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UNIT 1
1. Briefly explain the different phases of project management life cycle. (NOV -18)
OR
Name different. Give very brief description of all the phases of Project Management Life
Cycle (2 to 3 lines) and explain W5HH principle. (APR-19)
OR
Explain the stages involved in project management life cycle in detail. (NOV-19)
OR
State and Explain phases of Project Management Life Cycle. (NOV-22)
OR
Explain the various bidding techniques along with their implications and applicability. (APR-
23)

AN • The different phases of the project management life cycle are initiation planning,
S execution and closing.
• By the time the software development processes start, the initiation phase of the
software project management life cycle is almost complete.

Project Initiation
• The project initiation phase usually starts with project concept development. During
concept development the different characteristics of the software to be developed
are thoroughly understood.
• W5HH Principle: Boehm suggested that during project initiation, the project
champions should have comprehensive answers to a set of key questions
pertaining to the project.
o Why is the software being built?
o What will be done?
o When will it be done?
o Who is responsible for a function?
o Where are they organizationally located?
o How will the job be done technically and managerially?
o How much of each resource is needed?

Project bidding
• Once an organization’s top management is convinced by the business case, the
project charter is developed.
• Have a formal bidding process to select a suitable vendor based on some cost-
performance criteria.
• Different types o f bidding techniques and their implications and applicability.
o Request for quotation (RFQ) An organization advertises an RFQ if it has good
understanding of the project and the possible solutions. While publishing the

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RFQ, the organization would have to mention the scope of the work in a
statement of work (SOW) document.
o Request for proposal (RFP): the organization may solicit solution proposals
from vendors. The vendors may submit a few alternative solutions and the
approximate costs for each solution. In order to develop a better
understanding, the requesting organization may ask the vendors to explain
or demonstrate their solutions.
o Request for Information (RFI) An organization soliciting bids m ay publish an
RFI. Based on the vendor response to the RFI, the organization can assess
the competencies o f the vendors and shortlist the vendors who can bid for
the work.
Project planning
• Project manager carries out several processes and creates the following documents:
o Project plan This document identifies the project tasks, and a schedule for the
project tasks that assigns project resources and time frames to the tasks.
• Resource plan It lists the resources, manpower and equipment that would be
required to execute the project.
• Financial plan It documents the plan for manpower, equipment and other costs
• Quality plan Plan of quality targets and control plans are included in this document
• Riskplan This document lists the identification of the potential risks, their
prioritization and a plan for the actions that would be taken to contain the different
risks.

Project execution
• In this phase the tasks are executed as per the project plan developed during the
planning phase .A series of management processes are undertaken to ensure that
the tasks are executed as per plan Monitoring control processes are executed to
ensure that the tasks are executed as per plan and corrective actions are initiated
whenever any deviations from the plan are noticed.

Project closure
Project closure involves completing the release of all the deliverables to the customers
along with the necessary documentation.

2. What is project charter in software project management? What are the elements of project
charter? (NOV-18)
AN • Project Charter refers to a statement of objectives in a project. This statement also
S sets out detailed project goals, roles and responsibilities, identifies the main
stakeholders, and the level of authority of a project manager.
• It acts as a guideline for future projects as well as an important material in the
organization's knowledge management system.
• The project charter is a short document that would consist of new offering request
or a request for proposal. This document is a part of the project management
process, which is required by Initiative for Policy Dialogue (IPD) and Customer
Relationship Management (CRM).
• The roles of a Project Charter:
• It documents the reasons for undertaking the project.
• Outlines the objectives and the constraints faced by the project.
• Provides solutions to the problem in hand.

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• Identifies the main stakeholders of the project.

3. What is project portfolio management? Explain the key aspects of project portfolio
management. (NOV-18)
OR
Write a short note on Portfolio Management. (APR-19, NOV-19)
OR
What do you mean by Project portfolio management? What are its elements? (NOV-22)

AN Portfolio project management provides an overview of all the project that an organization In
S undertaking or Is considering, Il prioritizes the allocation of resource to projects and decides
which new project should he accepted and which existing ones should be dropped
The concerns of project portfolio management include:
• identifying which project proposals me worth implementation.
• Assessing the amount of risk of failure that a potential project has.
• Deciding how to share limited resources, including staff time and finance.
• Ensuring that projects do not duplicate work.
• Ensuring that necessary developments have not been inadvertently been missed.

Three key aspects of project portfolio management are portfolio definition, portfolio
management and portfolio optimization.
• Project portfolio definition
o developing new project and maintaining single project with renewal of contract
are both considered in definition.
• Project portfolio management
o Once the portfolio has been established, more detailed costings of projects can
be recorded , actual performance of project is also tracked.
• Project portfolio optimization
• the performance of the portfolio can be tracked by high-level managers on a
regular basis. Other projects could have modest benefits, such as those cutting
costs by automating process but have fewer risks.

4. Define the following terms: (NOV-18, APR-19)

a. Net profit
b. Return on Investment
c. Payback period
d. Net present value
e. Internal rate of return

AN a. Net profit: The net profit of project is the difference between the total costs and
S the total income over the life of the project.
b. Return on Investment: The return on investment (ROI), also known as the
accounting rate of return (ARR), provides a way of comparing the net profitability
to the investment required. There are some variations on the formula used to
calculate the return on investment but a straightforward common version is:

c. Payback period: The payback period is the time taken to break even or pay back
the initial investment. Normally, the project with the shortest payback period

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will be chosen on the basis that an organization will wish to minimize the time
that a project is ‘in debt’.
d. Net present value: The calculation of net present value is a project evaluation
technique that takes into account the profitability of a project and the timing of
the cash flows that are produced.

where r is the discount rate, expressed as a decimal value, and t is the number
of years into the future that the cash flow occurs.

e. Internal rate of return: The internal rate of return (IRR) attempts to provide a
profitability measure as a percentage return that is directly com parable with
interest rates. Thus, a project that showed an estimated IRR of 10% would be
worthwhile if the capital could be borrowed for less than 10% or if the capital
could not be invested elsewhere for a return greater than 10%.

5. What is a project product? Explain Product Breakdown Structure with the help of example.
(NOV-18)
AN In project management, a project product refers to the end result or deliverable that is
S created as a result of the project. It is the tangible or intangible output that is produced to
meet the project's objectives and satisfy the customer or stakeholder requirements. A
project product can be a physical item, a document, software, a service, or any other
outcome that adds value and contributes to the project's success.

Now let's discuss the Product Breakdown Structure (PBS), which is a hierarchical
decomposition of the project product into its constituent components or parts. It helps in
organizing and understanding the product's structure, defining its scope, and facilitating
effective project planning and management.

A Product Breakdown Structure is created by breaking down the project product into smaller,
manageable components. Each component represents a specific functionality, feature, or
aspect of the final product. The breakdown continues until the components are small enough
to be easily understood, defined, and managed. Here's an example to illustrate the Product
Breakdown Structure:

Project Product: Construction of a Residential House

Level 1: Residential House
- Level 2: Foundation
- Level 3: Excavation
- Level 3: Concrete Pouring
- Level 2: Structure
- Level 3: Walls

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- Level 3: Roof
- Level 3: Doors and Windows
- Level 2: Electrical System
- Level 3: Wiring
- Level 3: Switches and Outlets
- Level 2: Plumbing System
- Level 3: Pipes and Fittings
- Level 3: Fixtures (Toilet, Sink, Shower)
- Level 2: Interior Finishing
- Level 3: Flooring
- Level 3: Painting
- Level 3: Cabinets and Countertops
- Level 2: Exterior Works
- Level 3: Landscaping
- Level 3: Driveway
- Level 3: Fencing

In this example, the project product is the construction of a residential house. The Product
Breakdown Structure is organized into different levels, starting from the highest level (Level
1) representing the entire house, and then breaking it down into lower levels that represent
specific components or sub-products.

For instance, at Level 2, the house is divided into Foundation, Structure, Electrical System,
Plumbing System, Interior Finishing, and Exterior Works. Each of these components is then
further decomposed into Level 3 elements that represent specific tasks or features related
to that component.

The Product Breakdown Structure helps in visualizing the project's scope, identifying the key
components, and understanding the relationships between them. It supports effective
project planning, estimating, scheduling, and resource allocation. It also aids in defining work
packages, assigning responsibilities, and tracking progress during the project execution
phase.

Overall, the Product Breakdown Structure is a valuable tool for organizing and managing the
project product, ensuring a clear understanding of its components, and facilitating successful
project delivery.

6. What do you mean by scope and objective of a project? List the activities involved in
identifying project scope and objective. (NOV-18)
OR
What is the importance of identifying the scope and objectives of a project? (NOV-19)
OR
How are objectives and sub-objectives identified for a project? (APR-23)
AN The activities in this step ensure that all the panics to the project agree on the objectives and
S are committed to the success of the project.

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• Identify objectives and practical measures of the effectiveness in meeting those

objectives We discussed earlier the need for agreed objectives for a project and ways
of measuring the success in achieving those objectives.
• Establish a project authority A single overall project authority needs to be
established so that there is unity of purpose among all those concerned.
• all stakeholders in the project and their interests
• Modify objectives in the light of stakeholder analysis In order to gain the full
cooperation of all concerned, it might be necessary to modify the project
objectives. This can mean adding new features to the system giving a benefit to
some stakeholder group as a means of assuring their commitment to the project.
• Establish methods of communication with all parties For internal staff, this
should be fairly straightforward, but a project leader implementing a payroll system
would need to find a contact point with BACS (Bankers Automated Clearing
Scheme) for instance.

7. Define project. Discuss some characteristics of software project which make them more
difficult to manage compared to other projects. (APR-19)
OR
What is a project? Explain the various characteristics that distinguish project from routine
jobs. (APR-23)
AN Aspect of a project is that the undertaking is non-routine: a job which is repeated a number
S of times is not a project. There is a hazy boundary in between. The first time you do a routine
task it will be very like a project. On the other hand, a project to develop a system that is very
similar to previous ones that you have developed will have a large element of the routine.
Software projects versus other types of project
One way of perceiving software project management is as the process of making visible that
which is invisible.
• Invisibility When a physical artifact such as a bridge or road is being
constructed the progress being made can actually be seen. With software,
progress is not immediately visible.
• Complexity Per dollar, pound or euro spent, software products contain more
complexity than other engineered artifacts.
• Flexibility The ease with which software can be changed is usually seen as
one of its strengths. However this means that where the software system
interfaces with a physical or organizational system, it is expected that, where
necessary, the software will change to accommodate the other components
rather than vice versa. This means the software systems are likely to be
subject to a high degree of change.

8. Define a term project and give the importance of Software Project Management. (NOV-19)
AN Aspect of a project is that the undertaking is non-routine: a job which is repeated a number
S of times is not a project. There is a hazy boundary in between. The first time you do a routine
task it will be very like a project. On the other hand, a project to develop a system that is very
similar to previous ones that you have developed will have a large element of the routine.
Importance of project management
• Strategic Alignment: Project management is important because it ensures
what is being delivered, is right, and will deliver real value against the
business opportunity.
• Leadership: Project management is important because it brings leadership
and direction to projects.

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• Clear Focus & Objectives: Project management is important because it

ensures there’s a proper plan for executing on strategic goals.
• Realistic Project Planning: Project management is important because it
ensures proper expectations are set around what can be delivered, by
when, and for how much.
• Quality Control: Projects management is important because it ensures the
quality of whatever is being delivered, consistently hits the mark.
• Risk Management: Project management is important because it ensures
risks are properly managed and mitigated against to avoid becoming
issues.
• Orderly Process: Project management is important because it ensures the
right people do the right things, at the right time – it ensures proper project
process is followed throughout the project lifecycle.
• Continuous Oversight: Project management is important because it ensures
a project’s progress is tracked and reported properly.
Managing and Learning from Success and Failure: Project management is important
because it learns from the successes and failures of the past.
9. What is a project? What are its characteristics? (NOV-22)
AN Aspect of a project is that the undertaking is non-routine: a job which is repeated a number
S of times is not a project. There is a hazy boundary in between. The first time you do a routine
task it will be very like a project. On the other hand, a project to develop a system that is very
similar to previous ones that you have developed will have a large element of the routine.
Key characteristics that distinguish projects as follows
• non-routine tasks are involved;
• planning is required;
• specific objectives are to be met or a specified product is to be created;
• the project has a predetermined time span (which may be absolute or relative);
• work is carried out for someone other than yourself;
• work involves several specialism's;
• work is carried out in several phases;
• the resources that are available for use on the project are constrained.
10. Define Business Case. Specify the content of business case document. (APR-19)
OR
Explain the various sections contained in a typical business case document. (APR-23)
AN Organizations may have different titles such as a feasibility study or a project justification for
S what we call the business case. Its objective is to provide a rationale for the project by
showing that the benefits of the project outcomes will exceed the costs of development,
implementation and operation (or production).
Typically a business case document might contain:
1. Introduction and background to the proposal
2. The proposed project
3. The market
4. Organizational and operational infrastructure
5. The benefits
6. Outline implementation plan
7. Costs
8. The financial case
9. Risks
10. Management plan
• The proposed project
o A brief outline of the proposed project is provided.

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• The market
o contains information like the estimated demand for the product or service
and any likely competitors.
• Organizational and operational infrastructure
o This describes how the structure of the organization will be affected by the
implementation of the project.
• Benefits
o a financial value should be put on the benefits of the implemented project.
For commercial organizations this could be related to increased profits
caused either by increasing income or by making savings on costs.
• Outline implementation plan
o activities such as marketing, promotion and operational and maintenance
infrastructures need to be considered.
• Costs
o Having outlined the steps needed to set up the operations needed by the
proposal, a schedule of expected costs associated with the planned
approach can now be presented.
• The financial case
o There are a number of ways in which the information on income and costs
can be analysed
• Risks
o We note here that many estimates of costs and. more particularly, benefits
of the project will be speculative at this stage and the section on risk should
take account of this.
11. How is resource allocation managed in an activity of programme management? (NOV-19)
AN • We are now going to examine in more detail, programmes, where resources have to
S be shared between concurrent projects. Typically, an ICT department has pools of
particular types of expertise, such as software developers, database designers and
network support staff, and these might be called upon to participate in a number of
concurrent projects.
• When a project is planned, at the stage of allocating resources, programme
management will be involved. Some activities in the project might have to be delayed
until the requisite technical staff are freed from work on other projects. Where
expensive technical staff are employed full-time, then you would want to avoid them
having short periods of intense activity interspersed with long periods of idleness,
during which they are still being paid.

12. Write a note on risk evaluation and management. (NOV-19)

AN Every project involves risk. We have already noted that project risks, which prevent the
S project from being completed successfully, are different from the business risk that the
delivered products are not profitable.
• Risk identification and ranking
In any project evaluation we should identify the risks and quantify their effects. One
approach is to construct a project risk matrix utilizing a checklist of possible risks and
classifying risks according to their relative importance and likelihood.
a basic project risk matrix listing some of the business risks for a project, with their
importance and likelihood classified as high (H), medium (M), low (L) or exceedingly
unlikely.
• Risk and net present value
Where a project is relatively risky, it is a common practice to use a higher discount rate
to calculate net present value. This risk premium might, for example, be an additional

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2% for a reasonably safe project or 5% for a fairly risky one. Projects may be
categorized as high, medium, or low risk using a scoring method and risk premiums
designated for each category.
• Cost-benefit analysis
rather than a single cash flow forecast for a project, we will then have a set of cash
flow forecast, each with an associated probability of occurring.

• Risk profile analysis

An approach which attempts to overcome some of the objections to cost-benefit
averaging is the construction of risk profiles using sensitivity analysis. This involves
varying each of the parameters that affect the project’s cost or benefits to ascertain
how sensitive the project s profitability is to each factor.
By studying the results of a sensitivity analysis we can identify those factors that are
most important to the success of the project. We then need to decide whether we can
exercise greater control over them or otherwise mitigate their effects. If neither is the
case, then we must live with the risk or abandon the project.

• Using decision trees

The approaches to risk analysis discussed previously rather assume that we are
passive bystanders allowing nature to take its own course - the best we can do is to
reject over-risky projects or choose those with the best risk profile. There are many
situations, however, where we can evaluate whether a risk is important and, if it is,
decide a suitable course of action.
Such decisions will limit or affect future options and, at any point, it is important to
be able to assess how a decision will affect the future profitability of the project.

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13. How do you perform Cost benefit analysis (CBA)? (NOV-22)

AN Even where the estimated benefits will exceed the estimated costs, it is often necessary
S to decide if the proposed project is the best of several options.
Cost-benefit analysis comprises two steps:
• Identifying all of the cost and benefits of carrying out the project and
operating the delivered application These include the development costs,
the operating costs, and the benefits expected from the new system.
• Expressing these costs and benefits in common units We must express each
cost and benefit and the net benefit which is the difference between the two
- in money.
• Development costs, including development staff costs.
• Setup costs, consisting of the costs of putting the system into place,
recruitment , staff training
• operational cost related to operation after installation

14. Draw the diagram of Step Wise approach to planning software projects and explain step
1: Establish project scope and objectives in detail. (NOV-22)
OR
Explain in detail Step 5 of the Step wise framework. (APR-23)

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AN
S

Step 0: Select project

• This is called Step 0 because in a way it is outside the main project planning process.
Projects are not initiated out of thin air - some activity has to take place before deciding that
this project rather than another is worth undertaking. This project evaluation may be done
on an individual basis or as part of strategic planning.
Step 1: Identify project scope and objectives
The activities in this step ensure that all the panics to the project agree on the objectives and
are committed to the success of the project.
• Identify objectives and practical measures of the effectiveness in meeting those objectives
We discussed earlier the need for agreed objectives for a project and ways of measuring the
success in achieving those objectives.
• Establish a project authority A single overall project authority needs to be established so
that there is unity of purpose among all those concerned.
• all stakeholders in the project and their interests
• Modify objectives in the light of stakeholder analysis In order to gain the full cooperation
of all concerned, it might be necessary to modify the project objectives. This can mean adding
new
features to the system giving a benefit to some stakeholder group as a means of assuring
their commitment to the project.

