Algebra for Engineers

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González - Cedillo - Valdéz - Martínez - González

IE RIA MECA
NI
EN
G

C
IN

A
YE
DE

LECT
FACULTAD

RIC A

U . A .N . L .
2016
Rogelio Garza Rivera
Rector

Carmen del Rosario de la Fuente García

Secretario General

Celso José Garza Acuña

Secretario de Extensión y Cultura

Antonio Ramos Revillas

Director de Publicaciones

Jaime Arturo Castillo Elizondo

Director de la Facultad de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica

Ave. Universidad S/N, Ciudad Universitaria

San Nicolás de los Garza, Nuevo León
México, C.P. 66455
Teléfono: (81) 83294020
Página web http://www.fime.uanl.mx/

Primera Edición, 2016

©Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León
©Arturo Rodolfo González Escamilla, Guadalupe Evaristo Cedillo Garza, Patricia
Argelia Valdéz Rodríguez, José Ramón Martinez Salazar, Alfonso González Zambrano

ISBN: 978-607-27-0645-3

Reservados todos los derechos conforme a la ley.

Prohibida la reproducción total y parcial de este texto sin
previa autorización.

Impreso en Monterrey, México

Printed in Monterrey, México
 Algebra for Engineers

I thank the Dr. JAIME ARTURO CASTILLO ELIZONDO Director of the Faculty of Engineering
Mechanical and Electrical facilities lent to this server for the realization and completion of this
book.

I thank especially to the Professors M.C. Guadalupe Evaristo Cedillo Garza, MC. Patricia Argelia
Valdez Rodríguez, M.C. José Ramón Martinez Salazar and M.C. Alfonso González Zambrano the
assistance for the preparation, review and completion of this work.

Authors:

M.C. ARTURO RODOLFO GONZÁLEZ ESCAMILLA

M.C. GUADALUPE EVARISTO CEDILLO GARZA

M.C. PATRICA ARGELIA VALDÉZ RODRÍGUEZ

M.C. JOSÉ RAMÓN MARTINEZ SALAZAR

M.C. ALFONSO GONZÁLEZ ZAMBRANO

FIME-UANL MAYO 2016

Page 2 of 125
This book is aimed at students in the first semester of our faculty which can provide support to the
textbook which is currently used in the FIME.

CONTENTS

Complex numbers.......................................................................................................................4

Theory of equations...................................................................................................................18

Determinants.............................................................................................................................32

Matrices.....................................................................................................................................57

Vectors.......................................................................................................................................83

The react and the Plane............................................................................................................116

Page 3 of 125
 Complex Numbers

Companion student:

In order to understand better east Subject it is necessary that you

know to use General Formula, The Theorem of the Binomial, The
Theorem of Pythagoras and The trigonometrically Functions.

DEFINITION OF THE IMAGINARY UNIT

In our treaty of fractional exponents we excluded the ROOTS of

EVEN order of the negative numbers. But the roots of even order,
especially the SQUARE ROOTS, of the Negative numbers are very
important in mathematics. Its use has contributed to the development
of a great area of the mathematics, great part of which has vital
application in engineering and physical sciences.

The equations that cannot be solved and many are many the problems
that cannot be investigated in the system of the real numbers. The
equation

a2  1  0

for example, it has single solution if and if

a 2  1.

But as the square of any real number is not negative then and by
consequence the equation does not have Real solutions. In order to
obtain numbers whose squares are negative, we must extend our
numerical system to include a new set of numbers.

The radicals of EVEN order with being (-) negative will be solved in the
usual form adding to the result the letter 𝒊 that means imaginary
(because they do not have real solution) and it is defined of the
following way:

Page 4 of 125
 1  i imaginary unit

then like 1  i

therefore i 2  1

and like i 3  i 2  i  1 i  i

and like i 4  i 2  i 2  1  1  1

and like i 5  i 2  i 2  i  1 1 i  i

etc.

Examples:

 4  2i
 16 x 2  4 xi
 11   11i

The Complex Numbers have the canonical form a  bi , in where a it is

the Real part and bi it is the imaginary part.

Like any number Real the Complex Numbers also have their negative and
conjugated his, first is obtained to multiply he number complex by −1,
and the second is obtained to change the sign of the Imaginary part.

