chemistry

project

Rusting of ir

Name – raj shekhar

Class-12
Sec-e
Roll no –40
Subject- chemistry
 Acknowledgement
I would like to take this
opportunityto thank my chemistry
teacher mr. Sanjay singh as well as
our school principal mr.m.k Sinha who
gave me such an amazing
opportunity to do this wonderful
project.
Also I wish to thank my parents &
friends who helped me a lot in
collecting data ,picture and
continuous help and support.
Finally I would wish to thank
everyone involved in this project
time.
 The study of rusting of iron

introduction
Rust is an iron oxide, a usually reddish-brown oxide formed by the reaction of iron and
oxygen in the catalytic presence of water or air moisture. Rust consists of hydrous iron(III)
oxides (Fe2O3·nH2O) and iron(III) oxide-hydroxide (FeO(OH), Fe(OH)3), and is typically
associated with the corrosion of refined iron.

Given sufficient time, any iron mass, in the presence of water and oxygen, could eventually
convert entirely to rust. Surface rust is commonly flaky and friable, and provides no
passivational protection to the underlying iron, unlike the formation of patina on copper
surfaces. Rusting is the common term for corrosion of elemental iron and its alloys such as
steel. Many other metals undergo similar corrosion, but the resulting oxides are not
commonly called "rust".

Several forms of rust are distinguishable both visually and by

spectroscopy, and form under different circumstances. Other
forms of rust include the result of reactions between iron
and chloride in an environment deprived of oxygen. Rebar
used in underwater concrete pillars, which generates green
rust, is an example. Although rusting is generally a negative
aspect of iron, a particular form of rusting, known as stable
rust, causes the object to have a thin coating of rust over the top. If kept in low relative
humidity, it makes the "stable" layer protective to the iron below, but not to the extent of
other oxides such as aluminium oxide on aluminium.

Chemical reactions
Heavy rust on the links of a chain near the Golden Gate Bridge in San Francisco; it was
continuously exposed to moisture and salt spray, causing surface breakdown, cracking, and
flaking of the metal

Rust scale forming and flaking off from a steel bar heated to
its forging temperature of 1200°C. Rapid oxidation occurs
when heated steel is exposed to air

Rust is a general name for a complex of oxides and

hydroxides of iron,[4] which occur when iron or some alloys
that contain iron are exposed to oxygen and moisture for a
long period of time. Over time, the oxygen combines with
the metal forming new compounds collectively called rust. Although rust may generally be
termed as "oxidation", that term is much more general and describes a vast number of
processes involving the loss of electrons or increased oxidation state, as part of a reaction.
The best-known of these reactions involve oxygen, hence the name "oxidation". The terms
"rust" and "rusting" only mean oxidation of iron and its resulting products. Many other
oxidation reactions exist which do not involve iron or produce rust. But only iron or alloys
that contain iron can rust. However, other metals can corrode in similar ways.

The main catalyst for the rusting process is water. Iron or steel structures might appear to
be solid, but water molecules can penetrate the microscopic pits and cracks in any exposed
metal. The hydrogen atoms present in water molecules can combine with other elements
to form acids, which will eventually cause more metal to be exposed. If chloride ions are
present, as is the case with saltwater, the corrosion is likely to occur more quickly.
Meanwhile, the oxygen atoms combine with metallic atoms to form the destructive oxide
compound. As the atoms combine, they weaken the metal, making the structure brittle and
crumbly.

Oxidation of iron
When iron is in contact with water and oxygen, it rusts. [5] If salt is present, for example in
seawater or salt spray, the iron tends to rust more quickly, as a result of chemical reactions.
Iron metal is relatively unaffected by pure water or by dry oxygen. As with other metals,
like aluminium, a tightly adhering oxide coating, a passivation layer, protects the bulk iron
from further oxidation. The conversion of the passivating ferrous oxide layer to rust results
from the combined action of two agents, usually oxygen and water.

Other degrading solutions are sulfur dioxide in water and carbon dioxide in water. Under
these corrosive conditions, iron hydroxide species are formed. Unlike ferrous oxides, the
hydroxides do not adhere to the bulk metal. As they form and flake off from the surface,
fresh iron is exposed, and the corrosion process continues until either all of the iron is
consumed or all of the oxygen, water, carbon dioxide or sulfur dioxide in the system are
removed or consumed.[6]

When iron rusts, the oxides take up more volume than the original metal; this expansion
can generate enormous forces, damaging structures made with iron. See economic effect
for more details.

