aerospace

Article
Potential Propulsive and Aerodynamic Benefits of a New
Aircraft Concept: A Low-Speed Experimental Study
Pedro D. Bravo-Mosquera * , Hernán D. Cerón-Muñoz and Fernando M. Catalano

Department of Aeronautical Engineering, São Carlos Engineering School, University of São Paulo,
Avenida João Dagnone, nº 1100, São Carlos 13563-120, Brazil; catalano@sc.usp.br (F.M.C.)
* Correspondence: pdbravom@usp.br

Abstract: The aerodynamic design of a new aircraft concept was investigated through subsonic wind-
tunnel testing using 1:28-scale powered models. The aircraft configuration integrates a box-wing
layout with engines located at the rear part of the fuselage. Measurements involved a back-to-back
comparison between two aircraft models: a podded version whose engines were assembled on
pylons and a boundary-layer ingestion (BLI) version that provided several system-level benefits. The
flowfield was investigated through the power balance method and a variety of pressure flowfield and
inlet flow distortion metrics. The results proved that the BLI configuration enhances the propulsive
efficiency by reducing both the electrical power coefficient and the kinetic energy waste due to lower
jet velocities. Furthermore, there was a reduction of the total pressure recovery due to pressure
gradients inside the duct, thereby causing high distortion. Overall, this research highlights the
importance of wind-tunnel testing to bring any aerodynamic technology to a sufficient level of
maturity and to enable future new aircraft concepts.

Keywords: box-wing; boundary-layer ingestion; wind-tunnel test; power balance; total pressure recovery

Citation: Bravo-Mosquera, P.D.; 1. Introduction

Cerón-Muñoz, H.D.; Catalano, F.M.
Designing new aircraft concepts that aim to reduce climate change is a crucial aspect of
Potential Propulsive and
the ongoing efforts to mitigate the environmental impact of aviation. The objective behind
Aerodynamic Benefits of a New
these designs is to develop aircraft that are more fuel efficient, emit fewer greenhouse
Aircraft Concept: A Low-Speed
gases, and minimize other detrimental effects on the environment. One area of focus is
Experimental Study. Aerospace 2023,
10, 651. https://doi.org/10.3390/
improving aerodynamic efficiency by incorporating features such as blended-wing bodies,
aerospace10070651
non-planar wings, or unconventional wingtip designs that enhance lift-to-drag ratios. These
improvements reduce the amount of fuel required to propel the aircraft, thus resulting in
Academic Editors: Karim Abu Salem lower carbon dioxide (CO2 ) emissions [1]. Furthermore, advanced propulsion systems, such
and Daniel Ossmann
as hybrid-electric propulsion, boundary-layer Ingestion (BLI) engines, hydrogen fuel cells,
Received: 12 June 2023 and others, can reduce the reliance on conventional jet engines and fossil fuels [2,3]. Another
Revised: 15 July 2023 consideration is the use of lightweight and sustainable materials in aircraft construction.
Accepted: 18 July 2023 Utilizing advanced composite materials or bio-based materials can reduce the weight of
Published: 20 July 2023 the aircraft, thereby leading to decreased fuel consumption and emissions [4].
Several concepts have been proposed over the past few years based on such technolo-
gies, thus encouraging the further exploration of unconventional aircraft for long-term
sustainable flying. Some configurations include the blended-wing body (BWB), which
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. merges the fuselage and wings into a single, smoothly blended structure. The BWB offers
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
improved aerodynamic efficiency, increased passenger capacity, and potential fuel savings
This article is an open access article
due to a reduced drag and an increased lift-to-drag ratio [5,6]. The box-wing concept is
distributed under the terms and
characterized by multiple wing sections that are interconnected to form a box-like structure.
conditions of the Creative Commons
Box-wings offer potential advantages, such as an improved lift-to-drag ratio, increased
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
stability, and a reduced weight [7,8]. Truss-braced wings incorporate additional structural
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
supports, wherein they resemble a truss structure between the wings and the fuselage.
4.0/).

Aerospace 2023, 10, 651. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10070651 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/aerospace

Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 2 of 26

These supports alleviate bending moments on the wings, thus allowing for longer and
thinner wings, which reduce the structural weight, and increase the lift-to-drag ratio [9,10].
The double-bubble D8 concept features a unique fuselage design with a double-bubble
cross-section. The reduced frontal area and the lift generated by the low-sweep wing
contribute to a lower drag and an improved performance. This concept also involves
positioning the engines at the rear of the fuselage to ingest the boundary layer [11,12]. The
propulsive fuselage concept (PFC) uses an aft-fuselage BLI fan to maximize the wake-filling
potential, thereby improving propulsive efficiency [13,14].
These unconventional configurations represent innovative approaches in aircraft de-
sign with the aim of achieving greater fuel efficiency and improved sustainability. However,
extensive studies, such as computational simulations and wind tunnel testing, are being
conducted to assess their feasibility in order to refine and validate their performance for
commercial aviation. For the context of this article, wind-tunnel experiments play a crucial
role in the design and validation of unconventional aircraft. They allow engineers to eval-
uate the aerodynamic performance of these designs and to validate their computational
models before moving on to expensive and time-consuming flight testing. A literature
review of the related studies reveals the importance of such results. These experiments
have provided valuable insights into aerodynamic efficiency, structural loads, and control
characteristics, thereby enabling researchers to refine and optimize the performance of
unconventional aircraft designs. In a study by Carter et al. [15], the focus was on experi-
mental research to evaluate the capability of highly integrated propulsion systems using
BLI inlets on a BWB design. The study aimed to determine the potential advantages of
employing active flow control in conjunction with BLI inlets, as this combination has the
ability to mitigate inlet distortion and prevent flow separation, thereby leading to reduc-
tions in both the ram and viscous drag. The findings revealed significant benefits, including
a noteworthy reduction of up to 10% in fuel consumption compared to configurations
with pylon-mounted engines. On the other hand, the experimental evaluations of the
double-bubble D8 aircraft indicated power savings resulting from the BLI in the range
of 6% to 8% for a zero net stream-wise force, which represents the cruise condition [12].
These investigations aimed to compare the performance of a BLI concept against a non-BLI
concept through a direct comparison. The testing was conducted at the NASA Langley
subsonic wind tunnel using two powered models at a scale of 1:11. The models were tested
at velocities of 31.3 m/s and 37.5 m/s, which corresponded to Reynolds numbers based
on the model’s reference chords of 5.7 × 105 and 6.8 × 105 , respectively. In this paper, the
use of the power balance method as the theoretical framework to determine the benefits
of BLI ensured minimal impacts from Reynolds number variations, thereby allowing for
the scaling of low-speed results to actual flight Reynolds numbers [16–18]. In recent years,
experimental investigations have placed an emphasis on axi-symmetric PFC aircraft [19,20].
These studies focused on characterizing the flowfield surrounding the BLI propulsor and
on evaluating the aerodynamic forces and moments under various flight conditions. To
ensure similarity between the wind-tunnel results and full-scale aircraft, the size of the
propulsor was scaled to maintain the same ratio between the fan diameter and the fuselage
momentum thickness at the fan location. The findings revealed that a PFC, utilizing an
ideal BLI propulsor under axial equilibrium conditions and a Reynolds number based on
the wing mean chord of approximately 4.6 × 105 , can achieve a power saving of around 5%.
This literature review reveals that previous experimental studies have effectively
showcased the advantages of employing BLI across a wide range of geometries and electric
propulsion systems. Note that the power balance method has been used as a theoretical
framework to evaluate those tightly integrated propulsion concepts. One key advantage
of this method is its comprehensive consideration of all the power losses occurring on the
aircraft, thus encompassing both propulsive losses from the power plant and momentum
losses from the airframe’s surface boundary layer. Consequently, this study also adopted the
power balance method approach, in conjunction with conventional thrust–drag calculations,
to effectively assess the impact of BLI.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 3 of 26

This article specifically focuses on investigating the aerodynamic characteristics of a

proposed aircraft through subsonic wind-tunnel experiments. Through detailed analyses,
a deeper understanding of the various systems involved in this configuration has been
obtained. For instance, the study examines the impact of the box-wing layout on reducing
induced drag and quantifies the BLI parameters by conducting flow surveys at specific
motor power inputs. The experimental measurements of the aerodynamic forces were
conducted on a scale model of the aircraft, wherein we compared a non-BLI version with
nacelles assembled on pylons to a BLI version with rear semi-buried engines. Various
aspects were evaluated, including aerodynamic forces at different angles of attack, power
sweeps, wake mapping, and total pressure rake measurements. These investigations aimed
to assess the relative contributions of each configuration to the overall performance of the
aircraft. The outline of this paper is as follows: an overview of the aircraft is described in
Section 2. The experimental setup, analyses, and procedures are detailed and discussed in
Section 3. This section describes the wind tunnel facility, the test conditions, the metrics
used in the experimental procedures, and the measurement uncertainty and repeatability.
Section 4 reports preliminary results at the simulated sub-scale conditions with a non-BLI
configuration compared to the BLI configuration. The paper concludes with a summary of
the most important findings and discussions of future works in Section 5.

