands close to sea level, which may destroy the local ecosystem and
animals. Long-term changes could include changes in seasonal patterns, unseasonal
rainfall, and changes in the life cycle of insects.
B Short-term changes include changes in seasonal patterns, unseasonal rainfall, and
changes in the life cycle of insects and animals. Long-term changes could be changes
in the flowering times of plants and rising levels of water bodies that may cover
islands close to sea level, destroying the local ecosystem.
C Short-term changes include changes in seasonal patterns, unseasonal rainfall, and
changes in the life cycle of insects and animals. Long-term changes could include the
melting of glaciers and a rise in levels of water bodies, which may cover islands close
to sea level, which could destroy the local ecosystem.
D Short-term changes include melting of glaciers, unseasonal rainfall, and changes in the
life cycle of insects and animals. Long-term changes could include rising levels of water
bodies that may cover islands close to sea level, destroying the local ecosystem.
Solution The solution is (C). Short-term changes include changes in seasonal patterns, such as
early onset of summers, unseasonal rainfall, change in flowering times, and change
in the life cycle of insects and animals because of changes in global climate. Long-
term changes could include melting of glaciers destroying the biodiversity of Arctic
tundra, rise in levels of oceans and lakes. This may cover islands close to sea level,
destroying the local ecosystem and livelihood of people who live there.

SCIENCE PRACTICE CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

35.5 Climate and the Effects of Global Climate Change
69 Twenty targets for the protection of biodiversity by 2020 were established by the 2010
Convention on Biological Diversity. Midway to the target date, it is widely agreed that the
goals will not be met. The 2016 Living Planet Report from the World Wildlife Federation
claims global populations of animals fell by 58 percent between 1970 and 2012 and
extrapolates the loss by 2020 to 67 percent. E.O. Wilson's estimate of the current
extinction rate is three species per hour. Geologic periods are defined by mass extinctions.
The proposed name for the current geological period is the Anthropocene (Waters et al.,
Science, 2016).
During the current period of mass extinction, human activities are driving loss of habitat
and climate change. Climate change during the past 500,000 years is a direct consequence
of rising atmospheric CO2 levels, as the graph shows. The relative abundance of O16 and
O18 isotopes can be used to infer temperature because, as temperature increases, the

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 872

lower mass isotope is enriched in the atmosphere (objects with a smaller mass have a
higher velocity at equal molecular kinetic energy that is proportional to temperature).

The role of humans in the last great extinction, the Holocene Extinction, during which the
megafauna such as the wooly mammoth, the wooly rhinoceros, and the giant deer
disappeared, has long been debated. Did we hunt these creatures to extinction? By
examining all available DNA evidence, Cooper et al. (Science, 349, 2015) have compared
time extinction intervals with these oscillations of climate as shown in the table.
Beginning extinction Ending extinction
date (thousand date (thousand
Animal Label Location years ago) years ago)
Bear a Beringia 24 21
Bison b Europe 35 32
Rhinoceros c Britain 36 32
Rhinoceros d Russia 14 13
Horse e North 15 13
America
Horse f Beringia 43 38
Mastodon g North 12 11
America
Mammoth h Europe 13 12
Mammoth i Eurasia 11 10
Musk Ox j Eurasia 48 44
Deer k Europe 13 12
Cave Lion l Beringia 14 12

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873 35 | Ecology and the Biosphere

Beginning extinction Ending extinction

date (thousand date (thousand
Animal Label Location years ago) years ago)
Cave Bear m Europe 29 27
Additionally, the data shown in the graph are obtained from ice cores. The deeper the
sample, the older the sample. The percent departure from the current O 18 percentage that
is graphed is a measure of temperature relative to the present temperature. The higher
the isotope concentration, the higher the average temperature of the ocean.

A. Refine the graph by adding the interval of time of extinction with a label drawn from
the table as shown by “a.”
B. Analyze these data in terms of the clustering of extinction events.
C. Based on your analysis, explain how ecosystems have changed during the past 40,000
years and identify the factor that caused these changes.
D. Based on the correlation between Earth’s temperature and the concentration of CO 2 in
the atmosphere, predict what will happen to animal populations in the future.
Solution Sample answer:
A.

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35 | Ecology and the Biosphere 874

B. The extinction events cluster where the temperature has spiked.

C. Ecosystems respond to increasing temperature by reducing biodiversity, at least
of top species.
D. These results indicate that the extinction event now occurring is in part a
consequence of climate change.

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual

875 36 | Population and Community Ecology

36 | POPULATION AND COMMUNITY

ECOLOGY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 An ecologist is planning to measure both the size and density of a population. Which
experimental method can best provide these data?
A Mark and recapture
B Mark and release
C Quadrat
D Life table
Solution The solution is (C). A quadrat is a tool used to study the size and density of a
population.
2 Which statement can be made about the mark and recapture method of estimating
population numbers?
A Using quadrats for counting individuals in a population increases the accuracy of the
mark and recapture method.
B The greater the number of individuals captured during the first round of mark and
recapture, the greater is the overall population size.
C The mark and recapture method is useful for mammals and birds, but of little use for
other organisms.
D An underestimate of population size would tend to be observed in cases of studies
involving animals that learn to seek out bait.
Solution The solution is (D). An underestimate of population size would most likely be
observed in cases of studies involving animals that learn to seek out bait. This is
because the recaptured individuals would not be a random sample of the
population.
3 Which type of dispersal pattern is characterized by even spacing between individuals in
the population?
A Random
B Uniform
C Sparse
D Clumped

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 876

Solution The solution is (B). Uniformly dispersed individuals are equally spaced apart from
one another.
4 Which method best shows the life expectancy of an individual within a population?
A Mark only
B Mark and release
C Quadrat
D Life table
Solution The solution is (D). A life table is a tool used to study population demography, which
can give information about life expectancy of an individual within a population.
5 How would a researcher best collect data in order to calculate overall mortality rates
within a population?
A For various age groups, count the number of individuals that died and the number
that survived within a defined time period.
B For various age groups, count the number of individuals that were born and the
number that died within a defined time period.
C For each sex, count the number of individuals that were born and the number that
survived within a defined time period.
D For each sex, count the number of individuals that died and the number that were
born within a defined time period.
Solution The solution is (A). To calculate mortality rates, count the number of individuals
that died and the number that survived in various age groups within a defined
time period.
6 What survivorship pattern can be used to describe humans?
A Type I survivorship curve
B Type II survivorship curve
C Type III survivorship curve
D Type IV survivorship curve
Solution The solution is (A). The Type I curve indicates that the probability of death remains
very low for much of the life span and drops off sharply at old age, which describes
the human mortality pattern.
7 Different species have different survivorship curves. A Type III survivorship curve would
most likely be observed for —
A whales
B seals
C salmon

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877 36 | Population and Community Ecology

D polar bears
Solution The solution is (C). Salmon have a low probability of surviving to adulthood.
8 What is associated with long-term parental care?
A Few offspring
B Many offspring
C Semelparity
D Fecundity
Solution The solution is (A). Long-term parental care requires a large investment of energy. As
a result, the organism does not have a lot of energy to produce many offspring.
9 Which condition is inversely related with fecundity?
A Number of offspring
B Energy budget of parent
C Amount of parental care
D Age of parent
Solution The solution is (C). The amount of parental care is inversely related to the fecundity
of an organism.
10 When studying a squash beetle native to the Everglades, scientists collected data to
compare the squash beetle to another beetle native to the Great Lakes region. What data
would be used to compare the beetles’ reproductive potential?
A Temperature
B Population size
C Semelparity
D Fecundity
Solution The solution is (D). Fecundity is the potential reproductive capacity of an individual
in a population.
11 Albatrosses are birds that can live to age 60 and older. They usually do not start breeding
until they reach age eight or nine, which is relatively late compared to other bird species.
Based on this information, which conditions might be a risk to the survival of albatrosses?
A Increased chance of individuals dying before reproducing
B Slightly decreased life spans of individuals
C Increased chance of offspring dying regardless of whether they had reproduced
D Decreased chances of mating between unrelated individuals

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 878

Solution The solution is (A). The problem with delaying reproduction until late in life is that
there is a greater chance individuals will die before they reproduce.
12 Frogs are animals with high fecundity. Based on this information, frogs are expected to
have which characteristic?
A High energy budget
B Extensive energy storage for each individual offspring
C Small numbers of offspring
D Little or no parental care
Solution The solution is (D). High fecundity is associated with production of many offspring
and organisms with this trait invest their energy in numbers rather than in extensive
parental care.
13 What type of growth curve do species with limited resources usually exhibit?
A Logistic
B Logical
C Experimental
D Exponential
Solution The solution is (A). Logistic growth is observed, as the population grows
exponentially and then levels off as the population approaches the carrying capacity
imposed by limited resources.
14 What is an example of exponential population growth?
A Salamanders adapting to fungal infections
B Polar bears living in a warming habitat
C Bacteria growing in an enriched medium in a lab
D Feral cats being trapped and neutered in a suburb
Solution The solution is (C). Bacteria growing in an enriched medium in a lab will have
exponential population growth, as there are no limits on its resources.
15 If the major food source of seals declines due to pollution or overfishing, how would the
seal population be affected?
A The carrying capacity of seals would decrease, as would the seal population.
B The carrying capacity of seals would decrease, but the seal population would remain
the same.
C The number of seal deaths would increase but the number of births would also
increase, so the population size would remain the same.

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D The carrying capacity of seals would remain the same, but the population of seals
would decrease.
Solution The solution is (A). The declining food source would decrease the carrying capacity,
and the seal population would decrease in response.
16 What is the carrying capacity of a population, and does it change or remain fixed for a
population?
A Carrying capacity is the amount of land needed to support a population, and it is fixed
for each population.
B Carrying capacity is the amount of water and food resources required to support a
population, and it is fixed for each population.
C Carrying capacity is the maximum size of a population that can survive using the
available resources, and it can vary up or down.
D Carrying capacity is the time needed for a population to reach its maximum size, and it
can vary up or down.
Solution The solution is (C). Carrying capacity is the maximum size of a population that can
survive using the available resources. Carrying capacity can vary up or down as the
amount of resources change.
17 Suppose a pesticide used by farmers wipes out the insect population that feeds a
population of bats. What effect will this change have on the bat population?
A The carrying capacity of the population will increase.
B The carrying capacity of the population will decrease.
C The carrying capacity of the population will not change.
D The carrying capacity of the population cannot be predicted.
Solution The solution is (B). The carrying capacity of the bat population will decrease because
the food resources for the bats have decreased.
18 Which explanation best defines density-dependent growth regulation?
A A factor that affects population density but not population size
B A factor that affects population size but not population density
C A factor that affects population size regardless of population density
D A factor that affects population size in ways related to population density
Solution The solution is (D). Density-dependent growth regulation is a factor that affects
population size in ways related to population density. As population density
changes, the impact of the density-dependent growth regulation changes.
19 A forest fire is an example of which type of regulation?
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36 | Population and Community Ecology 880

A Density-dependent
B Density-independent

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C r-selected
D K-selected
Solution The solution is (B). Forest fires are density-independent because they affect
populations of organisms regardless of their density.
20 Species that have many offspring at one time are usually —
A r-selected
B K-selected
C both r- and K-selected
D not selected
Solution The solution is (A). Having many offspring at one time is indicative of an r-selected
species.
21 The following statements compare r-selected and K-selected species. Which statement
draws an accurate comparison of the two species?
A r-selected and K-selected species both have limitations in the amount of energy they
can invest in reproduction, so they both use similar strategies.
B r-selected and K-selected species both have limitations in the amount of energy they
can invest in reproduction, but they use completely different strategies.
C r-selected and K-selected species use similar reproductive strategies, but r-selected
species require less energy to reproduce than K-selected species.
D r-selected and K-selected species use different reproductive strategies, because r-
selected species require less energy to reproduce than K-selected species.
Solution The solution is (B). Species that are r-selected and K-selected both have limitations
in the amount of energy they can invest in reproduction, but they use completely
different strategies.
22 If a population moves to a new environment rich in resources, what type of growth curve
will it exhibit in the short term?
A Logistic
B Logical
C Experimental
D Exponential
Solution The solution is (D). A population will experience exponential growth when resources
are abundant.

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 882

23 Humans have altered environmental factors that have allowed the human population to
grow exponentially. What is an example of such a factor?
A Interspecific competition
B Age structure
C Carrying capacity
D Reproductive strategies
Solution The solution is (C). Human population has increased exponentially as we have
increased the carrying capacity by increasing available resources.
24 Humans have altered their own carrying capacity. How have humans changed their
carrying capacity, and what are the consequences of this change?
A By limiting their own carrying capacity, humans have enabled their population to grow
rapidly.
B By decreasing their own carrying capacity, humans have enabled their population to
grow slowly.
C By stabilizing their own carrying capacity, humans have enabled their population to
grow steadily.
D By increasing their own carrying capacity, humans have enabled their population to
grow exponentially.
Solution The solution is (D). By increasing their own carrying capacity through increase of
resource availability, humans have enabled their population to grow exponentially.
25 Humans have influenced their own carrying capacity in several ways. Some human
activities increase carrying capacity while others decrease it. Which human activity has
decreased the human carrying capacity of the environment?
A Agriculture
B Using large amounts of natural resources
C Domestication of animals
D Use of language
Solution The solution is (B). By using large amounts of natural resources, humans have
decreased their carrying capacity because fewer resources will be available for
future generations to use.
26 Humans began developing oil as an energy source in the early part of the 20th century.
Which statement describes the relationship between oil development and Earth’s human
carrying capacity?

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A Drilling for oil enabled humans to increase food production through the use of
machinery, which increased Earth’s human carrying capacity.
B Oil production allowed new transportation methods faster than methods using
animals, which decreased Earth’s human carrying capacity.
C Accessing oil as an energy source created increased greenhouse gas emissions, which
increased Earth’s human carrying capacity.
D Oil as an energy source enabled humans to enjoy more recreational activities, which
decreased Earth’s human carrying capacity.
Solution The solution is (A). Drilling for oil increased energy availability and enabled humans
to increase food production through the use of machinery, which increased Earth’s
human carrying capacity.
27 Populations with the greatest proportion of young individuals can be found in —
A economically developed countries
B economically underdeveloped countries
C countries with zero population growth
D countries in Europe
Solution The solution is (B). Economically underdeveloped countries have high reproductive
rates and shorter life expectancies and therefore a greater proportion of young
individuals.
28 Which statement explains the correlation between age structure and the level of
economic development observed in many countries?
A There is no correlation between the characteristics of age structures and the level of
economic development.
B Countries that are more economically developed tend to have fewer middle-aged
individuals and more young individuals than undeveloped countries.
C A larger ratio of very young individuals to very old individuals characterizes the age
structures of countries with the highest economic development.
D Age structures of economically undeveloped countries show greater proportions of
children and fewer proportions of elderly people.
Solution The solution is (D). Age structures of economically undeveloped countries show
greater proportions of children and fewer proportions of elderly people.
29 Which environmental characteristic is likely to increase if the human population continues
growing unchecked?
A Wilderness areas
B Fresh water supplies
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36 | Population and Community Ecology 884

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C Fossil fuel reserves

D Atmospheric carbon dioxide
Solution The solution is (D). Atmospheric carbon dioxide increases through human actions
such as deforestation and burning of fossil fuels. As human population increases,
atmospheric carbon dioxide will increase as well.
30 How would you predict and explain the effects of the human population on biodiversity
many years in the future?
A Biodiversity will decline as the human population increases because of habitat loss,
increased pollution, and climate change.
B Biodiversity will decline as the human population increases because of enhanced food
supplies, medical advances, and development of renewable energy sources.
C Biodiversity will increase as the human population increases because of habitat loss,
increased pollution, and climate change.
D Biodiversity will increase as the human population increases because of enhanced
food supplies, medical advances, and development of renewable energy sources.
Solution The solution is (A). Biodiversity will decline as human population increases. Human
population growth has a negative impact on habitat preservation, pollution, and
climate change due to increased greenhouse gas emissions.
31 Which predator-prey graph correctly depicts a predator-prey cycle?

A C

B D

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 886

Solution The solution is (D). The population size of predators fluctuates with the prey
population, but lags slightly behind as it responds to the changes in prey population.
32 Which statement describes a predator-prey cycle?
A Prey increase in numbers, causing an increase in the predator population, which
causes a downturn in prey numbers, which leads to a downturn in predator numbers,
and then the cycle repeats.
B The number of prey is directly related to the number of predators so that the two
populations remain at the same ratio even though the total population numbers
fluctuate.
C Increasing prey numbers trigger decreases in predator numbers, which eventually
causes a decrease in prey numbers as predators become too sparse, and then the
cycle repeats.
D A prey population undergoes a cyclic increasing and decreasing fluctuation in size as
its predator population undergoes the same cycle but in a mirror image relationship.
Solution The solution is (A). Prey increase in numbers, causing an increase in the predator
population, which, in turn, causes a downturn in prey numbers, and leads to a
downturn in predator numbers, and then the cycle repeats.
33 In a region in Texas, biologists observed that two highly venomous snakes with similar
markings deter owl predators. Upon closer inspection, the snakes were determined to
belong to different genera and species.
How would these biologists describe the mimicry in this case?
A Batesian mimicry because it involves nontoxic species that resembles a toxic species
B Emsleyan/Mertensian mimicry because an extremely toxic species resembles a less
toxic species
C Batesian mimicry because it involves an extremely toxic species that resembles a less
toxic species
D Müllerian mimicry because it involves different species that both produce toxins and
display similar warning coloration
Solution The solution is (D). Müllerian mimicry involves many different species that produce
toxins and also display similar warning coloration in defense against the same
predators.
34 What would happen to an animal species classified as a Batesian mimic if it did NOT have
its mimicry attributes?
A The animal species would suffer increased loss through predation because its
predators would not learn to avoid eating it.
B The animal species would suffer decreased loss through predation because it still
produces harmful toxins that would kill its predators.

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C The animal species would suffer no long-term loss through predation because it still
produces foul-tasting compounds that its predators would learn to avoid.
D The animal species would suffer increased loss through predation because predators
would not be deterred by its appearance and would find it to be tasty.
Solution The solution is (D). The animal species would suffer increased loss. Predators have
no negative effects from eating it, and there would be no physical attributes to deter
them from eating it.
35 According to the competitive exclusion principle, how can two different species coexist in
the same habitat?
A Two species can coexist in the same habitat as long as they do not share the same
trophic level.
B Two species can coexist in the same habitat as long as they do not share the
same mates.
C Two species can coexist in the same habitat as long as they do not share the same
resources.
D Two species can coexist in the same habitat as long as they do not share the same
life span.
Solution The solution is (C). Two species can coexist in the same habitat as long as they do
not share identical resources. The competitive exclusion principle dictates that if two
species share the same resources, one of the populations will either go extinct
locally, or the populations will adapt to utilize different resources.
36 What would happen if the competitive exclusion principle were violated?
A One species will prey on another species and drive it to extinction.
B One species will adapt to another species invading its habitat.
C One species will block another species’ access to a critical resource.
D One species will contend with another species for the same resources.
Solution The solution is (D). The competitive exclusion principle states only one species can
survive if two species compete for the same resources. If this principle were
violated, then two species would be competing for the same resources.
37 Which statement explains the symbiotic relationship of mutualism?
A One species benefits and the other derives no benefit or harm from the relationship.
B One species benefits and the other is harmed by the relationship.
C Both species benefit from the relationship.
D Neither species benefits or is harmed.
Solution The solution is (C). In a mutualistic symbiotic relationship, both species benefit from
the relationship.