We will try to explain the previous thing with the following examples:

Complex Numbers Negative Conjugated

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 −𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
3 + 2𝑖 −3 − 2𝑖 3 − 2𝑖
4 + 3𝑖 −4 − 3𝑖 4 − 3𝑖
−2 − 5𝑖 2 + 5𝑖 −2 + 5𝑖
3𝑖 −3𝑖 −3𝑖

FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS

SUM And REDUCES. The procedure to conduct these operations is

similar that in the Real Numbers or is the Real part of a Complex
Number Sum or Reduced á with the Real part of another Number
Complex and the Imaginary part of a Complex Number Sum or Reduced

Page 5 of 125
a with the Imaginary part of another Complex Number.

The following example will give one more an ampler idea us of which
previously I explain myself.

2  4i  3  5i  8  2i  12  3i  9  4i

MULTIPLICATION. We must remember that in Multiplication two

basic operations take place, Multiplication and Sum, therefore when the
operation takes place to multiply can be multiplied Real parts with Real
parts or with Imaginary parts and vice versa and when it must carry out
the operation to add will be as it were explained in the point No. 1.

The following example clarified the doubts.

2  3i
 3  4i
6  9i
 8i  12i 2
6  1i  12i 2

but like i 2  1 the answer is

6  i  12  18  i

DIVISION. When it must carry out division of two Complex Numbers,

the process to follow is similar to which is carried out when rationalize
Denominator, in other words the Complex Number that is going away to
divide to be multiplied to him a as much to the dividend as to the
splitter the conjugated one of the splitter and what is it will be the
result.

Example : To divide 3  2i between 2  2i

3  2i 2  2i 6  2i  4i 2 6  2i  4 10  2i
   
2  2i 2  2i 4  4i 2 44 8

Page 6 of 125
POWERS. In order to conduct this operation the indications will be
followed that were explained in The Theorem of Binomial

Example: To elevate 2  3i to the fourth power

2  3i 4  24  423 3i   622 3i 2  423i 3  3i 4

 16  96i  216i 2  216i 3  81i 4
 16  96i  216  216i  81
 119  120i

Note: To remember that i 2  1

i 3  i 2  i  1 i  i

i 4  i 2  i 2  1 1  1

ROOTS. The operation to calculate roots of a Complex Number is as if

we elevated that Complex Number to a Power Factionaries and
therefore and in agreement with Theorem of Binomial the development
tends to Infinite.

Example: To find the root fourth of 3  3i

3  3i 14  314  1 3 4 3i   ………. 

3

Page 7 of 125
 Complex Numbers II

Companion student:

In order to understand better east Subject it is necessary that you

know to use General Formula , the Theorem of the Binomial , the
Theorem of Pythagoras and the Trigonometrically Functions .

RECTANGULAR FORM

I know to sight previously that the real numbers can imagine

geometrically as points in an airline of equal way we try geometrically
to represent he complex number assigning the real part of the
complex number the axis X and to the imaginary part of the complex
number the axis Y

Examples:

Yi

y P(x+yi
)
P2(-1+3i)

X
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3x 4
P3(-2i)

P1(2-3i)

In agreement with the explained thing previously we can conclude that

we can graphical any complex number in the axes.

Page 8 of 125
IT FORMS POLAR

Polar Forma is Trigonometrically Form of the complex numbers which

when carrying out algebraic operations with them have certain
advantages on the rectangular form.

If we have a complex number Bx  yi located in the 𝒀-axes, later if

we drew up of the point B a perpendicular to the axis 𝑿 and of the
same point B we drew up a line to the origin would have left to a
triangle rectangle:

B(x, y)
(r,)

r
y


x X

Of where by Trigonometry Side Adjacent to Angle  it is,

x  rCos

And Side or position to Angle  it is

y  rSen

Therefore if his complex number that graphically is x  yi and we

equaled it to its corresponding one would have left:

x  yi  r Cos  iSen 

In where the Left side of the equation is called Rectangular Form to

him and alongside straight Polar Form is called to him, length r is called
Module to him and to the angle  Argument is called to him.