2. Outline of the Project

The Department of Aeronautical Engineering at the São Carlos School of Engineering—
University of São Paulo (EESC—USP) has designed four distinct aircraft geometries in
recent years, which have placed particular emphasis on engine integration. These con-
figurations are illustrated in Figure 1. The first design is a conventional tube-and-wing
configuration based on the Airbus A320neo [21] (Figure 1a). The second configuration is
an unpowered variant featuring a conventional fuselage, a box-wing layout, and a single
vertical tail (Figure 1b). The third design incorporates a box-wing layout with podded
engines (non-BLI) (Figure 1c). Lastly, the fourth configuration adopts a box-wing layout
with semi-buried engines employing BLI (Figure 1d). It is worth noting that the wings
and forward-fuselage geometries remain identical across all BW configurations. The un-
powered and non-BLI configurations share the same rear fuselage design, except for the
engine pods. Additionally, the fuselage length of all models matches that of the reference
conventional aircraft.

(a) Conventional reference. (b) Unpowered configuration.

(c) Non-BLI configuration. (d) BLI configuration.

Figure 1. General view of the designed configurations. Source: Bravo-Mosquera et al. [22].
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 4 of 26

Numerous studies and research efforts have been dedicated to the pursuit of devel-
oping an optimal aircraft concept. These studies encompass a wide range of disciplines,
including aerodynamics, propulsion systems, and structural design. The objective has been
to explore innovative approaches and technologies that can enhance aircraft performance.
The aircraft was designed using a low-fidelity conceptual-level multi-disciplinary design
optimization (MDO) tool. Following the initial sizing and sensitivity analyses, a single-
objective optimization study was conducted to explore the relationship between the fuel
burned per passenger per kilometer and the aircraft size within the box-wing concept. The
aircraft’s nominal range was set to 1852 km, with an additional 805 km allocated for reserve
and a maximum passenger capacity of 165 individuals. The optimization process employed
a genetic algorithm (GA), which accounted for various design variables, including wing
geometric properties such as the aspect ratio, height-to-span ratio, stagger-to-span ratio,
and others. Additionally, performance characteristics such as the initial cruise altitude,
wing area, and maximum required thrust were considered, while design constraints were
established based on top-level requirements and operational considerations, including
the available wing fuel volume. In parallel, research has focused on developing new
BLI propulsors, which have the potential to reduce the drag and weight, while it has
also investigated improving the propulsive efficiency by reducing the velocity losses at
the exhaust.
In comparison to a conventional tube-and-wing (CTW) concept, this unconventional
aircraft demonstrated a significant reduction in the fuel burned of approximately 12%. This
improvement was attributed to two main factors: the efficient reduction in the induced drag
through the implementation of the box-wing system and the ingestion of the boundary
layer that forms along the fuselage. It is worth noting that the study did not explore
innovative materials or engine-core technology. However, with anticipated technological
advancements over the next 20 years, it is expected that fuel burn savings of up to 30% can
be achieved when compared to a conventional configuration using technologies from 2020.
For more details, please refer to [22,23].

3. Experimental Setup
3.1. Wind-Tunnel Facility
The experimental measurements were carried out at the LAE-1 wind tunnel located at
the EESC—USP. The wind tunnel features a test section with a rectangular cross-section
measuring 3.0 m in length, 1.3 m in height, and 1.7 m in width. Powered by a 110 HP
electric motor, the wind tunnel is equipped with an eight-blade fan capable of generating
speeds up to 40 m/s in the test section. Recent updates to the wind tunnel, specifically
for aeroacoustic measurements, reduced the turbulence levels from the original 0.25% to
0.21% [24–26].
Figure 2 illustrates a schematic representation of the model inside the wind tunnel.
The model was connected to a pitch–strut system located near the quarter chord of the
fore wing, which enabled control over both the angle of attack and the model height. The
pitch–strut system comprised a strut, a threaded rod (NC4-32), and a stepper motor drive
(KTC-5034-349-K). To calibrate the pitch–strut system, the relationship between the number
of steps taken by the motor and the angle of attack of the model was verified [27]. The
step motor offers a static torque of 1.86 N · m, with a step angle of 1.8◦ and a precision of
5%, as well as a continuous power of 25 W. The model was positioned vertically, thereby
ensuring that, while the angle of attack changed, a reference point at the root of the fore
wing remained centered within the tunnel. The uncertainty in model positioning within
the test section, in the Y and Z directions, was approximately ±1 cm.
It is important to note that, at the zero angle of attack, the 1:28 scale model experienced
a wind-tunnel blockage of approximately 2.39%. To account for the interaction effects
between the wind-tunnel walls and the model’s boundary layer, computational fluid
dynamics (CFDs) simulations were employed. These simulations were used to correct for
the confined flowfield and relate it to an equivalent free stream flowfield. Two Reynolds-
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 5 of 26

averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) simulations were conducted for this purpose: one within
the wind tunnel and another in free air. Both simulations utilized a no-slip boundary
condition on the computational domain walls [28]. By adopting this approach, it was
possible to rectify the wake blockage and the angle of attack distortions caused by the
interference of the tunnel walls.
3.0

Reference at
center of tunnel

X A

1.7

Lift balance
Angle of attack %
control mechanism
0.053 m2
2.39 %

1.3

DETAIL A
SCALE 1:15

2.21 m2

Drag balance
Y

Z
$
Figure 2. Schematic views (side and front) of the aircraft model in the test section of LAE-1 wind
tunnel; dimensions in meters.

3.2. Tested Configurations

The wind-tunnel tests required the use of three different models. The first model was
an unpowered configuration designed to measure the primary aerodynamic characteristics
of the airframe. Figure 3a provides a schematic illustrating the key dimensions of this model.
The technical views and detailed information about the electric fan employed in the wind
tunnel experiments can be seen in Figure 3b. The second model represented the non-BLI
configuration (Figure 4a) incorporated podded engines with axisymmetric nacelles. These
engines were mounted on pylons at the rear section of the aircraft to facilitate the ingestion
of clean airflow. The third model corresponded to the BLI configuration (Figure 4b). In
this design, the engines were positioned with a semi-buried arrangement at the rear of the
aircraft. This configuration was specifically developed to capture a relatively large portion
of the boundary layer that formed over the fuselage.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 6 of 26

Top view

Lateral view 115.8

150 176.7

90
1380

395.1 805.4
120.1
196.8
Top view c/4 c/4

65 65 73
338.2

560
Front view Front view
(a) (b)

Figure 3. Details of the unpowered model and electric fan equipping the wind-tunnel powered
models; dimensions in millimeters. (a) Technical views of the wind-tunnel unpowered model.
(b) Detailed drawings of the EDF for powered configurations.

Removable
tai cone

Removable
fans

CAD Rendering

(a) non-BLI model configuration.

CAD Rendering

(b) BLI model configuration.