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38 Which statement describes the symbiotic relationships of mutualism, commensalism, and

parasitism?
A These symbiotic relationships always benefit both species involved.
B These symbiotic relationships never harm either of the species involved.
C These symbiotic relationships always benefit at least one of the species involved.
D These symbiotic relationships always harm at least one of the species involved.
Solution The solution is (C). These symbiotic relationships always benefit at least one of the
species involved. This is true of mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.
39 Which statement best describes a pioneer species?
A A pioneer species is a species that is transported deliberately out of its native habitat
into a nonnative habitat, where there are few or no natural predators to keep the
population in check.
B A pioneer species is a species that maintains the community structure in an
ecosystem, and whose loss causes the ecosystem to fail.
C A pioneer species is a species that has the greatest influence over the ecosystem
usually by bringing most of the energy into the system.
D A pioneer species is a species that can colonize new landscapes and begin the process
of succession.
Solution The solution is (D). A pioneer species is one of the first to begin the process of
succession. Pioneer species can colonize areas devoid of organic material.
40 What happens to a forest community after a forest fire?
A The same community is quickly reestablished just as it existed before the disturbance.
B Another mature community with different species grows quickly in place of the
original community.
C Groups of species grow and then are replaced by other groups through a sequential
series of changes as the community matures over time.
D The landscape remains barren for many years until trees grow large enough to provide
the shade needed for smaller plants to grow.
Solution The solution is (C). A forest fire can remove many of the living organisms in an area.
As the community recovers, some species will grow quickly and then are replaced
later by other groups through a sequential series of changes as the community
matures over time.
41 What is innate behavior?
A Innate behavior results from practice and conditioning.
B Innate behavior occurs spontaneously without any learning component.

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C Innate behavior results from thought processes.

D Innate behavior results from interactions within a social group.
Solution The solution is (B). Innate behavior does not need to be taught. It occurs
spontaneously without any learning component.
42 What is the difference between innate and learned behaviors?
A Innate behaviors can change based on previous experiences, whereas learned
behaviors remain the same throughout an organism’s life.
B Innate behaviors are controlled by genes, whereas genes play no role in learned
behaviors.
C Innate behaviors allow an organism to adapt to new situations by applying previous
experiences, whereas learned behaviors allow an organism to respond quickly.
D Innate behaviors are involuntary responses to stimuli, whereas learned behaviors
change based on an organism’s experiences.
Solution The solution is (D). Innate behaviors occur without being taught. They are
involuntary responses to stimuli. Learned behaviors change based on an organism’s
experiences.
43 Which statement best describes phototaxis?
A Phototaxis is the directed movement of an organism in response to gravity.
B Phototaxis is the long-range movement of an organism in response to a change in
season.
C Phototaxis is the movement of an organism in search of food.
D Phototaxis is the directed movement of an organism in response to light.
Solution The solution is (D). Phototaxis occurs as an organism directs its movement in
response to light.
44 Monarch butterflies in the eastern regions of North America migrate thousands of miles
to an area in Mexico in the fall and then back to northern regions in the spring. How did
this migration behavior come to be established in this species?
A Each new generation learned the migration behavior by observing older generations
and mimicking their behavior patterns.
B In very early generations of this species, a few individuals found that migration
improved their chances for survival and taught their young to carry on the behavior.
C Individuals that migrated survived through the winter, whereas individuals that did
not migrate died, leading to selection for migration in later generations.
D When this butterfly emerged as a new species, by chance it inherited the genetic
material that underlies long-distance migration behavior from its ancestor.

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 890

Solution The solution is (C). Individuals that migrated survived through the winter, whereas
individuals that did not migrate died. Selection for individuals that migrated
increased the frequency of those individuals in the population, until it became a
fixed trait.
45 Pheromones are used in communication between some organisms. What is a
pheromone?
A A pheromone is a type of chemical compound.
B A pheromone is a type of display.
C A pheromone is a type of language.
D A pheromone is a type of song.
Solution The solution is (A). A pheromone is a type of chemical compound that communicates
a message, such as a warning or the location of a food trail, from one individual to
another individual of the same species.
46 Which statement describes the type of signal used by birds to communicate the presence
of a predator to other birds?
A Birds release chemical compounds into the air that other birds rapidly recognize as
signals of the presence of a predator.
B Birds flash visual signals such as wing flapping to communicate warnings to other birds
whenever a predator is present.
C Birds physically touch other birds using tactile signals when they observe a predator
entering their location.
D Birds make aural signals such as calls that other birds can hear and learn about a
predator that has been observed in the area.
Solution The solution is (D). Birds make aural signals such as calls that other birds can hear
and learn about a predator that has been observed in the area.
47 The sacrifice of the life of an individual so that the genes of relatives may be passed on is
an example of —
A operant conditioning
B kin selection
C kinesis
D imprinting
Solution The solution is (B). Individuals may sacrifice their lives in order to promote their
genes being passed on through their close relatives, which is an example of kin
selection.

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48 Which example describes how an animal expends energy in finding, selecting, or winning
a mate?
A Female swallows engage in aggressive harassment of a hawk during breeding season.
B Male cardinals harass and peck at other male cardinals in their territory.
C Both male and female squirrels build nests out of leaves, twigs, and other plant
material.
D Female black widow spiders eat males following copulation.
Solution The solution is (B). Male cardinals harass and peck at other male cardinals in their
territory. This process uses energy but allows the male cardinal to eliminate other
potential suitors from an area.
49 The polyandrous mating system term polyandry comes from the Greek words for many
and man. Based on these word origins, which best describes a polyandrous mating
system?
A One male mates with many females.
B One female mates with one male.
C One female mates with many males.
D Many females mate with one male.
Solution The solution is (C). In a polyandrous mating system, one female mates with
many males.
50 Which option describes an advantage of a monogamous relationship?
A Having many males around to provide assistance with protecting and feeding offspring
ensures that offspring have the best chance of surviving.
B When very few males are available in a population, this mating system makes sure
that each male has a mating partner.
C In populations where very few females are available, this mating system ensures that
no eggs are wasted.
D The constant presence of one male throughout the offspring rearing process makes it
more likely that offspring will survive and be healthier.
Solution The solution is (D). The constant presence of one male throughout the offspring
rearing process makes it more likely that offspring will survive and be healthier. This
provides an evolutionary advantage to monogamy.

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51 The ability of rats to learn how to run a maze is an example of cognitive learning. What
happens during cognitive learning?
A Cognitive learning is a type of learning that occurs early in an animal’s development
when it learns to bond to an object or animal.
B Cognitive learning occurs when an animal learns to associate a stimulus with a
behavior not normally associated with that stimulus.
C Cognitive learning occurs when an animal learns a behavior in response to a positive
stimulus or negative stimulus.
D Cognitive learning is the most complex type of learning that involves multiple types of
brain processes to carry out.
Solution The solution is (D). Cognitive learning is the most complex type of learning that
involves multiple types of brain processes to carry out. The rat learning to run the
maze requires multiple brain processes.
52 Which statement best explains how classical conditioning and operant conditioning differ?
A In operant conditioning, the animal learns to associate a voluntary behavior with its
consequences, whereas the animal learns to associate a nonvoluntary behavior with
an unusual stimulus in classical conditioning.
B In operant conditioning, the animal does not learn a new behavior in response to a
stimulus, whereas the animal learns to associate a nonvoluntary behavior with an
unusual stimulus in classical conditioning.
C In operant conditioning, the animal learns to associate a voluntary behavior with its
consequences, whereas the animal does not learn a new behavior in response to a
stimulus in classical conditioning.
D In operant conditioning, the animal learns to associate a nonvoluntary behavior with
an unusual stimulus, whereas the animal learns to associate a voluntary behavior with
its consequences in classical conditioning.
Solution The solution is (A). In operant conditioning, the animal learns to associate a
voluntary behavior with its consequences, whereas the animal learns to associate a
nonvoluntary behavior with an unusual stimulus in classical conditioning.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

53 How could a researcher determine the population size and density of a bird population on
one of the Hawaiian Islands?
A Population size can be determined by life tables. The area of the islands in square
kilometers is divided by the population size to determine the density of the bird
population.

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B Population size can be determined by the mark and recapture method. The population
size is divided by the area of the islands in square kilometers to determine the density
of the bird population.
C Population size can be determined by life tables. The population size is divided by the
area of the islands in square kilometers to determine the density of the bird
population.
D Population size can be determined by the mark and recapture method. The area of the
islands in square kilometers is divided by the population size to determine the density
of the bird population.
Solution The solution is (B). The researcher could use the mark and recapture method to
determine the total number of birds on the islands, which gives the population size.
Then, the researcher could divide the total number of birds by the area of the
islands in square kilometers to give the density of the bird population.
54 Which is an example of how two different populations of organisms might have the same
population density, but different dispersal patterns?
A Two populations could occupy the same range with the same number of individuals,
giving different dispersal patterns. However, both the populations may be dispersed
randomly throughout the range, giving identical population densities.
B Two populations could occupy the different range with the different number of
individuals, giving different dispersal patterns. However, both the populations may
move over this range in a herd, giving identical population densities.
C Two populations could occupy the same range with the different number of
individuals, giving identical population densities. However, one population may move
over this range in a herd while the other population may be dispersed randomly
throughout the range.
D Two populations could occupy the same range with the same number of individuals,
giving identical population densities. However, one population may move over this
range in a herd while the other population may be dispersed randomly throughout
the range.
Solution The solution is (D). The density is determined by the total number of individuals in a
population divided by the area over which the population ranges. Two populations
could occupy the same range with the same number of individuals, giving identical
population densities. However, one population may move over this range as a herd,
so the dispersal pattern for this population is clumped. The other population may be
dispersed randomly throughout the range, so the dispersal pattern for that
population is random.
55 A population is observed to have very large numbers of very young individuals, but very
low numbers of sexually mature individuals. What hypothesis might a researcher propose
about mortality patterns in this population, and how would that researcher follow up to
test her hypothesis?

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 894

A The researcher might propose that the mortality rate of this species is very high during
the developmental period after sexual maturity is reached. She can test this
hypothesis by constructing a life table and calculating mortality rates at different age
intervals.
B The researcher might propose that the mortality rate of this species is very high during
the developmental period before sexual maturity is reached. She can test this
hypothesis by using the mark and recapture method and calculating population
densities.
C The researcher might propose that the mortality rate of this species is very high during
the developmental period before sexual maturity is reached. She can test this
hypothesis by constructing a life table and calculating mortality rates at different age
intervals.
D The researcher might propose that the mortality rate of this species is very low during
the developmental period before sexual maturity is reached. She can test this
hypothesis by constructing a quadrat and calculating mortality rates at different age
intervals.
Solution The solution is (C). A researcher might propose the mortality rate of this species is
very high during the developmental period before sexual maturity is reached. To test
this hypothesis, the researcher would follow a group of individuals within the
population from birth to death, recording the age at which they died. From the data,
the researcher could construct a life table and calculate mortality rates at different
age intervals.
56 An organism, such as an elephant, that invests in long-term care of its offspring faces risks
to its survival as a result of this investment. Which statement best explains those risks?
A Organisms that invest in long-term parental care have many offspring. Having many
offspring means there is greater risk of rapid increase in population.
B Organisms that invest in long-term parental care have few offspring. Having a limited
number of offspring means there is greater risk to the survival of the species when a
single offspring dies.
C Organisms that invest in long-term parental care have many offspring. Having many
offspring means there is greater risk to the survival of the species when a single
offspring dies.
D Organisms that invest in long-term parental care have few offspring. Having a limited
number of offspring means there is greater risk of rapid increase in population.
Solution The solution is (B). Organisms that invest in long-term parental care have few
offspring. Having a limited number of offspring means there is greater risk to the
survival of the species when a single offspring dies. Therefore, biologists most often
observe organisms either use long-term parental care of a few offspring or do not
engage in parent care for the large numbers of offspring they produce.

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57 A honeybee colony contains one queen, hundreds of drones, and many thousands of
worker bees. The queen produces eggs, the drones produce sperm, and the workers are
sterile. How does the reproductive strategy of honeybees benefit the survival of the
species? (credit: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United States)
A The fertile queen and drones produce many offspring while sterile worker bees do not
benefit the survival of the species.
B Worker bees produce many offspring while the sterile queen and drones do not
benefit the survival of the species.
C The sterile queen and drones use the energy taken in by them for their own growth,
growth and maintenance of the hive, and protection and nurturing of offspring.
D Sterile worker bees use the energy they take in for their own growth, growth and
maintenance of the hive, and protection and nurturing of offspring.
Solution The solution is (D). Because most of the individuals are sterile, energy needed for
reproduction can be concentrated in just a small percentage of the population. This
allows all of the energy taken in by a worker to go toward its own growth, growth
and maintenance of the hive, and protection and nurturing of offspring.
58 Two different plant species expend approximately the same amount of energy on
reproduction, yet one produces many seeds in a season and the other produces very few.
What is likely to be true of the seeds of these two species?
A In the plant species that produces many seeds, most of the energy is used to produce
seeds, of which only a few will germinate and produce another plant. In the species
that produces few seeds, most of the energy is used to increase the chances of seeds
produced will germinate and grow into an adult plant.
B In a plant species that produces many seeds, most of the energy is used to produce
seeds, most of which will germinate and produce another plant. In a species that
produces few seeds, most of the energy is used to increase the chances of seeds
produced will germinate and grow into an adult plant.
C In a plant species that produces many seeds, most of the energy is used to produce
seeds, of which only a few will germinate and produce another plant. In a species that
produces few seeds, most of the energy is used to reduce the chances of seeds
produced germinating and growing into adult plants.
D In a plant species that produces many seeds, most of the energy is used to increase
the chances that seeds produced germinate and grow into an adult plant. In a species
that produces few seeds, most of the energy is used to produce those seeds, which
will germinate and produce another plant.
Solution The solution is (A). The plant that produces many seeds likely does not also invest
much stored energy with the seed to supply it with nourishment once the seed is
dispersed into the environment. In this species, most of the energy is directed
toward producing large numbers of seeds, only a few of which will germinate and

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produce another plant. In contrast, the plant that produces very few seeds is likely
to invest a large amount of energy in stored form that will be available to the seeds
after they are dispersed. In this species, most of the energy is directed toward
making sure that the few seeds that are produced will have a good chance of
germinating and growing into an adult plant.
59 How would rmax be expected to differ for an elephant and a flea, and how does that
change the time scale over which populations of these two animals would be studied?
A The rmax would be greater for an elephant as elephants reproduce at a faster rate than
fleas. A shorter time scale would be used to study changes over several elephant
generations.
B The rmax would be greater for a flea as fleas reproduce at a faster rate than elephants.
A shorter time scale would be used to study changes over several flea generations
than over several elephant generations.
C The rmax would be greater for a flea as fleas reproduce at a faster rate than elephants.
A longer time scale would be used to study changes over several flea generations than
over several elephant generations.
D The rmax would be greater for an elephant as the elephants grow at an exponential rate
so the population growth rate is greatly increased. A shorter time scale would be used
to study changes over several elephant generations.
Solution The solution is (B). The rmax would be expected to be much greater for a flea than an
elephant because a flea reproduces at a faster rate than an elephant. This means
anyone studying a flea population would use a much shorter time scale to study the
changes over several flea generations than another person studying changes over
several elephant generations.
60 These data were collected on a population of beetles in Florida.

Based on the data, which option best describes the population growth in this case and
predicts the growth of this population in the future?
A The population shows logistic growth, as the number of individuals approximately
doubles every month and will likely continue to grow logistically until its resources
become depleted. At that point, the population growth rate will slow down and level
off to zero.

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B The population shows exponential growth, as the number of individuals approximately

doubles every month and will likely grow logistically in the future until its resources
become limited. At that point, the population growth rate will slow down and level off
to zero.
C The population shows exponential growth, as the number of individuals approximately
doubles every month and will likely continue to grow exponentially until its resources
become limited. At that point, the growth will become logistic; the population growth
rate will slow down and level off to zero.
D The population shows logistic growth and is likely to grow exponentially as the
resources increase. The population growth rate will increase in the future as well.
Solution The solution is (C). Based on the data, the population shows exponential growth
because the number of individuals doubles every month. This population does not
show signs of slowing its growth, so it is likely it will continue to grow exponentially
unless resources become limited. At that point the growth will become logistic, the
population growth rate will slow down and level off to zero.
61 How might climate change lead to a decrease in one population’s carrying capacity and an
increase in a different population’s carrying capacity?
A Plant species that are drought-resistant would decline in warm temperatures whereas
other species would thrive in number in such a climate.
B Plant species that are pest-resistant would thrive in warm temperatures whereas
other species would decline in number in such a climate.
C Plant species that are drought-resistant would decline in cold temperatures whereas
other species would thrive in number in such a climate.
D Plant species that are drought-resistant would thrive in warm temperatures whereas
other species would decline in number in such a climate.
Solution The solution is (D). Climate change may bring warmer temperatures, and sometimes
drier conditions, to a region. Plant species that thrive in warm temperatures will soar
in population numbers, especially if they tend to be drought-resistant. Other plant
species will be harmed by warm temperatures and loss of water availability, and
those populations will decline in numbers.
62 How would you compare and contrast density-dependent growth regulation with density-
independent growth regulation? Give an example of each as they might affect a caterpillar
population.
A Both are environmental conditions that result in changes in population numbers.
Density-independent factors have different effects on population densities whereas
density-dependent factors all have the same effect at different densities. An example
of the former is a caterpillar population being kept low by a pesticide because it kills
them regardless of their numbers. An example of the latter is a large caterpillar

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population leading to a decrease in food availability, causing the caterpillar population

to decline.
B Both are environmental conditions that result in changes in population numbers.
Density-independent factors have the same effect at all population densities whereas
density-dependent factors have different effects at different densities. An example of
the former is a caterpillar population being kept low by a pesticide because it kills
them regardless of their numbers. An example of the latter is a large caterpillar
population leading to a decrease in food availability, causing the caterpillar population
to decline.
C Both are environmental conditions that result in changes in population numbers.
Density-independent factors have the same effect at all population densities whereas
density-dependent factors have different effects at different densities. An example of
the former is of a caterpillar population being kept low by a pesticide because it kills
them only when their numbers are low. In the case of the latter, a large caterpillar
population leads to a decrease in food availability, which will cause the caterpillar
population to decline.
D Both are environmental conditions that result in changes in population numbers.
Density-independent factors have the same effect at all population densities whereas
density-dependent factors have different effects at different densities. An example of
the former is of a caterpillar population being kept low by a pesticide because it kills
them regardless of their numbers. An example of the latter is a large caterpillar
population leading to a decrease in food availability, causing the caterpillar population
to increase.
Solution The solution is (B). Both density-dependent and density-independent factors are
environmental conditions that result in changes in population numbers. These
factors can either increase or decrease population sizes. The two types of factors
differ; density-independent factors have the same effect at all population densities,
whereas density-dependent factors have little effect when population density is low
and their effect increase as population density increases. For example, a caterpillar
population is kept low by a pesticide, which acts as a density-independent factor
because it kills caterpillars regardless of their numbers. The same caterpillar
population runs into a density-dependent factor when their numbers get large and
the plant matter is consumed. The resulting decrease in food availability will cause
the caterpillar population to decline. The greater the population density, the worse
the effect will be on the population size.
63 Why doesn’t a frog, which is an r-selected species, care for its offspring in the way a wolf,
which is a K-selected species, cares for its offspring?
A Frogs have been selected by stable, predictable environments; therefore, they do not
feel the need to care for their offspring like wolves.
B Frogs use very little energy to produce large numbers of offspring; therefore, they do
not have enough remaining to nurture them.