Page 9 of 125
In order to clarify if we are going to change a complex number that
this in Rectangular Form to Polar Forma we will have to calculate the
Module ( 𝒓 ) and the Argument ( )

As it module of the polar form is the Hypotenuse of a Triangle

Rectangle we will be able to calculate by means of Theorem of
Pythagoras

r x2  y 2  r 0

and the Argument (angle) we will calculate it by Function

TRIGONOMETRICAL TANGENT

y
Tg    x0
x

With the following example we will be able to clarify the doubts

To obtain Module, Argument and Polar Form of the following complex

number 3  4i

As it were already said previously the module will calculate with the
Theorem of Pythagoras and the argument by the Tangent
Trigonometrically Function .

r 2  x2  y 2

r  x2  y 2  32  42  9  16  25  5

y 4
Tg    1.3333    Tg 11.3333  53 7[ 48.37[[
x 3

Therefore Polar Form is:


5 Cos53 7 ' 48.37[[  iSen53 7 [ 48.37[[ 
Of equal way if we had a complex number in Polar Form and wanted to
change it single Rectangular Form it would be enough in multiplying he
respectively module of the complex number by the Cosine and the Sine
of the angle.

Page 10 of 125
With the following example we will clarify the doubts.

To calculate Rectangular Form of the following complex number that

this in Polar Form 4Cos60  iSen60 

1 3 
4Cos60  iSen60   4  i   2  2 3i
 2 2 

OPERATIONS FUNDAMENTALES (in polar form)

It is of vital importance of knowing as the complex numbers that are in

the polar form, by such reason are used we describe next the
procedure of their use.

MULTIPLICATION. In order to conduct this operation To Multiply the

Modules and the Arguments are added.

Example: To calculate the product of the following complex numbers

3Cos30  iSen30  4Cos40  iSen40 

 12Cos70  iSen70 

DIVISION. In order to conduct this operation the Modules will divide

and I know Reduced the Arguments (to the argument of above the
argument of down is reduced to him).

Example: To calculate the quotient of the following complex numbers


15 Cos75  iSen75  
 3 Cos30  iSen30 

5 Cos45  iSen45 
Note: It is necessary to have well-taken care of when carrying out the
subtraction of the arguments, because if the argument of the complex
number of above is smaller than the argument of the complex number
of down, the subtraction will be NEGATIVE and we must remember
that the arguments (angles) are always POSITIVE therefore will have
to him to add 360°.

Page 11 of 125
Example: To calculate quotient of the following complex numbers


15 Cos35  Sen35  
 5 Cos  40  iSen  40 

3 Cos75  iSen75 

 5 Cos320  iSen320  

POWERS. Since the involution is a special case of the multiplication,

and remembering that the operation to multiply be that they are
multiplied the modules and the arguments are added, and by
consequence we have if two complex numbers are equal and they are
multiplied, its product would be.

rCos  iSen 2  r 2 Cos2  iSen2 

Like also:

rCos  Sen 3  r 3 Cos3  iSen3 

This makes us think that for any whole number and positive N we will
have:

rCos  iSen N  r N CosN  iSenN 

Which is known him like the Theorem of MOIVRE?

 
Example: To elevate 2Cos30  iSen30  to the fifth power

2Cos30 

 iSen30   32Cos150  iSen150 
5

ROOTS. If to the Theorem of MOIVRE one rises to a fractional power

we would have left.

1    
r Cos  iSen 1N  r N  Cos  iSen 
 N N

And as to any angle him a multiple of 360 can be added it would be

that:

Page 12 of 125
     k  360   K  360 
r Cos  iSen 1N  r
1
N  Cos  iSen 
  N N 

We will make an example to clarify doubts.

To calculate the three cubical roots of: 8Cos60  iSen60 

Applying the MOIVRE theorem to find the roots we would have left

 1  
8Cos60 

 iSen60 
1
3
 8 3  Cos
60  k  360
 iSen
60  K  360

  3 3 

When the 𝒌 = 𝟎, 2Cos20  iSen20 

When the 𝒌 = 𝟏, 2Cos140  iSen140 

When the 𝒌 = 𝟐, 2Cos260  iSen260 

That the three roots

Page 13 of 125
 Exercises
Change the complex number given to its negative and its conjugate.