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• Establish methods of communication with all parties For internal staff, this should be fairly
straightforward, but a project leader implementing a payroll system would need to find a
contact point with BACS (Bankers Automated Clearing Scheme) for instance.
Step 2: Identify project infrastructure
Projects are rarely initiated in a vacuum. There is usually some kind of existing infrastructure
into which the project can fit. The project leader who does not already know about this
structure needs to find out its precise nature
• Identify relationship between the project and strategic planning As well as identifying
projects to be carried out. an organization needs to decide the order in which these projects
arc to be carried out. It also needs to establish the framework within which the proposed
new systems are to fit. Hardware and software standards,
• Identify installation standards and procedures Change control and configuration
management standards should be in place to ensure that changes to requirements are
implemented in a safe and orderly way. The procedural standards may lay down the quality
checks that need to be done at each point of the project life cycle or these may be
documented in a separate quality standards and procedures manual.
• Identify project team organization Project leaders, especially in the case of large projects,
will often have some control over the organizational structure of the project team. More
often, though, the organizational structure will be dictated to them. For example, there might
have been a high level managerial decision that code developers and systems analysts will
be in different groups, or that the development of PC applications will not be done within
the same group as that responsible for ‘legacy’ main-frame applications.
Step 3: Analyse project characteristics
The general purpose of this part of the planning operation is to ensure that the appropriate
methods are used for the project.
• Distinguish the project as either objective- or product-driven A general point to note is
that as system development advances, it tends to become more product-driven, although
the underlying objectives always remain and must be respected.
• Analyse other project characteristics (including quality-based ones) For example, is this an
information system that is being developed or a process control system, or does it have
elements of both? Is it a safety-critical system, that is, where human life could be threatened
by a malfunction?
• Identify high level project risks Consideration must be given to the risks that threaten the
successful outcome of the project. Generally speaking most risks can be attributed to the
operational or development environment, the technical nature of the project or the type of
product being created.
• Take into account user requirements concerning implementation The clients will usually
have their own procedural requirements. For example, work for government departments
usually requires the use of SSADM.
• Select general lifecycle approach in the light of the above The project life cycle to be used
for the project will be influenced by the issues raised above. For example, a prototyping
approach might be used where the user requirements are not clear.
step 4: Identify project products and activities
Identify and describe project products (or deliverables),the name/identity of the product;
the purpose of the product: ,the derivation of the product (that is, the other products from
which it is derived); , the composition of the product; ,the form of the product; ,the relevant
standards; the quality criteria that should apply to it. Document generic product flows Some
of the products will need some other product to exist first before they can be created. For
example, a program design must be created before the program can be written and the
program specification must exist before the design can be commenced.
Recognize product instances

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Where the same generic PFD fragment relates to more than one instance of a particular type
of product, an attempt should be made to identify each of those instances.
Produce ideal activity network
In order to generate one product from another there must be one or more activities that
carry out the transformation. By identifying these activities we can create an activity
network, which show s the tasks that have to be carried out and the order in which they have
to be executed.
Modify the ideal to take into account need for stages and checkpoints
The approach to sequencing activities described above encourages the formulation of a plan
that will minimize the overall duration, or ‘elapsed time’, for the project. It assumes that an
activity will start as soon as the preceding ones upon which it depends have been completed.
step 5 :Estimate effort for each activity
• Carry out bottom-up estimates Some top-down estimates of effort, cost and duration will
already have been done. At this point, estimates of the staff effort and other resources
required, and the probable elapsed time needed for each activity will need to be produced.
• Revise plan to create controllable activities The estimates for individual activities might
reveal that some are going to take quite a long time. Long activities often make a project
difficult to control. If an activity involving system testing is to take 12 weeks, it might be
difficult after six weeks to judge accurately whether 50% of the work is completed. It would
be better to break this down into a series of smaller sub-tasks.
step 6 :Identify activity risks
• Identify and quantify activity-based risks
• Risks inherent in the overall nature of the project have already been considered step 3. We
now want to look at each activity in turn and assess the risks to its successful outcome.
• Plan risk reduction and contingency measures where appropriate
• It is possible to avoid or at least reduce some of the identified risks. Contingency plans
specify action that is to be taken if a risk materializes.
• Adjust overall plans and estimates to take account of risks
• We can change our plans, perhaps by adding new activities which reduce risks. For example,
a new programming language could mean that we schedule (raining courses and time for the
programmers to practice their new programming skills on some non-essential work).
step 7 :Allocate resources
• Identify and allocate resources The type of staff needed for each activity is recorded. The
staff available for the project are identified and are provisionally allocated to tasks.
• Revise plans and estimates to take into account resource constraints Some staff might be
needed for more than one task at the same time and. in this case, an order of priority is
established. The decisions made here can have an effect on the overall duration of the
project when some tasks are delayed while waiting for staff to become free.
Step 8: Review/publicize plan
• Review quality aspects of the project plan A danger when controlling any project is that
an activity can reveal that an earlier activity was not properly completed and needs to be
reworked. This, at a stroke, can transform a project that appears to be progressing
satisfactorily into one that is badly out of control. It is important to know that when a task is
reported as completed, it really is - hence the importance of quality reviews. Each task should
have ‘exit requirements’. These are quality checks that have to be passed before the activity
can be ‘signed off’ as completed.
• Document plans and obtain agreement It is important that the plans be carefully
documented and that all the parties to the project understand and agree to the
commitments required of them in the plan.

Steps 9 and 10: Execute plan and Lower levels of planning

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Once the project is under way, plans will need to be drawn up in greater detail for each
activity as it becomes due. Detailed planning of the later stages will have to be delayed
because more information will be available nearer the start of the stage. Of course, it is
necessary to make provisional plans for the more distant tasks, because thinking about what
has to be done can help unearth potential problems, but sight should not be lost of the fact
that these plans are provisional.

15 Consider the project cash flow estimates for four projects as shown in the table; Negative
levels represent expenditure and positive values income. Rank the four projects in order of
financial desirability and make a note of your reasons for ranking them in that way. Conclusion
should be based on Net profit, and ROI (Return on Investment) (N0V-22)
Year Project 1 Project 2 Project 3 Project 4
0 -100000 -100000 -1000000 -120000
1 20000 20000 300000 30000
2 30000 30000 300000 30000
3 10000 20000 300000 30000
4 20000 20000 300000 30000
5 20000 30000 300000 50000
Net Profit ? ? ? ?
ROI ? ? ? ?
AN Net proﬁt is calculated by subtrac�ng a company's total expenses from total income.
S Net proﬁt= total incomes - total expenditures

•For project1,
total income = 20,000 +30,000+10,000+20,000+20,000=1,00,000
Total expenditure = 1,00,000
Net profit = 1,00000-1,00000 = Rs.0
• For project2,
total income = 20,000 +30,000 +20,000 +20,000 +30,000 =1,20,000 Total expenditure =
1,00,000
Net profit = 1,20,000 -1,00,000= Rs.20,000
• For project3,
total income = 3,00,000+3,00,000+3,00,000+3,00,000+3,00,000=15,00,000
Total expenditure = 10,00,000
Net profit = 15,00,000 -10,00,000 = Rs.5,00,000
• For project4,
total income = 30,000+ 30,000+30,000+30,000+50,000=Rs. 1,70,000
Total expenditure = 1,20,000
Net profit = 1,70,000 -1,20,000 = Rs.50,000

Calcula�ng ROI :

For Project 1 :
Total Investment : 1,00,000

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Net Proﬁt : 0
Total no. of yrs : 5
Average Annual Proﬁt= 0/5= Rs.0
ROI= 0/1,00,000 *100= 0%

For Project 2:
Total Investment : 1,00,000
Net Proﬁt : 20,000

Total no. of yrs : 5

Average Annual Proﬁt= 20,000/5= Rs.4,000
ROI= 4,000/1,00,000 *100 = 4%

For Project 3:
Total Investment : 10,00,000
Net Proﬁt : 5,00,000
Total no. of yrs : 5
Average Annual Proﬁt= 5,00,000 /5= Rs.1,00,000
ROI= 1,00,000/10,00,000= 10%

For Project 4:
Total Investment : 1,20,000
Net Proﬁt : 5,00,000
Total no. of yrs : 5
Average Annual Proﬁt=5,00,000/5= Rs.1,00,000
ROI= 1,00,000/1,20,000= 83.33%

16 Suppose a so�ware development company has undertaken a project that is expected to cost
£160,000 to execute and the expected inﬂow is £25,000 per quarter for the ﬁrst year,
£30,000 per quarter therea�er. What is the payback period for the project? (APR-23)
AN To compute the cost performance index (CPI) and the schedule performance index (SPI), we
S can use the following formulas:
CPI = EV / AC SPI = EV / PV
Where: EV = Earned Value (percentage of work completed mul�plied by the budgeted cost of
the project) AC = Actual Cost (total expense incurred for the project) PV = Planned Value
(percentage of work that should have been completed mul�plied by the budgeted cost of the
project)
Given the informa�on provided, let's calculate the CPI and SPI:
Planned Value (PV) a�er 2 months: PV = 15% * $150,000 = $22,500
Earned Value (EV) a�er 2 months: EV = 10% * $150,000 = $15,000
Actual Cost (AC) a�er 2 months: AC = $25,000
CPI = EV / AC = $15,000 / $25,000 = 0.6
SPI = EV / PV = $15,000 / $22,500 ≈ 0.67
Now let's interpret these values to assess the progress of the project:
1.Cost Performance Index (CPI): The CPI value is 0.6, indica�ng that for every dollar spent on
the project, only 60 cents' worth of work has been completed. A CPI less than 1 suggests that
the project is over budget and cost overruns have occurred.
2.Schedule Performance Index (SPI): The SPI value is 0.67, implying that for every planned
dollar's worth of work, only 67 cents' worth of work has been completed. An SPI less than 1
indicates that the project is behind schedule.

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Overall Assessment: Based on the CPI and SPI values, it can be concluded that the project is
facing both cost and schedule issues. It is over budget and

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UNIT 2
1. What do you understand by the term ‘ceremonies’ in a scrum project? Explain the different
types of ceremonies that are observed in a Scrum project and their significance. (NOV-18)
OR
Explain Scrum. What do you understand by the term ‘ceremonies’ in a Scrum project? Explain
different types of ceremonies observed in a Scrum Project. (APR-19)
OR
Explain Scrum. What do you understand by the term ‘ceremonies’ in a Scrum project? (NOV-
22)

AN Scrum is one of the agile development models. In the Scrum model, a project is divided into
S small work parts that can incrementally be developed and delivered over time boxes that are
called sprints. The term scrum ceremonies is used to denote the meetings that are
mandatorily held during the duration of a project. The serum ceremonies include three
different types of meetings: sprint planning, daily scrum and sprint review meetings .
● Sprint planning During the sprint planning meeting, the team members com m
it to develop and deliver certain features in the ensuing sprint, out o f those listed
in the product backlog.
● daily scrum: each day of a sprint, the team holds a daily scrum meeting called
the "daily scrum.”
● Sprint review meeting At the end of each sprint, a sprint review meeting is
conducted.

2. List the advantages and disadvantages of software prototyping. (NOV-18)

AN Advantages:
S ● Learning by doing We can usually look back on a task and see where we have made
mistakes.
• Improved communication Users do not get a feel for how the system is likely to work
in practice from a specification.
• Improved user involvement The users can be more actively involved in design
decisions.
• Reduced need for documentation Because a working prototype can be examined
there is less need for detailed documentation of requirements
• Reduced maintenance costs If the user is unable to suggest modification at the
prototyping stage.
Disadvantages:
1) Users can misunderstand the role of the prototype. For example, they might expect the
prototype have as stringent input validation or as fast a response as the operational
system although this was not intended.
• Lack of project standards possible. Evolutionary prototyping could just be an excuse
for a sloppy hack it out and see what happens’ approach.
• Lack of control It can be difficult to control the prototyping cycle if the driving force
is the users propensity to try out new things.
• Additional expense Building and exercising a prototype will incur additional
expenses, However this should not be over-estimated as many analysis and design
tasks have to be undertaken whatever the approach.

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• Machine efficiency A system built through prototyping, while sensitive to the users.'
needs, might be as efficient in machine terms as one developed using more
conventional methods.

3. Explain the five major components of Albrecht Function Point Analysis. (NOV-18)
OR
Explain briefly Albrecht/IFPUG function points. (APR-19)
OR
Write a short note on Albrecht Function Point/IFPUG. (NOV-22)

AN The basis of function point analysis is that computer-based information systems comprise
S five major components, or external user types in Albrecht’s terminology, that are of benefit
to the users:
• External input types are input transactions that update internal computer files.
• external output types are transactions where data is output to the user.
• Logical internal tile types are the standing files used by the system. It refers to a group of
data that is usually accessed together. It might be made up of one or more record types.
• external interface file types allow for output and input that might pass to and from other
computer applications.
• external inquiry types - note the US spelling of inquiry - are transactions initiated by the
user that provide information but do not update the internal files
4. What are effort multipliers in COCOMO II model? List the effort multipliers used at early
design. (NOV-18)
AN In the COCOMO II model the effort multipliers (em) adjust the estimate to take account of
S productivity factors, but do not involve economies or diseconomies of scale.

5. Explain eight core principles of Dynamic Systems Development Method. (NOV-18)

OR
Discuss eight core Atern principles. (APR-19)
OR
What is Atern/Dynamic Systems Development Method? What are its eight core principles?
(NOV-22)
AN Eight core Atern principles
S • Focus on business need. Every decision in the development process should be taken
with a view to best satisfying business needs.

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• Deliver on time. Time-boxing is applied. Every deadline will see the delivery of
valuable products, even it some less valuable ones are held over.
• Collaborate. A one-team culture should be promoted, where user representatives
are integrated into the delivery team.
• Never compromise quality. Realistic quality targets are set early in the project. A
process of continuously testing developing products starting as soon as possible is
adopted.
• Develop iteratively. The prototyping approach
• Build incrementally from firm foundations. The incremental delivery approach
• Communicate continuously. In the case of users this could, for example, be done via
workshops and the demonstration of prototypes.
• Demonstrate control. Atern methodology has a range of plans and reports that can
be used to communicate project intentions and outcomes to project sponsors and
other management stakeholders.

6. State Capers Jones rules of thumb for software estimation. (NOV-18)

OR
Discuss Capers Jones estimating rules of thumb. (APR-19)
OR
State and explain Capers Jones estimating rules. (NOV-19)
OR
What are the Capers Jones Estimating Rules of Thumb? (NOV-22)

AN Rule 1: SLOC-function point equivalence:

S One function point = 125 SLOC for C programs.
Rule 2: Project duration estimation:
Function points raised to the power 0.4 predicts the approximate development time
in calendar months.
Rule 3: Rate of requirements creep:
User requirements creep in at an average rate of 2% per month from the design
through coding phases.
Rule 4: Defect removal efficiency:
Each software review, inspection, or test step will find and remove 30% of the bugs
that are present.
Rule 5: Project manpower estimation:
The size of the software (in function points) divided by 150 predicts the approximate
number of personnel required for developing the application.
Rule 6: Number of personnel for maintenance
Function points divided by 500 predicts the approximate number of personnel
required for regular maintenance activities.
Rule 7: Software development effort estimation:
The approximate number of staff months of effort required to develop a software is
given by the software development time multiplied with the number of personnel
required.
7. Describe briefly five steps of project analysis. (APR-19)
AN Project analysis involves a systematic examination and evaluation of a project to understand
S its feasibility, requirements, risks, and potential outcomes. Here are five essential steps in
project analysis:

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1. Define Project Objectives: The first step in project analysis is to clearly define the project
objectives and desired outcomes. This involves understanding the purpose of the project,
identifying the problem it aims to solve or the opportunity it aims to capture, and
determining the goals and deliverables that define project success.
2. Conduct Feasibility Study: A feasibility study assesses the viability and practicality of the
project. It examines various aspects such as technical feasibility, economic feasibility,
operational feasibility, and legal and regulatory compliance. This step helps determine if the
project is achievable within the given constraints of resources, time, and budget.
3. Identify Project Requirements: Requirements analysis involves gathering and
documenting the project's functional and non-functional requirements. It involves
understanding the needs and expectations of stakeholders, defining the scope of the project,
and identifying specific features, functionalities, and constraints that the solution must meet.
This step helps set clear expectations and provides a foundation for project planning and
design.
4. Perform Risk Analysis: Risk analysis involves identifying, analyzing, and prioritizing
potential risks and uncertainties that could impact the project's success. This step includes
assessing risks related to technology, resources, budget, timeline, stakeholders, and external
factors. It helps in developing risk mitigation strategies and contingency plans to minimize
the negative impact of risks on the project.
5. Evaluate Project Alternatives: In this step, different alternatives or approaches to
achieving the project objectives are evaluated. This may involve comparing different
technologies, methodologies, resource allocation strategies, or implementation options. By
considering the advantages, disadvantages, and trade-offs of each alternative, project
stakeholders can make informed decisions and choose the most suitable option.