Figure 4. Models: CAD rendering of mockups and photographs of the wind-tunnel setup assembled
in the test section of the LAE-1 subsonic wind tunnel (scale 1:28).
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 7 of 26

To ensure the appropriate performance of the box-wing model at the subsonic wind-
tunnel test conditions, adjustments were made to the airfoils compared to the full-scale
configuration. These modifications were necessary to achieve accurate behavior at the
relatively low Reynolds numbers encountered in the wind-tunnel experiments. Two meth-
ods were employed to establish a correlation between the experimental results and the
performance of the full-scale aircraft. Firstly, the lift coefficient equivalence was ensured
by using suitable airfoils. Secondly, the boundary-layer transition was induced by imple-
menting trip strips on all the surfaces of the model, including the wings, fuselage, tail, and
propulsor nacelles. The positioning and dimensions of the trip strips were determined to
maintain a uniform increase in the drag coefficient as the wind tunnel speed decreased.
This approach, recommended by Barlow et al. [29], was aimed to ensure the presence of
fully turbulent boundary layers on the model under representative conditions. Grit size
trip strips measuring 3 mm in width and 0.08 mm in thickness were applied across the
entire aircraft model. For the closed-wing system, trip strips were positioned at x/c = 0.05
on the suction side and at x/c = 0.10 on the pressure side. As for the fuselage and nacelles,
the trip strips were located at 5–10% of the body length. These adjustments were carefully
determined to promote the development of fully turbulent boundary layers during the
experimental campaign, thereby aligning the model’s behavior with that of the full-scale
aircraft. For more detailed information about the experimental model breakdown, see [27].
The models were fabricated by utilizing additive manufacturing methods that em-
ployed advanced techniques in the production process. A total of 48 individual pieces
were created to construct the mockups, with carbon fiber beams utilized to reinforce the
structure of the closed-wing configuration. These pieces were meticulously assembled
by hand and adhered to the manufacturing tolerances derived from the computer-aided
design (CAD) process. To ensure optimal aerodynamic performance, the surfaces of the
models were treated and painted, thus resulting in a smooth and refined surface finish. It is
important to note that the non-BLI, BLI, and unpowered models shared identical physical
components, with the exception of the removable tail cone. The connections between
these components were adjustable, thereby allowing for precise alignment, and they were
secured in place using set screws. Both the non-BLI and BLI models are equipped with two
QF2827-2300 KV brushless motors, each featuring six blades. These motors are commonly
used in remote-controlled (R/C) models. The central duct of the electric ducted fan (EDF)
has an outer diameter of 70 mm and a total length of 58 mm. The nominal voltage range
for the fan is 8–22 VDC, with a maximum allowed electrical current of 50 A. Each fan is
capable of generating a maximum thrust of 16.77 N at a rotational speed of 30,000 RPM.
To control the EDFs, a Readytosky 50 A electronic speed controller (ESC) was employed,
while a RSP-3000-48 power supply provided the necessary electrical power. The rotational
speed of the motor shaft was measured precisely using an optical tachometer that utilized
a laser light. The speed controllers were housed within the fuselage of the model. To adjust
the propulsor power, the fan wheel speed was controlled using a SIKAF RC servo speed
controller.

3.3. Test Conditions

The LAE-1 wind tunnel was carefully operated at velocities of approximately 27 m/s
and 30 m/s, which corresponded to Reynolds numbers based on the reference chord lengths
of 2.72 × 105 and 3.02 × 105 , respectively. These velocities were selected after thorough
testing of the propulsor’s thermal capabilities and the structural limitations of the model,
with the latter often being the constraining factor. Prior to each test, the atmospheric
conditions were closely monitored to establish the necessary non-dimensional parameters.
The atmospheric pressure was measured using a calibrated mercury barometer with a
precision of 1 mmHg. The temperature inside the wind tunnel was measured using a
thermocouple, and the relative humidity was determined with a hygrometer to calculate
the air density. The dynamic pressure was measured with a pitot-static probe positioned at
the test section, which was connected to a micro-manometer (TSI Model 8705 DEP-CALC)
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 8 of 26

with an uncertainty of ±0.1 Pa. The model was securely installed on the pitch–strut system
and remained in place throughout the entire test campaign. Changes to the tail cone and
instrumentation of the fans were performed in situ as necessary. The reference quantities
for the tunnel’s operating conditions can be found in Table 1, while the non-dimensional
fan wheel speeds implemented during the tests are presented in Table 2. The ratio between
the fan blade tip speed and the tunnel speed (Utip /V∞ ) was used to assess the effect of the
propulsors on the flow features, where the fan blade tip speed is defined by Equation (1):

d f an
Utip = Ω f (1)
2
where Ω f is the fan wheel speed, and d f an is the model propulsor fan diameter, which is
equal to 73 mm.

Table 1. Non-dimensional flow parameters for different tests.

Freestream Dynamic Mach Reynolds

Velocity [m/s] Pressure [Pa] Number [-] Number [-]
27.0 410.9 0.080 2.72 × 105
30.0 507.3 0.089 3.02 × 105

Table 2. Propulsor dimensional and non-dimensional wheel speeds.

Ω [RPM] 9000 10,300 15,500 18,200 20,400

Utip /V∞ [-] at V∞ ≈ 27.0 m/s 1.33 1.44 2.17 2.55 2.86
V∞ ≈ 30.0 m/s 1.20 1.30 1.96 2.30 2.58

3.4. Data Collection

Four main types of runs were performed:
1. Aerodynamic force measurements, including lift and drag, were conducted on the
unpowered, non-BLI, and BLI configurations to assess their aerodynamic characteris-
tics at various angles of attack (α). To isolate the effects of geometry, the engines were
easily removed from the nacelle, thus creating conditions simulating through-flow
nacelles. This approach enabled the analysis of the pure geometric influences on
the aerodynamics. For the unpowered configuration, the wind-tunnel results were
compared to CFDs simulations to provide a form of experimental validation. The
angles of attack tested ranged from α = −4◦ to 12◦ in increments of 1◦ .
2. Measurements of the electrical power (PE ) were conducted on the non-BLI and BLI
models. The objective of this experiment was to determine the electrical power
coefficient and the net stream-wise force (FX ) for a range of fan wheel speeds, with a
fixed angle of attack and tunnel velocity. A set of pre-determined fan wheel speeds
was defined, and force and power readings were collected. The product between the
voltage input to the ESC (v) and the current from the power supply (i) determined the
electrical power supplied to the propulsors (PE = vi).
3. Flow field measurements were performed on both the powered and unpowered
models. The objective was to analyze the variation of the axial flow velocity (u∗ )
across different configurations in a transversal plane. To achieve this, the aerodynamic
measurements focused on presenting the stream-wise velocity contours and flow
mapping at selected fan wheel speeds, with a fixed angle of attack and tunnel velocity.
In the case of the powered configurations, the flow surveys were conducted at power
levels that encompassed the range of zero net stream-wise force. This allowed for a
comprehensive understanding of the flow characteristics and their relationship to the
propulsive performance of the models.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 9 of 26

4. Measurements of the inlet pressure distortion were conducted on the models without
the fan installed to assess the influence of the airframe on the distortion levels across
different points in the flight envelope. The objective was to compare the distortion
levels between a non-BLI configuration and a BLI configuration. To achieve this,
total pressure rake surveys were performed at a fixed tunnel velocity while varying
the angle of attack within the range of 0◦ to 8◦ in 1◦ increments. This allowed for
a comprehensive analysis of the dependence of the distortion on the airframe and
provided insights into the differences between the non-BLI and BLI configurations.