Complex Numbers Negative Conjugated

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 −𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
−2 + 𝑖
5 − 2𝑖
−3 − 4𝑖
7𝑖
3

II solve the operations of complex numbers and express the answer in rectangular form.

4−2𝑖
1) (3 − 2𝑖 ) + (7 + 5𝑖 ) − (5 − 2𝑖 ) 7)
1+3𝑖

−2+𝑖 √2
2) (−5 − 𝑖 ) − (2 + 3𝑖 ) + (4 − 2𝑖 ) 8)
3−𝑖 √2

√2−𝑖 √3
3) 3𝑖 − (7 + 𝑖 ) − (−3 − 2𝑖 ) 9)
√3+𝑖 √2

4) (3 + 𝑖 ) × (1 − 2𝑖 ) 10) (3 − 𝑖 )3

5) (1 − 𝑖√3 ) × (1 + 𝑖√3) 11) (2 + 2𝑖 )4

3
6) (2 + 𝑖 ) × (−2 + 𝑖 ) 12) (1 − 𝑖√2)

III Transform to polar form of complex number.

1) 8 − 6𝑖

2) −3 + 6𝑖

3) 9 + 3𝑖

4) −2 + 2𝑖

Page 14 of 125
IV Transform to the rectangular form complex number.

1) 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠135° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛135°)

2) 4(𝐶𝑜𝑠210° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛210°)

3) 6(𝐶𝑜𝑠300° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛300°)

V Solve the operations of complex numbers in polar form.

1) 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠70° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛70°) × 5(𝐶𝑜𝑠40° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛40°)

2) 4(𝐶𝑜𝑠60° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛60°) × 6(𝐶𝑜𝑠90° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛90°)

3) 6(𝐶𝑜𝑠70° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛70°) × (𝐶𝑜𝑠200° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛200°)

20(𝐶𝑜𝑠95°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛95°)
4)
4(𝐶𝑜𝑠30°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛30°)

64(𝐶𝑜𝑠220°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛220°)
5)
32(𝐶𝑜𝑠40°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛40°)

15(𝐶𝑜𝑠280°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛280°)
6)
5(𝐶𝑜𝑠70°+𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛70°)

3
7) [√2(𝐶𝑜𝑠225° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛225°)]
4
8) [√3(𝐶𝑜𝑠60° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛60°)]

9) [2(𝐶𝑜𝑠150° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛150°)]5
1
10) [81(𝐶𝑜𝑠200° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛200°)]4
1
11) [64(𝐶𝑜𝑠135° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛135°)]3
1
12 [8(𝐶𝑜𝑠90° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛90°)]3

Page 15 of 125
 SOLUTIONS
I

Complex Numbers Negative Conjugated

𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 −𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖 𝑎 − 𝑏𝑖
−2 + 𝑖 2−𝑖 −2 − 𝑖
5 − 2𝑖 −5 + 2𝑖 5 + 2𝑖
−3 − 4𝑖 3 + 4𝑖 −3 + 4𝑖
7𝑖 −7𝑖 −7𝑖
3 −3

II

1 7
1) 5 + 5𝑖 7) − − 𝑖
5 5

8 √2
2) −3 − 6𝑖 8) − + 𝑖
11 11

3) −4 + 4𝑖 9) −𝑖

4) 5 − 5𝑖 10) 18 − 26𝑖

5) 4 11) −64

6) −5 12) −5 − 𝑖√2

III

1 )10(𝐶𝑜𝑠323.13° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛323.13°)

2) )3√5(𝐶𝑜𝑠243.43° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛243.43°)

3) )3√10(𝐶𝑜𝑠18.43° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛18.43°)

4) )2√2(𝐶𝑜𝑠135° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛135°)

Page 16 of 125
IV-

1) −√2 + 𝑖√2

2) −2√3 − 2𝑖

3) 3 − 3𝑖√3

1) 10(𝐶𝑜𝑠110° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛110°)

2) 24(𝐶𝑜𝑠150° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛150°)

3) 6(𝐶𝑜𝑠270° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛270°)

4) 5(𝐶𝑜𝑠65° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛65°)

5) 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠180° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛180°)

6) 3(𝐶𝑜𝑠 210° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛210°)