8. What are the problems generally faced during effort estimation? (APR-19)
OR
Discuss the common problems faced during effort estimation. (NOV-19, NOV-22)

AN Some of the difficulties of estimating arise from the complexity and invisibility of software.
S Also, the intensely human activities which make up system development cannot be treated
in a purely mechanistic way. Other difficulties include:
• Subjective nature of estimating: underestimate the difficulty of small tasks and over-
estimate that of large ones.
• Political implications: ensure that the project is within budget and time scale,
otherwise this will reflect badly , To avoid these ‘political’ influences, one suggestion
is that estimates be produced by a specialist estimating group, independent of the
users and the project team .
• Changing technology Where technologies change rapidly, it is difficult to use the
experience of previous projects on new ones.
• lack of homogeneity of project experience Even where technologies have not
changed, knowledge about typical task durations may not be easily transferred from
one project to another because of other differences between projects.

9. Explain different approaches used for fast delivery of a project. (NOV-19)

AN In Software Project Management, there are several approaches used to achieve fast delivery
S of a project. Here are some commonly employed strategies:
1. Agile Methodology

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• Agile approaches, such as Scrum or Kanban, prioritize iterative and

incremental development.
• The project is divided into small, manageable tasks called user stories or
backlog items, which are worked on in short sprints. This allows for
continuous feedback, adaptation, and frequent delivery of working software.
2. Lean Software Development
• Lean principles focus on reducing waste and maximizing value. It emphasizes
eliminating non-value-adding activities, streamlining processes, and
fostering collaboration.
• Techniques like value stream mapping, just-in-time development, and
continuous improvement are utilized to expedite project delivery.
3. Rapid Application Development (RAD)
• RAD is a methodology that emphasizes prototyping, iterative development,
and close customer involvement.
• It involves creating prototypes rapidly to gather requirements and validate
design choices early in the project.
• RAD streamlines development by reducing time spent on extensive planning
and documentation.

4. Extreme Programming (XP)

• XP is a lightweight, efficient, low-risk, flexible, predictable, scientific, and fun
way to develop a software.
• eXtreme Programming (XP) was conceived and developed to address the
specific needs of software development by small teams in the face of vague
and changing requirements.
• Extreme Programming is one of the Agile software development
methodologies. It provides values and principles to guide the team
behavior. The team is expected to self-organize.

10. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Spiral model? (NOV-19)
AN The Spiral model is a software development methodology that combines elements of
S waterfall and iterative development approaches. It is characterized by a series of iterative
cycles, where each cycle includes planning, risk analysis, development, and evaluation
phases. Here are the advantages and disadvantages of the Spiral model:

Advantages of the Spiral Model:

1. Risk Management: The Spiral model explicitly incorporates risk analysis and mitigation
in each iteration. This allows early identification and mitigation of potential risks,
reducing the likelihood of project failures or costly rework later in the development
process.
2. Flexibility: The Spiral model provides flexibility in accommodating changes during the
development process. Each iteration allows for user feedback, allowing adjustments to
requirements, design, and functionality based on stakeholder input. This flexibility
supports adaptability to changing project needs and requirements.
3. Incremental Delivery: The Spiral model supports incremental development and
delivery of software. It allows for the progressive addition of features and functionality

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in each iteration, enabling stakeholders to have a working product or a subset of features

earlier in the project, promoting faster time-to-market.
4. Stakeholder Involvement: The Spiral model encourages active involvement of
stakeholders throughout the development process. Frequent communication and
collaboration with stakeholders help in better understanding their needs, obtaining
feedback, and maintaining alignment between the project and business objectives.

Disadvantages of the Spiral Model:

1. Complexity: The Spiral model can be more complex to implement compared to other
linear development models. It requires careful planning, risk analysis, and continuous
monitoring throughout the iterative cycles. This complexity can increase project
management overhead and make it challenging for smaller teams or projects with limited
resources.
2. Time and Cost: The iterative nature of the Spiral model can lead to potential schedule
and cost overruns if not managed properly. The need for multiple iterations, risk analysis,
and stakeholder involvement may increase the project duration and associated costs.
3. Documentation: The Spiral model may require extensive documentation to capture
and communicate requirements, design decisions, and risk analysis at each iteration. This
documentation overhead can be time-consuming and may become burdensome,
particularly for smaller projects or teams with limited documentation resources.
4. Stakeholder Availability: Active involvement and continuous feedback from
stakeholders are crucial in the Spiral model. However, stakeholders' availability and
responsiveness can be a challenge, especially when they have competing priorities or
limited availability. This can slow down the decision-making process and impact project
progress.

11. Explain the top down approach associated with parametric models. (NOV-19)
AN The top-down approach is normally associated with parametric (or algorithmic) models.
S These may be explained using the analogy of estimating the cost of rebuilding a house. This
would be of practical concern to a house-owner who needs sufficient insurance cover to
allow for rebuilding the property if it were destroyed. Unless the house-owner happens to
be in the building trade it is unlikely that he or she would be able to work out how many
bricklayer-hours, how many carpenter-hours. electrician-hours and so on would be required.
Insurance companies, however, produce convenient tables where the house-owner can find
an estimate of rebuilding costs based on such parameters as the number of storeys and the
floor space that a house has. This is a simple parametric model. The effort needed to
implement a project will be related mainly to variables associated with characteristics of the
final system. The form of the parametric model will normally be one or more formulae in the
form:
effort = (system size) x (productivity rate)
Expert judgement
This is asking someone who is knowledgeable about either the application area or the
development environment to give an estimate of the effort needed to carry out a task.
Estimating by analogy
The use of analogy is also called case-based reasoning. The estimator seeks out projects
that have been completed (source cases) and that have similar characteristics to the new
project (the target case). The effort that has been recorded for the matching source case

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can then be used as a base estimate for the target. The estimator should then try to
identify any differences between the target and the source and make adjustments to
the base estimate for the new project.
distance = square-root of ((target_parameters1 - source parameters1): + ... +
(target_parametersn- source_parametersn)

12. Write a note on COCOMO II model. (NOV-19)

AN COCOMO II (Constructive Cost Model II) is a widely used software cost estimation model that
S helps project managers estimate the effort, time, and resources required for software
development projects. It is an improvement over its predecessor, COCOMO I, and provides a
more detailed and accurate estimation framework. COCOMO II was developed by Barry
Boehm in the 1990s and has been refined and expanded over time.
Key Components of COCOMO II:
Three Levels of Estimation: COCOMO II offers three levels of estimation:
a. Basic COCOMO: It provides an early-stage estimation based on historical data and
considers only a few project characteristics.
b. Intermediate COCOMO: This level incorporates additional project parameters, such
as development flexibility, team cohesion, and risk management, for more accurate
estimation.
c. Detailed COCOMO: The most comprehensive level that considers a wide range of
project attributes, including software reuse, reliability requirements, and
documentation complexity.

Size Estimation: COCOMO II uses lines of code (LOC) as a primary measure of software size.
However, it also allows for other size measures, such as function points or object points, to
be used based on the project's characteristics.
Effort Estimation: Effort estimation in COCOMO II is based on the estimated size of the
project and considers factors such as the complexity of the software, development team
experience, and productivity. It provides effort estimation in person-months or person-years.
Schedule Estimation: COCOMO II estimates the project's schedule by considering the effort,
project size, team productivity, and the project's development mode (e.g., organic, semi-
detached, or embedded). The model provides schedule estimation in months or years.
Cost Estimation: COCOMO II provides cost estimation based on the project's effort, schedule,
and labor rates. It takes into account various cost factors, including labor, tools, hardware,
and facilities, to provide a comprehensive cost estimate.
Risk Estimation: COCOMO II allows for the assessment and quantification of project risks. It
considers factors like project complexity, development team experience, and the stability of
requirements to estimate the potential impact of risks on the project.

Advantages of COCOMO II:

• Detailed Estimation: COCOMO II provides a detailed estimation framework that
considers a wide range of project attributes, allowing for more accurate estimation
compared to simpler models.
• Historical Data Utilization: The model relies on historical data and experience to
calibrate the estimation process, increasing the reliability of the estimates.
• Risk Management: COCOMO II incorporates risk assessment and quantification,
enabling project managers to identify and address potential risks proactively.
• Flexibility: The model can accommodate various software development approaches
and project sizes, making it suitable for different types of projects.

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Limitations of COCOMO II:

• Complexity: COCOMO II requires a good understanding of software development
projects and project parameters, which can make it challenging for inexperienced
project managers.
• Limited Accuracy: Although COCOMO II provides a more accurate estimation
compared to simple models, the estimates are still subject to uncertainties and
variations due to the inherent complexities of software projects.
• Data Availability: COCOMO II relies on historical data and experience, which may not
be readily available or applicable to every project, particularly for novel or unique
software development efforts.

Inflexibility in Size Measures: While COCOMO II primarily uses lines of code as a size
measure, it may not be suitable for projects where other size measures, such as
function points, are more appropriate.
13. Explain Water fall Model with the help of diagram. (NOV-22)
OR
Explain the one-shot process model. (APR-23)
AN This is the ‘classical’ model of system development that is also known as the one-shot
S or once-through model. sequence of activities working from top to bottom.
• This indicates that a later stage may reveal the need for some extra work at an earlier
stage, but this should definitely be the exception rather than the rule.
• The waterfall approach may be favoured by some managements because it creates
natural milestones at the end of each phase. sometimes referred to as the stage-gate
model.
• when there is uncertainty about how a system is to be implemented, and
unfortunately there very often is. a more flexible, iterative, approach is required. The
waterfall model can expanded into the V-process model.

14. What are the ways to determine the staffing requirement of a software project? (APR-23)
AN Norden was one of the first to investigate staffing pattern:
S Considered general research and development (R&D) type of projects.

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Norden concluded:
Staffing pattern for any R&D project can be approximated by the Rayleigh distribution curve

Putnam adapted the Rayleigh-Norden curve:

Related the number of delivered lines of code to the effort and the time required to
develop the product.
effect of schedule compression:

15. Explain the major shortcomings of the SLOC measure. (APR-23)

AN • Lack of Standardization: There is no standardized method for counting SLOC, and
S different individuals or organizations may use different counting conventions. This lack
of standardization can lead to inconsistencies in measurement and make it difficult to
compare SLOC values across projects.

• Language Dependency: SLOC measures are language-dependent, meaning the count can
vary significantly depending on the programming language used. Some languages may
require more lines of code to express a certain functionality compared to others, leading
to inaccuracies in size estimation and productivity measurement.

• Code Structure and Formatting: The SLOC measure does not account for code structure,
formatting, or comments. It counts all lines, including blank lines and comments, which
can inflate the SLOC count and not accurately represent the actual complexity or effort
required to develop or maintain the software.

• Inability to Capture Functionality: SLOC measures focus solely on the physical lines of
code and do not consider the functionality or logic implemented in the code. A shorter
code snippet could be more complex and require more effort than a longer one,
depending on the complexity of the algorithms or design patterns used.

• Ignoring External Libraries and Frameworks: SLOC measures typically do not include lines
of code from external libraries, frameworks, or reusable components. This can
underestimate the actual size and complexity of a software project, as a significant
portion of the codebase may come from these external sources.
16. Discuss the important characteristics agile method in detail. (APR-23)
AN Need for agile methods
S One of the major difficulties that were faced is that the traditional heavyweight
methodologies required the customers to come up with all the requirements upfront. Also,
the traditional heavyweight processes were too rigid and it became difficult to "use these In
projects' involving significant reuse and modifications to the existing code.
• Difficult to accommodate change requests
o Needless to say that frequent requirement changes lead to lot of
rework and render traditional heavyweight processes inefficient.
• Documentation-driven

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o Usually a lot of effort is invested in preparing the documentations in

the heavyweight development methodologies. According to some
estimates, as much as 50 percent of the development efforts are
invested in preparing the documentations.
• Too rigid
o Due to the rigidity o f the traditional processes, it becomes difficult
to tailor these for efficient development of modern projects
requiring significant amount of code reuse.

• Overview of agile methods Agile methods are designed to overcome the

important disadvantages of the heavyweight development methodologies.
The most glaring change advocated by the agile techniques is iterative
development.
Basic principles The following principles are central to the agile methods.
• Incremental delivery after each time box,
• Face-to-face communication Agile model emphasizes face-to-face
communication over written documents.,
• Customer interactions,
• Minimal documentation,
• parallel team(code/review)

17. Explain the reasons why estimates are carried out at various stages of software project.
(APR-23)
AN Estimates are carried out at various stages of a software project for several reasons, which
S help in planning, decision-making, and ensuring project success. Here are some of the key
reasons why estimates are conducted at different stages of a software project:

• Feasibility Assessment: During the early stages of a project, estimates are performed
to assess the feasibility and viability of the proposed software solution. By estimating
the effort, time, and resources required, project stakeholders can determine if the
project is achievable within the given constraints and aligns with the organization's
goals.

• Resource Allocation: Estimates help in determining the appropriate allocation of

resources such as human resources, budget, and equipment. By estimating the effort
and skill sets required for different project activities, project managers can allocate
resources effectively, ensuring that the necessary personnel and funding are
available to complete the project.

• Schedule Planning: Estimating the time required for each project activity helps in
creating a realistic project schedule. By considering the estimated effort,
dependencies, and constraints, project managers can develop a timeline that
accounts for various tasks, milestones, and deliverables. This allows for effective
project planning and ensures that deadlines are realistic and achievable.

• Risk Management: Estimation plays a crucial role in risk management. By identifying

and estimating potential risks and uncertainties, project teams can assess the impact
and likelihood of those risks. This helps in proactive risk mitigation and contingency
planning, ensuring that the project remains on track and potential obstacles are
addressed.

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• Cost Estimation: Estimating project costs is essential for budgeting and financial
planning. By estimating the resources required, including personnel costs, software
tools, infrastructure, and other project-related expenses, organizations can
determine the project's overall budget and make informed decisions about
investments and expenditures.

• Contract Negotiation: Estimates are often required during contract negotiation with
clients or suppliers. Accurate estimates help in setting realistic expectations,
determining pricing structures, and ensuring that contracts are financially viable for
all parties involved. Estimates provide a basis for negotiation and help in establishing
mutually agreed-upon terms and conditions.
18. How uncertainty can be associated with products, processes or resources of a project?
(APR-23)
AN Uncertainty can be associated with various aspects of a project, including products,
S processes, and resources. Here's how uncertainty can impact each of these areas:
• Products:
Uncertainty in products refers to the lack of clarity or predictability regarding the desired
outcome or deliverables of a project. This uncertainty can arise due to factors such as
evolving customer requirements, changing market conditions, or technological
advancements. Uncertainty in products can result in challenges related to scope
definition, feature prioritization, and design decisions. It may require iterative
development approaches or the use of prototypes to address evolving needs and reduce
uncertainties.
• Processes:
Uncertainty in processes relates to the lack of predictability or knowledge about the
steps, methods, or techniques required to achieve project objectives. This uncertainty
can stem from factors such as complex project requirements, novel technologies, or
unclear project constraints. Uncertainty in processes can lead to challenges in project
planning, resource allocation, and risk management. It may require the adoption of agile
methodologies, continuous process improvement, or experimentation to address
uncertainties and adapt to changing project dynamics.
• Resources:
Uncertainty in resources refers to the unpredictability or variability associated with the
availability, skills, or capacity of project resources. This uncertainty can arise due to
factors such as resource constraints, unexpected resource unavailability, or changing
project requirements. Uncertainty in resources can result in challenges in resource
allocation, project scheduling, and overall project execution. It may require contingency
planning, resource leveling, or the use of alternative resource options to mitigate
uncertainties and ensure project continuity.
19 Explain briefly Albrecht/IFPUG function points and solve the following :- (APR-19)
For an organization, the following table summarizes the weightings to be used for
computing function points measures of a software development project. The
organization has undertaken the development of a software having the following
characteristics:-
Number of user inputs - 10(simple)
Number of user outputs - 7 (simple)
Number of user inquiries - 3 (average)
Number of files - 6 (average)
Number of external interfaces - 1 (complex)

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Calculate unadjusted function point measure of the size of the software system?
AN Albrecht Complexity Multiplier chart:
S

As per question,
EI (External Inputs)= 10 (Simple/Low complexity)
EO(External Outputs)= 7(Simple/Low Complexity)
EQ (External Inquiries) = 3(Average Complexity)
LIF (Logical Internet File) =6 (Average Complexity)
EIF (External Interface File) = 1 (High /Complex Complexity)

EI=10*3 =30
EO=7*4=28
EQ=3*4=12
LIF=6*10=60
EIF=1*10=10

Total UFP(Unadjusted Function Points)= 30+28+12+60+10=140

So, Unadjusted Function Point measure of the size of the software system is : 140

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UNIT 3
1. With the help of example explain forward pass and backward pass to calculate activity
duration in network diagram. (NOV-18)
ANS The forward pass
The forward pass is carried out to calculate the earliest date on which each event may be
achieved and the earliest date on which each activity may be started and completed. The
earliest date for an event is the earliest date by which all activities upon which it depends
can be completed.
• Activities A. B and F may start immediately, so the earliest date for event 1 is zero
and the earliest start date for these three activities is also zero.
• Activity A will take 6 weeks, so the earliest it can finish is week 6 (recorded in the
activity table). Therefore the earliest we can achieve event 2 is week 6.
• Activity B will take 4 weeks, so the earliest it can finish and the earliest we can
achieve event 3 is week 4.
• Activity f will take 10 weeks, so the earliest it can finish is week 10 - we cannot,
however, tell whether or not this is also the earliest date that we can achieve event
5 since we have not. as yet. calculated when activity E will finish.
• Activity E can start as early as week 4 (the earliest date for event 3) and, since it is
forecasted to take 3 weeks, will be completed, at the earliest, at the end of week 7.
• Event 5 may be achieved when both E and F have been completed, that is. week 10
(the later of 7 and 10).
• Similarly we can reason that event 4 will have an earliest date of week 9. This is the
later of the earliest finish for activity D (week 8) and the earliest finish for activity C
(week 9).

• The earliest date for the completion of the project, event 6. is therefore the end of
week 13 - the later of 11 (the earliest finish for H) and 13 (the earliest finish for G).