3.5. Measurement Techniques

3.5.1. Aerodynamic Forces
A two-component balance was utilized to measure the aerodynamic forces acting
on the models, as depicted in detail A of Figure 2. The drag balance was constructed in
the Laboratory of Experimental Aerodynamics at EESC—USP. Conversely, the lift force
was measured using a second balance consisting of two strain gauges positioned on
flexure stiffeners, thus forming a Wheatstone bridge. Additional information regarding
the lift balance and the angle of attack control mechanism can be found in the work by
Cerón-Muñoz [30], while previous aerodynamic results obtained using the current balance
configuration can be found in [31,32]. The signals from the balances were recorded using a
data acquisition sheet, specifically, the NI AT-M10-16X, with a sampling frequency of 500 Hz.
Prior to the experiments, the aerodynamic balances were calibrated by applying known
weights to establish a linear voltage–force relationship. The complete setup achieved a
measurement accuracy of up to +0.7% under maximum loading conditions. Therefore, the
accuracies for the lift, drag, and angle of attack measurements were approximately ±0.8 N,
±0.18 N, and 0.2◦ , respectively (see Appendix A).
The net stream-wise force can be defined as the difference between the drag and
thrust [12], which is positive in the downstream direction. In its non-dimensional form, the
net stream-wise force coefficient (CX ) is expressed by the following:

TEDF − D
CX = = CT − C D (2)
q∞ S

where TEDF is the thrust generated by the EDFs, D is the drag of the model, q∞ is the
freestream (tunnel) dynamic pressure, S is the wing reference area, CT is the thrust co-
efficient, and CD is the drag coefficient. In this case, the experiment was carried out in
search of a zero net stream-wise force, which is calculated using the load cell of the drag
balance to measure the difference between the propulsor’s gross thrust and the model’s
drag. The pitch–strut system drag was subtracted from the model’s drag to determine the
main aerodynamic characteristics of the aircraft. This process involved a simple approach
to evaluate the tare (direct drag of the support), in which the forces on the pitch–strut
system (i.e., removing the model) are measured at different tunnel speeds, and the drag
generated by the support is corrected as a function of the tunnel dynamic pressure using
regression statistical analysis [29].
To determine the primary aerodynamic coefficients, the wind tunnel data of the
unpowered configuration was compared to CFDs simulations. The atmospheric conditions
of the experimental setup were adjusted to the computational setup. Two computational
domains with different sizes were considered: a small one to simulate the confined flow
of the wind tunnel and a large one to simulate free-air conditions. The drag difference
between these simulations was subtracted to the drag of the wind-tunnel model to account
for wall effects. An unstructured tetrahedral mesh was used in all the simulations, as shown
in Figure 5a. The grid density was regulated near the aerodynamic surfaces to increase
the grid’s resolution in that region. The dimension of the cells in the refinement area was
limited to 0.02 m. The surface meshes were influenced by structured cells (prisms) in order
to capture the boundary layer effects with adequate precision. The near-wall treatment was
adjusted in terms of the total thickness, with 30 sub-layers and a growth rate of 1.2. The
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 10 of 26

boundary layer refinement kept the dimensionless wall distance value (y+) close to 5.0.
The generated mesh of the large domain featured a total of 6.32 million nodes. Figure 5b
shows a pressure contour on the model surfaces. From these results, it was possible to
determine the loads applied to the surface of the aircraft model. Consequently, in a more
advanced design phase, the required structural strength of the internal layout and skin
could be calculated.

(a) Mesh global view. (b) Pressure coefficient contour.

Figure 5. Results of the proposed CFD methodology on the unpowered configuration.

The inlet velocity was set to 30 m/s, whereas the turbulent intensity was set to 0.21%
based on the wind tunnel turbulence level [25]. On the symmetry plane of the domain,
a symmetric boundary condition was applied, while the model surfaces were treated as
no-slip walls. The outlet surface of the domain was modeled as a pressure outlet. Steady
simulations using the SST turbulence model were carried out for the CFDs analysis. Second-
order schemes were used for all the flow, i.e., the advection terms and turbulence numerics
were discretized using a high-resolution scheme. The convergence control was set to reach
600 iterations, with a residual target equal to 1 × 10−5 .

3.5.2. Application of the Power Balance Equation

In this section, we derive the main equation of the power balance method, which is a
solution introduced by Drela [16] for assessing the performance of tightly coupled systems.
Unlike traditional approaches that rely on momentum equation analysis, the power balance
method emphasizes the analysis of mechanical power and kinetic energy. Specifically,
when considering a control volume that encompasses the propulsor and assuming low
speeds, the power balance equation simplifies to only include the mechanical flow power
(PK ) as the input power term. The mechanical flow power is calculated as follows:

PK ≡ ( pt∞ − pt )V · n̂ dS (3)

where pt and V represent the flow stagnation pressure and the local velocity vector, re-
spectively, n̂ is the normal vector, which points into the propulsor, and dS is the surface
differential. As stated by Uranga et al. [12], the mechanical flow power can be determined
using two different methods: the direct method and the indirect method. The direct method
involves conducting flow measurements at the inflow and outflow planes of the propulsor
using techniques such as particle image velocimetry (PIV), a 5-hole probe, or a rotating Pt -
rake system. On the other hand, the indirect method calculates the mechanical flow power
based on the measured electrical power supplied to the motor in combination with the fan
efficiency (η f ) and motor efficiency (ηm ). These quantities can be made non-dimensional
as follows:
PK
CPK ≡ (4)
q∞ V∞ S
PE
CPE ≡ (5)
q∞ V∞ S
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 11 of 26

CPK = η f ηm CPE (6)

The BLI benefit is given by the power-saving coefficient (PSC), where the objective is
to obtain the required power to achieve a zero net stream-wise force:

(CPK )non-BLI − (CPK ) BLI

PSC ≡ (7)
(CPK )non-BLI

In these experiments, it was assumed that the efficiencies of the fan and motor did
not significantly differ between the BLI and non-BLI configurations at the same operating
point. Preliminary motor characterization data from the EDF’s datasheet indicated that the
motor operated close to its maximum efficiency, which was greater than 71%. Based on
this information, the approach used in this study considered the motor operating near its
maximum efficiency as a surrogate to evaluate the flow power. This allowed for the direct
measurement of the electrical power during the wind-tunnel tests [33]. Therefore, it was
assumed that the BLI benefit could be calculated using the following expression:

(CPE )non-BLI − (CPE ) BLI

PSC ≡ (8)
(CPE )non-BLI

Note that the assumption of maintaining constant efficiencies for the BLI benefit leads
to higher uncertainty. In this case, the uncertainty in the BLI benefit was found to be ±2.5%
(see Appendix B).

3.5.3. Flow Mapping

Flowfield measurements were conducted using a L-shape 7-hole probe, specifically,
the AeroProbe® system. This probe consists of a conventional cylindrical body made of
stainless steel with a diameter of 3.2 mm and seven holes located at its tip. The design of
the probe allows for accurate measurements in wind-tunnel testing, as the tip is directly
exposed to the airflow, and the probe is mounted on the side to avoid the disruption of
the data. With this probe, precise measurements of the flow vector magnitude, direction,
static pressure, and total pressure can be obtained. The 7-hole probe has an acceptance
angle of up to ±30◦ with an error rate lower than ±1◦ . The velocity error can also be kept
below ±1%, and it offers up to 500 discrete aerodynamic calibration points per speed [34].
To ensure its accuracy, the calibration of the 7-hole probe was performed using a neural
network trained with input data ranging from ±30◦ , with 1-degree precision in both the Y
and Z directions. The root mean square (RMS) error achieved in the calibration process
was 0.1 m/s. More details can be found in [27].
In order to obtain the wake characteristics, a three-axis traverse system, specifically the
DANTEC® traverse system, was employed to move the sensors in a pre-defined grid. This
system allowed for precise movements of the probe in three directions, thus achieving micro-
meter accuracy. Each axis movement had an accuracy of 0.0125 mm and was controlled
through serial communication. The traverse system was positioned approximately 50 mm
away from the fuselage tail cone, where a rectangular transversal plane was selected to
measure the flow pattern of the propulsor jet. Using the center of the fan diameter as
a reference, the grid of the rectangular transversal plane was defined from 150 mm to
−80 mm with a spacing of 5 mm in the lateral direction, and from −50 mm to 90 mm with
a spacing of 5 mm in the vertical direction.
To ensure accurate measurements, the data averaging process involved 500 samples
obtained from 5 s measurements. The probe was traversed through the same grid points in
both space and time. At each point, time-averaged values for the three velocity components
(u, v, and w∗ ) and velocity fluctuations (urms , vrms , and wrms ) were recorded. The in-plane
velocity vectors (v and w) were used to calculate the stream-wise vorticity (ωx ). The
dimensions of the grid planes used for wake mapping can be seen in Figure 6, and the
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 12 of 26

complete setup of the wake mapping experiment, mounted on the wind tunnel test section,
is depicted in Figure 7.
Y Y

X Z

150 80

7-hole plane
7-hole probe 90
map
50

50

Figure 6. Grid dimensions for wake mapping with 7-hole pitot probe; dimensions in millimeters.

(a) (b)
Figure 7. Overview of the wake mapping experiment in the test section. (a) BLI configuration
installed in LAE-1. (b) Close-up view of the probe installation for the non-BLI experiments at LAE-1.