7) 2√2(𝐶𝑜𝑠 315° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛315°)

8) 9(𝐶𝑜𝑠 240° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛240°)

9) 32(𝐶𝑜𝑠 30° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛30°)

10) 𝑘=0 3(𝐶𝑜𝑠50° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛50°)

𝑘=1 3(𝐶𝑜𝑠140° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛140°)

𝑘=2 3(𝐶𝑜𝑠230° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛230°)

𝑘=3 3(𝐶𝑜𝑠320° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛320°)

11) 𝑘=0 4(𝐶𝑜𝑠45° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛45°)

𝑘=1 4(𝐶𝑜𝑠165° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛165°)

𝑘=2 4(𝐶𝑜𝑠285° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛285°)

12) 𝑘=0 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠30° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛30°)

𝑘=1 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠150° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛150°)

𝑘=2 2(𝐶𝑜𝑠270° + 𝑖𝑆𝑒𝑛270°)

Page 17 of 125
Theory of equations

Polynomial’s Functions

The objective of this Subject is that the student learns to work the
Polynomials and to obtain his Zeros Rationales, Irrationals and Complexes,
as well as to learn to Factorize any Polynomial expressing it like the Product
of Linear and Quadratic Factors.

A Polynomials Function of degree will be considered Whole m that it has

the form:

f x  am xn  am1xn 1  am 2 xn  2  ........  a2 x2  a1x1  a0

In which the Real Coefficients am , am 1 , am  2 ,..... a1 , a0 they are Constant, in

where am it is the Main Coefficient and a0 it is the Coefficient of the
Independent term of x.

The terms of the Function are formed in descending order of the Powers
of " X " and I know will be analyzing stops f x   0 since the Zero of the
Polynomial f x  it is the Solution of the Whole Equation.

They exist You formulate to find the Solutions of Equations Polynomial’s

equal Grade to 3 and equal 4 to but its solution is very laborious to obtain
and it is not very practices, in addition in superior treaties of Algebra also
to I am demonstrated that the Equations of Degree equal or greater than 5
do not have Algebraic solution for this reason will set out another Method
to determine them.

Theorems of the Remainder and the Factor

Theorem of the Remainder

A very useful form to determine the Zeros of a Polynomial f x  it is the

Theorem of the Remainder, which we are going to introduce next.

If we carried out the Algebraic Division of a Polynomial

f x   3x3  4 x 2  3x  4

Between x  2 where  2 it is an Independent number of x we would have

left:

Page 18 of 125
 3x2 + 2x + 1
X-2 3x3 – 4x2 – 3x – 4
-3x3 + 6x2
2x2 – 3x
-2x2 + 4x
x–4
-x + 2
-2

In where the quotient is 3 x 2  2 x  1 and the Remainder is  2

The Polynomial, then, can be expressed like:

 
3x3  4 x 2  3x  4  x  2 3x 2  2 x  1  2

Next, if we calculated f 2 in the previous example, (if we remembered

f 2 it is obtained replacing 2 by x in the Function)

f 2  3x3  4 x2  3x  4  32  42  3x  4  2

3 2

We can observe that the value of f 2 he is equal to the value of the
remainder that obtained in the Algebraic Division this could indicate that it
is a coincidence nevertheless if the same procedure with several divisions
takes place of f x between different x  r it would be possible to be
verified that in all the cases that f r  he is equal to the remainder R which
constitutes the foundation of the Theorem of the Remainder

THEOREM OF THE REMAINDER

If the Polynomial f x Is divided between the Binomial x  r where r it is a

Real Number, the Remainder is equal a f r 

Theorem of the Factor

Taking as it bases the Theorem of the Remainder, the statement of this

Theorem can be established that will be very useful to determine the
Factors to us of a Polynomial.

It is important to remember that when carrying out an Algebraic Division,

if the Division is Exact the Remainder is equal to Zero.

Page 19 of 125
THEOREM OF THE FACTOR

If r it is a root of f x   0 then x  r it is a factor of f x .

With the previous thing, it is possible to be made notice the importance of

knowing the value the remainder, since if this he is equal to zero, is going to
us to indicate that Factors are had, and that with them can be determined
the zeros of the polynomial.

It is of vital importance that you know to use the Synthetic Division.