The backward pass

• the second stage is to carry out a backward pass to calculate the latest date at which
each event may be achieved, and each activity started and finished, without delaying
the end date of the project.

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2. Define the following terms (NOV-18)

i. Critical path
ii. Float
iii. Free float
iv. Interfering float
v. Hammock activity

ANS i) Critical path: The difference between the earliest date and the latest date for an
event is known as the slack - it is a measure of how late an event may be without
affecting the end date of the project. Any event with a slack of zero is critical in
the sense that any delay in achieving that event will delay the completion date of
the project as a whole. there will always be at least one path through the network
joining those critical events - this path is known as the critical path.
ii) Float: Whereas events have slack, activities posses float. the difference between
the earliest start date of an activity and its latest start (or the difference between
its earliest finish and its latest finish).

iii) Free float: The time by which an activity may be delayed without affecting any
subsequent activity. It is calculated as the difference between the earliest
completion date for the activity and the earliest start date of the succeeding
activity. This might be considered a more satisfactory measure of float for
publicizing to the staff involved in undertaking the activities.
iv) Interfering float: The difference between total float and free float. This is quite
commonly used, particularly in association with the free float. Once the free float
has been used (or if it is zero), the interfering float tells us by how much the
activity may be delayed without delaying the project end date – even though it
will delay the start of subsequent activities.
v) Hammock activity: Hammock activity refers to a high-level task or work package
that spans multiple phases or periods of a project. It serves as a management or
control mechanism to monitor and track the progress and performance of the
project as a whole. The term "hammock" is used to visualize the activity as a
supporting structure that spans across other activities.

3. Explain Boehm’s top ten software project risks and the different strategies for reducing it.
(NOV-18, NOV-22)
ANS

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Risk Risk reduction

techniques

Personnel shortfalls Staffing with top talent; job matching;

teambuilding; training and career development;
early scheduling of key personnel
Unrealistic time and cost estimates Multiple estimation techniques; design to cost;
incremental development; recording and
analysis of past projects; standardization of
methods
Developing the wrong software Improved software evaluation; formal
functions specification methods; user surveys;
prototyping; early user manuals
Developing the wrong user interface Prototyping; task analysis; user involvement
Gold plating Requirements scrubbing, prototyping, design to
cost
Late changes to requirements Change control, incremental development
Shortfalls in externally supplied Benchmarking, inspections, formal specifications,
components contractual agreements, quality controls
Shortfalls in externally performed Quality assurance procedures, competitive design
tasks etc
Real time performance problems Simulation, prototyping, tuning
Development technically too Technical analysis, cost-benefit analysis,
difficult prototyping , training

4. Write short note on Project Evaluation and Review Technique. (NOV-18)

ANS PERT requires three estimates.
• Most likely time: the time we would expect the task to take under normal
circumstances. We shall identify this by the letter m.
• Optimistic time: the shortest time in which we could expect to complete the
activity, barring outright miracles. We shall use the letter a for this.
• Pessimistic time: the worst possible time, allowing for all reasonable
eventualities but excluding ‘acts of God and warfare’ (as they say in most
insurance exclusion clauses). We shall call this b.
• ‘expected time’ te = (a + 4m +b) / 6
• ‘activity standard deviation’ S = (b-a)/6
Expected times and standard deviations

The PERT technique uses the following three-step method for calculating the probability of
meeting or missing a target date:
• calculate the standard deviation o f each project event;
o Say the target for completing A+B+C was 52 days (T)
• calculate the z value for each event that has a target date;
Calculate the z value thus

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z = (T – te)/s
z = (52-48.33)/3.32 i.e. 1.01
• convert : values to a probabilities.

5. Explain the different categories of cost incurred in a software project. (NOV-18)

ANS • Provide a more detailed and accurate estimate of costs and will serve as a plan
against which project progress can be monitored.
• Calculating cost is straightforward where the organization has standard cost figures
for staff and other resources.
• In general, costs are categorized as follows:
• Staff cost these will include staff salaries as well as the other direct cost of
employment such as social fund, pension, holiday pay, sickness benefit
• Overheads Overheads represents expenditure that an organization incurs eg
rental space, internet charges, cost of hr.
• Usage charges means charged as used, its like prepaid mobile balance it will be
reduced if used.

6. What is resource smoothing? Explain two different ways of prioritizing activities for resource
allocation. (NOV-18)
ANS Resource smoothing, or even containment of resource demand to available levels, is not
always possible within planned timescales - deferring activities to smooth out resource peaks
often puts back project completion. Where that is the case, we need to consider ways of
increasing the available resource levels or altering working methods.

Prioritizing activities
There are two main ways of doing this:
• Total float priority
o Total float priority, also known as total float sensitivity or total float impact,
refers to the prioritization of tasks based on their total float values. Total
float represents the amount of time that a task can be delayed without
delaying the project's overall completion date.
o Total float priority is used to determine which tasks have the least flexibility
in terms of scheduling and are critical to the project's timeline. Tasks with
zero or negative total float are considered critical because any delay in their
completion will directly impact the project's overall schedule.
• Ordered list priority
o An ordered list priority refers to the prioritization of tasks based on a
predefined order or ranking. It involves creating a prioritized list of tasks
based on their importance, urgency, resource availability, dependencies, or
other relevant criteria.

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o Here are key points to understand about an ordered list priority:

▪ Criteria for Prioritization: The criteria used to establish the order of
tasks may vary depending on the project and its specific
requirements. Common factors considered for prioritization include
the project objectives, criticality of tasks, customer requirements,
resource availability, dependencies, and risk levels.
▪ Ranking or Ordering: Once the criteria are defined, tasks are ranked
or ordered based on their relative importance or urgency. This
creates a prioritized list where tasks at the top hold higher priority
than those below.
▪ Decision-Making: An ordered list priority helps project managers
and team members make informed decisions about task allocation,
resource allocation, and scheduling. It provides clarity on which
tasks should be tackled first and guides the team's focus.
▪ Dynamic Nature: The prioritization of tasks may evolve over the
course of a project. As new information arises or project
circumstances change, the ordered list may be updated to reflect the
revised priorities and ensure alignment with project goals.
▪ Communication and Transparency: An ordered list priority
enhances communication and transparency within the project team.
It helps team members understand the relative importance of tasks
and facilitates discussions about resource allocation, task
sequencing, and potential trade-offs.

7. Define activity. Discuss three approaches to identify the activities. (APR-19)

ANS To be effective, a plan must be stated as a set of targets, the achievement or nonachievement
of which can be unambiguously measured. The activity plan does this by providing a target
start and completion date for each activity (or a window within which each activity may be
carried out).
Essentially there are three approaches to identifying the activities or tasks that make up a
project - we shall call them the activity-based approach, the product based approach and the
hybrid approach.

The activity-based approach The activity-based approach consists of creating a list of all the
activities that the project is thought to involve. This might involve a brainstorming session
involving the whole project team or it might stem from an analysis of similar past projects.
Rather than doing this in an ad hoc manner, with the obvious risks of omitting or double-
counting tasks, a much favoured way of generating a task list is to create a Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS).

fragment of an activity-based Work Breakdown Structure

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The product-based approach The product-based approach, used in PRINCE 2 and Step Wise
It consists of producing a Product Breakdown Structure and a Product Mow Diagram. The
PFD indicates, for each product, which other products are required as inputs. The PFD can
therefore be easily transformed into an ordered list of activities by identifying the
transformations that turn some products into others.

SSADM Product Breakdown Structure for Requirements Specification (adapted from

Goitdland and Slater).
The hybrid approach
flat WBS and it is likely that, in a project of any size, it would be beneficial to introduce
additional levels - structuring both products and activities. The degree to which the
structuring is product-based or activity-based might be influenced by the nature of the
project and the particular development method adopted. As with a purely activity-based
WBS. having identified the activities we are then left with the task of sequencing them.
Five levels should be used in a WBS:
1. Level 1: Project.
2. Level 2: Deliverables such as software, manuals and training courses.
3. Level 3: Components which arc the key work items needed to produce deliverables, such
as the modules and tests required to produce the system software.
4. Level 4: Work-packages which are major work items, or collections of related tasks,
required to produce a component.
5. Level 5: Tasks which are tasks that will normally be the responsibility of a single person.

8. Define Risk and discuss the ways of dealing with them. (APR-19, NOV-19)
ANS • We must ensure that risks are minimized or, at least, distributed over the project
and. ideally, removed from critical path activities. Risk as ‘an uncertain event or
condition that, if it occurs, has a positive or negative effect on a project objectives.
• A Framework for Dealing with Risk
• Planning for risk includes these steps:
o Risk identification
o Risk analysis and prioritization
o Risk planning
o Risk monitoring
• Risk Identification
• two main approaches to the identification of risks arc the use of checklists and
brainstorming
• checklist
o simply lists of the risks that have been found to occur regularly in software
development project.

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• Brainstorming
• implementing ideas of personal to find better solution
• Risk Assessment
• A common problem with risk identification is that a list o f risks is potentially endless.
A way is needed of distinguishing the damaging and likely risks. This can be done by
estimating the risk exposure for each risk using the formula:
• risk exposure = (potential damage) X (probability of occurrence)
• Risk Planning
• identified the major risks and allocated priorities, the task is to decide how to deal
with them.
• Risk acceptance
o decide that the dam age inflicted by some risks would be less than the costs
of action that might reduce the probability o f a risk happening
• Risk avoidance
o Some activities may be so prone to accident that it is best to avoid them
altogether.
o four commercial off-the-shelf (C O T S ) software acquisition risks
▪ integration
▪ upgrading
▪ no source code
▪ supplier failure or buyouts
• Risk reduction
o Here we decide to go ahead with a course of action despite the risks, but
take precautions that reduce the probability of the risk.
• Risk transfer
• You might expect the supplier to quote a higher figure to cover the risk that the
project takes longer than the ‘average expected time. on other hand well-established
external organization might have productivity advantages as its developers are
experienced in the type of development to be carried out.
• Risk Management
• Contingency
o Risk reduction activities would appear to have only a small impact on
reducing the probability of some risks, for example staff absence through
illness. While some employers encourage their employees to adopt a healthy
lifestyle, it remains likely that some project team members will at some point
be brought down by minor illnesses such as flu. These kinds of risk need a
contingency plan.
o If a team member involved in urgent work were ill then the project manager
might draft in another member of staff to cover that work.
o deciding on the risk actions
o REbefore is the risk exposure
o risk reduction leverage = (REbefore - REafter)/(cost of risk reduction)
o RRL above 1.00 indicates that the reduction in risk exposure achieved by a
measure is greater than its cost.
o example: if yours car has low visibility headlight and cost of headlight is 3000
rs and if the accident happens due to low visibility cost to repair bumper is
6000 rs and after placing good headlights accident happens it might reduce
risk having minor scratches costing to repair scratches is 2000 rs
o RRL = 6000-2000/3000
o RRL =1.33 worth deciding to replace headlights

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• Creating and maintaining the risk register

o When the project planners have picked out and examined what appear to
be the most threatening risks to the project, they need to record their
findings in a risk register.

9. Explain the process of scheduling resources. (APR-19)

ANS The process of scheduling resources involves allocating and managing resources effectively
to ensure they are available when needed to complete project tasks. This process involves
several steps:
• Resource Identification: Start by identifying the resources required for the
project. This includes personnel, equipment, facilities, and any other necessary
resources. Consider the skills, availability, and quantity of each resource needed.
• Resource Availability and Constraints: Determine the availability and
constraints of the identified resources. Consider factors such as working hours,
shifts, vacations, and any other limitations that may affect resource allocation.
It's important to consider both the individual availability of resources and their
collective availability as a team.
• Task Dependencies: Understand the dependencies between project tasks.
Identify tasks that are dependent on each other and those that can be worked
on concurrently. This information helps in determining the sequence and timing
of resource allocation.
• Resource Allocation: Assign resources to specific tasks based on their
availability, skills, and the task requirements. Consider resource availability in
terms of both time and quantity. Ensure that resources are allocated optimally
to prevent overloading or underutilization.
• Resource Leveling: Analyze the resource allocation and identify any resource
conflicts or overloads. Resource leveling involves adjusting the schedule to
resolve these conflicts by redistributing tasks or adjusting timelines. This helps in
achieving a balanced and realistic allocation of resources.
• Resource Tracking: Continuously monitor and track the actual utilization of
resources against the scheduled allocation. This allows you to identify any
deviations or discrepancies and take corrective actions if necessary. Regularly
update the resource schedule to reflect any changes or adjustments made.
• Communication and Collaboration: Maintain open communication with the
project team and stakeholders regarding resource schedules. Share the resource
allocation plan, ensure everyone understands their roles and responsibilities,
and address any concerns or conflicts that may arise.

• Adjustments and Optimization: As the project progresses, monitor the

effectiveness of the resource scheduling and make adjustments as needed.
Assess resource performance, identify areas for improvement, and optimize the
resource allocation process to enhance efficiency and productivity.

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10. Discuss the factors to be taken into account while allocating individuals to task. (APR-19,
NOV-19)
ANS When allocating individuals to tasks in a project, several factors need to be taken into account
to ensure effective resource allocation and task assignment. Consider the following factors:
• Skills and Competencies: Evaluate the skills and competencies required for each
task and match them with the skills and expertise of the individuals available.
Consider technical skills, domain knowledge, experience, and any specific
certifications or qualifications necessary for the task.
• Availability and Workload: Assess the availability of individuals and their existing
workload. Take into account their current commitments, ongoing tasks, and any
other responsibilities they may have. Avoid overloading individuals with too
many tasks or conflicting deadlines.
• Interests and Motivation: Consider the interests, preferences, and motivation
levels of individuals when assigning tasks. Matching individuals with tasks they
find interesting or challenging can enhance their engagement and performance.
It's important to balance task assignment based on skills and interest to
maximize productivity and job satisfaction.
• Learning and Development Opportunities: Task allocation can also be an
opportunity for individuals to learn new skills and grow professionally. Consider
assigning tasks that provide developmental opportunities and align with their
career goals. This can foster individual growth and contribute to the overall
success of the project.
• Team Dynamics and Collaboration: Assess the impact of task allocation on team
dynamics and collaboration. Consider the relationships and interactions among
team members. Assign tasks in a way that promotes collaboration, encourages
knowledge sharing, and leverages the strengths of the team.
• Communication and Feedback: Maintain open communication with individuals
when allocating tasks. Clearly communicate the expectations, deliverables, and
timelines associated with each task. Provide feedback and support to individuals
throughout the task assignment process to ensure clarity and alignment.
• Risk Management: Consider the potential risks associated with task allocation.
Evaluate the impact of assigning critical or high-risk tasks to individuals and
assess their ability to handle such tasks effectively. Ensure that risk is distributed
appropriately across the team to mitigate the potential impact of any individual's
absence or limitations.
• Workload Balancing: Strive for a balanced workload distribution among team
members. Avoid creating situations where some individuals are overwhelmed
with tasks while others have idle time. Balance the workload based on the
capabilities, capacity, and availability of each individual.
• Project Constraints and Deadlines: Take into account project constraints and
deadlines when allocating tasks. Consider dependencies between tasks and the
overall project timeline. Ensure that the assigned individuals can meet the
required deadlines and deliver the desired outcomes.

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11. What is the necessity of activity planning? (NOV-19)

ANS Activity planning is essential in project management for several reasons:
• Structure and Organization: Activity planning provides structure and organization to
the project. It involves breaking down the project into smaller, manageable activities,
defining their scope, and arranging them in a logical sequence. This helps ensure that
all necessary tasks are identified, and there is a clear understanding of what needs
to be done.
• Resource Allocation: Activity planning allows for effective resource allocation. By
determining the activities required and their dependencies, project managers can
allocate the necessary resources such as personnel, equipment, and materials to
each activity. This ensures that resources are appropriately assigned and utilized
throughout the project.
• Time Management: Activity planning helps in managing time effectively. By
estimating the duration of each activity and arranging them in the correct order,
project managers can develop a realistic project schedule. This enables the team to
have a clear timeline for completing tasks, meeting deadlines, and tracking progress.
• Task Dependencies: Activity planning helps identify and manage task dependencies.
It allows project managers to understand the relationships between different
activities and determine which tasks need to be completed before others can start.
This ensures that activities are sequenced appropriately to minimize delays and
bottlenecks.
• Risk Management: Activity planning supports effective risk management. By
identifying and analyzing dependencies, project managers can identify potential risks
and develop mitigation strategies. They can assess the impact of risks on different
activities and incorporate appropriate contingency plans into the project schedule.
• Communication and Collaboration: Activity planning facilitates communication and
collaboration among team members and stakeholders. It provides a common
understanding of the project's activities, timelines, and deliverables. This promotes
effective communication, coordination, and collaboration, ensuring that everyone is
aligned and working towards the same goals.
• Progress Tracking and Control: Activity planning enables progress tracking and
control throughout the project lifecycle. By breaking the project into activities,
project managers can monitor the completion of each task, compare actual progress
against the planned schedule, and take corrective actions if necessary. This helps in
keeping the project on track and making adjustments as needed.
• Resource and Cost Estimation: Activity planning assists in estimating resource
requirements and project costs. By defining the activities and their duration, project
managers can estimate the resources needed, including labor, materials, and
equipment. This aids in budgeting, cost estimation, and resource procurement.

Quality Management: Activity planning supports quality management by allowing project

managers to identify quality checkpoints and activities throughout the project. By
incorporating quality assurance and quality control activities into the plan, they can ensure
that the project meets the required quality standards.
12. Explain network planning model and the concept of backward pass. (NOV-19)

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OR
How is successful project scheduling achievable? (APR-23)
ANS These project scheduling techniques model the project’s activities and their relationships as
a network. In the network, time flows from left to right.
two best known being
o CPM (Critical Path Method) and
o PERT (Program Evaluation Review Technique).