3.5.4. Steady Total Pressure Distribution and Distortion Analysis

The inlet efficiency was evaluated through the total pressure coefficient (Equation (9))
and the distortion index (Equation (10)), which are defined as follows:

pt − p t∞
C pt = (9)
q∞

pt AIP − pθ
DCθ = (10)
q AIP
where pt AIP is the average total pressure value in the survey plane (360◦ ), pθ is the minimum
average total pressure value in a sector of 60◦ , and q AIP is the mean dynamic pressure
2 /2. The goal of these tests was to look inside the engine
that is calculated by q AIP = ρVAIP
inlet duct and study if there was a significant difference in the overall pressure across
the aerodynamic interface plane (AIP) between the configurations. The total pressure
distribution at the AIP was measured with a total pressure rake with an outer diameter of
70.5 mm. The rake was located in a plane that was perpendicular to the freestream velocity
direction, as shown in Figure 8.
The rake utilized in the experiment featured 40 total pressure probes, which were
strategically placed in eight circumferential locations with a spacing of 25◦ and five radial
locations. The pressure data for each configuration and condition were collected using
a pressure scanner (Scanivalve® DS4-48) over a period of 5 s and averaged during this
duration. The pressure scanner had a pressure rating ranging from 0.01 to 100 psi. The
scanivalve employed an electro-mechanical pressure multi-plexer, which allowed for the
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 13 of 26

sequential reading and transmission of multiple input signals using a solenoid. The position
transmitter (encoder) electrically indicated the port being measured, while a solenoid
stepper drive facilitated the sequential connection of the ports to 48 transducers. The signal
conditioner gain was adjusted to match the full-scale pressure range of the transducer,
which corresponded to a 5 v (20 mA) output [35]. Simultaneously, the freestream static
and total pressures were measured using a pitot-static probe positioned at the inlet of
the test section. These measurements were acquired using the same pressure scanner. By
monitoring the freestream conditions, any potential variations due to the temperature or
velocity drifts were taken into account. The measurement uncertainty for each type of run
was estimated to be 1% (see Appendix B).

Figure 8. Total pressure rakes installed on the wind-tunnel models.

4. Results and Discussions

In this section, the experimental and CFDs results for the unpowered configuration
are first analyzed and compared (Figure 9). Alpha sweeps (from α = −4◦ to 12◦ in 4◦ steps)
using the converged grid were run to better understand the offset from experimental data.
Experimental force measurement results of the three configurations in through-flow nacelle
conditions are also presented and discussed (Figure 10). Lift and drag coefficients, drag
polar, and aerodynamic efficiency are the variables evaluated. Table 3 shows a summary of
the results from the experimental–numerical comparison of the unpowered configuration,
as well as the differences between the experimental curves of the configurations.

Table 3. Aerodynamic forces of the configurations in through-flow nacelle conditions at M = 0.089

and Re = 3.02 × 105 .

Configuration Unpowered Non-BLI BLI

Parameter Exp CFD % Error Exp ∆ [%] Exp ∆ [%]
CL for zero α [-] 0.181 ± 0.0084 0.191 5.52 0.187 ± 0.0093 3.31 ± 0.11 0.184 ± 0.0097 1.65 ± 0.15
∂CL /∂α [-] 0.102 ± 0.0118 0.111 8.82 0.102 ± 0.0106 0.0 0.102 ± 0.0113 0.0
CLmax [-] 0.985|11◦ ± 0.0157 1.092|12◦ 10.86 0.997|10◦ ± 0.0138 1.21 ± 0.12 1.004|10◦ ± 0.0149 1.92 ± 0.10
CD for zero α [-] 0.0304 ± 0.0042 0.0245 19.40 0.0338 ± 0.0064 11.18 ± 0.52 0.0319 ± 0.0051 4.93 ± 0.21
∂CD /∂CL2 [-] 0.0217 ± 0.0107 0.018 14.28 0.0226 ± 0.0101 4.14 ± 0.05 0.0224 ± 0.0099 3.03 ± 0.07
( L/D )max [-] 17.21|6◦ ± 0.0098 22.05|6◦ 28.12 15.77|6◦ ± 0.0010 8.36 ± 0.89 16.67|6◦ ± 0.0088 3.13 ± 0.10

Figure 9a shows the comparison of lift coefficient as a function of the angle of attack.
The lift curves show correlations for low to moderate angles of attack between the two
methods, since the curves displayed a linear behavior with a similar slope (∂CL /∂α) from
α = 0◦ to 5◦ (See Table 3). However, the CFDs results over-predicted the lift at negative
angles. This could be explained by the fact that the wind-tunnel models had strips on both
sides of the wing section, thereby artificially increasing the boundary-layer thickness and
reducing the model’s effective curvature. Note that a greater dispersion (in the order of
11%) at high angles of attack was found due to the higher level of complexity in the flow
pattern arising from the stall region, which was more difficult to be numerically simulated.
Despite the fact that the CL − α curve matched well among all the simulations, there was an
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 14 of 26

offset from the experimental data by approximately −0.3◦ in the angle of attack. This can
be seen in Table 3, where the CL for the zero α had an error of 5.52%, which was explained
by the calculated uncertainty of the pitch–strut system, i.e., the effective angle of attack of
the wind-tunnel model might have been higher than the geometric angle of attack. At this
point, additional investigations are needed to determine the reason for the shift.
Figure 9b depicts the complete drag-polar chart for the unpowered configuration. The
CFDs results show under-predictions with the experimental data in all the evaluated angles
of attack, where the values at the zero angle of attack were 0.0245 and 0.0304, respectively
(error rate of 19.4%). Although there was an offset in the drag levels between the fully
turbulent computation and the experimental data, the curves showed relatively good
agreement at low to moderate angles of attack. It should be noted that increasing the grid
density will result in a better approximation of the numerical data in terms of the CD . On
the other hand, the experimental curve showed larger drag values as the angle of attack
increased. The reason for that difference was due to vibrations of the model under the
effect of stall detachments, thereby increasing the predicted drag values.
The experimental results of the unpowered configuration, as well as the non-BLI and
BLI configurations in through-flow nacelle conditions, are presented in Figure 10. Accord-
ing to the lift coefficient results (Figure 10a), the nacelle induced a gradually increasing
amount of extra lift between α = 0◦ and α = 5◦ ; however, the change in lift was relatively
small. At high angles of attack (i.e., from α = 8◦ to α = 12◦ ), the configurations exhibited a
smooth stall behavior, which can be explained by the mutual interaction of the wings, in
which the aft wing continues to provide lift, while the fore wing has already started the stall
process. As a result, in the post-stall regime, the lift coefficient did not drop rapidly, thus
resulting in a nose pitch-down tendency. Such a characteristic allowed the BW concepts to
avoid risks due to a stall effect when approaching the stall angle, thus maximizing the total
lift without creating adverse trim effects. This has a significant impact on safety, especially
in commercial aircraft categories. This behavior was also observed in the IDINTOS project,
where low-speed wind-tunnel results showed the mutual interference between the wings,
which changed at different angles of attack [36]. The mini-tuft flow visualization technique
applied on the main box-wing surfaces near stall conditions also confirmed this behavior
(Figure 11). The mini-tufts indicated a region of blurred tufts flow on the fore wing, whereas
the flow on the aft wing was completely unseparated.

CFD. Unpowered
0.15 Exp. Unpowered
CD [-]

0.1

0.05

0 0.5 1
CL [-]

(a) Lift Coefficient. (b) Drag polar.

Figure 9. Alpha sweep of CFD and experimental results for unpowered configuration at M = 0.089
and Re = 3.02 × 105 . Repeatability is ∆CL = 0.007 and ∆CD = 0.003.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 15 of 26

(a) Lift Coefficient. (b) Drag Coefficient.

0.2 20
Exp. Unpowered
Exp. non-BLI 15
0.15 Exp. BLI
10

L/D [-]
CD [-]

0.1 5

0
0.05 Exp. Unpowered
-5 Exp. non-BLI
Exp. BLI
0 -10
-0.5 0 0.5 1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
CL [-] CL [-]

(c) Drag polar. (d) Lift-to-drag ratio.