Associated reactions

The rusting of iron is an electrochemical process that begins with the transfer of electrons
from iron to oxygen.[7] The iron is the reducing agent (gives up electrons) while the oxygen
is the oxidizing agent (gains electrons). The rate of corrosion is affected by water and
accelerated by electrolytes, as illustrated by the effects of road salt on the corrosion of
automobiles. The key reaction is the reduction of oxygen:
 O2 + 4 e− + 2 H2O → 4 OH−

Because it forms hydroxide ions, this process is strongly affected by the presence of acid.
Likewise, the corrosion of most metals by oxygen is accelerated at low pH. Providing the
electrons for the above reaction is the oxidation of iron that may be described as follows:

Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e−

The following redox reaction also occurs in the presence of water and is crucial to the
formation of rust:

4 Fe2+ + O2 → 4 Fe3+ + 2 O2−

In addition, the following multistep acid–base reactions affect the course of rust formation:

Fe2+ + 2 H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)2 + 2 H+

Fe3+ + 3 H2O ⇌ Fe(OH)3 + 3 H+

as do the following dehydration equilibria:

Fe(OH)2 ⇌ FeO + H2O

Fe(OH)3 ⇌ FeO(OH) + H2O
2 FeO(OH) ⇌ Fe2O3 + H2O

From the above equations, it is also seen that the corrosion products are dictated by the
availability of water and oxygen. With limited dissolved oxygen, iron(II)-containing materials
are favoured, including FeO and black lodestone or magnetite (Fe3O4). High oxygen
concentrations favour ferric materials with the nominal formulae Fe(OH)3−xOx⁄2. The nature
of rust changes with time, reflecting the slow rates of the reactions of solids.[5]

Furthermore, these complex processes are affected by the presence of other ions, such as
Ca2+, which serve as electrolytes which accelerate rust formation, or combine with the
hydroxides and oxides of iron to precipitate a variety of Ca, Fe, O, OH species.

The onset of rusting can also be detected in the laboratory with the use of ferroxyl indicator
solution. The solution detects both Fe2+ ions and hydroxyl ions. Formation of Fe2+ ions and
hydroxyl ions are indicated by blue and pink patches respectively.

Prevention

Because of the widespread use and importance of iron and steel products, the prevention
or slowing of rust is the basis of major economic activities in a number of specialized
technologies. A brief overview of methods is presented here; for detailed coverage, see the
cross-referenced articles.

Rust is permeable to air and water, therefore the interior metallic iron beneath a rust layer
continues to corrode. Rust prevention thus requires coatings that preclude rust formation.

Rust-resistant alloys
See also: Stainless steel and Weathering steel

Stainless steel forms a passivation layer of chromium(III) oxide.[8][9] Similar passivation

behavior occurs with magnesium, titanium, zinc, zinc oxides, aluminium, polyaniline, and
other electroactive conductive polymers.

Special "weathering steel" alloys such as Cor-Ten rust at a much slower rate than normal,
because the rust adheres to the surface of the metal in a protective layer. Designs using this
material must include measures that avoid worst-case exposures since the material still
continues to rust slowly even under near-ideal conditions.[11]

Use Stainless steel

Stainless steel is an alloy of iron that is resistant to
rusting and corrosion. It contains at least 11% chromium
and may contain elements such as carbon and other
nonmetals to obtain other desired properties. Stainless
steel's resistance to corrosion results from the chromium,
which forms a passive film that can protect the material
and self-heal in the presence of oxygen.[1]: 3

The alloy's properties, such as luster and resistance to

corrosion, are useful in many applications. Stainless steel can be rolled into sheets, plates,
bars, wire, and tubing. These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major
appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.g., in
paper mills, chemical plants, water treatment), and storage tanks and tankers for chemicals
and food products.