Formulating a network model

The first stage in creating a network model is to represent the activities and their
interrelationships as a graph. In CPM we do this by representing activities as links
(arrowed lines) in the graph - the nodes (circles) representing the events of activities
starting and finishing.

The IOE maintenance group accounts project activity network fragment represented as a
CPM network.
Constructing CPM networks
• A project network may have only one start node(1)
• A project network may have only one end node(10)

A link has duration

• Nodes have no duration
• Time moves from left to right
• Nodes are numbered sequentially
• A network may not contain loops
• A network may not contain dangles: all events, except the first and the last, must have at
least one activity entering them and at least one activity leaving them and all activities must
start and end with an event.

Precedents are the immediate preceding activities: the activity Program test cannot start
until both Code and Data take-on have been completed and activity Install cannot start until
Program test has finished.
CPM conventions
There are a number of differing conventions that have been adopted for entering
information on a CPM network.
One of the more common conventions for labeling nodes, and the one adopted here, is
to divide the node circle into quadrants and use those quadrants to show the event
number, the latest and earliest dates by which the event should occur, and the event
slack.

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The backward pass

the second stage is to carry out a backward pass to calculate the latest date at which
each event may be achieved, and each activity started and finished, without delaying the
end date of the project.

The CPM network after the backward pass

13. Describe Monte Carlo simulation. (NOV-19)

OR
Briefly explain the Monte Carlo simulation approach. (APR-23)
ANS • An alternative to PERT.
• A class of general analysis techniques: o Valuable to solve any problem that is
complex, nonlinear, or involves more than just a couple of uncertain parameters.
• Monte Carlo simulations involve repeated random sampling to compute the results.
• Gives more realistic results as compared to manual approaches.
• The Monte Carlo method is just one of many methods for analyzing uncertainty
propagation, where the goal is to determine how random variation, lack of
knowledge, or error affects the sensitivity, performance, or reliability of the system
that is being modeled.
• Monte Carlo simulation is categorized as a sampling method because the inputs are
randomly generated from probability distributions to simulate the process of
sampling from an actual population. So, we try to choose a distribution for the inputs
that most closely matches data we already have, or best represents our current state
of knowledge. The data generated from the simulation can be represented as
probability distributions (or histograms) or converted to error bars, reliability
predictions, tolerance zones, and confidence intervals
Steps of a Monte Carlo Analysis
Step 1: Create a parametric model, y = f(x1, x2, ..., xq).
Step 2: Generate a set of random inputs, xi1, xi2, ..., xiq.
Step 3: Evaluate the model and store the results as yi.

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Step 4: Repeat steps 2 and 3 for i = 1 to n.

Step 5: Analyze the results using histograms, summary statistics, confidence
intervals, etc.

14. Explain the nature of resources and their scheduling. (NOV-19)

OR
What is resource? Explain the categories of resources. (APR-23)
ANS A resource refers to any person, equipment, material, or asset that is necessary for the
execution of project activities and the achievement of project objectives. Resources are
essential components that contribute to the successful completion of a project.
• Labour: the main items in this category will be members of the development project
team such as the project manager, system analysts and software developers.
• Equipment Obvious items will include workstations and other computing and office
equipment.
• Materials Materials are items that are consumed, rather than equipment that is
used.
• Space For projects that are undertaken with existing staff, space is normally readily
available
• Services Some projects will require procurement of specialist services - development
of a wide area distributed system, for example, requires scheduling of
telecommunications services.
• Time Time is the resource that is being offset against the other primary resources -
project timescales can sometimes be reduced by increasing other resources and will
almost certainly be extended if they are unexpectedly reduced.
• Money Money is a secondary resource - it is used to buy other resources and will be
consumed as other resources are used.
Scheduling Resources
Recruiting staff has cost, and even where the staff is transferred internally here
analyst/designers are idle for 12 days one for seven days and one for 2 days

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demand of staff before and after smoothing

• It is usually difficult to get specialist staff who will work odd days to fill in gaps – need
for staff to learn about application etc .
• Staff often have to be employed for a continuous block of time .

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• Therefore desirable to employ a constant number of staff on a project – who as far

as possible are fully employed.
• Hence need for resource smoothing

15. Differentiate between PERT (Program Evaluation Review Techniques) and CPM (Critical Path
Method). (NOV-22)
ANS
PERT (Program Evaluation Review CPM (Critical Path Method)
Techniques)
Focus: PERT primarily focuses on managing Focus: CPM focuses on managing projects
projects with high uncertainty and with well-defined and deterministic activity
variability in activity durations. It durations. It relies on fixed time estimates
incorporates probabilistic estimates to for activities.
calculate expected durations and account
for uncertainties.
Time Calculation: PERT uses three time Time Calculation: CPM uses a single time
estimates for each activity: optimistic (O), estimate for each activity, representing the
most likely (M), and pessimistic (P). It most likely duration. It does not consider
calculates expected durations using a optimistic or pessimistic estimates.
weighted average formula: (O + 4M + P) / 6.

Critical Path Determination: PERT does not Critical Path Determination: CPM explicitly
explicitly identify a critical path. Instead, it identifies the critical path, which is the
analyzes the project's network diagram to longest continuous path of activities in the
determine the critical activities and critical project network. The critical path
events that contribute the most to the represents the sequence of activities that
project's overall duration. determine the project's minimum duration.
Activity Dependency Representation: PERT Activity Dependency Representation: CPM
uses activity-on-node (AON) also uses activity-on-node (AON)
representation, where nodes represent representation, similar to PERT, where
activities, and arrows represent nodes represent activities, and arrows
dependencies between activities. represent dependencies between activities.
Resource Management: PERT does not Resource Management: CPM can
explicitly consider resource constraints or incorporate resource constraints and
resource leveling in its calculations. It resource leveling into the project schedule.
focuses more on time estimation and It considers resource availability and
overall project duration. constraints while determining the critical
path and scheduling activities.

16. Define Risk Management. Explain the different Categories of risk. (NOV-22)
ANS Risk management refers to the systematic process of identifying, assessing, prioritizing, and
mitigating risks in order to minimize potential negative impacts and maximize opportunities
for achieving project or organizational objectives. It involves a series of steps and activities
aimed at understanding, analyzing, and responding to risks in a proactive and structured
manner.

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Categories of Risk
Project risks arc those that could prevent the achievement of the objectives given to the
project manager and the project team.

'Actors' refers to all the people involved in the development of the application in question.
• ‘Technology' encompasses both the technology used to implement the application and that
embedded in the delivered products.
• Structure' describes the management structures and systems, including those affecting
planning and control.
• 'task' relates to the work planned. For instance, the complexity of the work might lead to
delays because of additional time required integrate the large number of components.

17. State and describe the Burman’s priority list in project management. (NOV-22)
ANS Burman’s priority list, which takes into account activity
duration as well as total float:
1. Shortest critical activity
2. Critical activities
3. Shortest non-critical activity
4. Non-critical activity with least float

5. Non-critical activities
18. Briefly explain the objectives of activity planning. (APR-23)
ANS The objectives of activity planning

• Feasibility assessment Is the project possible within required timescales and

resource constraints? It is not until we have constructed a detailed plan that we can
forecast a completion date with any reasonable knowledge of its achievability.
• Resource allocation What are the most effective ways of allocating resources to the
project and when should they be available? The project plan allows us to investigate
the relationship between timescales and resource availability (in general, allocating
additional resources to a project shortens its duration) and the efficacy of additional
spending on resource procurement.
• Detailed costing How much will the project cost and when is that expenditure likely
to take place? After producing an activity plan and allocating specific resources, we
can obtain more detailed estimates of costs and their timing.

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• Motivation Providing targets and being seen to monitor achievement against targets
is an effective way of motivating staff, particularly where they have been involved in
setting those targets in the first place.
• Co-ordination When do the staff in different departments need to be available to
work on a particular project and when do staff need to be transferred between
projects? The project plan, particularly with large projects involving more than a
single project team, provides an effective vehicle for communication and co-
ordination among teams.

19. Explain with a neat diagram the components in Lyytinen-Mathiassen-Ropponen risk

framework. (APR-23)
ANS

Lyytinen-Mathiassen-Ropponen risk framework

• 'Actors' refers to all the people involved in the development of the application in
question.
• ‘Technology' encompasses both the technology used to implement the application
and that embedded in the delivered products.
• Structure' describes the management structures and systems, including those
affecting planning and control.
• 'task' relates to the work planned. For instance, the complexity of the work might
lead to delays because of additional time required integrate the large number of
components.

20 Using the data in the following table, answer the questions given below (APR-19)
ACTIVITY DURATION PREDECESSORS
A 6 -
B 8 -
C 3 A
D 5 B
E 4 C, D

i) Create a precedence activity network

ii) What is the total project duration?
iii)Calculate earliest start date, latest start date and float of all the events.
iv) Identify the critical path.

ANS 1) Precedence Ac�vity Network

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2) Cri�cal Path :
Path1: A-C-E = 6+3+4 = 13
Path2:B-D-E = 8+5+4 = 17
The path that has longest dura�on is the cri�cal path. So, Cri�cal path is B-D-E.

3) Total Project Dura�on :

The total project dura�on is the sum of dura�on of each ac�vity along the cri�cal path. So
Total Project dura�on is 17.

4) Earliest start data, Latest Start Data and Float :

21 Suppose four risks namely R1, R2, R3 and R4 have been iden�ﬁed and assigned the
probabili�es of occurrence of 0.1, 0.2, 0.3 and 0.4 respec�vely. The likely damages due to the
four risks are Rs. 50, 000; Rs. 1, 00,000; 70,000; 60,000 respec�vely. Calculate the risk
exposure of all the risks. (APR-19)
ANS

Risk Exposure of R1 : 50,000 * 0.1 = 5,000

Risk Exposure for R2 : 1,00,000 * 0.2 = 20,000
Risk Exposure for R3 : 70,000 * 0.3 = 21,000
Risk Exposure for R4 : 60,000 * 0.4 = 24,000

22 Draw CPM and Determine the critical path, the critical activities and the project
completion time, for the following activities. (NOV-22)

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Activity Predecessor Activity Duration (Weeks)

A - 3
B A 5
C A 7
D B 10
E C 5
F D, E 4
ANS CPM:

Cri�cal Path is the path with slack zero. So cri�cal path here is : A-B-D-F
Cri�cal Ac�vi�es are: Ac�vity A, B, D and F

The Project Comple�on date : Week 22.

23 Draw PERT network using precedence network conventions for the project in table.
Also show stepwise activities of forward pass and backward pass. (NOV-22)

Activity Duration Precedents

A 6 -
B 4 -
C 3 A
D 4 B
E 4 B
F 10 -
G 3 E, F
H 2 C, D
ANS PERT using Precedence network conven�ons :

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Forward Pass and calcula�on of earliest start dates are carried out according to the
following steps:
• Ac�vi�es A, B and F may start immediately, so earliest date for their start is zero
• Ac�vity A will take 6 weeks , so the earliest it can finish is week 6.
• Ac�vity B will take 4 weeks , so the earliest it can finish is week 4.
• Ac�vity F will take 10 weeks , so the earliest it can finish is week 10.
• Ac�vity C can start as soon as A has finished so its earliest start date is week 6. It
will take 3 weeks, so the earliest it can finish is week 9.
• Ac�vi�es D and E can start as soon as B is complete so the earliest they can each
start is week 4. Ac�vity D, which will take 4 weeks, can therefore finish by week 8
and ac�vity E, which will take 4 weeks, can therefore finish by week 8.
• Ac�vity G cannot start un�l both E and F have been completed. It cannot therefore
start un�l week 10 - the largest of weeks 8 (for ac�vity E) and 10 (for ac�vity F). It
takes 3 weeks and finishes in week 13.
• Similarly, Ac�vity H cannot start un�l week 9 - the largest of the two earliest finish
dates for the preceding ac�vi�es C and D.
• The project will be complete when both ac�vi�es H and G have been completed.
Thus the earliest project comple�on date will be the later of weeks 11 and 13 - that
is, week 13.
SO, The network a�er the forward pass is:

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Backward Pass and calcula�on of latest start dates are carried out according to the
following steps:
• The latest comple�on date for ac�vi�es G and H is assumed to be week 13.
• Ac�vity H must therefore start at week 11 at the latest (13-2) and the latest start
date for ac�vity G is week 10 (13 - 3 ) .
• The latest comple�on date for ac�vi�es C and D is the latest date at which ac�vity H
must start – that is, week 11. They therefore have latest start dates of week 8 ( 11 -
3) and week 7(11 - 4) respec�vely.
• Ac�vi�es E and F must be completed by week 10 so their earliest start dates are
weeks 6 (10-4) and 0( 1 0 - 10) respec�vely.
• Ac�vity B must be completed by week 7 (the latest start date for both ac�vi�es D
and E ) so its latest start is week 3 (7 - 4).
• Ac�vity A must be completed by week 8 (the latest start date for ac�vity C) so its
latest start is week 2 ( 8 - 6 ) . The latest start date for the project start is the earliest
of the latest start dates for ac�vi�es A, B and F. This is week zero.

24 Create a precedence activity network using the following details:

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Activity Depends on Duration

A 5
B A 7
C B 6
D A 5
E D 10
F B 15
G B 8
H G 8
I C 4
J G 4
K E,F 5
L I,H 3
Calculate the earliest and latest start and end dates and the float associated with each
activity. From this identify the critical path.

ANS

Cri�cal Path is the path with zero ﬂoat and also longest dura�on
So, A -B- F- K is a cri�cal path

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UNIT 4
1. Explain review process model with the help of diagram. (NOV-18)
AN Review of any work product consists of the following four important activities, viz. planning,
S review preparation and overview, review meeting, rework and follow-up.

Planning: Once the author of a work product is ready for submitting the work for review; the
project manager nominates a moderator. A moderator can be someone who is familiar with
the work product.
• The moderator usually schedules all review meetings.
• Preparation To initiate the review process, the moderator convenes a brief
preparation meeting.
• Review Meeting In the review meeting the reviewer’s give their comments based on
the logs they have prepared beforehand.
• Rework The author addresses all the issues raised by the reviewers by carrying out
the necessary modifications to the work product and prepares a rejoinder to all the
points scribed in the review log.

2. What is meant by software configuration management? Explain the two principal activities
of configuration management. (NOV-18)
AN Software Configuration Management (SCM)
S • the manual change management process gets overwhelmed when we consider changes
taking place on all work products and when there are multiple variants of the product. In this
situation, a systematic software configuration management (SCM) process with appropriate
tool support needs to be deployed.
• SCM is concerned with tracking and controlling changes to the software. In any systematic
development and maintenance environment, various work products (code, design
document, code, etc.) associated with the software continually change during the
development as well as the maintenance phase.

Why Use SCM?

• Problems associated with concurrent access
o Access Possibly the most important reason for configuration management is to
control the access to the different deliverable objects
• Undoing Changes
o It becomes easy to undo some part of a revision or even rollback development to
a certain version.
• System accounting

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o System accounting denotes keeping track of who made a particular change to a

configuration item, what change was exactly made, and when the change was made.
• Handling variants
o keeping track of all variants, their versions and revisions is a non-trivial task.
• Accurate determination project status
o a project manager performs the configuration management activity by using a
configuration management tool.
• Preventing unauthorized access to the work products
o Configuration management helps implement a controlled change process. It
therefore becomes possible to prevent unauthorized changes to the work products.

3. Explain the main sections in a requirement document for contract placement. (NOV-18)
AN A requirement document for contract placement, also known as a Request for Proposal
S (RFP) or Invitation to Bid (ITB), typically includes several main sections. These sections
provide detailed information about the project requirements, expectations, and criteria
that potential contractors must meet. While the specific structure may vary depending on
the organization and project, here are the main sections commonly found in a requirement
document for contract placement:

• Introduction:
The introduction section provides an overview of the contract placement
opportunity and sets the context for potential bidders. It includes information
about the organization issuing the contract, the purpose of the contract, and any
background information that is relevant to the project.

• Scope of Work:
This section outlines the specific activities, deliverables, and objectives of the
project. It describes in detail what is expected from the contractor, including the
desired outcomes, project goals, and any specific requirements that must be met.

• Technical Requirements:
In this section, the document specifies the technical requirements that the
contractor needs to fulfill. It may include details about software or hardware
specifications, compatibility requirements, technical standards, or any specific tools
or technologies that must be used.

• Functional Requirements:
The functional requirements section describes the desired functionality or features
of the product, system, or service being procured. It outlines the specific
capabilities, functions, or performance criteria that the contractor must address
and deliver.

• Contractual Terms and Conditions:

This section outlines the legal and contractual terms and conditions that will govern
the agreement between the organization and the selected contractor. It covers
aspects such as payment terms, intellectual property rights, confidentiality clauses,

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project timeline, deliverable acceptance criteria, change management procedures,

and any other legal or contractual obligations.

• Evaluation Criteria:
The evaluation criteria section outlines the factors and metrics that will be used to
evaluate and assess the proposals submitted by potential contractors. It provides
transparency to bidders about how their proposals will be evaluated and the
relative importance of each criterion. Common evaluation criteria include technical
expertise, experience, cost, compliance with requirements, and past performance.

• Submission Guidelines:
This section provides instructions on how potential contractors should prepare and
submit their proposals. It includes information on the format, structure, and
content requirements for the proposal, as well as the deadline for submission and
the designated point of contact for inquiries or clarifications.

• Timeline:
The timeline section outlines the key milestones and dates related to the contract
placement process. It includes the proposal submission deadline, evaluation period,
contract award date, and any other important dates relevant to the project.

• Appendices:
Appendices may be included to provide additional information that supports the
requirements or clarifies certain aspects of the project. This may include sample
contracts, templates, reference documents, or technical specifications.