Figure 10. Alpha sweep of wind-tunnel configurations in through-flow nacelle conditions at

M = 0.089 and Re = 3.02 × 105 comparing free-air lift and drag with corrected experimental
data. Repeatability is ∆CL = 0.007, 0.009, 0.007 for unpowered, non-BLI, and BLI configurations,
respectively. Repeatability is ∆CD = 0.003, 0.004, 0.004 for unpowered, non-BLI, and BLI configura-
tions, respectively.

Figure 11. Mini-tuft flow visualization on the wing surfaces at M = 0.089, Re = 3.02 × 105 , and
α = 10◦ .

The impact of the through-flow nacelles on the overall aircraft drag was also evidenced
by comparing the experimental curves (Figure 10b). As expected, the non-BLI configuration
showed an increase in the total drag due to the contribution of pylons, as well as the
contribution of nacelle drag. The mutual aerodynamic interference between the pylon
and the nacelle increased the drag by about 11% in comparison with the unpowered
configuration. In contrast, the BLI configuration increased the drag in the order of 5%
compared to the unpowered configuration, thus indicating that the magnitude of the
interference drag of the BLI model was lower than the non-BLI model, i.e., the BLI model
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 16 of 26

allowed for smaller nacelles and eliminated the pylons, thus reducing the total wetted area
and, consequently, the surface dissipation.
Figure 10c illustrates the drag-polar chart. Clearly, the through-flow nacelles can
have a notable impact on the overall changes in CD , but the three configurations exhibited
nearly the same CL over the operating range of α between 2◦ and 6◦ . This result is easier to
understand in Table 3, where the variation in the drag coefficient with the square of the
lift coefficient (∂CD /∂CL2 ) is presented (the induced drag parameter). The lift properties
and span-wise load distributions were substantially identical for all the configurations,
which means that the BLI and non-BLI configurations had the same vortex dissipation,
thus implying that only propulsion aerodynamic factors contributed to the BLI benefit.
Figure 10d shows the aerodynamic efficiency curves versus the lift coefficient. All
configurations displayed a similar pattern, where the maximum values were obtained
between the interval 0.5 ≤ CL ≤ 0.8, which corresponds to 4◦ ≤ α ≤ 6◦ . The efficiency
curves showed that the drag increase was produced by the mounted nacelles. Note that
the aerodynamic performance of the non-BLI and BLI configurations decreased by 8.36%
and 3.13%, respectively, when compared to the unpowered configuration. For the sake of
argument, it can be concluded that all the aerodynamic measurements were performed
successfully, since the specific characteristics about the performance of this particular
unconventional configuration were observed, such as the soft stall induced by the closed-
wing system, as well as the viscous drag increase caused by the pylon/nacelle interference.

4.1. Power Balance and BLI Benefit

The outcomes of the integrated systems (non-BLI and BLI configurations) are provided
in this section. At Reynolds numbers of 2.72 × 105 and 3.02 × 105 , the wheel speed of
the propulsors were varied, and the net stream-wise force and electrical power were
measured. The results are shown in Figure 12, where the net stream-wise force coefficient
(defined in Equation (2)) is plotted against the electrical power coefficient (defined in
Equation (5)). The crosses represent the points for the seven different runs, and the lines
are the cubic splines that were curve-fit through the average of these points at each motor
speed (Table 4). Across the entire range of the power levels evaluated (Figure 12a), the
BLI configuration required less electrical power for a given net stream-wise force than the
non-BLI configuration. The BLI benefit (defined in Equation (8)) at CX = 0 was found to
be PSC = 7.41 ± 2.5%. Such data were obtained by adjusting the electrical power of the
EDFs until the net axial force on the apparatus was zero, as measured by the load cell. The
data were averaged to evaluate how the engine thrust and nacelle installation affected the
power measurements in the non-BLI and BLI configurations. These points can be seen in
the zoomed-in view in Figure 12b. The results were comparable to previous experimental
studies that employed the electrical power coefficient instead of the mechanical flow power
coefficient. For example, Uranga et al. [33] reported preliminary experimental analyses of
the double-bubble D8 aircraft with a focus on the differences between the BLI and non-BLI
configurations at a Reynolds number of 3.6 × 105 . The authors found a BLI benefit of about
6.85 ± 2.3%. This result is highly comparable to subsequent experiments on this aircraft, in
which the measurements of the pressure fields, velocity magnitudes, and flow directions
were used to calculate the mechanical flow power of the propulsors [12]. In the latter case,
the measured BLI benefit was 8.6 ± 1.8% at a simulated cruise. Given the experimental
uncertainty, the application of the electrical power coefficient under the premise that the
motor and fan worked near peak efficiencies did not reveal substantial variance, as a
positive advantage was found in both experimental campaigns.
On the other hand, the CFDs simulations using the actual scale and flight conditions
of the aircraft demonstrated a power-saving coefficient of about 6.52%, as shown in [22].
This result is not plotted in Figure 12, because it cannot be compared directly to the power
extracted from the wind tunnel experiments. The CFDs used an actuator disk model to
characterize the propulsors, which did not consider the fan rotation. Although the raw
experimental data had some uncertainty due to the large degree of interference among the
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 17 of 26

numerous competing effects, it was determined that the studied propulsion system had the
potential to provide specific BLI benefits in the order of 5% to 7%.

0.01
Non-BLI

Net drag 0.005

BLI Net drag

CX [-]
0
Net thrust
Net thrust
7.41 -0.005
(PSC)

-0.01
0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05 0.055 0.06 0.065
CP [-]
E

(a) Full measured range. (b) Close-up view at CX = 0.

Figure 12. Net stream-wise force coefficient versus electrical power coefficient at CL = 0.51. For
each of the configurations, symbols are experimental measurements, and lines are curve-fit to data
points. Repeatability is ∆CPE = 0.003, 0.008 or equivalently ∆CX = 0.003, 0.007 for non-BLI and BLI
configurations, respectively.

Table 4. Cubic curve fits of the CPE versus CX data.

Tunnel Condition Configuration Curve Fits and Confidence Interval

Re = 2.72 × 105 non-BLI y = 2.6x3 + 0.5574x2 − 0.6947x + 0.03609; R2 = 0.999
Re = 3.02 × 105 non-BLI y = 3.6x3 + 0.4454x2 − 0.6983x + 0.03689; R2 = 0.999
Re = 2.72 × 105 BLI y = 10.8x3 − 0.989x2 − 0.5878x + 0.03; R2 = 0.997
Re = 3.02 × 105 BLI y = −0.65x3 + 1.292x2 − 0.7276x + 0.03364; R2 = 0.998

4.2. Seven-Hole Probe Measurements

According to Uranga et al. [18], three major parameters can influence the BLI benefit:
the amount of dissipation ingested by the propulsors; the BLI installation efficiency in
terms of surface dissipation reductions; and the propulsor jet velocity (typically set by
the propulsor mass flow). As shown in Figure 12, the variations in the PE between the
configurations were derived from changes in the isolated airframe drag values, as well as
the propulsion airframe integration effects. This confirms that the BLI benefit depends on
the specifics of the integration between the propulsor, fuselage, and vertical tail, thereby
achieving a reduction in the surface dissipation. However, the mechanical flow power,
given by Equation (3), is dependent on the total pressure difference and the axial flow
velocity, i.e., the stream-wise velocity, reflects the velocity deficit of the ingested boundary
layer. In this context, seven-hole probe surveys were conducted as close as possible to the
propulsors to investigate the flowfield downstream from the aircraft models. The axial
velocity and stream-wise vorticity were the most relevant flow parameters in the study of
the flowfield. Contour maps of the velocity (u∗ ) and stream-wise vorticity (ωx ) are shown
in Figures 13 and 14, respectively.
The velocity maps (Figure 13) show the difference between the through-flow nacelle
condition (left) and the powered configurations (right) for non-BLI (Figure 13a) and BLI
(Figure 13b) configurations, respectively. The contour maps for the u∗ component in the
through-flow nacelle condition revealed regions of reduced velocity, which corresponded
to the wake and velocity deficit of the airframe. The contour of the non-BLI configuration
evidenced a clear aerodynamic interference between the pylon and nacelle, thus resulting in
separation and increased drag on the nacelle’s surfaces. At that region, the lowest velocity
reached approximately 0.9V∞ . In contrast, the contour of the BLI configuration exhibited a
larger region of low-velocity fluid due to the incoming boundary layer. In this case, the
lowest velocity value reached 0.83V∞ . In both cases, the wake from the tail cone had most
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 18 of 26

likely merged, thus creating a large momentum deficit. On the other hand, the contour
maps for the u∗ component in the powered configurations perceived the reduction in kinetic
energy dissipation due to the wake and the propulsive jet. Note that the BLI configuration
achieved a lower jet velocity (1.03V∞ ) than the non-BLI configuration (1.08V∞ ), because the
exhaust velocities of the BLI propulsor had lower stagnation pressures than the non-BLI
propulsor. This result explains the smaller amount of energy (electrical power) needed by
the BLI configuration to reach a certain net stream-wise force.

u*[-]
0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.08

Power-off Power-on

(a) Non-BLI configuration.

u*[-]
0.80 0.85 0.90 0.95 1.0 1.05 1.08

Power-off Power-on

(b) BLI configuration.