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C Smaller animals like frogs do not care for their offspring, whereas larger animals like
wolves do.
D Frogs expend a lot of energy to produce large numbers of offspring, leaving less
energy for nurturing them.
Solution The solution is (D). Both animals only have so much energy to devote to
reproduction. The frog uses its energy to produce a large number of offspring, which
it then leaves to develop on their own. The frog expends so much energy to produce
these large numbers of offspring that it does not have enough to also nurture them.
But by producing so many, there is a chance that a few of them will survive long
enough to grow to maturity. In this way, the frog has developed a life history
consistent with using its available energy to ensure a few of its offspring will survive
to carry on the lineage.
64 Which features of a logistic growth curve are the same for every population exhibiting
logistic growth, and which features might vary from one population to another?
A The overall S-shape would be the same for all populations. The actual x-and y-values
on the graphs, population numbers corresponding to starting populations, and the
ending carrying capacities could differ.
B The overall carrying capacities would be the same for all populations. The actual x- and
y-values on the graph and population numbers corresponding to the starting
populations could differ.
C The overall S-shape would be the same for all populations showing logistic growth.
The only factor that could differ is the actual x- and y-values on the graphs indicating
the time frames for the growth curves.
D The x- and y-values on the graphs indicating the time frames for the growth curves
would be the same. Overall S-shape and population numbers corresponding to the
starting populations could differ.
Solution The solution is (A). The overall S-shape would be the same for all populations
showing logistic growth. Features that differ could include the actual x-and y-values
on the graphs indicating the time frames for the growth curves, the population
numbers corresponding to the starting population values, and the ending carrying
capacities.
65 Why is the concept of carrying capacity important when discussing human population
growth?
A Humans can decrease the carrying capacity of their environment by developing food
production methods and engineering high-quality shelters, enabling more people to
live than would otherwise be possible.
B Humans have been able to change the carrying capacity of their environment, which
enables more people to survive. By decreasing their own carrying capacity, humans
are responsible for their population boom.

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C Humans have been able to change the carrying capacity of their environment,
enabling more people to live. By increasing their own carrying capacity, humans are
responsible for their population boom.
D Humans can increase the carrying capacity of their environment by developing food
production methods and engineering high-quality shelters, which enables fewer
people to live than would otherwise be possible. This would result in population
collapse.
Solution The solution is (C). The concept of carrying capacity is key to understanding why the
human population is able to grow exponentially. Humans have been able to change
the carrying capacity of their environment by developing food production methods
and engineering high-quality shelters, which enables more people to live than would
otherwise be possible. By increasing their own carrying capacity, humans are
responsible for their population boom.
66 The Industrial Revolution began with the invention of the steam engine. At about the
same time, human population began increasing exponentially. How are these two events
linked to the idea that humans are able to change the carrying capacity of their
environment?
A The invention of the steam engine enabled people to use machines to carry out
farming activities. The amount of available resources needed to sustain human life
increased with the invention of machines. This increase in resources spurred
exponential population growth.
B The invention of the steam engine enabled people to develop pest-resistant crop
varieties. The amount of available resources needed to sustain human life increased
with the invention of machines. This increase in resources spurred exponential
population growth.
C The amount of available resources needed to sustain human life decreased with the
invention of machines, but the carrying capacity increased. This increase in carrying
capacity spurred exponential population growth.
D The invention of the steam engine enabled the environment to be changed according
to the needs of the people. This regulation of environmental conditions spurred
exponential population growth.
Solution The solution is (A). The invention of the steam engine enabled people to use
machines to carry out farming activities that had required human energy to perform.
Because of this change, humans could grow and harvest more food than ever
before, which changed their own carrying capacity. In other words, the amount of
available resources needed to sustain human life increased with the invention of
machines. This increase in resources meant more people could be fed than before,
which spurred exponential population growth.

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67 The diagram shows the age structure for a country. Analyze the age structure.

(credit: Quia)
Which statement best predicts the economic status of this country?
A This country is likely to be an economically developing country because it has a fairly
even distribution of individuals in all age groups.
B This country is likely to be an economically developed country because it has many
more very young people and very few old people.
C This country is likely to be an economically developed country because it has a fairly
even distribution of individuals in all age groups.
D This country is likely to be an economically undeveloped country because it has many
more very young people and very few old people.
Solution The solution is (C). This country is likely an economically developed country because
it has a fairly even distribution of individuals in all age groups. Compared to
undeveloped countries, in which there are many more very young people and very
few old people, this country has lower birth rates, lower child mortality rates, and
longer life spans. As a result, the distribution of people tends to be more equally
spread throughout the various age groups.

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68 The global ecological footprint is defined as the total land area needed to supply all of the
resources consumed by all humans. This graph shows the relationship between time and
the global human footprint measured in number of planet Earths. Analyze the graph.

(credit: EPA Victoria)

What has been the consequence of human population change so far, and what are the
consequences of continued population change in the future?
A The human population has exceeded Earth’s water resources. If the human population
keeps increasing, the ecological footprint of humans will increase far beyond the
ability of Earth to support human population and our population could crash.
B The human population has exceeded Earth’s land area. If the human population keeps
increasing, the ecological footprint of humans will increase far beyond the ability of
Earth to support human population and our population could crash.
C The human population has exceeded Earth’s land area present to supply our resources
of many types. If the human population keeps increasing, the birth and death rates
will decrease and our population could crash.
D The human population has exceeded Earth’s water resources. If the human
population keeps increasing, the birth and death rates will decrease and our
population could crash.
Solution The solution is (B). The graph shows that as the human population increases,
humans’ ecological footprint also increases. So far, we have exceeded Earth’s land
area present to supply our resources, which means that we are over Earth’s carrying
capacity. If the human population keeps increasing, we will make things even worse
by increasing our footprint far beyond the ability of our planet to support us and our
population could crash.

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69 This graph shows a predator-prey cycle for wolves and moose.

The graphs do not resemble the idealized graphs used as models of the predator-prey
cycle. Why?
A This graph reflects all of the influences on both populations in addition to the
predator-prey influences.
B This graph reflects all of the influences on both populations, but not the predator-prey
influences.
C This graph reflects just the influence of predator-prey interactions on both
populations.
D This graph reflects some of the influences on both populations other than the
predator-prey influences.
Solution The solution is (A). This graph represents actual population data collected on two
real populations. There are many more factors influencing population numbers in
addition to predator-prey interactions. Therefore, this graph reflects all of the
influences on both populations in addition to the predator-prey influences. As a
result, the curves do not follow the idealized up and down cycling seen in the
model graphs.
70 Suppose a population of lizards becomes divided into two groups on two different islands
after a devastating tsunami. No predators of the lizard are present on one island, and on
the other island is a fierce predator that uses the lizard as its primary source of food.
Assume both populations encounter similar environments in every other way, and both
survive and grow over the next 100 years.
How do you predict any of the characteristics of the two lizard populations to differ at the
end of that time?

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A The lizards on the island with no predators will likely evolve adaptations such as
camouflaged coloration, sharp spines, or toxins to defend against this predator. These
adaptations will likely be absent in the other population because they are adapted to
other predators.
B The lizards that survive the fierce predator will likely evolve adaptations such as
camouflaged coloration, sharp spines, or toxins to defend against this predator. These
adaptations will likely be absent in the other population because they are adapted to
other predators.
C The lizards that survive the fierce predator will likely evolve adaptations such as
camouflaged coloration, sharp spines, or toxins to defend against this predator. These
adaptations will likely be absent in the other population because this predator is not a
factor in their survival.
D The lizards on the island with no predators will likely evolve adaptations such as
camouflaged coloration, sharp spines, or toxins to defend against this predator. These
adaptations will likely be absent in the other population because they have survived
this predator.
Solution The solution is (C). The lizards that must survive the fierce predator will likely evolve
adaptations such as camouflaged coloration, sharp spines, or toxins to defend itself
against this predator. These adaptations will likely be absent in the other population
because this predator is not a factor in their survival.
71 The downy woodpecker and the hairy woodpecker are two species that live in the same
habitats. The downy woodpecker is slightly smaller and has a smaller beak than the hairy
woodpecker. The downy woodpecker uses its bill to search for food on small twigs and
branches while the hairy woodpecker is most often observed searching for food on tree
trunks.
How does the competitive exclusion principle relate to this example?
A Both woodpeckers have identical bill structure, but do not access their food from the
same places in the habitat. They do not directly compete with one another for food
and thus, can coexist in the same habitat.
B Both live in the same habitat and have some similarities, but access their food from
the same places in the habitat. In this way, the two species can coexist in the same
habitat.
C Both woodpeckers share similarities in their bill structures. So, they directly compete
with one another for food. This directly relates to the competitive exclusion principle.
D Both live in the same habitat and have some similarities, but do not access their food
from the same places in the habitat. In this way, the two species can coexist in the
same habitat.

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Solution The solution is (D). The competitive exclusion principle states no two species can
occupy the same niche in a habitat. These two woodpeckers demonstrate this
principle because both live in the same habitat and have some similarities, but do
not access their food from the same places in the habitat. They have evolved
different bill structures to allow them each to search for food in different parts of
the same trees. Because they do not overlap in this area, they do not directly
compete with one another for food. In this way, the two species can coexist in the
same habitat.
72 Honeybees are pollinators. Which statement explains the type of symbiotic relationship
that exists between honeybees and flowering plants? Explain your reasoning.
A This is commensalism because bees help plants pollinate and, in turn, obtain nectar
from the plants.
B This is a mutualistic relationship, because bees obtain nectar from the plants, but do
not provide any benefits to the plants.
C This is commensalism, because bees obtain nectar from the plants, but do not provide
any benefits to the plants.
D This is a mutualistic relationship, because bees help plants pollinate and, in turn,
obtain nectar from the plants.
Solution The solution is (D). Honeybees and flowering plants have a mutualistic relationship.
The bees benefit from the relationship by obtaining nectar as a source of food
provided by the plant. The plant benefits by having another species assist with
transporting pollen from one plant to another, facilitating sexual reproduction in the
plant. In this way, both bees and plants benefit from the relationship.
73 Prairie dogs are considered a keystone species in the western United States because of
their extensive burrowing activities and their role as a prey animal. Why would these
characteristics result in the keystone role of prairie dogs in their ecosystem?
A Prairie dogs provide protection and shelter for small animals and harm predator
animals in the ecosystem.
B Without the prairie dogs, the ecosystem might collapse due to lack of protection and
shelter for small animals and lack of prey to sustain large predator animals.
C Prairie dogs dig underground burrows, reducing aeration in the soil and preventing
excessive growth of plants aboveground.
D The burrows that prairie dogs dig underground provide shelter for other species of
animals as well as protection from predators, but prevent growth of plants
aboveground.
Solution The solution is (B). A keystone species is one that ecosystem balance depends on. If
the keystone species is lost, the whole ecosystem becomes in danger of collapsing.
In the case of prairie dogs, the burrows they dig underground could provide needed
shelter for other species of animals as well as protection from predators. The

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burrowing activity could also aerate soil and allow for better growth of plants above
ground. Their role as a prey animal is to sustain predator animals that also keep
other prey animal populations in check in the ecosystem. Without the prairie dogs,
these ecosystems might collapse due to lack of protection and shelter for small
animals and lack of prey to sustain large predator animals.
74 Mating pairs of two different species of parrots sometimes lay their eggs in the same nest.
When this happens, only one mating pair ends up parenting the chicks even though chicks
of both species may be present. The chicks in such mixed nesting groups displayed some
interesting behaviors summarized in the table.

Classify these behaviors as innate or learned. How do they compare?

A The alarm call is an innate behavior and a contact call is a learned behavior. Innate
behavior comes out automatically in response to a stimulus whereas learned behavior
develops over time after observing other birds carrying out the behavior.
B The alarm call is a learned behavior and contact call is an innate behavior. Learned
behavior develops over time after observing birds carrying out the behavior whereas
innate behavior comes out automatically in response to a certain stimulus.
C The alarm call is an innate behavior and contact call is a learned behavior. Innate
behavior develops over time in response to stimulus after continuous exposure.
Learned behavior develops over time after observing other birds carrying out their
behavior.
D The alarm call is a learned behavior and contact call is an innate behavior. Learned
behavior comes out automatically whereas innate behavior develops over time in
response to stimulus after continuous exposure.
Solution The solution is (A). The alarm call is an innate behavior, whereas the contact call is a
learned behavior. Chicks give alarm calls as a reflex to a stimulus and rely on their
innate behavior for this response. Chicks give contact calls as a learned behavior
they developed over time based on their experience growing up under the parents
that raised them. The differences are in the way the behaviors are exhibited—innate
behaviors come out automatically in response to a certain stimulus, whereas learned
behaviors develop over time after the chicks have observed other birds carrying out
the behavior.

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75 Mammals such as humans show a behavior known as the fight-or-flight response. How
was natural selection likely involved in the development of this behavior that can be
observed in humans today?
A Individuals showing fight-or-flight behavior were more likely to survive than
individuals lacking the trait. This trait was randomly selected by natural selection, and
thus became preferentially incorporated into the human lineage.
B Individuals showing fight-or-flight behavior were more likely to survive than
individuals lacking the trait. Sudden, inheritable changes were naturally selected for,
which included the fight-or-flight behavior, even though individuals with the trait were
less likely to reproduce. Thus, this response was incorporated into the human lineage.
C Individuals showing fight-or-flight behavior were more likely to survive than
individuals lacking this trait. Therefore, surviving individuals passed on their trait to
offspring while nonsurviving individuals do not. Thus, this response became
incorporated into human lineage.
D Individuals showing fight-or-flight behavior were not more fit than individuals lacking
this trait. However, the trait was selected by natural selection due to a random chance
event in the gene frequency of individuals showing fight-or-flight behavior.
Solution The solution is (C). Human ancestors and early humans were constantly exposed to
natural dangers such as predators they had to defend against in order to survive.
Those individuals with the genetic material allowing them to respond quickly by
running away from danger or standing their ground and fighting were more likely to
survive than individuals who lacked these traits. The surviving individuals passed on
the fight-or-flight traits to their offspring, while the nonsurviving individuals passed
on none of their traits. Thus, the fight-or-flight response became preferentially
incorporated into the human lineage.
76 A researcher studying minnows, a type of fish, kept two groups of 20 fish in separate
containers. The containers were linked by a pair of small tubes outfitted with a pump that
constantly circulated water between both tanks. The researcher observed both groups of
fish after placing a larger fish known to be a predator of minnows into one of the tanks.
Fish in both tanks demonstrated alarm behavior.
How can you explain these observations?
A Fish in the tank that received the predator released alarm signals in chemical form.
These compounds circulated and reached the other tank, eliciting an alarm response
from the fish there nonetheless.
B Fish in the tank that received the predator released alarm signals in the form of
electrical signals. These compounds circulated and reached the other tank, eliciting an
alarm response from the fish there nonetheless.

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C The predator introduced in one tank of fish released alarm signals in chemical form.
These compounds circulated and reached the other tank, eliciting an alarm response
from the fish there nonetheless.
D Fish in the tank that did not receive the predator released alarm signals in the
chemical form. These compounds circulated and reached the other tank and elicited
an alarm response from the fish.
Solution The solution is (A). The fish in the tank that received the predator released alarm
signals in the chemical form. These compounds remained in the water as it
circulated between the two tanks. When the compounds reached the tank that did
not have a predator, they elicited the alarm response from the fish there
nonetheless.
77 In some species, males expend a great deal of energy in courtship rituals, whereas males
of other species expend much less energy using other ways of attracting mates such as
producing colorful plumage. What does this mean for any energy that leftover males of
these species might have to devote to care for offspring?
A Males of species carrying out courtship rituals are more likely to assist in parental care
whereas males that use colorful plumage to attract mates are less likely to assist with
the parental care.
B Males of species carrying out courtship rituals are more likely to assist in parental care
whereas males that use colorful plumage to attract mates are more likely to assist
with parental care because they have more energy available.
C Males of species carrying out courtship rituals as well as species of males that use
colorful plumage to attract mates both are likely to assist with parental care.
D Males of species carrying out courtship rituals as well as species of males that use
colorful plumage to attract mates are both unlikely to assist in parental care as the
females would be involved.
Solution The solution is (B). In the species of males that carry out courtship rituals, there
would be less energy available for caring for young. These species probably use most
of their reproductive energy to mate with females, rather than assisting with
parental care. In the species of males that use colorful plumage to attract mates,
there would be more energy available in the male’s reproductive energy budget to
assist with parental care.
78 Female spotted sandpipers fight each other for resource-rich territories on their beach
breeding grounds. Based on this, which mating type would most likely be operating in
this species?
A Polyandrous mating is most likely operating as the females establish territories apart
from other females. The females will then attract males to the resources they control,
resulting in many males attracted to few females with the richest territories.

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B Polygynous mating is most likely operating as the females establish territories apart
from other females. The females from all territories would attract males to the
resources they control, resulting in few males attracted to many females in each
territory.
C Polyandrous mating is most likely operating as the females establish territories apart
from other females. The females from all territories would attract males to the
resources they control, resulting in few males attracted to many females in each
territory.
D Polygynous mating is most likely operating as the females establish territories apart
from other females. The females will then attract males to the resources they control,
resulting in many males attracted to few females with the richest territories.
Solution The solution is (A). The species is most likely to be polyandrous because the females
establish territories apart from other females. After setting up these territories, the
females will attract males to the resources they control. This will result in many
males being attracted to a few females with the richest territories.
79 Which option describes Pavlov’s dog experiments as an example of classical conditioning?
A Pavlov demonstrated classical conditioning through a maze running experiment with
the dog. The motivation for the dog to work its way through the maze was a piece of
food at the end of the maze. The dog ran in one trial per day and had food available at
the end of the run.
B Pavlov hung a chicken piece in a cage too high for the dog to reach and several boxes
were placed randomly on the floor. Eventually the dog was able to stack the boxes and
climb on top to get the chicken piece through classical conditioning.
C Pavlov put a dog in a large box that contained a lever that would dispense food to the
dog when pressed. While initially the dog would push the lever a few times by
accident, it eventually associated pushing the lever with getting the food through
classical conditioning.
D Pavlov sounded a bell whenever food was presented to a dog, which produced saliva
in response to the sight or smell of the food. Through classical conditioning, the dog
started responding to the bell ringing with salivation as the dog came to associate the
bell sound with the arrival of food.
Solution The solution is (D). Pavlov sounded a bell whenever food was presented to a dog.
The dog had the involuntary reaction of producing saliva in response to the sight or
smell of the food. But through classical conditioning, the dog also responded
involuntarily by salivating whenever it heard the bell ringing because the dog came
to associate the bell sound with the arrival of food.

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TEST PREP FOR AP® COURSES

80 A researcher has been tracking a population of turtles. The researcher marked 200 young
turtles just after hatching. A year later, collection data reveal that about 80 percent
survived. A year after that, collection data revealed that about 60 percent of the original
group was still living. After a third year, about 40 percent could be found alive.
What do these data say about the survivorship curve that would best describe this
population? Explain your reasoning
A Type II survivorship curve because the number of survivors decreases by the same
value (20 percent) every year
B Type I survivorship curve because the number of survivors decreases by the same
value (20 percent) every year
C Type II survivorship curve because the number of survivors increases by the same
value (20 percent) every year
D Type IV survivorship curve because the number of survivors decreases by the same
value (20 percent) every year
Solution The solution is (A). The turtle species exhibits a Type II survivorship curve, which
shows the number of survivors decreasing at a constant rate over the life span. The
data support this conclusion because the number of survivors decreases by the same
value (20 percent) every year.
81 After discovering a new species of salamander in a forest ecosystem, a researcher set
traps at many different locations within the forest and collects data from his traps. The
researcher’s goal was to determine which types of environments within the forest the
salamander is most likely to be found.
What is another scientific question the researcher can answer using the data he has
already collected to further refine his study of this species?
A What is the population distribution of this salamander species in this ecosystem?
B What is the rate of population growth of this salamander species in this ecosystem?
C Which animal species prey on this salamander species in this ecosystem?
D What abiotic resources are essential for the survival of this salamander species in this
ecosystem?
Solution The solution is (A). The researcher can use the data to determine population density
throughout the forest, and determine distribution through the ecosystem.
Additional data would be needed in order to determine growth rate, predators, and
abiotic resources needed.
82 These graphs summarize data collected in an area of Brazil between 2005 and 2006.
Researchers captured mosquitos and counted the number of parous females. Parous
females are females that produced viable offspring.