4. What is fixed price contract? List the advantages and disadvantages of fixed price contract.
(NOV-18, NOV-19)
OR
What is fixed price for unit delivery contracts? List the advantages and disadvantages of this
approach. (APR-23)
AN In this situation a price is fixed when the contract is signed.
S • When the contract is to construct a software system, the detailed requirements analysis
must already have been carried out. Once the development is under way the customer
cannot change their requirements without renegotiating the price of the contract.
Advantages of this method are:
• Known customer expenditure
• Supplier motivation

Disadvantages of this methods are:

• Difficulties in modifying requirements
• Upward Pressure on the cost of changes
• Threat to system Quality
5. What are three important categories of stress management techniques? (NOV-18, NOV-22)
AN Imagery, relaxation and meditation :
S

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• These techniques rely on deep breathing, relaxation, physical exercise, guided imagery,
yoga, progressive muscle relaxation and massage therapy. An example of a simple relaxation
technique can be rolling through the head from side to side.Guided imagery refers to a wide
variety of techniques such as simple visualization, metaphor and story telling to instil positive
feeling.

Cognitive behavioural approaches:

• These techniques involve developing emotion-focused, cognitive coping skills, such as, self-
monitoring of stress intensity, thought record-keeping and rewriting, time management,
assertiveness training and increased social interactions.

Systemic approaches:
• Systemic approaches focus on altering the factors which contribute to stress. For example,
if a team member finds it stressful to work with certain tools and techniques, a switch job
role may be suggested, so that the team member does not have to deal with those tools and
techniques which are causing stress.

Health and Safety

• Responsibility for safety must be clearly defined at all levels. Some points that wi||
need to be considered include:
o Top management must be committed to the safety policy.
o The delegation of responsibilities for safety must be clear.
o Job descriptions should include definitions of duties related to safety.
o Those to whom responsibilities are delegated must understand the responsibilities
and agree to them.
o Deployment of a safety officer and the support of experts in particular technical
areas.
o Consultation on safety.
o An adequate budgeting for safety costs.

6. Explain Vroom’s expectancy theory of motivation. (NOV-18)

AN A model of motivation developed by Vroom and his colleagues, it identifies three influences
S on motivation :
• Expectancy : the belief that working harder will lead to better performance.
• Instrumentality :the belief that better the performance will be rewarded.
• Perceived Value :of the resulting reward.
• Motivation will be high when all three factors are high. A zero level for any one o f the
factors can remove motivation.
• In fact, Vroom’s expectancy theory can be given by the following expression:
• Motivation = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Perceived value

• Imagine trying to get a software package supplied by a third party to work. You realize that
you will never get it to work because o f a bug, and you give up. No matter how hard you
work you will not be able to succeed(zero expectancy).
• You are working on a package for a user and although you think you can get it to work, you
discover that the user has started employing an alternative package and no longer needs this
one. You will probably feel you are wasting your time and give up(zero instrumentality)

Given that the users really do want the package, your reward might simply be the warm
feeling of helping your colleagues and their gratitude. If in fact when the users employ the
package, all they do is complain and hold you responsible for shortcomings, then you might

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avoid getting involved if they later ask for help implementing a different package(low
perceived value of reward).

7. Explain the change control process. (APR-19,NOV-19)

AN The role of configuration librarian:
S • Identifying items that need to be subject to change control
• Management of a central repository of the master copies of software and documentation
• Administering change procedures
• Maintenance of access records

Typical change control process

1. One or more users might perceive the need for a change
2. User management decide that the change is valid and worthwhile and pass it to
development management
3. A developer is assigned to assess the practicality and cost of making the change
4. Development management report back to user management on the cost of the change;
user management decide whether to go ahead
5. One or more developers are authorized to make copies of components to be modified
6. Copies modified. After initial testing, a test version might be released to users for
acceptance testing.
7. When users are satisfied then operational release authorized – master configuration items
updated.

8. Define the following:- (APR-19,NOV-22)

i. Schedule Variance
ii. Earned Value
iii. Schedule Performance index
iv. Cost Performance index

AN i) Schedule Variance:
S The schedule variance is measured in cost terms as EV - PV and indicates the degree to which
the value of completed work differs from that planned.

ii) Cost Variance:

This is calculated as EV - AC and indicates the difference between the earned value or
budgeted cost and the actual cost of completed work.

iii) Earned Value:

having created the baseline budget, the next task is to monitor earned value as the project
progresses. This is done by monitoring the completion of tasks (or activity starts and
milestone achievements in the case of the other crediting techniques).

iv) Schedule performance index : the Schedule Performance Index (SPI) is a metric used to
assess the efficiency and progress of a project in terms of meeting its scheduled timeline. SPI
is calculated by comparing the earned value (EV) to the planned value (PV) of the project's
activities.
The formula to calculate the Schedule Performance Index (SPI) is: SPI = EV / PV

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v) Cost performance index: the Cost Performance Index (CPI) is a metric used to assess the
cost efficiency and performance of a project. CPI measures the value of work accomplished
in relation to the actual cost incurred.
The formula to calculate the Cost Performance Index (CPI) is: CPI = EV / AC

9. Explain briefly all the stages in Contract Placement. (APR-19, NOV-19)

AN These are the stages in Contract placement :
S 1. Requirements analysis : The requirements define carefully the functions of the new
application and all the necessary inputs and outputs for these functions. They also state any
standards that apply, and the existing systems with which the new system should be
compatible . They also need to be operational and quality requirements, concerning such
matters as the required response times, reliability, usability and maintainability of the new
system.
2. Evaluation Plan: Having drawn up a list of requirements, we now need a plan of how the
proposals are to be evaluated. The situation will be different if the contract is for a system
that is to be specially written rather than an off-the-shelf package. In the latter case, it is the
application itself that is being evaluated while in the former situation it is a proposal for an
application.
3. Invitation to Fender : In English law, for a contract to exist there must be an offer on one
side which is accepted by the other. The invitation to tender is not an offer itself, but an
invitation for prospective suppliers to make an offer.
4. Evaluation of Proposals : The process of evaluation may include: o Scrutiny of the proposal
documents
o Interviewing suppliers’ representatives
o Demonstrations
o Site visits
o Practical tests

10. Define Contract. Classify contracts on the basis of payment to suppliers. (APR-19)
AN Contracts refer to legally binding agreements between two or more parties that outline the
S terms and conditions for the development, delivery, and maintenance of software products
or services. Contracts play a crucial role in establishing the rights, obligations, and
responsibilities of each party involved in the software project.
way of classifying contracts is by the way that the payment to suppliers is calculated. We will
look :
• Fixed price contract
• Time and materials Contract
• Fixed price per delivered unit Contract.

Fixed Price Contract :

• In this situation a price is fixed when the contract is signed.
• When the contract is to construct a software system, the detailed requirements analysis
must already have been carried out. Once the development is under way the customer
cannot change their requirements without renegotiating the price of the contract.

Advantages of this method are:

• Known customer expenditure
• Supplier motivation

Disadvantages of this methods are:

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• Difficulties in modifying requirements

• Upward Pressure on the cost of changes
• Threat to system Quality

Time and materials contracts :

• The customer is charged at a fixed rate per unit of effort, for example per staff-hour. The
supplier may provide an initial estimate of the cost based on the current understanding of
the customer’s requirements. But this is not the basis for the final payment. The supplier
usually invoices the customer for work done at regular intervals, say each month

The advantages of this approach are:

Ease of changing requirements
• Lack of price pressure
The disadvantages of this approach are:
• Customer liability
• Lack of incentives for supplier

Fixed price per unit delivered contracts

• This is often associated with function point(FP) counting. The size of the system to be
delivered is calculated or estimated at the outset of the project.
• The size could be estimated in lines of code, but FPs can be more easily derived from
requirements documents. A price per unit is also quoted.

The advantages of this approach are:

• Customer understanding.
• Comparability
• Emerging functionality
• Supplier efficiency
• Life-cycle range

The disadvantages of this approach are:

• Difficulties with software size measurement
• Changing requirements

11. Explain general recruitment process. (APR-19, NOV-22)

AN It must be stressed that often project leaders have little choice about the people who will
S make up their team –they have to make do with the ‘materials that are to hand’. Recruitment
is often an organizational responsibility; the person recruitment might , over a period of time,
work in many different parts of the organization.
• A general approach might be the following :
o Create a job specification : The requirements of the job, including the types of task
to be carried out, should be documented and agreed.
o Create a job holder profile : The qualities, qualifications, education and experience
required would be listed.
o Obtain applicants : Typically, an advertisement would be placed, either within the
organization or outside in the trade or local press. The job holder profile would be
examined carefully to identify the medium most likely to reach the largest number
of potential applicants at least cost.
o Examine CVs : These should be read carefully and compared to the job holder
profile -nothing is more annoying for all concerned than when people have CVs which
indicate clearly that they are not eligible for the job and yet are called for interview.

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o Interviews,etc. Selection techniques include aptitude tests, personality tests and

the examination of samples of previous work.
o Other procedures References will need to be taken up where necessary, and a
medical examination might be needed.

12. Discuss the factors of job satisfaction given by Oldham-Hackman. Also state the methods of
improving motivation. (APR-19, NOV-22)
AN Manger should group together the elements of tasks to be carried out so that they form
S meaningful and satisfying assignments. Oldham and Hackman suggest that the satisfaction
of a job gives is based on five factors. The first three factors make the job meaningful to the
person who is doing it :
o Skill Variety : the number of different skills that the job holder as the opportunuity
to exercise.
o Task identity: the degree to which your work and its results are identifiable as
belonging to you
o Task significance: the degree to which your job has an influence on others

The other two factors are:

• Autonomy: the discretion you have about the way that you do the job
• Feedback: the information you get back about the results of your work

Oldham and Hackman also noted that both the job holders’ personal growth needs and their
working environment influenced their perception of the job. Some writers have pointed out
that if people are happy with their work for other reasons, they are likely to rate it higher on
the Oldham-Hackman dimensions anyway. Thus it might be that cause and effect are
reversed. In practical terms, activities should be designed so that, where possible, staff follow
the progress of a particular product and feel personally associated with it.

13. Give the benefits of review in the process of project monitoring and control. (NOV-19)
AN review has been acknowledged to be more cost-effective in removing defects as compared
S to testing.
• Early review techniques focused on code and systematic review techniques were
developed for this specific purpose.
Utility of review:
• review of any work product has several other benefits o helps to identify any deviation from
standards
o ways to improve the work product
o review meeting allows participants to avoid committing similar defects

Candidate work products for review:

• the work products considered to be suitable candidates for review are as follows :
o Requirements specification documents
o User interface specification and design documents
o Architectural, high-level, and detailed design documents
o Test plan and the designed test cases

Project management plan and configuration management plan

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Review roles:
• In every review meeting, a few key roles need to be assigned to the review team members.
These roles are moderator, recorder and the reviewers. o The moderator plays a key role in
the review process.
o The principal responsibilities of the moderator include scheduling and convening
meetings, distributing review materials, leading and moderating the review sessions,
ensuring that the defects are tracked to closure.
o The main role of the recorder is to record the defects found, the time and effort
data. The review team members review the work product and give specific
suggestions to the author about the existing defects and also point out ways to
improve the work product.

Review process:
• Review of any work product consists of the following four important activities, viz. planning,
review preparation and overview, review meeting, rework and follow-up.

Planning: Once the author of a work product is ready for submitting the work for review; the
project manager nominates a moderator. A moderator can be someone who is familiar with
the work product.
• The moderator usually schedules all review meetings.
▪ Preparation To initiate the review process, the moderator convenes a brief
preparation meeting.
▪ Review Meeting In the review meeting the reviewer’s give their comments
based on the logs they have prepared beforehand.
▪ Rework The author addresses all the issues raised by the reviewers by carrying
out the necessary modifications to the work product and prepares a rejoinder to
all the points scribed in the review log.

14. Write a note on ethical and professional concerns as a member of any organization. (NOV-
19, NOV-22)
AN There is now a legal requirement to act to reduce the threats to the health and safety of
S employees at work. Yet even if there were no such law, there would be very few who would
not at least pay lip service to the moral obligation to prevent foreseeable injury to those at
work. This would be an ethical judgement. There are bound to be cases where we would
agree that people are, unethically, acting in a way potentially harmful to others even though
laws have not-yet-been passed to prohibit that precise behavior.
• Some ethical responsibilities are shared by all members of the community, regardless of
their position – for example, to alert the emergency services when a serious motor accident
has taken place. Other ethical responsibilities affect particular organizations and the people
who belong to them. Further responsibilities relate to a person’s professional expertise,
such as that of the software engineer or IT practitioner.

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15. Explain Taylor’s model of motivation. (NOV-19)

AN Organizational Behaviour : A Background
S • The roots of studies in OB can be traced back to work done in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries by Frederick Taylor. Taylor attempted to analyse the most productive Way of doing
manual tasks. The workers were then trained to do the work in this way.

Taylor had three basic objectives:

• To select the best people for the job To instruct them in the best methods
• To give incentives in the form of higher wages to the best workers
• Taylorism is often represented as crude and mechanistic. However, a concern for
identifying best practice is valid.
• During the 1920s, OB researchers discovered, while carrying out a now famous set of tests
on the conditions under which staff worked best, that not only did a group of workers for
whom conditions were improved increase their work-rates, but also a control group for
whom conditions were unchanged. Simply showing a concern for what workers did increased
productivity. This illustrated how the state of mind of workers influenced their productivity.
• The cash-oriented, or instrumental, view of work of some managers can thus be contrasted
with a more rounded vision of people in their place of work. The two attitudes were labelled
Theory X and Theory Y by Donald McGregor

Theory X hold that: • The average Human has an innate dislike of work
• There is a need therefore for coercion, direction and control
• People tend to avoid responsibility

• Theory Y, on the other hand, holds that :

• Work as natural as rest or play
• External control and coercion are not the only ways of bringing about effort
directed towards an organization’s end.
• Commitment to objective is a function of the rewards associated with their
achievement
• The average human can learn to accept and further seek responsibility
• The capacity to exercise imagination and other creative qualities is widely
distributed.

16. Explain the partial completion reporting scheme with respect to collecting the project data.
(APR-23)
AN ● Partial completion reporting
S o use standard accounting systems with weekly timesheets to charge staff time to
individual jobs.
o The staff time booked to a project indicates the work carried out and the charges
to the project.
o managers would prefer to ask for the number of hours already worked on the
task and an estimate of the number of hours needed to finish the task off.

17. Explain the steps involved in producing an evaluation plan describing how each proposal will
be checked against the selection criteria. (APR-23)
AN Producing an evaluation plan for checking each proposal against the selection criteria
S involves several key steps. Here is an outline of the typical process:

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● Define Evaluation Criteria: Start by identifying and defining the evaluation criteria
that will be used to assess the proposals. These criteria should align with the project
requirements and objectives. Common evaluation criteria include technical
expertise, experience, cost, compliance with requirements, quality, past
performance, and innovation. Clearly articulate each criterion and its specific
components.

● Determine Weightage or Scoring: Assign weightage or scoring to each evaluation

criterion to indicate its relative importance. This helps in prioritizing the criteria and
provides a framework for comparing and evaluating the proposals. The weightage or
scoring should be based on the project's priorities and can be determined through
discussions with relevant stakeholders.

● Develop Evaluation Guidelines: Create detailed guidelines or instructions for

evaluators on how to assess and score each proposal against the defined criteria.
Provide clear instructions, examples, and any relevant reference documents to
ensure consistent and fair evaluation across all proposals.

● Establish Evaluation Team: Form an evaluation team comprising subject matter

experts, stakeholders, and individuals with relevant expertise. Ensure the team
members are independent and unbiased. Define the roles and responsibilities of
each team member, including the lead evaluator or coordinator who will oversee the
evaluation process.

● Review and Evaluate Proposals: Distribute the proposals to the evaluation team for
review and assessment. Each evaluator should independently evaluate the proposals
based on the defined criteria and guidelines. They should document their
evaluations, scores, and comments for each criterion.

● Conduct Evaluation Meetings: Schedule evaluation meetings with the evaluation

team to discuss and compare the evaluations of each proposal. These meetings allow
for consensus-building, clarification of any discrepancies or uncertainties, and
refinement of evaluation scores.

● Aggregate Evaluation Results: Compile the evaluation scores and comments

provided by each evaluator for each proposal. Calculate the overall scores based on
the assigned weightage or scoring system. This will provide a quantitative
assessment of each proposal's performance against the criteria.

● Rank or Prioritize Proposals: Based on the evaluation results, rank or prioritize the
proposals according to their overall scores. This ranking helps in identifying the most
suitable proposals that align closely with the project's requirements and objectives.

● Document the Evaluation Plan: Document the entire evaluation plan, including the
defined criteria, weightage or scoring, evaluation guidelines, evaluation team
members, evaluation results, and proposal ranking. This documentation serves as a
record of the evaluation process and provides transparency and accountability.

● Communicate Evaluation Results: Finally, communicate the evaluation results to the

appropriate stakeholders, such as project managers, procurement officers, or

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decision-making authorities. Provide feedback to the proposers, including strengths

and weaknesses identified during the evaluation process.

18. Explain with the neat diagram hierarchy of needs according to Abraham Maslow. (APR-23)
AN ● The motivation of individuals varies. Money is a strong motivator when you are
S broke. However, as the basic need for cash is satisfied, other motivators are likely to
emerge. Abraham Maslow, an American psychologist, suggested a hierarchy o f
needs . As a lower level of needs is satisfied then gradually a higher level of needs
emerges. If these are then satisfied then another level will emerge . Basic needs
include food , shelter and personal safety. The highest-level need, according to
Maslow , is the need for ‘self-actualization’, the feeling that you are completely
fulfilling your potential.