The biological cleanability of stainless steel is superior to both aluminium and copper, and
comparable to glass.[2] Its cleanability, strength, and corrosion resistance have prompted
the use of stainless steel in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.[3]

Different types of stainless steel are labeled with an AISI three-digit number.[4] The ISO
15510 standard lists the chemical compositions of stainless steels of the specifications in
existing ISO, ASTM, EN, JIS, and GB standards in a useful interchange table.
Treatment
Rust removal from small iron or steel objects by electrolysis can be done in a home
workshop using simple materials such as a plastic bucket filled with an electrolyte consisting
of washing soda dissolved in tap water, a length of rebar suspended vertically in the
solution to act as an anode, another laid across the top of the bucket to act as a support for
suspending the object, baling wire to suspend the object in the solution from the horizontal
rebar, and a battery charger as a power source in which the positive terminal is clamped to
the anode and the negative terminal is clamped to the object to be treated which becomes
the cathode.[21]

Rust may be treated with commercial products known as rust converter which contain
tannic acid or phosphoric acid which combines with rust; removed with organic acids like
citric acid and vinegar or the stronger hydrochloric acid; or removed with chelating agents
as in some commercial formulations or even a solution of molasses.[22]

Economic effect
Rust is associated with the degradation of iron-based tools and structures. As rust has a
much higher volume than the originating mass of iron, its buildup can also cause failure by
forcing apart adjacent parts — a phenomenon sometimes known as "rust packing". It was
the cause of the collapse of the Mianus river bridge in 1983, when the bearings rusted
internally and pushed one corner of the road slab off its support.

Rust was an important factor in the Silver Bridge disaster of 1967 in West Virginia, when a
steel suspension bridge collapsed in less than a minute, killing 46 drivers and passengers on
the bridge at the time. The Kinzua Bridge in Pennsylvania was blown down by a tornado in
2003, largely because the central base bolts holding the structure to the ground had rusted
away, leaving the bridge anchored by gravity alone.

Reinforced concrete is also vulnerable to rust damage. Internal pressure caused by

expanding corrosion of concrete-covered steel and iron can cause the concrete to spall,
creating severe structural problems. It is one of the most common failure modes of
reinforced concrete bridges and buildings.

Experiment to show that air and

water are necessary for rusting.
 1. In an absolutely clean and dry lest tube (a) place about 2 g of anhydrous

1. and then a shining iron nail.

2. Stopper the test tube and place it aside for a week.
3. The anhydrous calcium chloride is used to absorb moisture from the enclosed air.
4. It is seen that the nail does not rust. Thus, we can conclude that dry air does not
cause rusting.

5. Fill 3/4 of another test tube with water (b) which is already boiled, so that it does not
contain any dissolved air.

6.Over the water, pour 1 cc of any oil so as to cut off the atmospheric air.

7.In the water place a shining nail and stopper the test tube. After a week, it is seen that the
nail does not rust

Galvanization
Galvanization consists of an application on the object to be protected of a layer of metallic
zinc by either hot-dip galvanizing or electroplating. Zinc is traditionally used because it is
cheap, adheres well to steel, and provides cathodic protection to the steel surface in case of
damage of the zinc layer. In more corrosive environments (such as salt water), cadmium
plating is preferred. Galvanization often fails at seams, holes, and joints where there are
gaps in the coating. In these cases, the coating still provides some partial cathodic
protection to iron, by acting as a galvanic anode and corroding itself instead of the
underlying protected metal. The protective zinc layer is consumed by this action, and thus
galvanization provides protection only for a limited period of time.

More modern coatings add aluminium to the coating as zinc-alume; aluminium will migrate
to cover scratches and thus provide protection for a longer period. These approaches rely
on the aluminium and zinc oxides protecting a once-scratched surface, rather than oxidizing
as a sacrificial anode as in traditional galvanized coatings. In some cases, such as very
aggressive environments or long design life, both zinc and a coating are applied to provide
enhanced corrosion protection.

Typical galvanization of steel products that are to be subjected to normal day-to-day

weathering in an outside environment consists of a hot-dipped 85 µm zinc coating. Under
normal weather conditions, this will deteriorate at a rate of 1 µm per year, giving
approximately 85 years of protection.[12]

Cathodic protection
Cathodic protection is a technique used to inhibit corrosion on buried or immersed
structures by supplying an electrical charge that suppresses the electrochemical reaction. If
correctly applied, corrosion can be stopped completely. In its simplest form, it is achieved
by attaching a sacrificial anode, thereby making the iron or steel the cathode in the cell
formed. The sacrificial anode must be made from something with a more negative
electrode potential than the iron or steel, commonly zinc, aluminium, or magnesium. The
sacrificial anode will eventually corrode away, ceasing its protective action unless it is
replaced in a timely manner.