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(credit: Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical)

Based on the information given, how would mosquito populations change in Brazil if the
climate shifted to very hot (above 30 °C) and very dry (below 60 percent humidity)
conditions for an extended period of time? Explain your reasoning.
A The mosquito populations would decrease at temperatures above 30 °C, as this is the
upper limit for parous females, leading to a drop in offspring production. Not much
change would be seen in the population of mosquitoes if the humidity dipped below
60 percent without a temperature change.
B The mosquito populations would decrease, possibly reaching zero. As temperatures
above 30 °C are the upper limit for parous females, offspring production would drop.
Drier conditions would have the same effect.
C The mosquito populations would stay the same because temperature above 30 °C and
humidity below 60 percent is close to the favorable conditions of offspring production
by parous females.
D The mosquito populations would stay the same at temperatures above 30 °C as higher
temperatures will not affect the production of viable offspring by parous females.
Drier conditions, below 60 percent humidity, would cause a drop in the population as
it is the lower limit for offspring production.

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Solution The solution is (B). The mosquito populations would be expected to decrease
significantly, possibly to zero. The data show temperatures between 20 and 30 °C
and relative humidity between 40 and 100 percent define the limits of conditions
needed for pregnant female mosquitoes to produce viable offspring. If temperatures
rise above 30 °C, the upper limit observed for females producing viable offspring, it
appears likely the production of offspring will drop off. This decrease would be more
significant if there were a shift to much drier conditions, which also do not favor the
production of viable offspring, according to the data in the lower graph.
83 Researchers were interested in answering the question, “How does sheep grazing affect
the population densities of wild mountain birds?” To answer this question, the
researchers counted population numbers of various birds in areas of low intensity sheep
grazing and in areas of high intensity sheep grazing. A third set of data was collected from
control areas in which no sheep grazing occurred. The results of this study are shown in
these graphs.

(credit: The Royal Society Publishing: Biology Letters)

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All of the bird species eat insects as their primary source of nutrition. The group labeled
insect eaters combines many species because the numbers for individual species were too
small to show separately as shown for the meadow pipit and willow grouse, which are
both highly abundant. Because all of the birds are insect eaters, which scientific question
related to this fact could the researchers ask to refine their study even further?. Explain
your reasoning.
A Does sheep grazing make insects more available to birds? This question refines the
question about how sheep grazing affects bird populations because it asks more
specifically how sheep grazing changes the food availability for the birds.
B How does sheep grazing make insects more available to birds? This question refines
the question about how sheep grazing affects insect populations because it asks more
specifically how sheep grazing changes the food availability for the insects.
C Does sheep grazing make insects more available to birds? This question refines the
question about how sheep grazing affects bird populations because it asks more
specifically how sheep grazing changes the food availability for the insects.
D How does sheep grazing make insects more available to birds? This question refines
the question about how sheep grazing affects bird populations because it asks more
specifically how sheep grazing changes the food availability for the insects.
Solution The solution is (A). The researchers could ask the question, “Does sheep grazing
make insects more available to birds?” This question refines the question of how
sheep grazing affects bird populations because it asks more specifically how sheep
grazing changes the food availability for the birds, which has an effect on the bird
populations.
84 A pond ecosystem in an open field begins to be shaded by the growth of trees around its
perimeter. Which statement predicts changes in this pond after the trees grow large
enough to completely shade the pond?
A The population sizes of all organisms will decrease in response to lower energy flowing
into the pond.
B The population densities of all organisms will increase in response to lower
temperatures in the pond.
C The population distributions of large organisms will shift from clumped to random in
response to lower energy flowing into the pond.
D The population distributions of small organisms will shift from uniform to clumped in
response to lower temperatures in the pond.
Solution The solution is (A). This is a likely scenario. The reduction in light will reduce the
population sizes of plant species that need full sun, as well as associated insect and
other animal species.

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85 A researcher has been studying a wildflower population growing in a large meadow. The
researcher counts individual plants and mapped their locations. Analysis of the data
reveals that the wildflower has a uniform population distribution. This result prompts the
researcher to ask a new scientific question to further refine his understanding of the
ecology of this plant species.
What is a scientific question the researcher might ask that is directly prompted by his first
set of findings?
A When does this plant species flower and how does it attract pollinators?
B Does this wildflower species have any adaptations that function to defend the plant
against herbivores?
C Which species of insects and/or birds are pollinators for this wildflower species?
D Does this wildflower species secrete any chemical compounds that inhibit growth of
others of its species?
Solution The solution is (D). Does this wildflower species secrete any chemical compounds
that inhibit growth of others of its species? This would be a likely cause for their
uniform population distribution because each individual would kill plants
immediately around it.
86 Fruit flies are found in many different areas in the world. Fruit flies that are resistant to
cold temperatures tend to have decreased fecundity at early ages compared to flies that
are not capable of surviving the cold.
Which statement explains a likely reason for why this set of traits is observed? (credit:
Anthony Zera Publications)
A Fruit flies having traits that traded early reproductive energy for greater storage of
energy in their bodies were favored via natural selection because they survived the
cold better than flies that did not have these traits.
B In cold conditions, fruit flies have less need for reproduction than in warm conditions
and so energy normally used for reproduction is diverted to other survival functions.
C Fruit flies respond to weather conditions to shift their energy resources to either
storage in their bodies in the cold or to reproduction when conditions become warm
again.
D All fruit flies have the same genetic makeup, but express different patterns of genes
under different conditions, which results in expression of certain genes for cold
conditions and others for warm conditions.
Solution The solution is (A). This would likely ensure more offspring and greater fitness in
colder areas that have shorter warm seasons.

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87 Female parasitoid wasps lay their eggs inside the bodies of caterpillars. The caterpillars
die when the eggs hatch, and the young wasps feed on the body of the caterpillar. Egg-
laying females of two species of parasitoid wasps were studied in special growth
chambers in which a food source was either provided or omitted. This table summarizes
some of the data collected.

(credit: Brazilian Archives of Biology and Technology)

Which statement is most consistent with these data?
A When energy availability is low, females put more energy than normal into producing
offspring.
B When energy availability is high, females produce offspring with higher viability.
C When energy availability is low, females shift energy away from reproduction and
toward their own survival.
D When energy availability is high, females cannot both produce viable offspring and
maintain their own survival.
Solution The solution is (C). When energy availability is low, females shift energy away from
reproduction and toward their own survival. The percentage of mated females in the
environment without food, and energy is not available, is low or absent in both
species.

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88 During breeding season, many female elk mate with males, but not all mated females
become pregnant. Female elk having body fat less than 6 percent were found to have
greatly reduced chances of becoming pregnant than female elk having body fat above
10 percent. How was natural selection likely involved in establishing this trait in elk?
(credit: USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center)
A Through natural selection, female elk that did not have the energy reserves to carry a
pregnancy to term and did not become pregnant died whereas those elk that became
pregnant anyway were favored.
B Natural selection favored the selection of traits preventing pregnancies in female elk
with low fat reserves, so this trait has become predominant in natural elk herds
observed today.
C Natural selection randomly changes the frequency of genes allowing traits preventing
pregnancies in female elk with low fat reserves to be favored.
D Natural selection leads to a sudden inheritable change in the genome of the female
elk, ensuring female elk with very high fat reserves can effectively carry out
pregnancy.
Solution The solution is (B). Carrying a pregnancy to term is an energetically expensive
process for elk. Female elk with very low fat reserves do not have the energy
resources to effectively carry out this process. Through natural selection, female elk
that did not have the energy reserves to carry a pregnancy to term, but became
pregnant anyway, likely died because their unborn calves diverted too much energy
away from the mother’s needs. However, female elk that did not have the energy
reserves to carry a pregnancy to term and did not become pregnant were favored
because they were able to survive on their low energy reserves. This favored the
selection of traits preventing pregnancies in female elk with low fat reserves, so this
trait has become predominant in natural elk herds observed today.
89 Research on elk in Yellowstone National Park was conducted to determine how body
condition affects survival of the elk over the winter months. It was found that the
probability of survival of female elk is greater when they have accumulated 15 percent or
more body fat by the end of fall. Female elk with body fat less than 10 percent in late fall
were found to be at high risk of not surviving the winter.
Why is this pattern likely to be observed? (credit: USGS Northern Prairie Wildlife Research
Center)
A In winter, the availability of food decreases. So, there needs to be a certain threshold
level of energy their bodies store in the form of fat to ensure their survival.
B In winter, the availability of food increases. So, there should be a certain threshold
level of energy in their bodies stored in the form of fat to ensure their survival.

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C In winter, elk’s requirement for food increases due to increase in metabolic activities
even though availability of food increases. So, there should be a certain threshold level
of energy in their bodies stored in the form of fat to ensure their survival.
D In winter, elk release more energy. So, there should be a certain threshold level of
energy in their bodies stored in the form of fat to ensure their survival.
Solution The solution is (A). In winter, the availability of food decreases as many plants do not
survive the cold and plants that do survive are covered by heavy snow. This means
elk cannot take in as much energy on a daily basis during winter as they do during
the warmer months. Their bodies must rely on energy reserves stored in the form of
fat to sustain survival during the winter. If an elk does not have a certain threshold
level of fat to sustain itself, then it dies in winter because it will not find enough food
to make up for the difference needed for survival.
90 The table contains birth rates and death rates for populations of several species living in
the same ecosystem. Analyze the data.

Which populations(s) experience a negative change in population size?

A Species A only
B Species A and species C
C Species B and species D
D Species B and species E
Solution The solution is (D). Species B and species E have a death rate exceeding the birth
rate, and therefore the populations will be shrinking (negative change).

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91 The data in the table were collected on the population size of a species of plant growing in
a region during the years after a flood destroyed the area.

What do the data indicate about this population?

A The plant population grew exponentially throughout the years as the numbers of
individuals increased at an exponential rate. The population eventually became stable
after reaching a maximum number of around 120 individuals, which could be the
carrying capacity of the environment.
B The population grew exponentially in the first few years and later became logistic as
the rate slowed down. The population eventually became stable after reaching a
maximum number of around 120 individuals, which could be the carrying capacity of
the local environment.
C The plant population grew logistically throughout the years as the growth rate of the
population slowed down. The population eventually became stable after reaching a
maximum number of around 120 individuals, which could be the carrying capacity of
the environment.
D The population grew exponentially in the first few years and later became logistic as
the rate slowed down. The population eventually became stable after reaching a
number of around 116 individuals, which could be the carrying capacity of the
environment.

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Solution The solution is (B). The data show the plant population grew exponentially in the
first few years after the flood, but the rate slowed down and growth became logistic.
The population eventually became stable after reaching a maximum number of
around 120 individuals. This number could reflect the carrying capacity of the local
environment for the plant.
92 It has been suggested a population of a flowering plant is being jeopardized by population
declines in a butterfly species thought to be the primary pollinator of the plant. Which
data could best be used to either justify or refute this suggestion?
A Nectar energy provided to the butterfly species per visit to a flower of the plant
species in a field
B Number of fruits produced per flower of plants in a section of a field screened off from
access by the butterfly species
C Number of butterfly visits per flower per day in various fields throughout the growing
range of the plant
D Species of flowers visited by individual butterflies in a field and frequency of visits to
each flower species
Solution The solution is (B). If the number of fruits produced per flower of plants in a section
of a field screened off from access by the butterfly species is lower than fruit
production with butterflies present, this would support the importance of the role of
the pollinator.
93 A conservation group has claimed that the introduction of logging into a forest ecosystem
will decrease the carrying capacity of trout living in a stream within the ecosystem. Which
data could be used to either justify or refute this claim?
A Growth rate of trout in the stream before and after logging
B Death rate of trout in the stream after the introduction of logging
C Number of trout in the stream after the introduction of logging
D Number of trout in the stream before and after logging
Solution The solution is (D). These data will directly compare how the population changes as
a result of introducing logging into the ecosystem, which will give an indication as to
whether the claim is justified.
94 Which statement predicts how human population change in the next 50 years is likely to
affect marine ecosystems?
A Humans will decrease their own carrying capacity, which will also decrease the
carrying capacities of marine ecosystems.
B Decreased fishing can be expected, which will lead to rebounds in fish populations and
healthier marine ecosystems.

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C Increases in greenhouse gas emissions are likely, with increases in ocean temperatures
that trigger shifts in marine populations.
D Biodiversity of marine ecosystems will increase as humans use engineering to increase
food production in the oceans.
Solution The solution is (C). Greenhouse gas emissions will lead to increased global
temperatures, including ocean temperatures.
95 How can the quantity of waste from human activities be expected to change in the next
50 years? Why? Explain how that change could impact a specific ecosystem.
A The amount of waste generated by human activities will increase exponentially as the
human population continues to increase exponentially. Removal of waste would
require a decrease in habitats, which will lead to a decrease in populations of species
dependent on those habitats.
B The amount of waste generated by human activities will increase exponentially as the
human population continues to increase exponentially. Removal of waste will require
an increase in habitats, which will lead to an exponential increase in populations of
species dependent on those habitats.
C The amount of waste generated by human activities will decrease exponentially as the
human population continues to increase exponentially. Removal of waste would
require an increase in habitats, which will lead to exponential increase in populations
of species dependent on those habitats.
D The amount of waste generated by human activities will decrease exponentially as the
human population continues to increase exponentially. Removal of waste will require
a decrease in habitats, which will lead to decrease in populations of species
dependent on those habitats.
Solution The solution is (A). The amount of waste generated by human activities will increase
exponentially as the human population continues to increase exponentially. Humans
will want to remove this waste from the areas where they live and work and so it
will be transported into natural areas such as forests that are transformed into
landfills. By transforming forests into landfills, humans will cause decreases in
habitats, which will lead to decreases in populations of species dependent on those
habitats.
96 A company wants to establish suspended cultures of mussels in a natural estuary from
which they can farm mussels in a sustainable enterprise. The suspended cultures would
keep the mussels contained for easy capture, but would allow free flow of estuary waters
in and out of the cultures. The company wants to know the maximum number of mussels
they can farm each month and maintain a sustainable system. A biologist has suggested
that the limiting factor for mussels in this specific environment is the amount of
phytoplankton that the mussels feed on.
Which data could best be used to either justify or refute this suggestion?

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A Rates of growth of newly established mussel cultures in a lab under different

phytoplankton concentrations
B Phytoplankton population changes in the estuary as a function of intensity and
duration of sunlight exposure
C Biomasses of natural mussel populations and phytoplankton populations in the
estuary determined at many different times
D Lab measurements of phytoplankton biomass in response to added mussel population
numbers
Solution The solution is (C). Biomasses of natural mussel populations and phytoplankton
populations in the estuary determined at many different times could show if the
mussel population size is fluctuating similarly to phytoplankton population size.
97 A nonvenomous species of snake has a wide geographical range. In one region, the
species has dull coloration. In another region, the species exhibits bright coloration that
resembles a local venomous species of snake. A hypothesis has been proposed that the
bright coloration is an adaptation to defend against predation, an example of Batesian
mimicry. Which statement describes an experimental design that could be used to most
directly test this hypothesis?
A Run field tests in which dull individuals and brightly colored individuals are captured
and switched into the other’s territory to see how many of each survive.
B Run field tests in which video cameras are set up to record predators capturing dull
individuals and brightly colored individuals in their native territories.
C Run laboratory tests in which predators familiar with the venomous snake are offered
dull individuals and brightly colored individuals to see if the predators show a
preference.
D Run laboratory tests in which predators familiar with the dull colored nonvenomous
snake are offered venomous brightly colored individuals and nonvenomous brightly
colored individuals to see if the predators show a preference.
Solution The solution is (C). The proposed hypothesis would predict that the predators
familiar with the venomous snake coloration would avoid all snakes with that
coloration, regardless of the actual ability of the snake to use venom.
98 Frogs are amphibians and most species spend time both on land and in water. Female
frogs are vulnerable to predation by fish when they enter the water to lay eggs. A
hypothesis has been proposed that frogs rely on chemical detection of predators in
addition to visual detection. In other words, frogs detect the presence of predator fish by
chemicals released by fish into the water.
What best describes a design for an experiment to test this hypothesis?

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A Arrange containers of water in which water can be freely shared between two
compartments. Fish are contained within one compartment and frogs in another such
that the frogs on one side cannot see or hear fish on the other side. Observe and
compare the egg-laying behavior of female frogs in the presence and absence of
predator fish in the fish tank.
B Arrange containers of water in which water can be freely shared between two
compartments. Fish and frogs are contained within one compartment such that frogs
cannot see or hear fish. Observe and compare the egg-laying behavior of female frogs
in the presence and absence of predator fish.
C Arrange containers of water in which water can be freely shared between two
compartments. Fish and frogs are contained within one compartment such that frogs
can see or hear fish. Observe and compare the egg-laying behavior of female frogs in
the presence and absence of predator fish in the fish tank.
D Arrange containers of water in which water can be freely shared between two
compartments. Fish are contained within one compartment and frogs in another such
that frogs on one side can see or hear fish on the other side. Observe and compare the
egg-laying behavior of female frogs in the presence and absence of predator fish in the
fish tank.
Solution The solution is (A). Arrange containers of water in which water can be freely shared
between two compartments, but fish are contained within one compartment and
kept separate from the compartment frogs can access. The containers must also be
constructed so the frogs on one side cannot see or hear fish on the other side. Run a
control in which no predator fish are placed in the fish compartment and egg-laying
female frogs are allowed to access the frog compartment. Observe egg-laying
behavior of the frogs. Run an identical experimental trial, except that predator fish
are placed in the fish tank in advance of placing female frogs in the frog
compartment. Compare the egg-laying behavior of the female frogs in the two
circumstances.
99 A biologist studied two populations of the same species of a small fish living in different
locations in the same tropical stream. He noticed that adult male fish were either spotted
or unspotted and made careful counts of the two variants in the two stream locations in
1998. He repeated his population studies 10 years later. The table summarizes the data.

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Which hypothesis accounts for these data?

A A new prey species of the fish established itself only in the downstream portion of the
stream between 1998 and 2008.
B A new prey species of the fish established itself only in the upstream portion of the
stream between 1998 and 2008.
C A new predator of the fish established itself only in the downstream portion of the
stream between 1998 and 2008.
D A new predator of the fish established itself in both the upstream and downstream
portions of the stream between 1998 and 2008.
Solution The solution is (C). A new predator of the fish established itself only in the
downstream portion of the stream between 1998 and 2008. This predator is more
likely to consume spotted males, which caused the downstream population of
spotted males to be much smaller in size in 2008.
100 A species of marine snail is found in shallow waters near coastlines. This snail feeds on
detritus on the ocean bottom. Researchers noticed that snails in one area had a mottled
appearance, while snails in another area were solid in color. The researchers set up areas
in each region for study and then released both mottled and solid snails into the solid
snail region and released both mottled and solid snails into the mottled snail region. The
survival rate of each variant was measured. Results are summarized in this table.

Which hypothesis accounts for these data?

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A A possible hypothesis is that the coloration of the snail is dependent on environmental

conditions. Camouflage in both mottled and solid snails is best during optimum
environmental conditions and does not change according to the region in which they
are placed.
B A possible hypothesis is that the coloration of the snail is an adaptation in the form of
camouflage to protect the snail from predators in the region it is invading. Mottled
snails are best camouflaged in the solid snail region and stand out to predators and
suffer greater predation when placed in their native region.
C A possible hypothesis is that the coloration of the snail is an adaptation in the form of
camouflage to protect the snail from predators in its native region. Mottled snails are
best camouflaged in their native region and stand out to predators and suffer greater
predation when placed in the region normally occupied by solid snails.
D A possible hypothesis is that the coloration of the snail is an adaptation in the form of
camouflage to protect the snail from predators in its native region. Solid snails are
best camouflaged in mottled snail region and are more obvious to predators when
placed in their native region.
Solution The solution is (C). One possible hypothesis is the coloration of the snail is an
adaptation as a form of camouflage to protect the snail from predators in its native
region. Mottled snails are best camouflaged in their own native region and when
placed in a different region occupied by solid snails, they stand out to predators and
suffer greater predation. Similarly, solid snails are best camouflaged in their native
region and are more obvious to predators when placed in a region normally
occupied by mottled snails.
101 The graph summarizes data concerning four different species of lizards that inhabit
tropical habitats.