Graphs of Polynomial’s Functions

In this section I know side like graphical the polynomial’s functions, that
are of the form:

f x  am xn  am1xn 1  ........  a2 x2  a1x  a0

Where each ai it is a Real number, one has already studied previously that
if f x  it has degree n  1 then the graph of the function is an airline,
whereas if f x  it is of degree n  2 then the graph of f x  it is a
parabola. Now the graphs of polynomials were considered f x  of degree
n  3.

FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF ALGEBRA

 All whole Equation f x   0 (zero) have at least one Root either Real
or Complex
 A whole Equation f x   0 of Degree n it has exactly n Roots (zeros)

Multiplicity: If the factor x  r it happens k times, one says that r he is a

Zero of multiplicity k .

Given the Roots of a Polynomial to find the Polynomial

If we have a Polynomial

x 2  9 x  20  0

and the Factorize we have left;

Page 20 of 125
 x  4x  5  0

x  4  0, x  5  0
x4
y
x5

Now if some Roots of a Polynomial occur us 2 ,  3 and 5 to

find the Polynomial:

Solution: it will be come in like the previous example but in

Reversal

x2 x  3 x5

x2  0 x3  0 x 5  0

x  2x  3x  5  0

x 3  4 x 2  11x  30  0

Page 21 of 125
Theory of equations II

Zeros Conjugated Complexes

Remember that the conjugated one of a  i it is a  bi

Theorem about the Conjugated Complexes

If the Complex Number a  bi (where b it is different from 0 ) he is a Zero

(Root) of the Polynomial with Real Coefficients, then Conjugated his a  bi
also he is a Zero (Root) of the Polynomial.

THEOREM

If the Irrational Number a  b he is a Zero (Root) of a Polynomial that

has Rational Coefficients, then the Irrational Number a  b also a Zero
(Root) del Polynomial

Levels

Often he is useful to be able to determine an interval that contains all the

Zeros Real ones of a Polynomial Function. All Number that is Greater
that/o Equal to Zero Greater of a Polynomial Function receives the name of
Superior Level of the Zeros, equal way, all Number that is Equal a/o
Smaller than the Zero but Small from a Polynomial Function it receives the
name of Inferior Level of the Zeros.

In the theorem that follows it uses the Synthetic Division in order to

determine Superior and Inferior Levels and Theorem of the Levels is called
to him.

THEOREM OF THE LEVELS

Suppose that f x  it is a Polynomial of Real Coefficients and that its first

Coefficient is Positive. If we used Synthetic Division in order to divide
f x  between x  r

 If r  0 and all the Terms of the third Line of the Synthetic Division
they are Positive or 0, then r it is a Superior Level of Zeros

Page 22 of 125
  If r  0 and all the Terms of the third Line of Synthetic Division
they have Alternate Signs (+, -), then r it is an Inferior Level of the
Zeros

Rule of the Signs of Discarding

The following Rule allows determining the Maximum Number of Zeros

Positives and Negatives of a Polynomial f x  with Real Coefficients.

If the Terms of a Polynomial are written normally in Descendent Powers of

the Variable, it says that it happens a variation of signs when the Signs of
two Consecutive Terms are Different.

Rule of the Signs of Discarding

Be f x  a Polynomial that has Real Coefficients and an Independent term

different from Zero,

 The number of Positive Roots of f x   0 he is equal to the Number

of Variations of sign of f x  or she is Minor who this number in an
Even Amount.
 The number of Negative Roots of f x   0 he is equal to the Number
of Variations of sign of f  x  or she is Minor who this number in an
Even Amount.

We will see an example to clarify doubts

f x   2 x 5  3x 4  2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  5

As it is possible to be observed between Second and Third, between Third

and Fourth and the Fourth and Fifth Term there are Variations of Sign,
therefore it has 3 Variations,

Now if we calculated f  x 

f  x   2 x 5  3x 4  2 x 3  4 x 2  2 x  5

As it is possible to be observed between First and Second and between the

Fourth and Fifth Term there are Variations of Sign, therefore it has 2
Variations, therefore the Rule of the Signs of Discarding we would have
left:

Page 23 of 125
The Roots can be:

Positive Negatives Imaginary

3 2 0
1 2 2
3 0 2
1 0 4

Zeros Rationales

If a Polynomial Function has one more or Zeros Rationales, the work that
are due to make to determine the other Zeros I know side substantially
reduced if First the Zeros Rationales are located. The identification of a
Zero Rational is a process Error and Success (rough estimates), being the
number of Attempts limited by the Theorem that follows.