The hierarchy of needs according to Maslow is shown pictorially in Figure

● In practice, people are likely to be motivated by different things at different stages

of their life. For example, salary increases, while always welcome, probably have less
impact on the more mature employee who is already relatively w ell paid than on a
lowly paid trainee. Older team me mbers m might place more value on qualities of
the job, such as being given autonomy, which show respect for their judgement and
sense of responsibility.
● Some individual differences in motivation relate simply to personality differences.
Some staff have growth needs’ - they are interested in their work and want to
develop their work roles- while others simply see the job as a way of learning a living
.

19. How health and safety issues have prominent impact in ICT development. (APR-23)
AN ● Health and safety issues have a prominent impact in ICT (Information and
S Communication Technology) development due to the nature of the work
environment and the use of technology. Here are some ways in which health and
safety considerations play a crucial role in ICT development:

● Ergonomics and Physical Well-being: ICT professionals typically spend long hours
working on computers and other technological devices. Poor ergonomics, such as
incorrect posture, inadequate seating, or improper positioning of equipment, can
lead to musculoskeletal disorders, eye strain, and other physical ailments. Therefore,
ensuring ergonomic workstations, proper seating arrangements, adjustable desks,
and regular breaks is essential to safeguard the physical well-being of ICT
professionals.

● Workplace Safety: ICT development often involves working in data centers, server
rooms, or other technical environments with specific safety requirements. These

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spaces may have electrical hazards, temperature control needs, fire suppression
systems, and other safety measures that need to be properly maintained and
adhered to. Regular risk assessments, safety training, and compliance with safety
regulations are crucial to minimize accidents and create a safe working environment.

● Electrical Safety: ICT development involves working with electrical equipment and
wiring. It is essential to adhere to electrical safety guidelines and protocols to prevent
electrical shocks, fires, or other electrical hazards. This includes proper grounding,
regular inspection of equipment, safe handling of power sources, and adherence to
electrical codes and regulations.

● Psychological Well-being: The fast-paced, high-pressure nature of ICT development

can contribute to stress, burnout, and mental health issues among professionals.
Long hours, tight deadlines, frequent changes, and the constant need to stay
updated with new technologies can impact the psychological well-being of
individuals. Organizations should promote work-life balance, offer support systems,
and provide resources for managing stress and maintaining mental health.

● Data Security and Privacy: ICT development involves handling sensitive and
confidential information. Ensuring data security and privacy is vital to protect both
individuals and organizations. Compliance with data protection regulations,
implementing secure development practices, and maintaining secure network
infrastructure are essential to mitigate the risks of data breaches and unauthorized
access.

20 Suppose a project is budgeted to cost £150,000. The project is to be completed in 18 months.

After 2 months, the project is 10% complete at an expense of £25,000. It was planned after
2 months, 15% of the project work should have been completed. Compute the cost
performance index and the schedule performance index. Interpret these values to assess the
progress of the project. (APR-23)
AN To compute the cost performance index (CPI) and the schedule performance index (SPI), we
S can use the following formulas:
CPI = EV / AC SPI = EV / PV
Where: EV = Earned Value (percentage of work completed multiplied by the budgeted cost
of the project) AC = Actual Cost (total expense incurred for the project) PV = Planned Value
(percentage of work that should have been completed multiplied by the budgeted cost of
the project)
Given the information provided, let's calculate the CPI and SPI:
Planned Value (PV) after 2 months: PV = 15% * $150,000 = $22,500
Earned Value (EV) after 2 months: EV = 10% * $150,000 = $15,000
Actual Cost (AC) after 2 months: AC = $25,000
CPI = EV / AC = $15,000 / $25,000 = 0.6
SPI = EV / PV = $15,000 / $22,500 ≈ 0.67
Now let's interpret these values to assess the progress of the project:
1.Cost Performance Index (CPI): The CPI value is 0.6, indicating that for every dollar spent on
the project, only 60 cents' worth of work has been completed. A CPI less than 1 suggests that
the project is over budget and cost overruns have occurred.
2.Schedule Performance Index (SPI): The SPI value is 0.67, implying that for every planned
dollar's worth of work, only 67 cents' worth of work has been completed. An SPI less than 1
indicates that the project is behind schedule.

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Overall Assessment: Based on the CPI and SPI values, it can be concluded that the project is
facing both cost and schedule issues. It is over budget and behind schedule. The project team
should take corrective actions to improve both cost and schedule performance to bring them
closer to 1.

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UNIT 5
1. Explain the advantages of a functional organization over project organization. (NOV-18)
AN The main advantages that the functional team format offers are the following:
S • Ease of staffing: The functional organization structure provides an efficient solution to the
staffing problem. Usually different numbers of developers are needed to carry out different
project activities. The project staffing problem is eased significantly because any number of
required personnel can be brought into a project as needed, and they can be returned to the
functional group when they complete their work. This possibly is the most important
advantage of the functional organization. A project organization structure, on the other
hand, mandates the manager to accept a fixed number of developers at the start of the
project. These developers work for the entire duration of the project. This results in many
team members idling in the initial phases of software development and the entire team
comes under tremendous pressure in the later phases of development.
Production of good quality documents: A functional organization mandates production of
good quality documents , since the team members working on some part of a project do not
meet the developers who have completed other parts of the project and gone back to their
functional teams .
• Job specialization: The functional organization structure facilitates developers to become
to specialize in particular tasks such as database , networking , compilers , requirements
analysis , design , coding, testing , maintenance , etc . They perform these activities again and
again for different projects, and thereby gain experience and in sights in to their respective
areas of specialization .
• Efficient handling of the problems associated with manpower turnover: Functional
organizations help to effectively handle the problem of man power turn over compared to a
democratic organization . First developers are brought in from the functional pool when
needed . Also, good documentation produced in this organization structure helps any new
member to quickly get familiarized with the work already completed .
• Career planning: A functional organization makes it easier for a developer to have
a career that is technically oriented , called the technical ladder. On the other hand ,
a project organization tends to facilitate a more general form o f career progression
, where the developers become business analysts and managers .

2. List the obstacles to good group decision making. Also explain Delphi decision making
process. (NOV-18)
AN It is time consuming it can stir up conflicts within the group and decisions can be unduly
S influenced by dominant personalities. Conflict can in fact be less then might be expected.
Experiments have shown that people will modify their personal judgements to confirm group
norms, common attitudes developed by a group overtime. This would moderate the more
extreme views that some in the group might hold. In fact people in groups sometimes make
decisions that carry more risk than where they make decisions on their own. This is known
as risky shift.
Measures to reduce the disadvantages of group decision making
One method of making group decision making more efficient and effective is buy training
members to follow a set procedure. The Delphi technique endeavours to collate the
judgement of a number of experts without actually bringing them face to face. Given a
problem the following procedure is carried out:
. Cooperation of a number experts is enlisted.
• Problem is presented to the experts.
• Experts record their recommendations.

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. These recommendations are collated and reproduced.

• Collected responses are recirculated.
• Experts comment on the ideas of others and modify their recommendations if so moved
• It the leader detects a consensus then the process is stopped, otherwise the comments are
recirculated who the experts.

3. Write short note on SEI capability maturity model. (NOV-18, NOV-19, NOV-22)
AN CMM is a reference model for appraising a software development organization into one of
S five process maturity levels. The maturity level of an organization is a ranking of the quality
of the development process used by the organization. This information can be used to predict
the most likely outcome of a project that the organization undertakes.
It should be remembered that SEI CMM can be used in two different ways, viz., capability
evaluation and process assessment. Capability evaluation and software process assessment
differ in motivation, objective, and the final use of the result. Capability evaluation essentially
concerns assessing the software process capability of an organization. On the other hand,
process assessment is used by an organization with the objective of improving its own
process capability.
● Level 1: initial: A software development organization at this level is characterised by
haphazard activities by the members of the project team. The chaotic activities are
brought about by the lack of definition of the development and the management
processes. It can be said that the chances of successful project execution by the level
1 organization depends on large extent on who exactly members of the development
team.
● Level 2: Repeatable: Organisations at this level usually practice some basic project
management practices such as planning and tracking cost and schedule. Further
these organizations make use of the configuration management tools okay
deliverable items under configuration tools. As level one organizations level 2
organisations are at are characterised by any documented process.
● Level 3: Defined: At this level, processes for both management and development
activities are defined and documented. At this level organization builds up the
capabilities of a employees through periodic training programmes.
● Level 4: Managed: organisations at this level focus effectively on managing
development tasks by collecting appropriate process and product metrics. At the
time of project completion it is checked whether the quantitative quality goals have
been met.
● Level 5: Optimising: operations operating at this level not only collect product hand
product metrics, but analyse them to identify scopes for improving and optimising
the various development and management activities. In other words organizations
strive for continuous process improvement.

4. What is reliability growth model? Explain any two reliability growth models. (NOV-18)
AN Reliability of a software product usually keeps on improving with time during the testing and
S operational phases as defects are identified and repaired. In this context, the growth of
reliability over the testing and operational phases can be modelled using a mathematical
expression called Reliability Growth Model (RGM).

Jelinski and Moranda Model

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The simplest reliability growth model is the step function model where it is assumed that the
reliability increases by a constant increment each time an error is detected and repaired.
Therefore perfect error fixing is implicit in this model. Another implicit assumption in this
model is that all errors contribute equally reliability growth. Both the assumptions are
unrealistic since different errors contribute differently to reliability growth and also the error
fixed may not be perfect. The instantaneous failure rate (or the hazard rate) in this model is
given by Z(t)= K(N-i), where K is constant, N is the total number of errors in the program and
t is any time between the ith and (i+1)th failure.

Littlewood and Verall’s Model

This model allows for negative reliability growth to reflect the fact that when a repair is
carried out it may introduce additional errors. It also models the fact that as errors are
repaired the average improvement to the product reliability per repair decreases. It treats
an errors’ Contribution to reliability improvement to be an independent random variable
having gamma distribution. This distribution models the fact that the error corrections with
large contributions ability growth are removed first. This represents diminishing return as the
test continues.
5. What are the steps of conducting a post implementation project review? (NOV-18)
OR
Explain the steps involved in conducting a post implementation project review. (APR-23)
AN the steps of conducting a post-implementation project review:
S • Conduct project survey : The objective o f the project survey is to collect various types of
information pertaining to the project, without compromising the confidentiality of the
respondents. The following important points should be included :

1. Project Performance
2. Administrative Performance
3. Organizational Structure
4. Team Performance
5. Techniques of Project Management
6. Risk Management

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Collect objective information : A critical aspect of the post-mortem review is to collect

various project metrics. Real data helps to focus discussions on most crucial issues during the
post-mortem review. The different types of metrics that are collected include the cost
metrics, schedule metrics and quality metrics.
Hold a debriefing meeting : A debriefing meeting is a preparatory meeting that helps to make
the final project review meeting focused to the most relevant aspects. In this meeting only
the senior members of the team and a few selected members participate. The debriefing
meeting helps the project manager to obtain some direct feedback about the project.
• Prepare post implementation review report
• Publish the report

Project Closeout Report : A project closeout report documents the important results
obtained from various project closeout tasks. This report typically starts with a historical
summary of the projects deliverable and baseline activities over the course of the project. It
subsequently presents the summary of the survey results and the quantitative data gathering
about the project’s performance.
Preparing post implementation review report : The important findings of the
postimplementation project review audit can be published in a document. The document can
be used to disseminate the lessons learned and to work as a reference for similar future. A
typical way in which the post implementation project review report can be organized is as
follows:
1. Project Description :Information about the project
2. What worked well
3. The factors that impeded the performance of the project .
4. A prescription for other projects to follow
1. Releasing staff : This is the final step of the project closeout process. This is the last meeting
before the project team members disburse to different projects. However, it is important
that the project manager should have taken care that the team members have been assigned
to proper projects according to their expertise and skill set.

6. Explain the different reason for which a project may need to be terminated. (NOV-18, APR-
19,NOV-19)
OR
Why are projects not closed properly? (APR-23)
AN Lack of resources: a project men need to be terminated when there is severe resource
S shortfall. Resource shortfall for a project may occur due to several reasons. As an example,
consider that in a certain company there is a change in the top management of the company.
The new management may show a lack of commitment to the projects initiated by the
previous management. This may result inadequate budget provisioning for a project.
Changed business need of the customer: the business interest on business process of the
customer we change after the initiation of the project. This may make the project outcome
not useful in the change situation. For example customer after initiating a project put develop
an inventory management software decides to outsource its entire inventory management
activities to a 3rd party then the project outcome would be of little used to the company.
The perceived benefits accruing from the project no longer remain valid: the expected
quantum of benefits of developing a software might get altered after the start of the project.
This may occur on the account of certain events that may arise during the project execution.
Changes to the regulatory policies: many times external factors such as changes to the
government's regulatory policies can I have adverse impact on project and may require the
project to be terminated. For example a company initiating project to develop a satellite

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telephone system may have to abandon the regulatory policy formulated by the government
is change to this allow any satellite communication based product in the country.
Key technologies used in the project becoming obsolete project execution: suppose a
software is Bing develop based on a few technologies it's core. Now consider that these
technologies get updated before the project completes hey there may be a reason for project
to be terminated.
Risk becoming unacceptable high: even when a project might have been initiated after
carrying out thorough risk analysis it may be found out after the start of the project that the
risk to the project that could not be foreseen have become so high that continuation of the
project would have a serious adverse impact on the company search unsettling its finance
soundness, inviting negative publicity or pausing health and safety hazards. In such situations
premature project termination may be recommended.

7. What do you mean by team structure? Explain different types of team structures. (APR-19,
NOV-22)
AN Team structure denotes the reporting, responsibility and communication structures in
S individual project teams. We consider only 3 team structures: democratic, chief programmer
and the mixed team organization.
Chief programmer team
In this team structure a senior member provides the technical leadership and is designated
as the chief programmer. The structure of the chief programmer team is the philosophy
behind the chief programmer team isn't keeping with the suggestions of brooks who
suggested that the design activity should be carried out by a small team to maintain design
consistency. He argued in favour of making the designers as productive as possible through
support from the other team members. The chief programmer defines the specifications and
constructs the high level design and then partitions the remaining task of detailed design viz.
Coding, testing, documentation,ect. Into many smaller task and assign them to the team
members.

Democratic team
the democratic team structure as the name implies does not enforce any formal team
hierarchy.

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It is generally accepted data democratic structure offers hi moron and job satisfaction to the
team members. Consequently a democratic team suffers from lower manpower turn over
compared to the chief programmer team. Not democratic teams are less productive
compared to the cheap programmer team small and simple projects the democratic team
structure is appropriate for less understood problems a group of developers can invent
better solutions than a single individual as in programmer team. A democratic team structure
is suitable for research oriented projects requiring less than 5 or 6 developers. For large size
project democratic organization tends to become chaotic. The democratic team organization
encourages egoless programming as programmers can share and review one another's work.

Mixed control team structure

the mixed team structure as the name implies draws ideas from both the democratic and
chief programmer team structures. The democratic arrangement at the level of senior
developers is used to decompose the problems into small parts. Democratic setup add the
programmer level facilitates working out at effective solution for single part. This team
structure is extremely popular and is being used in many software development companies.
The mixed control team organization is suitable for large team sizes.

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8. Explain five basic stages of Team development. Also state the different types of people
needed to form a balanced team. (APR-19, NOV-19, NOV-22)
AN . It is suggested that teams go through five basic stages of development.
S 1. Forming : The members of the group get to know each other and try to set up some ground
rules about behavior.
2. Storming : Conflicts arise as various members of the group try to exert leadership and the
group’s methods of operations are being established.
3. Norming : Conflicts are largely settled and a feeling of group identity emerges.
4. Performing :The emphasis is now on the tasks at hand.
5. Adjourning :The group disbands.

Teams need a balance of different types of people:

1. The Chair : Not necessarily brilliant leaders but they must be good at running meetings,
being calm, strong but tolerant.
2. The Plant :Someone who is essentially very good at generating ideas and potential
solutions to problems.
3. The monitor-evaluator : good at evaluating ideas and potential solutions and helping to
select the best one.
4. The shaper : rather a worrier, who directs the team’s attention to the important issues.
5. The team-worker : skilled at creating a good working environment, for example,by ‘jollying
people around.’
6. The resource-investigator : adept at finding resources in terms of both physical resources
and information.
7. The complete-finisher : concerned with completing task.
8. The company worker : a good team player who is willing to undertake less attractive
tasks if they are needed for team success.
9. What is the importance of Software Quality? Discuss six major external software quality
characteristics identified by ISO 9126. (APR-19)
AN . Importance of Software Quality:
S • The special characteristics of software create special demands.
1. Increasing criticality of software
2. The intangibility of software
3. Accumulating errors during software development
ISO 9126 identifies six major external software quality characteristics:
• Functionality, which covers the functions that a software product satisfies user needs.
• Reliability, which relates to the capability of the software to maintain its level of
performance.
• Usability, which relates to the effort needed to use the software
• Efficiency, which relates to the physical resources used when the software is executed.
• Maintainability, which relates to the effort needed to the make changes to the software.
• Portability, which relates to the ability of the software to be transferred to a different
environment.