Cathodic protection can also be provided by using an applied electrical current. This would
then be known as ICCP Impressed Current Cathodic Protection.[13]

Coatings and painting

Flaking paint, exposing a patch of surface rust on sheet metal

Rust formation can be controlled with coatings, such as paint, lacquer, varnish, or wax
tapes[14] that isolate the iron from the environment.[15] Large structures with enclosed box
sections, such as ships and modern automobiles, often have a wax-based product
(technically a "slushing oil") injected into these sections. Such treatments usually also
contain rust inhibitors. Covering steel with concrete can provide some protection to steel
because of the alkaline pH environment at the steel–concrete interface. However, rusting
of steel in concrete can still be a problem, as expanding rust can fracture concrete from
within.[16][17]

As a closely related example, iron clamps were used to

join marble blocks during a restoration attempt of the
Parthenon in Athens, Greece, in 1898, but caused
extensive damage to the marble by the rusting and
swelling of unprotected iron. The ancient Greek builders
had used a similar fastening system for the marble
blocks during construction, however, they also poured
molten lead over the iron joints for protection from
seismic shocks as well as from corrosion. This method was
successful for the 2500-year-old structure, but in less than a
century the crude repairs were in imminent danger of
collapse.[18]

When only temporary protection is needed for storage or

transport, a thin layer of oil, grease or a special mixture such
as Cosmoline can be applied to an iron surface. Such
treatments are extensively used when "mothballing" a steel ship, automobile, or other
equipment for long-term storage.

Special anti-seize lubricant mixtures are available and are applied to metallic threads and
other precision machined surfaces to protect them from rust. These compounds usually
contain grease mixed with copper, zinc, or aluminium powder, and other proprietary
ingredients.[19

bibliography
References
 • "Rust, n.1 and adj". OED Online. Oxford University Press. June 2018. Retrieved 7
July 2018.
• "Interview, David Des Marais". NASA. 2003. Archived from the original on
2007-11-13.
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(PDF). depotwijzer. Parks Canada. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 August
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(2014-02-14). Ohmic Heating in Food Processing. CRC Press. ISBN 9781420071092.
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• Heinz, Norbert. "Corrosion prevention - HomoFaciens". www.homofaciens.de.
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• "Formation of stable passive film on stainless steel by electrochemical deposition of
polypyrrole". Electrochimica Acta.
• "Weathering Steel". azom.com. AZoM. 28 June 2016. Retrieved 2022-09-13. The
steel is allowed to rust and because of its alloy composition rusts more slowly than
conventional steel and the rust forms a protective coating slowing the rate of future
corrosion
• "Steel corrosion protection - Durability - Structural steel". greenspec.co.uk.
greenspec. Retrieved 2022-09-13. For atmospheric corrosion, refer to the Galvanizers
Association Millennium Map of average zinc corrosion rates. About 50% of England
and Wales has a rate of under 1µm/year
• "Cathodic Protection Systems - Matcor, Inc". Matcor, Inc. Archived from the original
on 2017-03-30. Retrieved 2017-03-29.
• "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2018-03-23. Retrieved
2018-03-22.
• Schweitzer, Philip A (2007). Corrosion engineering handbook. Boca Raton: CRC
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• "Corrosion of Embedded Metals". cement.org. Portland Cement Association.
Retrieved 9 July 2021.
• "Rust Wedge: Expanding rust is a force strong enough to shatter concrete".
exploratorium.edu. 17 April 2018. Retrieved 9 July 2021.
• Hadingham, Evan. "Unlocking Mysteries of the Parthenon". smithsonianmag.com.
Retrieved 9 July 2021.
• "Anti-seize Compounds Information". globalspec.com. Engineering 360. Retrieved 9
July 2021.
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• "Rust Removal using Electrolysis". antique-engines.com. Archived from the original
on March 30, 2015. Retrieved April 1, 2015.
• "Rust Removal with Molasses". Archived from the original on September 25, 2016.
Retrieved November 29, 2017.
 Index

• Acknowledgement
• Certificate
• Introduction
• Experiment
• Chemical reaction
• Prevention
• Galvanization
• bibliography