Which statement predicts how these species will be able to coexist if they inhabit the
same region of a tropical habitat?
A All species will coexist with one another because they consume the same amounts
of food.
B Species A, B, and C will best coexist because of their similarities in amount and type of
food eaten.

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C Species A and B will best coexist because they have the most overlap in diet.
D Species D will best coexist with any one of the other species because this species eats
completely different types of food.
Solution The solution is (D). Species D will best coexist with any one of the other species
because this species eats completely different types of food. The graph shows a
distribution for species D that does not overlap with species A, B, or C.
102 Warblers are a group of small songbirds consisting of many species. The table summarizes
data collected on the diets of two species of warblers. In addition, both species A and B
use the same types of nesting materials and sites for building nests.

A biologist observes that species A and species B primarily inhabit different regions of a
forest in western Canada. During a forest fire that wiped out the region it inhabited,
species B fled to the region inhabited by species A.
What is likely to happen to these two species in the future?
A Both the species will survive because of difference in needs for food.
B Species A will increase in population whereas species B will remain same due to the
overlapping needs for food.
C Unless the species can modify their diets, it is likely that only one of these species will
survive in this region due to the difference in needs for food. The species that loses
will either die off or migrate to another region.
D Unless the species can modify their It is likely that only one of these species will
survive in this region due to the overlapping needs for food. The species that loses will
either die off or migrate to another region.
Solution The solution is (D). Both species cannot thrive in the same region because they have
overlapping needs for food. Unless the species can specialize on different foods, only
one of these species will end up living in this region because it will better compete
for the available resources than the other species. The species that loses will either
die off or migrate to another region where competition is reduced enough that it can
access the resources it needs to survive.
103 Himalayan blackberries are an invasive species that has spread in the forest of the Pacific
Northwest. The plants develop thick tangles of cane covered with thorns that cover
ground with a tight mat. Ecologists hypothesized that Himalayan blackberries displace
native species of shrubs by reproducing faster and reducing areas available for growth.
They recorded the density of blackberries and native salmonberries, a native shrub, along

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a creek for several years. The percentage areas of ground covered by blackberries and
native shrubs were plotted over time, as shown in the graph.

Based on the graph, what statement best explain the role of blackberries on the
ecosystem studied?
A Blackberries promote the growth of salmonberry shrubs.
B Blackberries and salmonberry shrubs do not interfere with each other’s growth.
C Salmonberry shrubs prevent the growth of blackberries.
D Blackberries displace salmonberry shrubs.
Solution The solution is (D). Blackberries are an invasive species that outcompete native
shrubs. As blackberries spread, the density of native shrubs decreases.
104 Which statement best predicts how ecosystems in the northernmost land regions will be
affected by human population change in the next 50 years?
A Biodiversity of these northernmost regions will remain constant as humans will find
other more habitable locations to house their growing numbers.
B The populations of organisms presently inhabiting these regions will shift as global
warming causes many species to decline and new species to move in.
C The carrying capacity of these regions for humans will decrease as the human
population increases exponentially.
D Ecosystems can be expected to remain untouched by humans as new technologies are
developed to sustain a growing population.
Solution The solution is (B). The populations of organisms presently inhabiting these
regions will shift as global warming causes many species to decline and new species
to move in.

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105 A researcher is interested in investigating whether the croaking pattern produced by

males in a frog species is a learned behavior or an innate behavior. What would best help
the researcher answer this question?
A Genetic analyses of adult male frogs raised in isolation and in multigenerational frog
communities
B Field observations of adult frogs in their native habitat during mating season
C Video recordings of individual frogs raised in large multigenerational frog communities
D Audio recordings of individual frogs at sexual maturity after being raised in total
isolation
Solution The solution is (D). Comparison of audio recordings of individual frogs at sexual
maturity after being raised in total isolation with frogs raised in normal conditions
would indicate the role of learned behavior in the development of the croaking
pattern.
106 A biologist hypothesizes birds of various species recognize the predator warning calls of
other bird species. The biologist has established several feeders in a forest where birds
come to feed regularly. They are spread out over a wide area, making it difficult to
observe all of the boxes at the same time.
How can the biologist use this site to collect data to test his hypothesis?
A The biologist can use video cameras to record the behavior of birds coming to the
feeders.
B The biologist can leave an audio recorder near the feeders.
C The biologist can record the behavior of birds by comparing them with other birds
using video cameras.
D The biologist could observe the birds continually for 1 month.
Solution The solution is (A). The biologist can use video cameras to record the behavior of
birds coming to the feeders. He can set up speakers to play audio recordings of
predator warning calls made by various bird species and observe how different birds
respond when the recordings are played.
107 Yellow buntings are birds that feed on butterflies, including Aglaisurticae, a species of
butterfly that has bright circular coloring on its wing called an eyespot. Biologists have
hypothesized that eyespots mimic owl eyes. Owls are predators of yellow buntings.
In laboratory experiments using yellow buntings captured from the wild and held in
captivity, individual birds were observed during sessions in which they were given
butterflies that had either not been treated or had been treated to remove their eyespots.
Yellow buntings were scored according to whether they showed fleeing behavior when
they encountered butterflies of both types. The data were compiled in this table.

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 928

How do these data support the claim that one species’ response to information can affect
natural selection in another species?
A Comparison of the total number of encounters shows that more birds responded to
the eyespot, a trait that will likely be selected against in natural populations of the
butterfly.
B Comparison of the number of birds attacking butterflies with and without eyespots
suggests that the presence of an eyespot makes butterflies more visible to predators
resulting in selection against the trait.
C Comparison of the number of birds fleeing from butterflies with and without eyespots
indicates that the eyespot trait has been disfavored because this trait makes the
butterflies stand out to predators.
D Comparison of the number of birds fleeing from butterflies with and without eyespots
suggests that selection has occurred in butterflies in favor of the eyespot trait, which
mimics a predator of the bird.
Solution The solution is (D). Comparison of the number of birds fleeing from butterflies with
and without eyespots suggests that selection has occurred in butterflies in favor of
the eyespot trait, which mimics a predator of the bird. A higher percentage of birds
fled from butterflies with eyespots that mimic the predator of the bird.
108 Biologists analyzed the sound frequencies of different calls made by a small bird species
that serve as prey for a much larger predator bird species. The small bird makes three
different kinds of calls: a mobbing call that a group of adults make when mobbing a single
predator bird in defense of their nests, a scolding call that a single bird makes to scold a
predator bird perched nearby, and a warning call that a single bird makes to warn other
birds when a predator bird flies into the vicinity. A table was created to summarize the
data from this analysis and also show the range of sound frequencies audible to the prey
and predator species.

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(credit: Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology)

How do these data support the claim that communication of information affects natural
selection in the small bird species?
A A scolding call made by small birds can be heard by large predator birds, which is
required to scold away the birds; therefore, this trait is favorable and has been
naturally selected.
B The mobbing call made by small birds can be heard by large predator birds; therefore,
small birds cannot defend their nests without the predators knowing. This unfavorable
trait is thus naturally selected.
C The warning call made by small birds cannot be heard by large predator birds, giving
the small birds an advanced warning. This is an unfavorable trait that gives birds a
survival disadvantage.
D The warning call made by small birds cannot be heard by large predator birds, giving
the small birds an advanced warning. This is a favorable trait that gives birds a survival
advantage.
Solution The solution is (D). The data show only the warning call the small bird makes cannot
be heard by the large predator bird. By not being audible to a predator, this call
gives other birds of this species advanced warning that a predator is nearby without
giving away their presence to the predator. This covert advanced warning gives the
birds an advantage in their survival; therefore, this is a favorable trait that was
selected over time. Birds with the trait had a survival advantage, while birds without
the trait did not, which resulted in selection for the trait.
109 Which statement most directly supports the claim that monarch butterfly migration is a
regulated event?
A Monarch butterflies fly up to 3,000 mi from their summer habitat in North America to
their winter habitat in Mexico.
B Because the life span of a monarch butterfly is so short, not every generation of
monarch migrates.

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C Monarch caterpillars feed on milkweed while adult butterflies feed on flower nectar.
D Changes in day length trigger hormonal and nervous system changes in monarchs that
result in behavioral changes.
Solution The solution is (B). Triggers such as changes in day length lead to hormonal and
nervous system changes in monarchs that result in behavioral changes, including
migration.
110 What evidence supports the claim that the timing of entry into hibernation by grizzly
bears is regulated?
A Grizzly bears go into hibernation at the end of winters. This observation provides
evidence that there is some environmental cue that triggers physiological changes
in bears.
B Grizzly bears do not go into hibernation at the beginning of autumn. This observation
provides evidence that there is some environmental cue that triggers physiological
changes in bears.
C Grizzly bears go into hibernation at random times during the year. This observation
provides evidence that there is some environmental cue that triggers physiological
changes in bears.
D Grizzly bears do not go into hibernation at random times during the year. This
observation provides evidence that there is some environmental cue that triggers
physiological changes in bears.
Solution The solution is (D). Grizzly bears do not go into hibernation at random times during
the year, but only enter hibernation at the end of autumn or beginning of winter.
This observation provides evidence that there is some environmental cue that
triggers physiological changes in the bears, which induces them to enter the state of
hibernation.
111 Some animal behaviors can be modified by experience. What accurately predicts how an
experiential factor is likely to affect an animal’s behavior?
A A species of salmon will migrate up the same river regardless of increases in predators
that visit these waterways from one year to the next.
B Female elk that had difficult deliveries of calves will continue to mate with males in
succeeding mating seasons.
C Bears that receive food from humans are later more likely to break into human
habitations than bears that are not approached by humans.
D A bird raised from an egg isolated in a lab environment will give the same alarm call as
birds of the same species raised in the wild.

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Solution The solution is (C). Bears that receive food from humans are later more likely to
break into human habitations than bears that are not approached by humans. The
feeding of the bears provides them with experience that modifies their normal
behavior.
112 Estivation is a type of dormancy that some animals enter during hot, dry periods.
Typically, the metabolisms of these animals slow down, their bodies retain water, and
they may shift to altered nitrogen metabolism. How would the behavior of an animal such
as a lizard change in response to environmental factors that trigger the lizard into
entering estivation?
A The lizard would sit on a rock to remain protected from predation and water loss. The
breathing and heart rate would slow as it begins estivating. Then it would only do
critical activities needed to sustain its living state.
B The lizard would live in a shaded spot to remain protected from predation and water
loss. The breathing and heart rate would slow as it begins estivating. This way a lizard
can perform all activities.
C The lizard would stay in a shaded spot to remain protected from predation and water
loss. Its breathing and heart rate would slow as it begins estivating. Then it would only
do critical activities needed to sustain its living state.
D The lizard would live in a shaded spot to remain protected from predation and water
loss. The breathing and heart rate would increase as it begins estivating. Then it would
only do critical activities needed to sustain its living state.
Solution The solution is (C). The lizard would be expected to find or dig a resting place in a
shaded spot under a rock or within a crevice where it could remain protected from
predation and from water loss as it estivated. Then, as it began estivating, the
lizard’s movements would slow down considerably, its breathing rate and heart rate
would slow. Eventually, the lizard would stop all activity except the most critical
activities needed to sustain its living state.
113 Many animals produce chemical compounds that function as alarm cues. Researchers
interested in determining whether salamanders fall into this group performed the
following experiment. Long-toed salamanders were captured from the wild. A few were
injured and tissue from their injuries was collected and ground up with water. This
solution was used to moisten a paper towel. Others were not injured and placed on
moistened paper towels for 48 hours. The moistened paper towels were placed at one
end of a rectangular box (stimulus end) and a paper towel moistened with water was
placed at the other end (control end). In each test, a salamander was placed in the center
and the researchers observed the direction in which the salamander moved. Multiple
trials were performed using paper towels moistened with chemicals from injured and
noninjured salamanders and the data were compiled into a table.

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Which statement is an accurate analysis of the data?

A This salamander releases chemical compounds during injury that elicit avoidance
behavior in members of its own species.
B Chemical compounds released from this salamander species during injury elicit
attractant behavior in members of its own species.
C Both injured and noninjured salamanders produce chemical compounds that elicit
avoidance behavior in noninjured salamanders.
D There was a statistically significant difference between stimulus and control results
from treatment involving noninjured salamanders.
Solution The solution is (A). This salamander releases chemical compounds during injury that
elicit avoidance behavior in members of its own species. The presence of those
compounds causes a decrease in salamanders in the area of the paper towels
treated with the injured salamanders.
114 Biologists have observed some animal species making predator warning calls when no
predator is in the area. In one species of bird, for example, individuals appeared to
perform this behavior as a means for deceiving other birds into fleeing from a food source
that the bird making the call was then better able to access.
In investigating the possibility that this bird species uses false alarm calls to improve its
access to food, the following experiment was conducted. Researchers set up a bird
feeding table in a protected area to attract two species of birds, species A and B. They
either clumped food in one concentrated pile on the table, allowing a few birds to feed
simultaneously, or dispersed the food in a much wider area under and around the table so
that it was available to large numbers of birds. They then observed the number of times
an individual in species A gave a predator warning call and whether species B was present
at the feeding table. The data collected by the researchers are shown in the table.

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(credit: Ethology)
What do the data suggest about the use of deception by species A?
A Species A may sometimes use deception in cases when food is plentiful, but
concentrated in a way that access is limited to a small group of birds. A bird that had
restricted access to the food has open access because of the alarm. The bird only
carries out this deceptive behavior in cases where it’s necessary.
B Species A may sometimes use deception in cases when food is plentiful, but
concentrated in a way that access is available to a large group of birds. A bird that had
restricted access to the food has open access because of the alarm. The bird only
carries out this deceptive behavior in cases where it’s necessary.
C Species A may sometimes use deception in cases when food is plentiful, but dispersed
in a way that access is limited to a small group of birds. A bird that had restricted
access to the food has open access because of the alarm. The bird only carries out this
deceptive behavior in cases where it’s necessary.
D Species A may sometimes use deception in cases when food is plentiful, but
concentrated in a way that access is available to a small group of birds. A bird that had
unrestricted access to the food has open access because of the alarm. Deceptive
behavior is carried out regardless of whether it is needed or not.
Solution The solution is (A). The data suggest species A uses deception in cases when food is
plentiful, but concentrated, so access is limited to a small group of birds. In these
cases, sounding a false alarm that a predator is in the area is a successful strategy for
gaining access to the food. By sounding the alarm, a bird that had restricted access
to the food now has open access because the birds gathered around the food
respond to the alarm by fleeing. The data show only in cases where it’s necessary
does the bird carry out this deceptive behavior. When food is dispersed and more
easily available, the bird does not sound false alarms. When birds of the other
species are absent, the bird also does not sound false alarms. The deceptive
behavior is only elicited when the bird cannot gain access and must take action
to do so.

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115 This representation was created to describe how the behavior of a cat was affected as it
was exposed to different stimuli.

Which term describes the process represented by the exposure to footsteps followed by
loud noise in this diagram?
A Innate behavior
B Classical conditioning
C Operant conditioning
D Cognitive learning
Solution The solution is (B). The cat is exhibiting innate behaviors triggered by external
stimuli. This is classical conditioning.
116 Elk migrate from summer feeding grounds in high mountain meadows down into lower
valleys during winter. What is the order of events that occur to bring about this
migration?
A Seasonal changes, physiological changes, migration, and behavioral changes,
respectively
B Physiological changes, seasonal changes, behavioral changes, and migration,
respectively
C Seasonal changes, behavioral changes, physiological changes, and migration,
respectively
D Seasonal changes, physiological changes, behavioral changes, and migration,
respectively
Solution The solution is (D). The seasonal changes stimulate physiological changes in the elk.
They respond with behavioral changes including migration.
117 Some fish swim in schools, which can respond rapidly by moving quickly away from
predator threats. In schools, fish swim in a coordinated pattern without moving
chaotically and bumping into one another. Which type of communication between
individuals accounts for the precisely coordinated movements of all of the fish in a school
in response to a threat?

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A Aural signals
B Pheromone signals
C Tactile signals
D Visual signals
Solution The solution is (C). Tactile signals are used to communicate swimming patterns.
118 In which situation do animals of the same species exchange information in response to an
approaching predator? How does information flow between individuals?
A Herring gulls have a brightly colored bill. When a predator approaches, the parent gull
stands over its chick and taps the bill on the ground in front of it, which elicits a
begging response from a hungry chick.
B Prairie dogs live in underground burrows. If a lookout observes an approaching
predator, it gives an aural alarm cry communicating the information to the foraging
individuals who then run back to safety.
C Herring gulls have a brightly colored bill. When a predator approaches, the parent gull
stands over its nest and taps the bill on the ground to elicit a begging response from
its chick and therefore warning other gulls.
D Prairie dogs live inside the bark of trees. If a lookout observes an approaching
predator, it gives an aural alarm cry communicating the information to the foraging
individuals who then run back to safety.
Solution The solution is (B). Prairie dogs live in social groups in underground burrows.
Individuals take turns acting as lookouts as others emerge from their burrows to
forage for food and water. If a lookout observes an approaching predator, they give
an aural alarm cry communicating the information to the foraging individuals. Those
individuals respond to the alarm cry and run back to the safety of the burrows.

SCIENCE PRACTICE CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

36.1 Population Demography
119 A flask of nutrient broth, buffered to maintain pH, is inoculated with a strain of E. coli. The
flask is placed in a constant temperature environment where it is aerated by shaking.
A. Predict the effect of a change in energy availability over time.
B. Represent the change graphically in terms of the number of cells as a function of time.
C. In your graph as time progresses there is a change in the growth rate of the population.
Add annotation to your graph to describe the time interval during which the growth rate
is increasing linearly in proportion to the number of cells. Add annotation to your graph to
describe another time interval during which the growth rate is decreasing in proportion to
the square of the number of cells. Add a third annotation to describe an interval of time
where the rate of growth is zero.

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 936

D. Select and justify two measurements of the E. coli population that could be made at
two different points in time during growth that would be sufficient to answer questions
predicting the population size at any time.
E. Describe the population of E. coli if the environment was continuously supplemented
by additional nutrient broth.
Solution Sample answer:
A. Initially growth is not limited by energy availability. As growth increases, the
availability of energy decreases. Eventually growth ceases during to energy
limitations.
B. and C.

D. There are only two parameters in the logistic model

 The rate of growth in the low density limit; this can be obtained from
measurement of the growth rate very soon after inoculation.
 The limiting population size; this can be obtained from measurement of the
density at large times where the growth has ceased.
E. With a continuous addition of new energy resources, the population will grow
exponentially for all time.
36.2 Life Histories and Natural Selection
120 The following problem extends the Hardy-Weinberg model of population dynamics that
was covered in Chapter 19. It applies mathematics that would be appropriate after a
second course in Algebra. While the concepts applied in this problem are within the scope
of the Exam, the mathematical representations are not and the item is provided to allow
students who are able to take another look at the concepts.
The Hardy-Weinberg model of population dynamics is an algebraic representation of the
relationships among genotype frequencies (F), the probability of the dominant allele A (p),
and the probability of the recessive allele a (q). The Hardy-Weinberg model of population
dynamics is based on several assumptions. One of these assumptions is “random mating.”
If all genes in a population are equally able to reproduce, this means that all genes are

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937 36 | Population and Community Ecology

equally fit and equally fertile. Consequently, the population does not evolve while in
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
However, populations do evolve and the Hardy-Weinberg model can be modified slightly
to allow evolution to occur. Suppose that there is an initial population at generation zero
and the probability of the dominant allele at that time is p0. Later, at population k, the
probability is different. If the frequencies of the three different combinations of alleles are
known, then the probabilities pk and qk can be calculated at generation k.