10. State four popular process capability models and explain any one of them. (APR-19)
AN These are the various process capability models :
S
SEI capability maturity model (CMM)
• CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration)

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• ISO 15 5 0 4 process assessment

• Personal Software Process (PSP)
• Six Sigma
CMMI (Capability Maturity Model Integration)
CMM is a reference model for appraising a software development organization into one of
five process maturity levels. The maturity level of an organization is a ranking of the quality
of the development process used by the organization. This information can be used to predict
the most likely outcome of a project that the organization undertakes.
It should be remembered that SEI CMM can be used in two different ways, viz., capability
evaluation and process assessment. Capability evaluation and software process assessment
differ in motivation, objective, and the final use of the result. Capability evaluation essentially
concerns assessing the software process capability of an organization. On the other hand,
process assessment is used by an organization with the objective of improving its own
process capability.
Level 1: initial: A software development organization at this level is characterised by
haphazard activities by the members of the project team. The chaotic activities are brought
about by the lack of definition of the development and the management processes. It can be
said that the chances of successful project execution by the level 1 organization depends on
large extent on who exactly members of the development team.
Level 2: Repeatable: Organisations at this level usually practice some basic project
management practices such as planning and tracking cost and schedule. Further these
organizations make use of the configuration management tools okay deliverable items under
configuration tools. As level one organizations level 2 organisations are at are characterised
by any documented process.
Level 3: Defined: At this level, processes for both management and development activities
are defined and documented. At this level organization builds up the capabilities of a
employees through periodic training programmes.
Level 4: Managed: organisations at this level focus effectively on managing development
tasks by collecting appropriate process and product metrics. At the time of project
completion it is checked whether the quantitative quality goals have been met.
Level 5: Optimising: operations operating at this level not only collect product hand product
metrics, but analyse them to identify scopes for improving and optimising the various
development and management activities. In other words organizations strive for
continuous process improvement.
11. Give a brief explanation of the main activities involved in Software Testing. (APR-19)
AN Software testing involves a series of activities performed to evaluate the quality,
S functionality, and performance of a software application or system. These activities aim to
identify defects, errors, or inconsistencies and ensure that the software meets the desired
requirements and specifications. Here are the main activities involved in software testing:

1. Test Planning: This activity involves defining the objectives, scope, and approach for
testing. Test planning includes identifying test objectives, test levels, test deliverables, test
environments, and allocating resources for testing. It also involves creating a test plan
document that outlines the overall testing strategy.

2. Test Design: Test design involves creating test cases, test scenarios, and test data based on
the software requirements and specifications. Test design ensures that all relevant aspects

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of the software are covered and that tests are designed to validate specific functionalities,
user interactions, and system behaviors.

3. Test Execution: In this activity, the designed test cases are executed using appropriate test
data and test environments. Test execution involves running the tests, observing the actual
results, and comparing them against the expected results. Defects or failures are logged, and
relevant information is documented for further analysis.

4. Defect Management: Defect management involves identifying, reporting, and tracking

defects found during test execution. Defects are logged in a defect tracking system, and
information such as the defect description, severity, priority, and steps to reproduce are
recorded. Defects are assigned to the development team for resolution, and the testing team
verifies the fixes.

5. Test Reporting: Test reporting involves documenting the test results, including the overall
test status, test coverage, defects found, and any issues or observations during testing. Test
reports provide stakeholders with an overview of the testing progress and help in decision-
making, such as whether the software is ready for release or requires further testing and
improvements.

6. Test Closure: Test closure marks the end of the testing activities for a particular software
release or project. It involves finalizing test artifacts, summarizing the testing activities, and
conducting a review to identify lessons learned and areas for improvement. Test closure
ensures that all necessary documentation is completed and provides a basis for future testing
efforts.

7. Test Maintenance: Test maintenance involves updating and adapting the test artifacts to
accommodate changes in the software. As the software evolves, test cases may need to be
modified or new tests created to cover additional functionalities or changes. Test
maintenance ensures that the testing efforts remain effective and relevant throughout the
software's lifecycle.

These activities are iterative and may overlap depending on the testing approach and
methodology used. The goal of software testing is to identify and address defects early in the
development cycle, ensuring that the software meets the required quality standards and user
expectations.

12. Describe a virtual team and the advantages of forming a virtual team. (NOV-19)
AN A virtual team, also known as a distributed team or remote team, is a group of individuals
S who collaborate and work together towards a common goal while being geographically
dispersed. Unlike traditional co-located teams, virtual teams rely on communication and
collaboration technologies to connect and coordinate their work.
Advantages of forming virtual team:
1) Reduction in staff costs by using labour from developing countries where salaries are
lower.

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2) Reduction in the overheads that arise from having your own employees on site,
including cost of accommodation, Social Security payments, training.
3) The flexible use of staff - they are not employed when they are not needed.
4) Productivity might be higher.
5) Use of specialist staff for specific jobs, rather than more general project workers,
might improve quality.
6) Advantage can be taken of people working in different time zones to reduce task
duration - for example, software developers can deliver new version of code in a
different time zone who can test it and deliver the results back at the start of the
next working day.

13. Define the term quality. Explain McCall’s quality model. (NOV-19)
OR
Explain the quality attribute according to McCall's software quality model. (APR-23)
AN The measures may be direct, where we can measure the quality directly, or indirect, where
S the thing being measured is not the quality itself but an indicator that the quality is present.
For example, the number of enquiries by users received by a help desk about how one
operates a particular software application might be an indirect measurement of its usability.
McCall’s Model :McCall defined the quality of software in terms of three broad parameters;
its operational characteristics; how easy is it to fix defects and how easy it is to port it to
different platforms. These three high-level quality attributes are defined based on the
following attributes of software :
• Correctness : The extent to which a software product satisfies its specifications.
• Reliability : The probability of the software product working satisfactorily over a given
duration.
• Efficiency : The amount of computing resources required to perform the required functions.
• Integrity : The extent to which the data of the software product remains valid.
• Usability : The effort required to operate the software product.
• Maintainability : The ease with which it is possible to locate and fix bugs in the software
product.
• Flexibility : The effort required to adapt the software product to changing requirements.
• Testability: The effort required to test a software product to ensure that it performs its
intended function
• Portability : The effort required to transfer the software product from one hardware or
software system environment to another.
• Reusability:The extent to which a software can be reused in other applications.
• Interoperability: The effort required to integrate the software with other software.

14. Explain the metrics correlated with Software reliability. (NOV-19)

AN ● Rate of occurrence of failure (ROCOF) :Measures the frequency of occurrences of
S failures. ROCOF measure of a software product can be obtained by observing the
behavior of software product.
• Mean Time to Failure (MTTF):It is the time between two successive failures,
averaged over a large number of failures
• Mean Time to Repair (MTTR)Once failure occurs, sometime is required to fix the
error. MTTR measures the average time it takes to track the errors causing the failure
and to fix them.

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• Mean Time between Failure (MTBF)The MTTF and MTTR metrics can be combined
to get the MTBF metric: MTBF = MTTF + MTTR. Thus, MTBF of 300 hours indicates
that once a failure occurs, the next failure is expected after 300 hours. In this case,
the time measurements are real time and not the execution time as in MTTF.
15. What is ISO standard? What are the sub-characteristics of Functionality and Reliability of ISO
9126 software qualities? (NOV-22)
AN The ISO 9126 standard was first introduced in 1991 to tackle the question of the definition of
S software quality. The original 13-page document was designed as a foundation upon which
further, more detailed, standards could be built. The ISO 9126 standards documents are now
very lengthy. Partly this is because people with differing motivations might be interested in
software quality, namely :
• Acquirers : who are obtaining software from external suppliers.
• Developers : who are building a software product
• Independent Evaluators : who are assessing the quality of a software product, not for
themselves but for a community users – for example, those who might use a particular type
of software tool as part of their professional sphere.

‘Functionality compliance’ refers to the degree to which the software adheres to

application related standards or legal requirements. Typically, these could be auditing
requirements. Since the original 1999 draft, a sub-characteristic called compliance has
been added to all 6 ISO external characteristics. In each case this refers to any specific
standards that might apply particular quality attribute.
‘Interoperability’ is a illustration off the efforts of ISO 9126 clarify terminology.
‘Interoperability’ the refers to the ability of the software to interact with other systems.

‘Maturity’ refers frequency of failure due to faults in a software product, the implication
being that the more the software has been used the more faults will have been

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uncovered and removed. It is also interesting to note that ‘recoverability’ has been
clearly distinguished from ‘security’ which describes the control of access to a system.

16. What is Testing? Explain Test plan and Test management. (NOV-22)
AN Testing is the process of evaluating a software application or system to identify defects,
S errors, or deviations from the desired functionality. It involves executing tests, comparing
actual results with expected results, and analyzing the software's behavior to ensure it meets
the specified requirements and quality standards. Testing helps uncover issues and provides
confidence in the software's reliability, functionality, and performance.

Now let's discuss two key aspects of testing: Test Plan and Test Management.
1. Test Plan:
A test plan is a document that outlines the overall testing strategy and approach for a
software project. It provides a roadmap for how testing will be conducted, what will be
tested, and the resources required for testing. The test plan typically includes the
following components:

- Test Objectives: Clearly defined goals and objectives of the testing effort.
- Scope: The extent and boundaries of the testing, specifying what will and will not be
tested.
- Test Strategy: The overall approach and techniques to be used during testing.
- Test Deliverables: The documents, reports, or artifacts that will be produced as part of
the testing process.
- Test Environment: The hardware, software, and network configurations required for
testing.
- Test Schedule: The timeline and milestones for the testing activities.
- Test Cases: The specific test cases or scenarios that will be executed during testing.
- Test Data: The data needed to execute the test cases effectively.
- Risks and Assumptions: Potential risks, challenges, and assumptions associated with
testing.
- Roles and Responsibilities: The roles and responsibilities of individuals involved in
testing.
- Dependencies: Any dependencies on external factors, such as availability of resources
or systems, that may impact testing.

The test plan serves as a reference for the testing team, stakeholders, and management
to understand the testing approach, goals, and scope of the project. It helps ensure that
the testing effort is well-structured, organized, and aligned with the project objectives.

2. Test Management:
Test management refers to the activities and processes involved in planning, organizing,
directing, and controlling the testing effort throughout the software development
lifecycle. Test management encompasses a wide range of activities, including:

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- Test Planning: Defining the testing strategy, objectives, scope, and approach.
- Test Estimation: Estimating the effort, resources, and timelines required for testing.
- Test Design: Creating test cases, test scenarios, and test data.
- Test Execution: Executing the test cases, tracking defects, and analyzing test results.
- Defect Management: Tracking and managing defects found during testing, including
defect logging, prioritization, assignment, and resolution.
- Test Reporting: Generating test reports, providing status updates, and communicating
the testing progress and findings to stakeholders.
- Test Environment Management: Setting up and maintaining the test environments,
including hardware, software, and test data.
- Test Team Coordination: Assigning tasks, monitoring progress, and facilitating effective
communication among team members.
- Test Metrics and Monitoring: Collecting and analyzing metrics to measure the
effectiveness and progress of testing activities.
- Test Closure: Conducting a review of the testing effort, capturing lessons learned, and
documenting the overall testing outcomes.

Test management ensures that the testing process is well-organized, efficient, and
aligned with project goals. It involves coordination among team members, allocation of
resources, and adherence to testing standards and best practices.

Effective test planning and test management are essential for successful testing, enabling the
identification of defects, ensuring comprehensive coverage, and delivering high-quality
software products or systems.

17. What do you mean by Premature Termination? What are the reasons for projects premature
termination? (NOV-22)
AN Premature termination in project management refers to the early or abrupt cessation of a
S project before its intended completion. It occurs when a project is terminated before
achieving its objectives or delivering the expected outcomes. Premature termination can
have various reasons, and they can be categorized into internal and external factors.
Reason for projects’ premature termination:
• Risk becoming unacceptable high: even when a project might have been initiated after
carrying out thorough risk analysis it may be found out after the start of the project that
the risk to the project that could not be foreseen have become so high that continuation
of the project would have a serious adverse impact on the company search unsettling its
finance soundness, inviting negative publicity or pausing health and safety hazards. In
such situations premature project termination may be recommended.

18. Who are the different types of people according to Meredith Belbin needed in order to
create a balanced team? (APR-23)
AN According to Meredith Belbin's team role theory, there are nine different types of people or
S team roles that are needed to create a balanced and effective team. These roles are based
on individuals' preferred behaviors, strengths, and contributions within a team. Here are the
nine team roles identified by Belbin:

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Plant: The Plant is a creative and innovative individual who generates ideas and solutions.
They tend to be imaginative, unconventional, and offer unique perspectives.

Monitor Evaluator: The Monitor Evaluator is an objective and analytical thinker. They have a
critical eye, assess options carefully, and provide rational judgments. They excel at making
balanced decisions.

Coordinator: The Coordinator is a strong leader and facilitator. They have excellent
communication skills and are adept at coordinating team members, delegating tasks, and
maintaining focus on team goals.

Resource Investigator: The Resource Investigator is an outgoing and enthusiastic individual

who excels at networking and gathering external information. They are good at making
contacts, exploring opportunities, and bringing in new resources.

Implementer: The Implementer is a reliable and practical team member who turns ideas and
plans into action. They are detail-oriented, organized, and ensure that tasks are executed
efficiently.

Teamworker: The Teamworker is a cooperative and supportive individual who fosters

harmony within the team. They are empathetic, diplomatic, and adept at resolving conflicts.
They focus on maintaining good relationships and creating a positive team atmosphere.

Shaper: The Shaper is a dynamic and goal-oriented team member who pushes the team to
achieve results. They are assertive, driven, and challenge others to perform at their best.
They thrive under pressure and drive the team forward.

Completer Finisher: The Completer Finisher is a perfectionist who pays attention to detail
and ensures that tasks are completed to a high standard. They have a strong sense of
responsibility, are conscientious, and ensure that deadlines are met.

Specialist: The Specialist is an individual with specialized knowledge and skills in a specific
area. They provide expert advice and contribute in-depth expertise to the team. They focus
on their area of specialization and provide niche knowledge.

Belbin's team role theory suggests that a balanced team should ideally have individuals
representing a mix of these roles. Each team member brings unique strengths, and by
combining these different roles, teams can effectively tackle various aspects of a project or
task. The key is to recognize and leverage each team member's strengths and create an
environment that allows them to contribute in their preferred roles.
19. Explain chief programmer team and also stated advantages and disadvantages. (APR-23)
AN ● The larger the development group the slower it becomes because of the increased
S communication. Thus large time-critical projects tend to have a more formalized,
centralized structure.
● The chief programmer defines the specification, and designs, codes, tests and
documents the software. He or she is assisted by a co-pilot, with whom the chief
programmer can discuss problems and who writes some code. They are supported by
an editor to write up the documentation drafted by the chief programmer, a program
clerk to maintain the actual code, and a tester. The general idea is that this team is
under the control of a single unifying intellect.

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Advantages of the Chief Programmer Team approach:

• Expertise and Leadership: The Chief Programmer brings extensive knowledge and
experience to the team. Their expertise helps in making critical design decisions, ensuring
code quality, and setting high programming standards. Their leadership provides clear
direction and guidance to the team.

• Efficient Development: With a single expert leading the team, there is a streamlined
decision-making process. The Chief Programmer can quickly assess and address technical
challenges, reducing delays and inefficiencies.

• Knowledge Transfer and Skill Development: The Chief Programmer acts as a mentor,
transferring knowledge and skills to the team members. This fosters professional growth
and improves the capabilities of the entire team over time.

• Code Consistency and Quality: The Chief Programmer establishes coding standards and
best practices, ensuring consistency and quality across the project. They can review and
provide feedback on the work of team members, maintaining a high level of code
integrity.

• Risk Mitigation: Having a highly skilled Chief Programmer reduces the risk of critical
errors or design flaws. Their experience and expertise help identify potential risks early
in the development process, allowing for timely mitigation.

Disadvantages of the Chief Programmer Team approach:

• Single Point of Failure: The Chief Programmer is a key individual responsible for the
success of the project. If they become unavailable due to illness, resignation, or other
reasons, it can significantly impact the progress of the project and the team's ability
to function effectively.

• Limited Collaboration: The hierarchical nature of the Chief Programmer Team

approach may limit collaboration and creative input from team members. This can
stifle innovation and hinder the sharing of diverse perspectives.

• Overreliance on a Single Individual: The team may become overly dependent on the
Chief Programmer, resulting in reduced autonomy and initiative among team
members. This can hinder the growth and development of individual team members'
skills.

• Scalability Challenges: The Chief Programmer Team approach may face challenges
when scaling up for larger projects or teams. It becomes increasingly difficult for a
single individual to manage and oversee the work of a growing number of team
members effectively.

• Bottleneck Effect: The Chief Programmer can become a bottleneck in the decision-
making process if they are overloaded with responsibilities or if their availability is
limited. This can slow down the development process and lead to project delays.
20. Differentiate between product versus process quality management. (APR-23)

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AN
S Product Quality Process Quality
Management Management
Definition Product quality Process quality
management focuses on management emphasizes
ensuring that the software the effectiveness and
product or deliverable efficiency of the software
meets the specified development process itself,
requirements and satisfies aiming to improve the
customer expectations. overall quality of the
software produced.
Objectives The primary objective is to The main objective is to
deliver a high-quality end establish and maintain well-
product that is reliable, defined processes and
functional, efficient, and practices that lead to
meets the desired consistent and high-quality
functionality and software development
performance criteria. outcomes.
Activities Product quality Process quality
management involves management involves
activities such as activities such as process
requirements gathering and definition, process
analysis, design, coding, documentation, process
testing, defect improvement initiatives,
management, and final training and skills
product release. development, and
measurement of process
performance.
Focus The focus is on evaluating The focus is on evaluating
and improving the and improving the
characteristics and effectiveness and efficiency
attributes of the software of the software
product itself, including development process,
functionality, usability, including process
reliability, performance, adherence, process
security, and maturity, adherence to best
maintainability. practices and standards,
and identification and
resolution of process
bottlenecks and
inefficiencies.
Metrics Metrics used in product Metrics used in process
quality management quality management
include defect density, include defect arrival rate,
failure rate, customer defect prevention
satisfaction, number of effectiveness, productivity,
open defects, and cycle time, process
adherence to specifications compliance, process
and requirements. capability, and process
improvement indices.

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