Figure 13. Axial velocity contours at Re = 3.02 × 105 , CL = 0.51, and Utip /V∞ = 1.96. Through-flow
nacelle condition (a) and powered configurations (b).

The distributions of the axial vorticity along with velocity vectors for the non-BLI
and BLI configurations are reported in Figuress 14a,b, respectively. Both configurations
exhibited a region of negative (clockwise) vorticity at the center, as well as positive struc-
tures along the trailing edges of the nacelles. Such vortical structures also come from the
secondary flow resulting of the cross-sectional changes of the different airframes. However,
the presence of fans imposed additional complexities, and the vortical structures are the
result of the mixing of secondary flows with fan rotational motion. Despite very similar
patterns being observed with lower fan voltage inputs, the BLI configuration presented a
lower velocity magnitude than the non-BLI configuration when viewed from downstream.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 19 of 26

ωx [-] ωx [-]
-0.041 -0.025 -0.009 0.007 0.015 -0.041 -0.025 -0.009 0.007 0.015

(a) non-BLI configuration. (b) BLI configuration.

Figure 14. Close-up views of stream-wise vorticity contours and velocity vectors at Re = 3.02 × 105 ,
CL = 0.51, and Utip /V∞ = 1.96.

4.3. Inlet Efficiency

The inflow distortion associated with the fuselage boundary layer is ingested by the
inlet duct and delivered to the engine. This fact imposes compatibility challenges due to the
effect of the distorted propulsor inflow on fan performance, thereby reducing the overall
BLI benefit. To illustrate this issue, the total pressure coefficient contours, as well as the
distortion analysis, can be seen in Figure 15. The grids for the total pressure survey were
created using the locations of the probes mounted on the rake (Figure 8). Therefore, the
total pressure coefficient contours were obtained by linearly interpolating in the radial and
circumferential directions for the grid points between the innermost and outermost points
on the survey grid. The values of DCθ for both configurations and the number of runs lay
within 1% of each other, thus confirming the repeatability of the measurements.
The ingested boundary layer can be noted clearly, wherein it presented high indices
of distortion as a consequence of the reduced low-pressure region. However, as the angle
of attack increased until α = 8◦ , the performance variation of the BLI configuration was
relatively low. Note that the pressure distribution seemed similar, and the difference
in distortion between α = 0◦ and α = 8◦ was 5.9%. This indicates that changing the
angle of attack had no significant effect on the cross-flow or separation in the current
engine location, thereby implying that the fan performance should be unaffected under
several flight conditions. In contrast, a clean airflow was evidenced for the non-BLI
configuration until α = 7◦ ; however, at higher angles of attack, a small vortex was formed
coming in from the side, thus creating distortion regions of lower total pressure in the
aerodynamic interface plane. In sum, the non-BLI configuration presented distortion values
of DCθ ∼ 0.004 − 0.007 at low to moderate angles of attack, whereas the BLI configuration
had distortion values of DCθ ∼ 0.021 − 0.023 that corresponded to total pressure recovery
values of ηR = 0.984 ∼ 0.977 and ηR = 0.651 ∼ 0.613, respectively. This indicates that
further research is needed to determine the fan response (aerodynamic and aeromechanic)
to these higher distortion levels, as well as the influence on the engine life cycle.
Finally, mini-tuft flow visualization was performed upstream and downstream of the
nacelles to visualize the flow entering the propulsors. The arrangement of the mini-tufts at
α = 3◦ is displayed in Figure 16 for both configurations. Although no large-scale separation
can be identified, cross-flow can be seen in both configurations. There are some blurred tufts
around the nacelle lips of the non-BLI configuration, thus indicating a region of accelerated
flow. However, the flow far from the propulsors was steady, with the tufts all pointing in
the flow direction. In contrast, separated flow can be seen around the incoming flow of the
BLI configuration, with tufts pointing in a random direction and continuing inwards and
towards the propulsor inlet, i.e., they indicated blockage and lower velocity flow entering
to the propulsor, which caused high distortion levels. In this case, the overall flow over
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 20 of 26

the nacelles remained aligned to the flow direction. In conclusion, inlet flow distortion
is expected to play a major role in unconventional aircraft where complex air induction
systems are required to couple the airframe with engines.
Two experimental setups were employed to investigate the aerodynamic interaction
of the box-wing layout with the propulsion system: one focusing on the effect of pod-
ded engines on the airframe and one investigating boundary-layer ingestion inlets. The
experimental data were used to validate preliminary CFDs studies [22], which were in
turn used to perform sensitivity studies and complement the low-fidelity design of the
concept. The experimental study included force and electrical power measurements, flow
mapping, and total pressure surveys. The main results suggested that the BLI configuration
enhanced the propulsive efficiency by reducing both the electrical power coefficient and
the kinetic energy waste due to lower jet velocities. Other benefits included a reduced
ram drag, lower structural weight, and a less wetted area than the pylon-mounted engine
configuration. However, the propulsion–airframe integration of the BLI inlets introduces
complicated aerodynamic interactions, thereby causing high levels of fan–face distortion
that decrease engine performance and can lead to issues in the reliability of safe operation.
Distortion further leads to additional vibration and noise; therefore, the optimum design
of the airframe shape and the integration of distortion tolerant fan blades that adjust the
boundary-layer ingestion are key elements for improving inlet/engine compatibility. The
experimental results also confirmed that the box-wing concept is attractive for security
reasons. In particular, the concept had a favorable stall recovery, in which the downwash
on the aft wing was alleviated, thereby producing a soft stall and inducing a nose-down
pitching moment to restore the state of the aircraft.

C pt

-0.8 -0.7 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0.0

Figure 15. DCθ and C pt experimental results measured on the aerodynamic interface plane at
M = 0.089, Re = 3.02 × 105 , and α from 0◦ to 8◦ .
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 21 of 26

Figure 16. Mini-tuft flow visualization of fuselage and nacelles upstream of propulsor inlets at
M = 0.089, Re = 3.02 × 105 , and α = 3◦ .

5. Conclusions
The wind-tunnel testing of a 3.5%-scale model of a new aircraft concept at the Labora-
tory of Aerodynamics of the Aeronautical Engineering Department from São Carlos School
of Engineering—University of São Paulo has yielded significant insights into the aerody-
namic benefits of boundary-layer ingestion. The following key findings were obtained:
• The analysis revealed a clear correlation between jet velocity and the power-saving
coefficient due to BLI. The utilization of BLI enabled a lower jet velocity by ingesting
slower flow, thus resulting in reduced momentum flow through the propulsor and
more efficient power usage. The measurements demonstrated a minimum power
saving of 7.41% ± 2.5% compared to conventional freestream flow ingesting configu-
rations, with a 99% confidence interval. However, due to scale model limitations, the
BLI benefit was quantified using electrical power instead of mechanical flow power
measurements. Subsequent experiments will address this by converting the electrical
power into mechanical flow power, thereby incorporating shaft and fan efficiencies.
• While the analysis did not explicitly evaluate the BLI benefit for an actual transonic
transport aircraft, it did establish the processes necessary for evaluating the BLI’s
potential on real aircraft geometries. This enables the integration of novel propulsion
technologies with the airframe. The experiment’s results align closely with steady
CFD-RANS simulations of the aircraft at actual scale and flight conditions, with a
margin of error of ±2.5% due to aerodynamic modeling uncertainties.
• These results contribute to our understanding of BLI aerodynamics for several reasons.
Firstly, the fan was appropriately scaled to match the full-scale fuselage boundary layer.
Secondly, the utilized power balance method does not account for differences in the
Reynolds and Mach numbers, and the BLI benefits primarily stemmed from a lower jet-
to-freestream velocity ratio (reduction of approximately 4.63%) and reduced external
losses due to a smaller nacelle wetted area (reduction of around 5.62%) compared to
the non-BLI configuration. Thirdly, previous research suggests that compressibility
effects have a minimal impact on the fuselage boundary layer. This demonstrates the
efficacy of the current aerodynamic model experiment in assessing the aero-propulsive
efficiency of a BLI aircraft configuration.
• The aerodynamic flow measurements confirmed the presence of flow distortion, which
restricts the aerodynamic performance of the BLI configuration. Further investigations
should focus on understanding the specific response of the fan to this distortion, thus
considering material limitations and potential issues related to the noise and vibration
caused by nonuniform incoming flow.
• Flow measurements were taken using a seven-hole probe. The probe’s interference
with the flow warrants additional investigation, and the use of non-intrusive flow
measurement techniques such as particle image velocimetry (PIV) can provide a
comprehensive assessment of the flow field. While this research provides direct
evidence of the benefits of boundary-layer ingestion, further studies are necessary to
fully comprehend its influence on aircraft performance during detailed design phases.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 22 of 26