Because p and q are probabilities for a case where only two alleles exist .

Additionally, , leading to the Hardy- Weinberg equation

The gene distribution never changes and .

The equations of the Hardy-Weinberg model were modified (Haldane, 1924) to create a
model in which evolution occurs.

Haldane divides by the factor so that the probabilities that

are still calculated with

to continue to satisfy the condition for p and q to represent probabilities .

A. Justify Haldane’s model in terms of what the factors wAA, wAa, and waa mean.

B. Suppose that , but that . Predict what will happen to the

population over time.
Fitness is determined by the environment. Moree (The American Naturalist, 86, 1952)
measured the relative fitness in Drosophila melanogaster of a recessive allele that imparts

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36 | Population and Community Ecology 938

black eye color as population density increases. A varying number of flies with an equal
number of males and females were placed in a pint jar and progeny counted. In each
experiment the population was initially heterozygous.
Number of females  Number of males waa
11 0
10  10 0.06
50  50 0.11
150  150 0.46
C. Apply Haldane’s approach to calculate the probability p in the first generation after
mating 150 female and 150 male flies that are heterozygous using .
Rendel (Evolution, 5, 1951) conducted an investigation of the dependence of fecundity
(fertility) on light in ebony-eyed D. melanogaster. A summary of some of the data that he
reported is shown in the table.
Fraction of Females Fraction of Females
Phenotype Inseminated Inseminated
of Male Light Condition Dark Condition
Ebony 0.215 0.607
Wild type 0.494 0.466
D. Pose two scientific questions concerning the behavioral response indicated by the data
that can be tested experimentally.
Solution Sample answer:
A. The w factors allow evolution through selection of the reproductive success of
the alleles.
B. The population will evolve toward deletion of the recessive allele. The following
graph was generated with a spreadsheet implementation of the Haldane model. If
you can do that, you will develop a deeper understanding of the concept.

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C. , and so

D. There are many possible questions. The scoring would depend on whether or not
they could be pursued experimentally. For example, avoid questions such as, “What
do females think about males with black eyes?” Sample questions:
 Are female flies less attracted to males with ebony eyes?
 Are males with ebony eyes more active in seeking females in the dark?

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37 | Ecosystems 940

37 | ECOSYSTEMS
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 What type of ecosystem is the rarest on Earth, among both terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems?
A Ocean
B Freshwater
C Grasslands
D Tundra
Solution The solution is (B). Freshwater only composes about 1.8 percent of Earth’s surface.
2 If an ecosystem is considered to be highly resilient, what can be inferred about that
ecosystem?
A The ecosystem is in a steady state.
B The ecosystem has the ability to remain in equilibrium despite disturbance.
C The ecosystem recovers quickly from disturbance.
D The ecosystem is exposed to disturbances.
Solution The solution is (C). The ecosystem recovers quickly from disturbance. Resilience
refers to how quickly an ecosystem recovers after a disturbance takes place.
3 What is a recreated ecosystem in a laboratory environment known as?
E Mesocosm
F Simulation
G Microcosm
H Duplication
Solution The solution is (C). A microcosm can be developed to analyze ecosystem dynamics in
a controlled setting.
4 A scientist wants to analyze how grazing by deer alters plant species composition in a
forest and sections off a portion of the forest for observation and analysis. What type of
system is the scientist using?
A Mesocosm
B Simulation
C Microcosm
D Duplication
Solution The solution is (A). A mesocosm is created by partitioning a natural ecosystem.

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5 What term describes the use of mathematical equations in the modeling of linear aspects
of ecosystems?
A Analytical modeling
B Simulation modeling
C Conceptual modeling
D Microcosm modeling
Solution The solution is (A). Analytical modeling employs mathematical models to predict
potential changes in ecosystems.
6 If a scientist constructs a flow chart to depict the interactions among species in an
estuary, what kind of model is she creating?
A Analytical modeling
B Simulation modeling
C Conceptual modeling
D Microcosm modeling
Solution The solution is (C). Conceptual modeling employs flow charts to depict component
interactions in an ecosystem.
7 What are usually the primary producers in an ocean grazing food web?
A Plants
B Animals
C Fungi
D Phytoplankton
Solution The solution is (D). Phytoplankton are able to undergo photosynthesis and are
abundant in oceans.
8 Which statement is true of trophic levels in an ecosystem?
A Food chains are accurate representations of dynamics in an ecosystem.
B In terrestrial ecosystems, primary producers commonly eat plants.
C Food webs are easier to interpret than food chains.
D The least amount of energy is available at the top of a food chain.
Solution The solution is (D). The least amount of energy is available at the top of a food chain.
Energy is produced by primary producers and energy is lost as it is transferred
through trophic levels.

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37 | Ecosystems 942

9 Where are coral reefs found?

A Shallow ocean water
B Deep ocean water
C Intertidal areas
D Shallow freshwater
Solution The solution is (A). Coral reefs are found in shallow ocean water as the
photosynthetic algae of coral reefs require sunlight.
10 What is the weight of living organisms in an ecosystem at a particular point in time
known as?
A Energy
B Productivity
C Entropy
D Biomass
Solution The solution is (D). Biomass refers to the amount of living matter in an ecosystem.
11 If you wanted to measure gross primary productivity in a terrestrial ecosystem, what
would you measure?
A Rate of energy incorporation by plants
B Energy available after a plant incorporates energy for its own biological functions
C Amount of energy from plants entering the trophic level of deer
D Total mass of plants and animals in an area at a given point in time
Solution The solution is (A). Gross primary productivity refers to the rate by which energy is
incorporated by primary producers such as plants.
12 What law of chemistry determines how much energy can be transferred when it is
converted from one form to another because energy is lost with each transformation?
A First law of thermodynamics
B Second law of thermodynamics
C Conservation of matter
D Conservation of energy
Solution The solution is (B). The second law of thermodynamics refers to the idea that energy
can be transferred.

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13 What is the primary factor that limits the length of food chains in ecosystems?
A Low energy transfer efficiency between trophic levels
B Too much net primary productivity
C Excess assimilation
D Low gross primary productivity
Solution The solution is (A). After a few trophic levels there is a negligible amount of energy
that can be transferred.
14 What type of pyramid is considered the most representative of ecosystem structure?
A Biomass
B Energy
C Number of organisms
D Number of species
Solution The solution is (A). The biomass pyramid shows the tropic levels of species and how
they relate to each other. There must be higher amounts of biomass at the bottom
of the pyramid to sustain each level above.
15 Why are the numbers of primary producers smaller than the number of primary
consumers in the English Channel ecosystem?
A The apex consumers have a high turnover rate.
B The primary producers have a low turnover rate.
C The apex consumers have a low turnover rate.
D The primary producers have a high turnover rate.
Solution The solution is (B). This would indicate that they reproduce slowly, but have enough
biomass to sustain many herbivores.
16 What forms of life use inorganic molecules as an energy source and are found in areas
where sunlight is unavailable?
A Photoautotrophs
B Chemoautotrophs
C Primary consumers
D Secondary consumers
Solution The solution is (B). Chemoautotrophs are able to obtain energy despite a lack of sun.

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17 What is the process whereby nitrogen is brought into organic molecules?

A Nitrification
B Denitrification
C Nitrogen fixation
D Nitrogen cycling
Solution The solution is (C). Bacteria process nitrogen into organic molecules by nitrogen
fixation.
18 What is a mechanism by which phosphorus is released into the environment?
A Rock weathering
B Decomposition of organic molecules
C Volcanic activity
D Geothermal vent activity
Solution The solution is (A). Weathering releases phosphorus from rocks.
19 What is produced by eutrophication via excess nitrogen where a hydrologic reservoir lacks
normal flora and fauna?
A Fixation
B Acid rain
C Dead zones
D Nitrification
Solution The solution is (C). In dead zones, oxygen is depleted by excess microorganism
growth and thus other organisms can also die.
20 What is a potential consequence of excess phosphorus and nitrogen in an ecosystem?
A These elements could result in increased global temperatures.
B Subduction can be promoted.
C These elements might be fixed in excess.
D A dead zone could be produced from depleted oxygen.
Solution The solution is (D). Excess phosphorous and nitrogen can cause algal blooms, which
can deplete the dissolved oxygen in aquatic systems.
21 What is the term for freshwater that flows from rain or melting ice in the hydrologic
cycle?
A Residence time
B Surface runoff

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C Evaporation
D Sublimation
Solution The solution is (B). Surface runoff flow can make its way into other areas such as
rivers and oceans.
22 What most strongly influences how much carbon is present in a given location?
A Number of bacteria
B Runoff from the land into bodies of water
C Eutrophication of bodies of water
D Exchange of carbon between the atmosphere and water
Solution The solution is (D). Exchange between atmosphere and water reservoirs primarily
influences how much carbon is present in a given location.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

23 Why does grouping terrestrial organisms into biomes obscure diversity?
A Biomes group terrestrial organisms only on the basis of similar habitat conditions.
B Organisms belonging to a similar biome have dissimilarities in their makeup.
C There is variation within different types of biomes that biome categorization does not
capture.
D Terrestrial biomes are defined based only on the growth form of the dominant
vegetation.
Solution The solution is (C). There is variation within different types of biomes that biome
categorization does not capture. For example, the Sonoran Desert is very diverse but
the desert of Boa Vista is relatively depauperate.
24 Why are mesocosm and microcosm experiments NOT considered to represent the true
nature of ecosystems?
A The ecosystem is either recreated or partitioned in both types of experiments, which
may alter the dynamics of the ecosystem the experiments are aiming to analyze.
B In both types of experiments, dynamics of the ecosystem may get altered due to
differences in species numbers and diversity even though there are no alterations in
the environment.
C In both types of experiments, the ecosystem is recreated which may alter the
dynamics of the ecosystem the experiments are aiming to analyze.
D Altering a natural ecosystem through partitioning, which occurs in both types of
experiments, may change its dynamics due to differences in species numbers and
diversity.

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Solution The solution is (A). In both mesocosm and microcosm experiments, the ecosystem is
either recreated or partitioned, which may alter the dynamics of the ecosystem the
experiments are aiming to analyze.
25 If scientists wanted to monitor a desert food chain, what type of model might they
develop and why?
A An analytical model would be ideal because they can address simple, linear ecosystem
components that are mathematically complex.
B A simulation model would be ideal because they can address simple, linear systems
that are mathematically complex.
C An analytical model would be ideal as they are considered ecologically more realistic
than any other model.
D A simulation model would be ideal because it uses numerical techniques to solve
problems and visualize the complex relationships that exist in the ecosystem.
Solution The solution is (A). An analytical model would be ideal because they can address
simple, linear ecosystem components, such as food chains, that are still
mathematically complex.
26 Compare and contrast food chains and food webs. What are the strengths of each
concept in describing ecosystems?
A Both food chains and food webs follow a single path as energy is transferred in an
ecosystem. Food chains are easier to follow and experiment with but less accurate,
whereas food webs are more holistic and complex.
B Both food webs and food chains describe energy transfer dynamics in an ecosystem.
Food chains are nonlinear systems that are easier to follow and experiment with,
whereas food webs are linear, holistic, and can be directly used as input for simulation
models.
C Both food chains and food webs follow a single path as energy is transferred in an
ecosystem. Food chains are linear systems, easier to follow, and used directly as input
for simulation models, whereas food webs are nonlinear, accurate, holistic, and
flexible for analytical modeling.
D Both food webs and food chains describe energy transfer dynamics in an ecosystem.
Food chains are linear systems that are relatively easy to follow and use for
experiments, whereas food webs are nonlinear, accurate, holistic, and can be directly
used as input for simulation models.
Solution The solution is (D). Both food webs and food chains attempt to describe energy
transfer dynamics in an ecosystem. Food chains are linear systems, which are easier
to follow and test with experiments. However, food webs are nonlinear, but more
accurate and holistic, and they can be directly input into simulation models.

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27 Name one natural and one human-related disturbance. Why are they of concern to
conservationists?
A Lightning is a type of natural disturbance whereas pollution is a human-related
disturbance. Both are of concern to conservationists because they can cause changes
to some individual species, but not to entire ecosystems.
B Fire is a type of natural disturbance whereas agriculture is a human-related
disturbance. Both types are of concern to conservationists because ecosystems cannot
bounce back from a disturbance.
C Pollution is a type of natural disturbance whereas lightning is a human-related
disturbance. Both are of concern to conservationists because they alter ecosystems.
D Lightning is a type of natural disturbance whereas pollution is a human-related
disturbance. Both are of concern to conservationists because they alter ecosystems.
Solution The solution is (D). Natural disturbances include events such as lightning and rainfall,
and human-related disturbances include agriculture and pollution. Both types are of
concern to conservationists because they alter ecosystems.
28 Compare grazing and detrital food webs. Why would they both be present in the same
ecosystem?
A The primary producers of detrital food webs are decomposers whereas those of
grazing food webs are non-photosynthetic. Both primary producers support different
components of the ecosystem.
B The primary producers of detrital food webs are photosynthetic whereas those of
grazing food webs are decomposers. Both primary producers support different
components of the ecosystem.
C The primary producers of detrital food webs are decomposers whereas those of
grazing food webs are photosynthetic. Both primary producers support different
components of the ecosystem.
D The primary producers of detrital food webs are chemoautotrophs whereas those of
grazing food webs are photosynthetic. Both primary producers support different
components of the ecosystem.
Solution The solution is (C). The primary producers of grazing food webs are photosynthetic,
whereas those of detrital food webs are decomposers. In the same ecosystem, both
types support different components of the ecosystem.
29 How does the amount of food that endotherms and ectotherms consume compare with
their net production efficiency (NPE)?
A The amount of food eaten by an animal does not affect its NPE.
B Endotherms use more energy compared to ectotherms due to energy loss from heat
production.

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C Both endotherms and ectotherms use the same energy from food.
D Ectotherms use more energy compared to endotherms due to energy loss from heat
production.
Solution The solution is (B). Endotherms use more energy compared with ectotherms
because much energy is lost for respiration and heat production.
30 Compare the three types of ecosystem pyramids and how well they describe ecosystem
structure. Which ones can be inverted? For each, what is a specific example of an inverted
pyramid?
A The three types of ecosystem pyramids are pyramids of energy, number, and biomass
out of which number and energy pyramids can be inverted. Examples of inverted
pyramids of number and energy are temperate forests in summer and phytoplankton
in the English Channel, respectively.
B The three types of ecosystem pyramids are pyramids of energy, number, and biomass
out of which number and biomass pyramids can be inverted. Examples of inverted
pyramids of number and biomass are temperate forests in summer and phytoplankton
in the English Channel, respectively.
C The three types of ecosystem pyramids are pyramids of energy, number, and biomass
out of which number and biomass pyramids can be inverted. Examples of inverted
pyramids of number and biomass are temperate forests in summer and Silver Springs
ecosystem in Florida, respectively.
D The three types of ecosystem pyramids are pyramids of energy, number, and biomass
out of which number and biomass pyramids can be inverted. Examples of inverted
pyramids of number and biomass are grasslands in summer and phytoplankton in the
English Channel, respectively.
Solution The solution is (B). The three common types of ecosystem pyramids are number of
organisms, biomass, and energy. Biomass and number of organism pyramids can be
inverted. An example of an inverted biomass pyramid is the high turnover of
phytoplankton in the English Channel, and an example of an inverted number of
organism pyramid is temperate forests in the summer.
31 Why do scientists more commonly analyze net primary productivity compared with gross
primary productivity?
A Net primary productivity incorporates features like production at present and next
trophic levels, whereas gross primary productivity does not.
B Net primary productivity is the rate at which photosynthetic primary producers
incorporate energy from the sun.

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C Net primary productivity is the energy content available to the organisms of the next
trophic level.
D As respiration and heat loss uses energy of primary producers, net primary
productivity is what is actually available to primary consumers.
Solution The solution is (D). Net primary productivity is what is available to primary
consumers, as some energy is used for respiration and heat loss of the primary
producer.
32 What is nitrogen fixation, and why it is important to agriculture?
A The process of nitrate formation from ammonia is called nitrogen fixation. It improves
agricultural production as nitrogen is required by plants for nucleotide and protein
formation.
B The process of nitrogen being incorporated into organic molecules is called nitrogen
fixation. It improves the crop yield by allowing the plants to compete with weeds.
C The reduction of nitrates back to nitrogen gas is called nitrogen fixation. It improves
agricultural production as nitrogen is required by plants for nucleotide and protein
formation.
D The process of nitrogen being incorporated into organic molecules is called nitrogen
fixation. It improves agricultural production as nitrogen is required by plants for
nucleotide and protein formation.
Solution The solution is (D). Nitrogen fixation is the process of nitrogen being brought into
organic molecules. Nitrogen is an essential component of nucleotides and proteins,
and is therefore needed for proper organismal growth and reproduction because it
is required for nucleotide and protein formation. Therefore, including nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in fertilizer or placing nitrogen-fixing plants alongside crops improves
agricultural production.
33 How do agricultural animals such as cattle raise atmospheric carbon levels? What is a side
effect?
A Cattle produce carbon monoxide, which when inhaled, even small quantities, can
cause death.
B Cattle produce carbon monoxide, which is a major contributor to global warming.
C Agricultural animals increase the amount of greenhouse gases by producing carbon
dioxide and methane, so they contribute to global warming.
D Agricultural animals increase the amount of greenhouse gases by producing ozone,
which contributes to global warming.
Solution The solution is (C). Respiration and methane production from animals such as cattle
increase the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere, which can
contribute to the warming of the globe.

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34 What form of sulfur is found in the atmosphere, and how does it leave the atmosphere?
A Hydrogen sulfide, which leaves the atmosphere as weak sulfur dioxide rain
B Sulfur dioxide, which leaves the atmosphere as weak sulfur dioxide rain
C Hydrogen sulfide, which leaves the atmosphere as weak sulfuric acid rain
D Sulfur dioxide, which leaves the atmosphere as weak sulfuric acid rai
Solution The solution is (A). Sulfur dioxide is formed in the atmosphere. To leave the
atmosphere, sulfur falls as a weak sulfuric acid rain.

TEST PREP FOR AP® COURSES

35 Producers and consumers are necessary for ecosystem function and for energy to pass
through an ecosystem. What might happen in an aquatic system with excess producers
relative to consumers?
A Oxygen depletion would result in die-off.
B There would be no basal energy source.
C Carbon cannot be sequestered.
D There would be more indigestible animal parts.
Solution The solution is (A). Excess growth of microorganisms can result in oxygen depletion,
which kills other organisms in the ecosystem.
36 Energy is a fundamental component in an ecosystem and is contributed by the primary
producers. How can light energy, in turn, support the consumers of an ecosystem?
A Light energy is converted to chemical energy by primary producers and primary
consumers. Consumers belonging to higher trophic levels feed on them to gain
energy.
B Primary producers can only obtain energy from sunlight by photosynthesis and gain
energy by feeding on them or other consumers which have consumed these
producers.
C Primary producers convert light energy to chemical energy using photosynthesis and
consumers gain energy by feeding on them or on other consumers that have
consumed these producers.
D Primary producers convert light energy through chemosynthesis and consumers gain
energy by feeding on them or other consumers which have consumed these
producers.
Solution The solution is (C). Photosynthesis by primary producers convert light energy to
chemical energy to make organic compounds, and consumers then ingest either the
primary producers or other consumers that have consumed primary producers.

