University of Saskatchewan

HARVEST, https://harvest.usask.ca/
College of Kinesiology Kinesiology

2023

The Sport Performance Perceptions

Scale (SPPS) Manual

Adam, Margo E. K.

https://hdl.handle.net/10388/14842
Downloaded from HARVEST, University of Saskatchewan's Repository for Research
 The Sport Performance Perceptions

Scale (SPPS) Manual

© April 2023
College of Kinesiology
University of Saskatchewan
87 Campus Dr
Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Margo E. K. Adam, Ph.D. Leah J. Ferguson, Ph.D. Amber D. Mosewich, Ph.D. Kent C. Kowalski, Ph.D.
Faculty of Kinesiology, College of Kinesiology Faculty of Kinesiology, College of Kinesiology
Sport, and Recreation University of Saskatchewan Sport, and Recreation University of Saskatchewan
University of Alberta 87 Campus Dr University of Alberta 87 Campus Dr
Edmonton, Alberta, Saskatoon, SK, Canada Edmonton, Alberta, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
Canada Canada
THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

What is the Purpose of the SPPS?

The 32-item Sport Performance Perceptions Scale (SPPS) was created to measure

athletes’ self-reported and retrospective perceptions of sport performance (Adam, 2019). It

arose from a research need for a measure of sport performance that can be used across various

sports. Researchers currently use a variety of instruments to measure sport performance,

including: time trials (Currell & Jeukendrup, 2008), accelerometers (Sato et al., 2009),

anthropometric measures (Santos et al., 2014), movement screens (Kraus et al., 2014), and

tests of muscular endurance (Hawley et al., 1992). Researchers have also developed single-

item self-report measures of perceived sport performance (e.g., Doorley et al., 2022; Robazza

et al., 2008), but these might not adequately capture the complexities of sport. The SPPS is a

multidimensional self-report measure of perceived athletic performance that requires minimal

time to administer, requires minimal administrator training, requires low to no financial

resources, and can be used by athletes participating in any sport.

What Does the SPPS Measure?

To measure sport performance perceptions, a multidimensional model was developed.

Items were created while considering aspects of the train-to-compete and train-to-win stages

of the Long-Term Athlete Development model (Sport for Life Society, 2019), content from

the Game Performance Assessment Inventory (Oslin, et al., 1998), existing single-item

measures of sport performance (e.g., Doorley et al., 2022; Robazza et al., 2008), and athlete

monitoring questions commonly used by elite athlete trainers within a sport medicine clinic

context (with permission). The process of item development was iterative, and included

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 2

THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

ongoing consultation with kinesiology faculty members who specialized in sport performance.

The newly developed measure, the Sport Performance Perceptions Scale (SPPS) is a 32-item

measure that assesses general, training-specific, and competition-specific contexts, and is

premised on five dimensions of sport performance perceptions (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Conceptual model of the SPPS

Administration of the SPPS

The SPPS is meant to be used with a diverse range of athletes over the age of fourteen.

In order to facilitate the use of the SPPS, items were written at the sixth grade reading level.

The SPPS is meant to be self-administered and can be completed individually or in a group

setting. The measure administrator should aim to remove all distractions from the assessment

environment, and ensure that all participants have the proper materials to complete the

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 3

THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

assessment. Before administering the SPPS, the measure administrator should tell the

participant(s): (a) about the purpose of the questionnaire; (b) not to spend too much time on

any one statement, as there are no right or wrong answers; (c) the importance of reading each

item carefully and responding truthfully; and (d) that they may ask questions if they are

unsure about the content or wording of any of the items. While there is no time limit for

administration, most athletes are expected to take about 6-10 minutes to complete the

measure.

Interpretation of the SPPS

The 32-item SPPS is comprised of five subscales: athlete development (6 items, e.g., “I

complete training that is event or position specific”), mastery and improvement (7 items, e.g.,

“when I am training I am focused on improving my sport specific skills”), strategy and

preparedness (7 items, e.g., “I am confident making strategic decisions during competition”),

recovery and injury prevention (8 items, e.g., “I take rest after a big competition to improve

my recovery”), and psychological skills (4 items, e.g., “I feel like I can manage my emotions

in my training”). Responses range from 1 (almost never) to 7 (almost always), with higher

mean scores for each subscale and overall global scores representing higher sport performance

perceptions.

To compute a global SPPS score, compute the mean of all 32 scale items. To compute

the individual scores for the SPSS subscales, compute the mean of the following items:

• Athlete Development (SPPS-AD): 1, 3, 4, 23, 24, 29

• Mastery and Development (SPPS-MD): 2, 5, 6, 9, 10, 20, 21

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 4

THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

• Strategy and Preparedness (SPPS-SP): 7, 15, 16, 25, 26, 27, 28

• Recovery and Injury Prevention (SPPS-RP): 8, 17, 18, 19, 22, 30, 31, 32

• Psychological Skills (SSPS-PS): 11, 12, 13, 14

There are no clinical norms or scores to indicate whether an individual’s perceived sport

performance is high or low. Rather, SPPS scores should be used in a comparative manner to

examine outcomes for people scoring higher or lower in perceived sport performance.

