Symmetries, Lie

Algebras and
Representations
A graduate course for physicists

JÜRGEN FUCHS
DESY

CHRISTOPH SCHWEIGERT
Institut des Hautes Etudes Scientifiques

AMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
 Contents

Preface xv

1 Symmetries and conservation laws 1

1.1 Symmetries 1
1.2 Continuous parameters and local one-parameter groups 2
1.3 Classical mechanics: Lagrangian description 2
1.4 Conservation laws 3
1.5 Classical mechanics: Hamiltonian description 6
1.6 Quantum mechanics 8
1.7 Observation of symmetries 12
1.8 Gauge `symmetries' 12
1.9 Duality symmetries 14

2 Basic examples 17
2.1 Angular momentum 17
2.2 Step operators 18
2.3 Irreducible representations 20
2.4 The free scalar field 22
2.5 The Heisenberg algebra 23
2.6 Common features 26

3 The Lie algebra su(3) and hadron symmetries 30

3.1 Symmetries of hadrons 30
3.2 Combining two sl(2)-algebras 31
3.3 Multiple commutators 32
3.4 43) and su(3) 35
3.5 Orthogonal basis 36
3.6 The eightfold way 38
3.7 Quarks 40
3.8 Abstract Lie algebras 43

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4 Formalization: Algebras and Lie algebras 47

4.1 Short summary 47
4.2 Groups, rings, fields 47
4.3 Vector spaces 48
4.4 Algebras 51
4.5 Lie algebras 51
4.6 Generators 52
4.7 Homomorphisms, isomorphisms, derivations 53
4.8 Subalgebras and ideals 54
4.9* Solvable and nilpotent Lie algebras 57
4.10 Semisimple and abelian Lie algebras 57
4.11* Gradations and Lie superalgebras 59
4.12* Open and non-linear algebras 60

5 Representations 64
5.1 Representations and representation matrices 64
5.2 The adjoint representation 66
5.3 Constructing more representations 68
5.4 Schur's Lemma 71
5.5 Reducible modules 73
5.6 Matrix Lie algebras 74
5.7 The representation theory of s((2) revisited 77

6 The Cartan-Weyl basis 82

6.1 Cartan subalgebras 82
6.2 Roots 84
6.3 The Killing form 86
6.4 Some properties of roots and the root system 87
6.5 Structure constants of the Cartan-Weyl basis 89
6.6 Positive roots 90
6.7 Simple roots and the Cartan matrix 91
6.8 Root and weight lattices. The Dynkin basis 92
6.9 The metric an weight space 95
6.10 The Chevalley basis 96
6.11 Root strings 99
6.12 Examples 101
6.13* Non-semisimple Lie algebras 102

7 Simple and affine Lie algebras 108

7.1 Chevalley-Serre relations 108
7.2 The Cartan matrix 110
7.3 Dynkin diagrams 112
7.4 Simple Lie algebras 113
7.5 Quadratic form matrices 116
7.6 The highest root and the Weyl vector 116
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7.7 The orthonormal basis of weight space 119

7.8 Kac-Moody algebras 122
7.9 Affine Lie algebras 124
7.10 Coxeter labels and dual Coxeter labels 128

8 Real Lie algebras and real forms 133

8.1 More about the Killing form 133
8.2 The Killing form of real Lie algebras 135
8.3 The compact and the normal real form 136
8.4 The real forms of simple Lie algebras 139

9 Lie groups 144

9.1 Lie group manifolds 144
9.2 Global vector fields 145
9.3 Compactness 147
9.4 The exponential map 149
9.5* Maurer-Cartan theory 151
9.6 Spin 151
9.7 The classical Lie groups 154
9.8 BCH formulae 156

10 Symmetries of the root system. The Weyl group 161

10.1 The Weyl group 161
10.2 Fundamental reflections. Length and sign 164
10.3 Weyl chambers 167
10.4 The Weyl group in the orthogonal basis 168
10.5 The Weyl vector 171
10.6 The normalizer of the Cartan subalgebra 172
10.7 The Weyl group of affine Lie algebras 174
10.8* Coxeter groups 177

11 Automorphisms of Lie algebras 181

11.1 The group of automorphisms 181
11.2 Automorphisms of finite order 181
11.3 Inner and outer automorphisms 183
11.4 An 42) example 185
11.5 Dynkin diagram symmetries 186
11.6 Finite order inner automorphisms of simple Lie algebras 189
11.7 Automorphisms of the root system 191
11.8 Finite order outer automorphisms of simple Lie algebras 192
11.9 Involutive automorphisms, conjugations, real forms 193
11.10* Involutive automorphisms and symmetric spaces 194
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12 Loop algebras and central extensions 198