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37 In a microcosm experiment using fish tanks to mimic a lake environment, an increase in

the number of stickleback species would increase the dissolved organic carbon particle
size. How could this affect primary producers in the ecosystem?
A Enhance growth rate.
B Increase abundance.
C Decrease abundance
D Maintain growth rate.
Solution The solution is (C). Sunlight would be blocked, which would prevent algal
photosynthesis and decrease the abundance of the primary producers.
38 Studies on stickleback fish revealed that the presence of two species of stickleback
reduced the amount of algal blooms relative to the presence of one species of stickleback
in a microcosm experiment. How does this occur?
A This occurred as the presence of two species caused an increase in dissolved organic
carbon molecule size, which blocked the penetration of light in water and prevented
algal photosynthesis.
B This occurred because two stickleback species consumed all the nutrients which
prevented algae from being able to grow.
C This occurred because dissolved organic carbon molecule size increased in the
presence of one fish species which increased the amount of algal blooms.
D This occurred as algae are consumed in greater amounts in the presence of two
stickleback species.
Solution The solution is (A). There is an increase in dissolved organic carbon molecule size in
the presence of two species, which results from decaying organic matter. Larger
dissolved organic carbon molecules prevent light from penetrating water, which
prevents algae from being able to grow.
39 This figure depicts energy exchange through trophic levels. Which level represents the
primary producers?

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A Level A
B Level B
C Level C
D Level D
Solution The solution is (D). Primary producers provide the most energy to the ecosystem.
40 Using the flow chart showing carbon flow in a grassland ecosystem, how much carbon, in
grams per meter squared, is released into the atmosphere as a result of the metabolic
activity of herbivores? Give your answer to the nearest whole number.

A 125 g/m2
B 65 g/m2
C 60 g/m2
D 5 g/m2
Solution The solution is (C). The total amount of input into the herbivores is 125 g/m2. It is
indicated that 60 g/m2 is lost to soil/decomposers and 5 g/m2 to predators, which
leaves 60 g/m2 lost to respiration.
41 The food web for a meadow habitat occupies 25.6 km2. The primary producers’ biomass is
uniformly distributed throughout the habitat and totals 1,500 kg/km2.

Developers have approved a project that will permanently reduce the primary producers’
biomass by 50 percent and remove all rabbits and deer. What is the most likely result at
the completion of the project?

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A The biomass of coyotes will be 6 kg, and the biomass of hawks will be 0.5 kg.
B The biomass of coyotes will be dramatically reduced.
C The coyotes will switch prey preferences and outcompete the hawks.
D There will be 50 percent fewer voles and 90 percent fewer hawks.
Solution The solution is (B). The biomass of coyotes will be dramatically reduced because
they will lose their prey sources.
42 This figure shows a food web of an ecosystem.

What would happen to the food web if all of the species of the entire row B was wiped
out by a natural disaster such as an oil spill? Why?
A The producers may die out, causing the food web to collapse.
B The food web would not be affected as the secondary and tertiary consumers would
become primary and secondary consumers, respectively.
C The tertiary consumers would die out due to lack of food and this could potentially
lead to collapse of the entire food web.
D The food web might suffer from loss of primary producers for a while which would
then recover quickly, thus, reviving the ecosystem.
Solution The solution is (C). The ecosystem may collapse because there would be nothing to
maintain producer abundance and nothing for secondary and tertiary consumers to
obtain energy from.

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43 Humans are very active in modifying ecosystems worldwide. If a new set of buildings on
the edge of a forest blocks sunlight from reaching the majority of one part of the forest,
what might happen to that part of the forest?
A Herbivores would occur in high abundance.
B Plants would occur in high abundance.
C Everything would remain the same.
D Herbivores would occur in low abundance.
Solution The solution is (D). Herbivores would occur in low abundance.
44 If you examined predator-prey relationships within an ecosystem and noticed that the
removal of predators also resulted in the die-off of herbivores, what would you suspect
occurred?
A Removal of predators would directly lower the number of herbivores.
B The lack of predators could mean that too much primary production occurred.
C Herbivores from another region may have entered the ecosystem and consumed the
primary producers, causing death of the original herbivore species.
D Overeating by herbivores could have caused depletion of the primary producers,
leaving the herbivores without enough food.
Solution The solution is (D). Without predators, herbivores eat as much as they can. Once the
primary producers are depleted, the herbivores will starve.
45 Although producers are essential for energy to flow into an ecosystem, consumers also
have important roles. What might happen in an aquatic system with excess consumers
relative to producers?
A Oxygen depletion would result in die-off.
B There would be an excess of the basal energy source.
C Consumers would deplete the abundance of producers.
D There would be more indigestible animal parts.
Solution The solution is (C). Consumers would deplete the abundance of producers.
46 The following equation is for trophic level transfer efficiency:
(production at present trophic level/production at past trophic level) × 100
If primary producers produce 1,600 kcal/m2 and primary consumers have 800 kcal/m2,
what is the trophic level transfer efficiency?

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955 37 | Ecosystems

A 50
B 200
C 800
D 1,600
Solution The solution is (A).
(800/1,600) × 100 = 50
47 There are four trophic levels in a food chain, and the amount of energy at the trophic level
of the primary producer is 33,000 kcal/m2. What most likely represents the amount of
energy of the tertiary consumer?
A 75 kcal/m2
B 500 kcal/m2
C 11,000 kcal/m2
D 33,000 kcal/m2
Solution The solution is (A). If the amount of energy of the primary producer is
33,000 kcal/m2, the amount of energy of the tertiary consumer is 75 kcal/m2.
48 Why does this figure show a higher value of gross productivity for the decomposers than
the tertiary consumers?

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A Because there are differences in the conversion efficiencies of decomposers and

tertiary consumers
B Because large animals are tertiary consumers whereas small microorganisms are
decomposers
C Because tertiary consumers only consume secondary consumers whereas
decomposers consume dead components of each trophic level
D Because tertiary consumers only consume primary consumers whereas decomposers
consume dead components of each trophic level
Solution The solution is (C). Decomposers consume dead components of each trophic level,
whereas tertiary consumers only consumer secondary consumers and energy is lost
through the trophic levels.
49 One of the key concerns about global climate change is excess amounts of carbon being
released into the atmosphere. There are, however, some ways in which carbon can be
sequestered from the atmosphere.
Which natural process promotes carbon sequestration?
A Burning fossil fuels
B Methane from cattle
C Photosynthesis by plants
D Volcanic eruption
Solution The solution is (C). Photosynthesis by plants can act as a carbon sink.

SCIENCE PRACTICE CHALLENGE QUESTIONS

37.1 Ecology of Ecosystems
50 The food web utilizes an arrow pointing from a species that feeds on another to indicate
the trophic structure of a simplified estuarine ecosystem at the boundary between the
ocean and the shore.

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957 37 | Ecosystems

A. Analyze the interactions among species and indicate primary producers by circling
the node in the food web. Identify the primary producers by circling the nodes in the
food web.
B. Predict quantitatively how free energy availability for a top species such as the one
designated as T in the web changes if it feeds directly on S, assuming the abundance of
species S is limited only by radiant energy input.
C. Consider the consequences of the dietary shift described in B if the abundance of
species becomes depleted due to consumption by species T. Under those circumstances,
refine your analysis of the food web to describe the potential effect on species Q and R.
D. Based on the preceding analyses, construct a claim regarding the effect of the
structure, in terms of biodiversity and number of interactions among species, on
ecosystem stability.
Solution Sample answer:
A. Circles are drawn on every node (point) in the row containing P and S.
B. The rule of 10 percent (or 15 percent) transfer from a trophic level below
(Lindemann rule) indicates that free energy availability will increase by a factor of
(1/0.1)3 or 1,000. This might seem too large but note that human consumption of
whales or salmon (both top feeders—though salmon is omnivorous) is a step of two
trophic levels.
C. If overgrazing by the top species T occurs, then the diversity of primary producers
will decline. The viability of species that depend on S will be challenged. For
example, the web shows that Q cannot survive in this system without continued
production by species P. Similarly, R is threatened.

D. The previous reasoning supports the claim that stability increases as the number
of interactions increases. That statistic is called connectance.

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 958

38 | CONSERVATION BIOLOGY AND

BIODIVERSITY
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1 In an effort to enter all identified species on Earth into a digital catalog, scientists are
preparing a unique tag for each species. Algorithms have been generated to create unique
tags. Which algorithm is best suited for the task?
A An algorithm that creates 15,000 to 20,000 unique tags
B An algorithm that creates 150,000 to 200,000 unique tags
C An algorithm that creates 1.5 million to 2 million unique tags
D An algorithm that creates 10 million to 20 million unique tags
Solution The solution is (C). An algorithm that creates 1.5 million to 2 million unique tags is
the current estimate for the number of species on Earth.
2 Two genera of birds exist side-by-side on an island. Genus A is characterized by a few
species of similar genetic material. Genus B contains different species of birds with a wide
variety of genetic traits. After a volcanic explosion changes the ecosystem, which genus
has the highest probability of surviving the disaster?
A Genus A, which contains well-adapted species
B Genus B, which has greater genetic diversity and is more likely to have traits that
confer an advantage in the new environment
C Genus A, which can serve as ancestors for the new species
D Genus B, because these species likely evolved from genus A species in the past
Solution The solution is (B). The more genetic variation present, the more likely one of those
traits will the key to survival in a new and changed environment.
3 A report describes the biodiversity of an island in a remote archipelago in the Pacific
Ocean having a larger number of species of birds than neighboring islands. The biologists
that investigated the ecosystem of the island described it as an example of adaptive
radiation. Their conclusion is based on the fact that they observed what?
A A burst of speciation
B The presence of invasive species
C A hypothesized cause of a mass extinction
D Evidence of an apex predator
Solution The solution is (A). An increase in the number of species indicates adaptive radiation.

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4 Findings from layers dating to the Cambrian geological period show an appearance of
many new organisms in addition to older forms of life. The Cambrian explosion
corresponds to a time where —
A new species radiated from existing species
B new species appeared due to spontaneous mutations
C ancient species were replaced by newly evolved species
D a massive die-out freed ecosystems for new species
Solution The solution is (A). Adaptive radiation is indicated by the appearance of many new
organisms in addition to the presence of older forms of life.
5 Paleontologists are analyzing fossils from a newly excavated site with layers dating from
several geological periods. They established that a particular layer probably correlates to a
mass extinction. What is the most likely reason for their conclusion?
A Over 95 percent of species present in older layers have disappeared in this
particular layer.
B An asteroid impact altered the geological terrain significantly.
C All of the fossils observed were of larger sized organisms.
D A loss of over 50 percent of species was observed.
Solution The solution is (D). Scientists define a mass extinction as the disappearance of over
50 percent of existing species in a relatively short period of time.
6 What is a likely reason that small animals survived the cataclysmic impact of a large
meteorite that caused the massive extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleocene?
A Small animals stopped being hunted by dinosaurs.
B Small animals did not depend on plants for food.
C Small animals needed less food for survival and reproduced rapidly.
D Small animals fed on the dead dinosaurs.
Solution The solution is (C). Small animals needed less food for survival, lived in burrows, and
reproduced rapidly. This would allow them to survive the cataclysmic impact of a
large meteorite that caused the massive extinction at the Cretaceous-Paleocene.
7 Scientists are evaluating an island ecosystem to be upgraded to a hot spot of biodiversity.
They conduct field research on the species that populate the area. Their final assessment
on the biodiversity of the ecosystem will be based on which estimate?
A The total number of species in an ecosystem
B The total number of organisms in an ecosystem
C The total number of species divided by the area of the ecosystem
D The total number of endangered species in an ecosystem

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 960

Solution The solution is (A). This is the measure of biodiversity according to the current
definition.
8 A secondary plant compound might be used for which purpose?
A A new crop variety
B A new drug
C A soil nutrient
D A new species
Solution The solution is (B). Secondary plant compounds are the key ingredients in
many drugs.
9 A component of snake venom kills the prey by inducing blood clotting. What is the most
likely medical application for the active component?
A Promoting scab formation
B Speeding healing of wounds
C Relaxing muscle pain
D A blood thinner
Solution The solution is (D). Blood thinners are used to reduce the risk of clotting.
10 Different varieties of potatoes are known to thrive at different altitudes. What could be
the related benefit of maintaining the diversity of potato plants?
A Diverse types of pollinators can be involved.
B The range of usable land is extended.
C The taste of potatoes when fried is improved.
D Resistance to pests can be introduced if necessary.
Solution The solution is (B). The range of usable land is extended by the availability of
different potato plants suitable to different climates.
11 Which agricultural crop is most likely to survive a catastrophic event?
A Monoculture of a crop on a large surface
B Diverse varieties of a crop surrounded by a diverse ecosystem
C Single crop surrounded by a diverse ecosystem
D Diverse varieties of a crop in a simple ecosystem
Solution The solution is (B). A diverse ecosystem was shown to support all components and is
more able to withstand a catastrophic event.

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961 38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity

12 Which factor is present in an ecosystem that performs the same role as a pesticide?
A Pollination
B Plant resistance to chemicals
C Asexual reproduction
D Presence of insect predators
Solution The solution is (D). Predators of pests are other animals that consume the pests.
13 Urban designers included wetlands and lagoons connected to a water treatment plant to
a new subdivision of homes. The designers would have most likely applied which principle
of conservation to their plans?
A Ecosystem service
B Habitat degradation
C Habitat restoration
D Chemical diversity
Solution The solution is (A). The inclusion of wetlands and lagoons is an example of
ecosystem service.
14 What are most antibiotics in use today prepared or derived from?
A Secondary compounds from microorganisms
B Secondary compounds from viruses
C Fully synthetic chemical compounds
D Compounds synthesized by plants
Solution The solution is (A). Most antibiotics in use today are prepared or derived from
secondary compounds from microorganisms, which have evolved compounds deadly
to other microorganisms as a way to reduce competition for resources.
15 Loss of biodiversity and accelerations of extinction rates have several causes. Which
situation causes direct loss of biodiversity owing to loss of habitat?
A Fishing cod at a rate that is greater than natural replacement
B Converting a prairie to a farm field
C Introduction of an invasive ornamental plant in a new ecosystem
D Emission of greenhouse gases increasing the average temperatures of an area
Solution The solution is (B). Converting a prairie to a farm field decreases the amount of
habitat available for local species, which can cause a loss of biodiversity.

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 962

16 Which activity will result in major habitat loss?

A Picking wild flowers in a meadow
B Cutting a tree in one’s backyard
C A farmer switching from wheat to soy crop
D Building a dam that will flood a large plain
Solution The solution is (D). Building a dam that will flood a large plain will cover multiple
habitats under water, destroying them by drowning all of the plants.
17 Exotic predator species are especially threatening to what kind of ecosystem?
A Deserts
B Marine ecosystems
C Islands
D Tropical forests
Solution The solution is (C). Many species on an island do not have protection against
predators and are endemic.
18 Backpackers returning from a long trip abroad are stopped by customs and asked whether
they brought back plants, flowers, or fruit from their trip location. Their fruit bought at a
local market is confiscated.
What is the most likely reason why the fruit was confiscated?
A The hikers are supposed to pay duty on imported fruit.
B The fruit can be processed to produce illicit drugs.
C The fruit seeds could be planted and would eliminate all local species.
D The fruit may introduce new exotic pests that threaten local plants.
Solution The solution is (D). The fruit may come from a different ecosystem and may
introduce new exotic pests that threaten local plants.
19 Grizzly bears and black bears have a varied diet and hunting grounds. On the other hand,
polar bears feed mostly on seals. They walk on the sea ice and wait by breathing holes for
seals to emerge from the water for fresh air.
Which animal would be most affected by the melting of sea ice in Alaska?
A Grizzly bears
B Polar bears
C Sun bears
D Black bears

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963 38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity

Solution The solution is (B). Polar bears hunt on the sea ice and depend on seals, a sea
animal, as their prey.
20 This graph shows the movement northward of wintering grounds of North American bird
species. The trend closely mirrors the increase in average winter temperatures.

What problem could develop from birds using farther north areas?
A Birds that arrive too early may be killed by the occasional abrupt cold spell.
B Movement northward leads to overcrowding of reproductive grounds.
C Food competition increases with birds that do not migrate.
Solution The solution is (A). Birds that arrive too early may be killed by an abrupt cold spell,
which is an occasional event.
21 The method of DNA barcoding allows cataloguing of an organism using rapid sequencing
methods. The choice of which gene to use for barcoding is guided by its rate of evolution.
Which genes are most useful for barcoding eukaryotes with the exception of plants?
A Nuclear genes
B Chloroplast genes
C Plasmids
D Mitochondrial
Solution The solution is (D). Scientists have observed that mitochondrial genes evolve faster
than nuclear genes.

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 964

22 What does the choice of using mitochondrial genes for barcoding of genes depend on?
A The fact that suitable primers for sequencing are not available for nuclear genes
B Whether any gene can be used
C The rate of evolution in mitochondrial genes
D That there is less variability between individuals of a same species than between
individuals of different species
Solution The solution is (C). The choice of using mitochondrial genes is based on the rapid
evolution of these genes.
23 While planning an ecological preserve, conservationists plan for an area limited in size
with highly diversified niches to protect as many species as possible in the available area.
With these constraints in mind, which ecosystem is especially useful to study for designing
the preserve?
A Desert
B Island
C Tropical rain forest
D Temperate rain forest
Solution The solution is (B). It is especially useful to study biodiversity on islands to make
predictions about biodiversity in preserves of similar size.
24 A marine preserve is designed off the coast of the northwest United States. The coast is
dotted by several Native American reservations where the traditional occupation is
catching and processing fish.
Which parties must be involved in the design of the preserve?
A Marine biologists only
B Marine biologists and oceanographers only
C Marine biologists, oceanographers, and policy makers only
D Marine biologists, oceanographers, policy makers, and representatives of the tribes
Solution The solution is (D). Marine biologists, oceanographers, policy makers, and
representatives of the tribes are all stakeholders.
25 Loss of wetlands has a great impact both on the biotic and abiotic parts of an ecosystem.
Wetlands provide rich habitats and act as a filter for pollution. Some loss of wetland is due
to silt and invasive species clogging water flow. To restore these wetlands, it is often
enough to —

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A open new waterways

B restore the water supply
C reintroduce endangered animals
D introduce water adapted plants
Solution The solution is (B). Restoring the water supply is often enough to restore wetlands.
26 Acid mining pollutes nearby streams by acidifying water and discharging highly toxic by-
products. Bacteria have been used to neutralize the pH and detoxify chemical compounds
making the stream suitable for animals and plants. What is this approach to restoration of
habitat an example of?
A Keystone species introduction
B Bioremediation
C Ecosystem preservation
D Biological control
Solution The solution is (B). This is bioremediation because environmental components are
used to clean up the habitat.
27 Which measures can protect biodiversity?
A legal protections
B conservation efforts
C restoration efforts
D all of the above
Solution The solution is (D). Legal protections, conservation efforts, and restoration efforts
can protect biodiversity.

CRITICAL THINKING QUESTIONS

28 Which factor explains why, in general, temperate and polar regions have less biodiversity
than tropical regions?
A The tropical regions are subjected to extreme changes of season.
B The polar regions were populated earliest in the history of Earth.
C The polar regions receive more intense solar energy.
D The tropical regions contain more micro-ecosystems.
Solution The solution is (D). The tropical regions were populated earlier in the history of
Earth, are not subjected to extreme changes of season, receive more energy from
the Sun, and have more micro-ecosystems.