• It is important to note that the experiments were conducted at lower Reynolds numbers
and subsonic conditions when compared to actual flight. Therefore, it is essential to
consider that the performance coefficients may differ in a full-scale application. More
detailed research focusing on flight conditions will enable a more accurate comparison
of different configurations.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, P.D.B.-M.; methodology, P.D.B.-M. and H.D.C.-M.; val-

idation, P.D.B.-M. and F.M.C.; formal analysis, P.D.B.-M.; investigation, P.D.B.-M.; data curation,
P.D.B.-M.; writing—original draft preparation, P.D.B.-M.; writing—review and editing, P.D.B.-M.;
supervision, F.M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article: this work was financed by the National Council for Scientific and
Technological Development—CNPq (grants 141950/2017-0 and 203402/2019-7).
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Acknowledgments: The authors gladly recognize João Eguea and Gabriel Gouveia for their assistance
during the experimental campaign as members of the Experimental Aerodynamics Laboratory at the
Department of Aeronautical Engineering of the University of São Paulo.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or
personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Appendix A. Calibration and Correction of Aerodynamic Forces

The load cell calibration procedure is explained in this section. The drag balance load
cells were tested by attaching a rope to the wind tunnel model and connecting it to a set of
weights. In contrast, the lift balance was calibrated by adding weights on the top of the
fuselage model. The weights were added and removed consecutively, thereby reading the
voltage output on the acquisition board and relating the force and voltage output data.
This approach allowed us to avoid any type of bias or hysteresis effect with the load cells.
A linear regression was used to find the relation between the applied forces and voltage
output. Figure A1 shows the calibration for the lift and drag forces.

100 100

80 80

60 60
Drag [N]
Lift [N]

40 40

20 20
Linear: y = 39.57*x + 0.4748 Linear: y = 10.01*x + 1.004
R 2 = 0.9997 R 2 = 0.9995
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 0 2 4 6 8 10
Output [V] Output [V]
(a) Lift force balance calibration. (b) Drag force balance calibration.

Figure A1. Calibration of aerodynamic forces.

The process to evaluate the drag generated by the pitch–strut system: Basically, the
aerodynamic forces acting on the model support were recorded at different tunnel speeds.
Then, regression statistical analysis was performed to obtain an equation to relate the drag
of the support for each value of the dynamic pressure (see Figure A2). The drag generated
by the support was calculated by replacing the values of the dynamic pressure for each type
of experiment, whose results were simply subtracted from the total drag of the experiment
to obtain the model’s drag.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 23 of 26

11

10

Drag [N]
7

5
Linear: y = 0.01963*x - 0.7177
4 R 2 = 0.9966

3
200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550
Dynamic pressure [Pa]

Figure A2. Pitch-strut system drag correction.

Note that the effect of the pitch–strut system appeared to be largely linear in this case,
thus suggesting limited aerodynamic interaction between the model and the support. In
contrast, the strut had no substantial effect on the lift coefficient, since its apparent effect
did not change for different dynamic pressure runs, and its magnitude was comparable to
the balance repeatability.

Appendix B. Measurement Uncertainty and Repeatability

In this section, the calculations used to determine the experimental uncertainties are
presented. The precision of the tunnel instrumentation determined the level of uncertainty
in the tunnel operating conditions (Table A1).

Table A1. Instrument precision and uncertainty.

Uncertainty in Value
Atmospheric pressure ∆p ± 1 mm Hg
Dynamic pressure ∆q∞ ± 0.1 Pa
Temperature ∆T ± 0.1 ◦ C

The uncertainty of the tunnel velocity was calculated by the following:

" 2  2  2 #1/2
∂V∞ ∂V∞ ∂V∞
∆V∞ = ∆q∞ + ∆p + ∆T , (A1)
∂q∞ ∂p ∂T

where the uncertainty for each variable is determined by the following equations:
 q  2
2 2q∞RT

∂V∞ ∂ p
∆q∞ = (∆q∞ ) (A2)
 
∂q∞ ∂q∞

 q  2
2 2q∞RT

∂V∞ ∂ p
∆p = (∆p) (A3)
 
∂p ∂p

 q  2
2 2q∞RT

∂V∞ ∂ p
∆T = (∆T ) . (A4)
 
∂T ∂T
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 24 of 26

The uncertainty of the lift and drag coefficients, as well as the lift-to-drag ratio, were
calculated using the pressure and area readings, as well as the voltage output measurement
variance from the lift and drag bridges:
h i
39.57 × OL (V ) ± √n σ
sample
CL = ∆CL = (A5)
(q∞ ± ∆q∞ )(S ± ∆S)
h i
10.01 × OD (V ) ± √ σ
nsample
CD = ∆CD = (A6)
(q∞ ± ∆q∞ )(S ± ∆S)
h i
CL C 39.57 × O L ( V ) ± √ σ
n
=∆ L =
sample
h i. (A7)
CD CD 10.02 × OD (V ) ± √n σ
sample

The propagation of uncertainty was performed using multiplication and division

equations:
( A ± ∆A) × ( B ± ∆B) = AB ± A∆B ± B∆A (A8)

A ± ∆A A A∆B + B∆A
= ± . (A9)
B ± ∆B B B2
The metric of interest for this study was the power-saving coefficient, which deter-
mines the BLI benefit when considering the electrical power coefficient (CPE ) at zero net
stream-wise force (CX = 0). As a result, the uncertainty in both the measured power and
measured net stream-wise force contributed to the uncertainty in the BLI benefit. Assuming
that all uncertainties were statistically independent, the instrumentation uncertainties were
propagated to the quantities of interest as follows:

" 2  2 # 12
σFX σq∞
σCX = + CX (A10)
FX q∞

" 2  2 # 21
σPE σFX dPE
σPE | = + PE (A11)
CX =0 PE PE dFX
" 2  2  2 # 12
σPE σq∞ σV∞
σCP = + + CPE . (A12)
E PE q∞ V∞

Finally, repeatability refers to the agreement among the repeated measurements, i.e.,
the spread of the collected data or how close they are together. The more precise a set
of measurements, the closer together they are. In this study, several data sets pertaining
to the determined experiment were repeated in order to assess the repeatability of the
wind-tunnel observations. In particular, aerodynamic measurements were repeated five
times per tunnel velocity, and range of angle of attack; electrical power measurements
were repeated seven times per tunnel velocity and per angular velocity of the EDFs; flow
mapping measurements were repeated two times per angular velocity of the EDFs, and inlet
pressure distortion measurements were repeated three times per tunnel velocity and range
of angle of attack. The deviations of the measurements with respect to the mean value were
computed per data set. These deviations were used to evaluate the confidence intervals
using a Student’s t-distribution. The data collected during a given run was fitted with a
polynomial curve, thus indicating 95% of confidence intervals. Despite the fact that some
angles of attack had a broader range of variation, the experiment was considered repeatable.
Aerospace 2023, 10, 651 25 of 26

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