Reliability and Validity of the SPPS

The results of initial psychometric assessments (SEM) support that the SPPS is

multidimensional and aligned with the intended conceptual model; and has acceptable

reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .89 – .94). However, further development of the SPPS is

needed including the refinement of factor structure; evaluation of reliability over time and

between samples; and the content, construct, and criterion validity of the measure for athletes

across all levels of competition. Lastly, potential ceiling effects were observed for the SPPS;

therefore, future researchers might consider increasing the size of the scale by which

participants respond to each item (e.g., from seven points to ten points).

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 5

THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

The Sport Performance Perceptions Scale

Instructions: Please read each statement carefully before answering. To the right of each item, indicate
how often you behave in the stated manner in your primary sport.
About
Almost half of Almost
never the time always
1. I recognize that I have a 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
primary sport.
2. I take my training seriously. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3. I complete training that is 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
event or position specific.
4. I complete all of my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
training.
5. When I am training I am 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
focused on improving my
sport specific skills.
6. I am more interested in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
improving in my sport than
winning.
7. I eat food that helps me 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
train and compete well in
my sport.
8. I get at least 7 hours of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
sleep every night.
9. I feel confident in my sport 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
specific skills in training
situations.
10. I feel confident in my sport 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
specific skills in
competition situations.
11. I feel like I can manage my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
emotions in my training.
12. I feel like I can manage my 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
emotions in competition.
13. I am able to stay focused 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
when I am training.
14. I am able to stay focused 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
when I am competing.
15. I feel confident in my level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of fitness when training for
my sport.
16. I feel confident in my level 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
of fitness when competing
in my sport.

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 6

THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

17. I take rest from training 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

when I am told to.
18. I take rest from competition 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
when I am told to.
19. I complete all of my rest 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
and recovery activities.
20. In my training I always try 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to do my best.
21. In competition I always try 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
to do my best.
22. I take rest after a big 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
competition to improve my
recovery.
23. I am able to accurately 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
identify areas for growth in
my sport.
24. I am able to take feedback 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
from coaches and other
athletes constructively.
25. During competition I follow 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
the plans set by my coach.
26. I am confident making 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
strategic decisions during
competition.
27. I recognize situations in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
competition when I should
think strategically.
28. I recognize situations in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
training when I should
think strategically.
29. When training I recognize 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
when I can help other
athletes/teammates with
their training.
30. I can tell the difference 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
between being sore and
being hurt.
31. When injured I do what I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
can to heal fully before
returning to my training.
32. When injured I do what I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
can to heal fully before
returning to competition.

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 7

 THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

References

Adam, M. E. K. (2019). Exploring women athletes’ self-compassion, sport performance

perceptions, and well-being across the competitive season: A mixed methods approach

[Doctoral dissertation]. University of Saskatchewan. HARVEST.

Currell, K. & Jeukendrup, A. E. (2008). Validity, reliability and sensitivity of measures of

sporting performance. Sports Medicine, 38(4), 297–316. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-

200838040-00003

Doorley, J. D., Kashdan, T. B., Weppner, C. H., & Glass, C. R. (2022). The effects of self-

compassion on daily emotion regulation and performance rebound among college athletes:

Comparisons with confidence, grit, and hope. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 58,

Article 102081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102081

Hawley, J. A., Williams, M. M., Vickovic, M. M., & Handcock, P. J. (1992). Muscle power

predicts freestyle swimming performance. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 26(3), 151-

155. http://doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.26.3.151

Kraus, K., Schütz, E., Taylor, W. R., & Doyscher, R. (2014). Efficacy of the functional

movement screen: A review. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(12),

3571-3584. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000000556

Santos, D. A., Dawson, J. A., Matias, C. N., Rocha, P. M., Minderico, C. S., Allison, D. B.,

Sardinha, L. B., & Silva, A. M. (2014). Reference values for body composition and

anthropometric measurements in athletes. PloS one, 9(5), Article e97846.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0097846

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 8

 THE SPORT PERFORMANCE PERCEPTIONS SCALE MANUAL

Sato, K., Smith, S. L., & Sands, W. A. (2009). Validation of an accelerometer for measuring

sport performance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(1), 341-347,

https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181876a01

Sport for Life (2019). Long Term Development in Sport and Physical Activity.

https://sportforlife.ca/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Long-Term-Development-in-Sport-and-

Physical-Activity-3.0.pdf

Oslin, J. L., Mitchell, S. A., & Griffin, L. L. (1998). The game performance assessment

instrument (GPAI): Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Teaching in

Physical Education, 17(2), 231-243. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.17.2.231

Robazza, C., Pellizzari, M., Bertollo, M., & Hanin, Y. L. (2008). Functional impact of emotions

on athletic performance: Comparing the IZOF model and the directional perception

approach. Journal of Sport Sciences, 26(10), 1033-1047.

https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410802027352

© ADAM, FERGUSON, MOSEWICH, KOWALSKI, 2023 9