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29 One method used to calculate contemporary extinction rates is based on the recorded
extinction of species in the last 500 years. A second method is a calculation based on the
rate of habitat destruction. The construction of a new dam is being planned. A team of
conservation biologists is preparing a report on the environmental impact of the dam.
Which method should be adopted to estimate the effect of the construction on the
extinction rate in the area? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each method?
A The extinction rates calculation method should be adopted. It uses species-area curves
that overestimate rates of extinction. The rate of habitat destruction calculation
method uses large numbers of measurements, but overestimates the rate of
extinction as well.
B The rate of habitat calculation method should be adopted. It is based on a large
number of observations and measurements, but overestimates rates of extinction.
The extinction rates calculation method uses species-area curves, but underestimates
the rate of extinction.
C The extinction rates calculation method should be adopted. It is based on a large
number of observations and measurements but overestimates rates of extinction. The
rate of habitat destruction calculation method uses species-area curves, but
underestimates the rate of extinction.
D The rate of habitat destruction calculation should be adopted. It uses species-area
curves, but overestimates the rate of extinction. The extinction rates calculation
method is based on a large number of observations and measurements, but
underestimates rates of extinction.
Solution The solution is (D). In the extinction rates calculation method, extinction rates are
calculated based on the recorded extinction of species in the past 500 years using
data from a large number of observations and measurements. They do not take into
account unobserved extinctions and undiscovered species. In this way, this method
underestimates rates of extinction. The second method based on the amount of
habitat destruction and species-area curves is more adapted to this situation
although it is not based on existing data and is likely to overestimate the rate of
extinction. This is preferable to underestimating the rate of extinction when
planning new development.
30 What evidence do scientists provide for the cause of the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass
extinction?
A The unusual abundance of iridium in the Cretaceous-Paleogene layers, the
disappearance of so many species at its transition, volcanic activity that led to global
warming, and the crater found in the Yucatan peninsula.
B The unusual abundance of iridium in the Cretaceous-Paleogene layers, gamma-ray
burst caused by a nearby supernova, rocks found in the clay layer at its boundary, and
the crater found in the Yucatan peninsula.

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C The unusual abundance of iridium in the Cretaceous-Paleogene layers, the

disappearance of so many species at its transition, rocks found in the clay layer at its
boundary, asteroid impact, and volcanic eruptions at large.
D The unusual abundance of iridium in the Cretaceous-Paleogene layers, the
disappearance of so many species at its transition, rocks found in the clay layer at its
boundary, and the crater found in the Yucatan peninsula.
Solution The solution is (D). Major pieces of evidence include the unusual abundance of
iridium in the Cretaceous-Paleogene layers, the simultaneous disappearance of so
many species at the Cretaceous-Paleogene transition, the rocks (shocked quartz,
boulders from the ocean many miles away) found in the clay layer at the
Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary in many locations on Earth, and the actual
crater found in the Yucatan peninsula with a diameter as expected by calculation
on its impact.
31 The island of Madagascar is located in the tropics 300 miles east of the coast of Africa,
from which it separated 165 million years ago. It is characterized by a large number of
endemic species.
What are the main reasons that Madagascar is a hotspot of endemic biodiversity?
A Madagascar has a climate that is more conducive to evolution than the larger African
continent.
B Madagascar is close to the tropics of Africa and consequently has a large number of
species.
C Madagascar shows species diversity of both temperate and tropical regions.
D Madagascar has been isolated geographically and species evolved there without
interaction with outside influences.
Solution The solution is (D). Madagascar is isolated geographically, it is in a tropical area, and
has separated from the mainland 165 million years ago.
32 Consider the following examples. The toxicity in the venom from a Brazilian viper
(Bothrops jararaca) is due to a sudden, massive drop in blood pressure, which slows down
the reaction of a bitten prey. Solutions made from the opium poppy have been used in
the past to dull the sensation of pain and induce a sense of well-being.
How can the effects of these natural compounds be applied to the development of
medical treatments?
A Compounds similar to the snake’s active toxin are used routinely as antivirals. Opioids
are used as immunomodulators, which modify an immune response.
B Compounds similar to the snake’s active toxin are used routinely as painkillers. Opioids
help in the lowering of blood pressure.

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C Compounds similar to the snake’s active toxin are used to treat inflammations.
Opioids are used to prevent muscle spasms.
D Compounds similar to the snake’s active toxin are used to lower blood pressure.
Opioids are used routinely as painkillers.
Solution The solution is (D). Compounds similar to the active toxin of the snake venom are
used to lower blood pressure in patients. They are angiotensin converting enzyme
(ACE) inhibitors. Derivatives of the opium poppy exudates, the opioids, are used
routinely as painkillers. Unfortunately, addiction is one potent side effect.
33 Phylloxera, a pest related to aphids, destroyed many vineyards in France at the end of the
19th century. The vineyards were restored by grafting old vines on American root stocks,
which were resistant to the pest.
Using this situation, how can biodiversity loss impact crop diversity?
A Loss of wild species would result in inbreeding depression, as crop varieties must be
bred with wild species to remain viable.
B Loss of biodiversity reduces large-scale monocultures but reinforces genetic
homogeneity contributing in the loss of crop diversity.
C Loss of wild species would result in an increase of intraspecific diversity within the
different crop varieties, but decrease in interspecific crop diversity.
D Loss of wild species would reduce the genetic variations as genes from wild relatives
are brought into crop varieties to add valued characteristics to crops.
Solution The solution is (D). Crop plants are derived from wild plants, and genes from wild
relatives are frequently brought into crop varieties by plant breeders to add valued
characteristics to the crops. If the wild species are lost, then this genetic variation
would no longer be available.
34 What would be the consequences of the bee colony collapse disorder in a state such as
California, which is a large supplier of produce?
A Only pharmaceutical manufacturing and industries involved in honey production
would be affected.
B Other pollinators would replace the bees in the ecosystem, and there would probably
not be a major impact on the production of produce.
C Lack of pollinators would affect the honey industry but not the fruit harvest industry,
because other pollinators would be present to carry out pollination.
D The lack of pollinators would affect the fruit harvest directly, and it indirectly would
affect industries linked to it, such as the honey and jam preparation industries
Solution The solution is (D). The lack of pollinators would affect the fruit harvest directly and
all the industries linked to fruit harvest from the food preparation, from honey and
jams to pharmaceutical manufacturing to transportation, indirectly.

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35 Many chemical pesticides can be found in the bark and leaves of tropical plants. What is a
difference in tropical plants that makes it especially beneficial to produce compounds that
kill insects throughout the year?
A Because plants have to protect themselves year-round, as cold spells in winter do not
kill pests as they do in temperate areas
B Because the plants must protect themselves from insects as repellents and toxins
sprayed by humans do not work in tropical areas
C Because the compounds produced to kill insects also enhances the ability of the plant
to recover from damage caused by various phenomena
D Because compounds produced to kill insects also influence the behavior and growth of
tropical plants
Solution The solution is (A). In tropical areas, there are no distinct seasons with cold
temperatures. The plants must protect themselves year-round from insects, as cold
spells in winter do not kill pests as they do in temperate climates.
36 Explain how the increase in human population and resource use causes increased
extinction rates by altering ecosystems.
A Human population growth leads to unsustainable resource use, habitat destruction,
and the unsustainable fishing and hunting of wild animal populations. All these
incidences result in a slow evolutionary rate of formation of new species.
B Human population growth leads to unsustainable resource use, habitat destruction,
and the unsustainable fishing and hunting of wild animal populations. Climate change
also occurs due to excessive use of fossil fuels.
C Human population growth leads to unsustainable resource use, habitat destruction,
and unsustainable fishing and hunting of wild animal populations. Excessive use of
fossil fuels is leading to reduced populations of fish species.
D Human population growth leads to unsustainable resource use, habitat destruction,
and unsustainable fishing and hunting of wild animal populations. Larger human
populations are also leading to decreased value of products obtained from species.
Solution The solution is (B). Human population growth leads to unsustainable resource use:
habitat destruction for new human settlements, agricultural fields, and so on. Larger
human populations have also led to unsustainable fishing and hunting of wild animal
populations. Excessive use of fossil fuels also leads to climate change.
37 As a conservationist, you are preparing a report on a frog population living on a
mountainside in Costa Rica. In your report, which potential threats to the survival of the
species will you predict taking into account environmental abiotic conditions and human
activities, even if others also may be present as well?

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 970

A The frog is at risk from climate change, habitat destruction, and aggressive predators.
B The frog is at risk from climate change, exotic species, and possible habitat
destruction.
C The frog is at risk from climate change, habitat destruction, and sparse availability
of food.
D The frog is at risk from climate change, exotic species, and overhunting in its habitat.
Solution The solution is (B). The frog is at risk because climate change may shift its preferred
habitat up the mountain. In addition, it will be at risk from exotic species, either as a
new predator or through the impact of transmitted diseases such as
chytridiomycosis. It is also possible habitat destruction will threaten the species.
38 Epidemiologists are predicting that diseases such as West Nile virus infection, dengue
fever, and even malaria may expand their range. If the pathogens are viruses or protists,
how could they most rapidly expand their range over a large geographic area?
A Through the air
B Through contaminated food and water
C Through direct human contact from increased presence in wilderness areas
D Through vectors such as mosquitoes
Solution The solution is (D). Mosquitoes carry all of these pathogens. As the climate changes
and average temperature rise, mosquitos expand their range and spread the
diseases to temperate regions.
39 Why does the hunting of large, top predators, such as sharks or wolves, endanger the
entire ecosystems in which they live?
A The disappearance of top predators results in excessive multiplication of producers.
Producers will overgraze primary consumers.
B If a top predator disappears, the primary consumers will multiply without restriction,
but producers will not be affected.
C If a top predator disappears, producers will multiply without restriction.
D The disappearance of top predators results in excessive multiplication of primary
consumers. Primary consumers will overgraze producers.
Solution The solution is (D). The food web is balanced. If a top predator disappears (foxes,
wolves, the primary consumers (caribous, hares) multiply without restriction, over-
graze the producers (lichens, grass), and must migrate to avoid starvation. Some top
consumers cull the herds of the weakest members or clean the environment by
scavenging dead remains.

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40 The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) passed a resolution

to protect rhinoceroses in the wild. Rhinoceroses have been hunted to the brink of
extinction because their horns, which are made of simple keratin, are considered an
aphrodisiac and a powerful drug in some cultures.
Why does the protection of rhinoceroses require an international agreement?
A The rhinoceroses are hunted in their native countries, but the trade crosses borders.
B The use of rhinoceros horns as an aphrodisiac has shown various negative effects
internationally.
C The hunters from different countries travel to the native country to hunt for
rhinoceroses.
D The demand for rhinoceroses is greater in foreign countries as compared to their
native countries.
Solution The solution is (A). The rhinoceroses are hunted in their native countries, but the
trade crosses borders and requires international cooperation to eliminate demand
for rhinoceros horn.
41 A preserve design is proposed for a densely populated suburban area. Which overall
design plan would be best for preservation of local ecosystems?
A Set up many small, protected areas.
B Select one small area that is isolated from residences.
C Plan buffer zones around all backyard spaces.
D Set up several larger areas to be set aside for natural ecosystems.
Solution The solution is (D). Fewer, larger areas are more successful for preservation than
many small, protected areas.
42 Wolves are a keystone species in the Yellowstone National Park. What would happen if
they were hunted to extinction?
A Many species would increase and the elk population would disappear.
B Many species would disappear and the elk population would initially increase.
C Many species along with elk population would initially increase.
D Many species, along with the elk population, would disappear rapidly.
Solution The solution is (B). If wolves were removed, many species would disappear from the
ecosystem. Elk population would increase to the point where riparian areas would
be stripped bare, causing the collapse of that ecosystem. Elk would increase beyond
sustainability without a top predator.

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43 Why have international treaties been rarely enforced so far?

A Signatory nations follow through with their good intentions. No governing body
enforces international environmental protection.
B Signatory nations do not follow through with their good intentions. A governing body
enforces international environmental protection.
C Signatory nations do not follow through with their good intentions. No governing body
enforces international environmental protection.
D Signatory nations follow through with their good intentions. A governing body
enforces international environmental protection, but neither is effective.
Solution The solution is (C). Signatory nations do not follow through with their good
intentions. No governing body—for example, the United Nations—enforces
international environmental protection.

TEST PREP FOR AP® COURSES

44 Students analyze pollen grains and fern spores recovered from sediments taken
below and above the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Their results are summarized
in the graph.

Which conclusion can be drawn from the graph regarding the impact of the mass
extinction that took place at the K-Pg boundary on plants?
A The mass extinction event reduced only the angiosperms.
B Based on their reduced pollen counts found in the samples, the mass extinction event
clearly reduced the number of ferns and angiosperms.
C The mass extinction affected only the ferns.
D Ferns were more abundant after the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) mass extinction
than before.

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Solution The solution is (B). Based on their reduced pollen counts found in the samples, the
mass extinction event clearly reduced the number of ferns and angiosperms.
45 Analyze the graph.

What are the reasons for the fern spike seen in the early Paleogene, considering ferns
were the first plants seen on the ground after the volcanic eruption of Krakatoa and
Mt. St. Helens? Propose reasons for the observed increase in fern spores following the
mass extinction.
A Ferns are considered early colonizers as they grow fast on poor soil and reproduce
rapidly. Also, mass extinction gave an opportunity for the surviving species to expand
and radiate to occupy vacated niches.
B Ferns, having a selective advantage of being early colonizers, grew fast on poor soil
and reproduced rapidly, thus permanently replacing angiosperms in the landscape.
C Ferns are considered early colonizers as they grow fast on poor soil and reproduce
rapidly. The mass extinction barely lowered their numbers due to their resilience.
D Most of the fern varieties became extinct, only a single species survived; therefore,
the remaining fern spores had many vacated niches to occupy, which led to an
increase in fern numbers.
Solution The solution is (A). Ferns are considered early colonizers as they grow fast on poor
soil and reproduce rapidly. Notice the ferns were also reduced in abundance.
Although they recovered, they did not go back to the previous numbers. Mass
extinctions open a window of opportunity for surviving species to expand, radiate as
they occupy vacated niches.
46 A group of students summarized information on five great extinction events. The students
are sampling a site in search of fossils from the Devonian period. Based on the chart, what
would be the most reasonable plan for the students to follow?

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 974

A Searching horizontally rock layers in any class of rock and trying to find those that
contain the greatest number of fossils
B Collecting fossils from rock layers deposited prior to the Permian period that contain
some early vertebrate bones
C Looking in sedimentary layers next to bodies of water in order to find marine fossils of
bivalves and trilobites
D Using relative dating techniques to determine the geological ages of the fossils so they
can calculate the rate of speciation of early organisms
Solution The solution is (B). The site must contain fossils from animals that survived the
Ordovician extinction. The approach is specific for the periods prior to the Permian
period including the Devonian. Early vertebrates would have been present.

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47 Students are sorting fossils of angiosperm pollen grains, some recovered from layers
below the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary and some from layers above the Cretaceous-
Paleogene boundaries. The pollen grains are sorted by morphology. The results are
summarized in a table.

Can you explain the results?

A The mass extinction that took place at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries reduced
the total number of organisms, shown by the presence of fewer shapes of pollen
grains, and led to a loss of diversity, shown by the lower number of grains.
B The mass extinction that took place at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries reduced
the total number of organisms, shown by the presence of fewer pollen grains, and led
to a loss of diversity, as shown by the presence of fewer shapes.
C The mass extinction that took place at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries reduced
the total number of organisms, shown by the lower number of pollen grains, but did
not affect diversity
D The mass extinction that took place at the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundaries led to a
loss of diversity, shown by the presence of fewer shapes of pollen grains, but did not
affect the total number of organisms.
Solution The solution is (B). The mass extinction that took place at the Cretaceous-Paleogene
boundaries reduced the total number of organisms and led to the disappearance of
many species of angiosperms. Fewer pollen grains point to the decrease in
population and fewer shapes indicate a loss of diversity.
48 A dig in a farmland soil rich in calcium carbonate reveals numerous shells of
bivalves, chips of corals, the partial imprint of a trilobite, and a few vertebrae dated
to 250 million years ago. The table of extinction summarizes information on the five
major extinction events.

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 976

According to the table of extinction, which conclusion about the fossils is most
reasonable?
A The trilobites were the first animals to conquer land.
B The rocks can be dated to the end of the Cretaceous period.
C The farmland was probably part of the seafloor in the Permian period.
D The fossils can be dated to the Ordovician period.
Solution The solution is (C). The farmland was probably part of the seafloor in the Permian
period, as the types of fossils found align with that particular period.
49 The average temperatures varied during the Pleistocene as glaciation periods were
followed by warm intervals. Using the graph and your existing knowledge, what happened
to woolly mammoths and other cold-adapted megafauna 10,000 years ago to cause their
extinction?

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977 38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity

A Habitat destruction due to varying temperatures and over-hunting by humans led to

their extinction.
B Sudden increase in temperature and over-hunting by humans led to their extinction.
C Gradual increase in temperature and over-hunting by humans led to their extinction.
D Sudden increase in temperature and in predation by larger mammals led to their
extinction.
Solution The solution is (B). The probable cause of mammoths’ extinction is the sudden
increase in temperature that took place about 10,000 years ago. A second proposed
hypothesis is the humans over hunted mammoths to extinction because the
appearance of humans coincides with the disappearance of the megafauna.
50 In winter, lichens are the only food for the caribou herds that roam the tundra. As the
average temperatures increase with climate change, the lichens are gradually being
replaced by shrubs and trees in the southern parts of the tundra. The graph illustrates the
changes in abundance of lichens and caribou over time in a regional forest of Canada.

Which statement best explains the changes in the caribou population between 1975
and 1980?

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38 | Conservation Biology and Biodiversity 978

A The caribou population expanded after the population of lichens dropped.

B The decline of the caribou population and the lichen population are not related.
C The population of caribou decreased following the drop in lichen availability.
D The caribou population was eliminated once the lichens decreased.
Solution The solution is (C). The data suggest that the population of caribou decreased
following the drop in lichen availability.
51 A chain within the food web in the Arctic Ocean is shown.
phytoplankton → zooplankton → arctic char/cod → ringed seal → polar bear
A chain within the arctic food web on land is shown.
lichen/shrub → caribou/hare/small rodent → fox/lynx/bird of prey
If polar bears move to land to hunt due to loss of sea ice, what will happen to the balance
of the food web?
A Polar bears, being top predators, will edge out the other consumers without gaining
enough calories themselves.
B Polar bears, being secondary consumers, will edge out the other consumers without
gaining enough calories themselves.
C Polar bears, being top predators, will edge out the producers without gaining enough
calories themselves.
D Polar bears, being secondary consumers, will edge out the producers without gaining
enough calories themselves.
Solution The solution is (A). The secondary consumers are crowded out and compete for food
with the polar bears. As the polar bears are the top predators, they have no enemies
besides humans and will edge out the other consumers without gaining enough
calories themselves.
52 Historically, the Atlantic Ocean off Canada and the Northeast United States has been
some of the richest and most popular fishing grounds. Huge factory ships developed in
the 1960s converged on the region from all over the world attracted by the rich catches.
The graph represents the population of cod in recent years.

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Based on the graph, what is the likely explanation for the collapse of the northwest cod?
A A tropical disease decimated the populations of cod.
B Overfishing led to the collapse of the cod population.
C The cod population migrated somewhere else.
D The cod population is going through its cycle of rise and fall.
Solution The solution is (B). The high capture rates just prior to the collapse support this
explanation.
53 The graphs show the changes in the human population and the rate of extinction.

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Which statement most likely explains how the increase in human population could lead to
a decrease in biodiversity?
A Every human added to the planet replaces a different species of organism.
B The more people inhabiting the planet, the more the average temperature increases,
causing loss of other species.
C With the increase in population the demands for land, water, food, and energy
increase, leading to the destruction of habitat.
D Increases in human population reduce the amount of land available for use by
all species.
Solution The solution is (C). More than 7 billion people inhabit the planet. Their demands for
land, water, food, and energy are leading to destruction of habitat, pollution, over
exploitation of resources, and accelerated increase of average temperatures.

Advanced Placement Biology Instructor’s Solution Manual