12.1 Central extensions 198
12.2* Ray representations and cohomology 200
12.3 Loop algebras 202
12.4 Towards untwisted affine Lie algebras 203
12.5 The derivation 205
12.6 The Cartan-Weyl basis 207
12.7 The root system 209
12.8 Twisted affine Lie algebras 211
12.9* The root system of twisted affine Lie algebras 212
12.10 Heisenberg algebras 214
12.11* Gradations 215
12.12 The Virasoro algebra 216

13 Highest weight representations 221

13.1 Highest weight representations of st(2) 221
13.2 Highest weight modules of simple Lie algebras 222
13.3 The weight system 225
13.4 Unitarity 228
13.5 Characters and dimensions 231
13.6 Defining modules and basic modules 234
13.7* The dual Weyl vector 236
13.8 Highest weight modules of affine Lie algebras 237
13.9 Integrable highest weight modules 238
13.10* Twisted affine Lie algebras 240
13.11 Triangular decomposition 241

14 Verma modules, Casimirs, and the character formula 244

14.1 Universal enveloping algebras 244
14.2 Quotients of algebras 245
14.3 The Poincar&-Birkhoff-Witt theorem 248
14.4 Verma modules and null vectors 249
14.5 The character of a Verma module 251
14.6 Null vectors and unitarity 253
14.7 The quadratic Casimir Operator 254
14.8 Quadratic Casimir eigenvalues 256
14.9* The second order Dynkin index 257
14.10 The character formula 258
14.11* Characters and modular transformations 261
14.12* Harish-Chandra theorem and higher Casimir operators 263
15 Tensor products of representations 266
15.1 Tensor products 266
15.2* Tensor products for other algebraic structures 267
15.3 Highest weight modules 268
15.4 Tensor products for s[(2) 269
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15.5 Conjugacy classes 271

15.6 Sum rules 273
15.7 The Racah-Speiser algorithm 273
15.8 Examples 276
15.9* Kostant's function and Steinberg's formula 278
15.10* Affine Lie algebras 278

16 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients and tensor operators 281

16.1 Isomorphisms involving tensor products of modules 281
16.2 Clebsch-Gordan coefficients and 3j-symbols 281
16.3 Calculation of Clebsch-Gordan coefficients 284
16.4 Formulae for Clebsch-Gordan coefficients 286
16.5 Intertwiner spaces 287
16.6 Racah coefficients and 6j-symbols 288
16.7 The pentagon and hexagon identities 291
16.8 Tensor operators 294
16.9 The Wigner-Eckart theorem 296

17 Invariant tensors 299

17.1 Intertwiners and invariant tensors 299
17.2 Orthogonal and symplectic modules 301
17.3 Primitive invariants 302
17.4 Adjoint tensors of st(n) 304
17.5 Tensors for spinor modules 306
17.6 Singlets in tensor products 308
17.7 Projection operators 309
17.8 Casimir operators 311

18 Subalgebras and branching rules 315

18.1 Subalgebras 315
18.2 The Dynkin index of an embedding 317
18.3 Finding regular subalgebras 318
18.4 S-subalgebras 319
18.5 Projection maps and defining representations 321
18.6 Branching rules 323
18.7* Embeddings of affine Lie algebras 326

19 Young tableaux and the symmetric group 330

19.1 Young tableaux 330
19.2 Dimensions and quadratic Casimir eigenvalues 333
19.3 Tensor products 335
19.4* Young tableaux for other Lie algebras 337
19.5* Brauer-Weyl theory 338
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20 Spinors, Clifford algebras, and supersymmetry 340

20.1 Spinor representations 340
20.2 Clifford algebras 341
20.3 Representation theory of Clifford algebras 343
20.4 Representations of orthogonal algebras and groups 344
20.5* SU(2) versus SO(3) revisited 346
20.6 Zoology of spinors 347
20.7 Spinors of the Lorentz group 350
20.8 The Poincare algebra. Contractions 353
20.9 S up ersymmet ry 355
20.10* Twistors 358

21 Representations on function spaces 363

21.1 Group actions on functions spaces 363
21.2 Multiplier representations and Lie derivatives 364
21.3 Multiplier representations of SL(2) 367
21.4 General function spaces 369
21.5 Spherical harmonics 370
21.6 Hypergeometric functions 372
21.7* Classification of Lie derivatives 374
21.8 The Haar measure 375
21.9 The Peter-Weyl theorem 378
21.10 Group characters and dass functions 380
21.11 Fourier analysis 382
22 Hopf algebras and representation rings 386
22.1 Co-products 386
22.2 Co-algebras and bi-algebras 388
22.3 Hopf algebras 389
22.4 Universal enveloping algebras 391
22.5 Quasi-triangular Hopf algebras 392
22.6 Deformed enveloping algebras 394
22.7 Group Hopf algebras A 397
22.8 Functions on compact groups 398
22.9 Quantum groups 399
22.10 Quasi-Hopf algebras 400
22.11 Character rings 402
22.12 Rational fusion rings 405
22.13 The extended Racah-Speiser formalism 407
Epilogue 412
References 421
Index 430