THEOREM OF THE ZEROS RATIONALS

Suppose that the Coefficients of a Polynomial Function

f x  am xn  am1xn 1  ........  a2 x2  a1x  a0

They are whole and the P/q Relation it is a zero rational in its Minimum
Expression. In where the numerator p it is a Factor of the Constant Term
and the denominator q it is a Factor of the Main Coefficient

With the following example the doubts will be clarified:

4 x 4  2 x3  4 x 2  2 x  6  0

p  1,2,3,6
 
q  1,2,4

p 1 1 3 3
 1,2,3,6, , , ,
q 2 4 2 4

These numbers are the possible Rational Roots of the Polynomial

Page 24 of 125
Factorize of Polynomial

All polynomial with Real Coefficients can be written like the Product of
Linear and Quadratic Factors (irreducible in the field of the real numbers),
having each factor Real Coefficients.

For example: given the Polynomial x 3  7 x 2  17 x  15  0 to express it like a

Product of Linear and Quadratic Factors.

Solution: if we used the relation

p  1,3,5,15
  1,3,5,15
q 1

and if we calculated Error and Success with Synthetic Division I know side that
the only value that is Root of the given Polynomial is 3 therefore x  3 it is the
Linear factor and the Quotient of the Division x 2  4 x  4 it is the Quadratic
Factor therefore


x3  7 x 2  17 x  15  x  3 x 2  4 x  4 

Page 25 of 125
Theory of equations III

Companion in this subject who is wanted is that you learn to find the Roots
(zeros) of a Whole Equation of Degree N; the process that we are going to
use is the one of Rough estimates.

In this Course We will limit us single those Equations in which all the
Coefficients of the same one are REAL.

In first instance we will try to later find the Roots Real (rational or
irrational) and the Imaginary ones which will be by means of General
Formula.

The Steps to follow to find the Roots are the following ones:

1. To determine by means of Rule of the Signs of Discarding and to

where it is possible the number of Positive Roots, Negative and
Imaginary that the Equation Can have.
𝑷
2. To find by means of the Relation 𝑃 in 𝑞 (𝒒 ) (𝑃 is factors of
respectively finish independent and to 𝑞 the factors of the main
coefficient) the possible Rational Roots.
3. To prove the possible Roots by means of Synthetic Division :
4. The Roots will be those that when calculating them by means of
Synthetic Division the Remainder is ZERO.
5. Whenever you obtain a Root you must separate it, and you will use
the Reduced Equation to look for the following one.
6. You will continue east process until the Reduced Equation is of
Degree 2 which will be able to be solved by Factorize or by General
Formula.

Example: To find the Roots of the following Equation.

x 4  x3  2 x 2  6 x  4  0

One variation

· Rule of the Signs of Discarding

+ - i
1 3 0
1 1 2

Page 26 of 125
 p
· To calculate the Relation
q

p  1,2,4
  1,2,4
q 1

·To prove each one by these possible Roots by means of Synthetic

Division or it is to calculate 1, 2, 4, −1, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4 As you can be given
account if you already calculated 2 and -1 is Roots, since the Remainder
in both is Zero, Calculates the first 2 later uses the Reduced equation
(third line) that is of Degree 3 to calculate number -1, and you will
obtain the following Reduced Equation that is of Degree 2.

The missing Roots you will calculate them by means of it General

Formula and they are 1  i

 Tips:

1. When for some reason you cannot find the Roots of one Equation
graphically for thus this way seeing where it touches graph X-axis.
2. If you already found some Roots but Not All It repeats in
Synthetic Division those Roots that already you found (can that
there are Repeated Roots), if even so you continue Needing Roots
remembers that they can be Imaginary Roots (which you found
them by means of General Formula ) or Irrational Roots (they will
be possible to be found by the Method of Horner)

Page 27 of 125
 EXERCISES

I Build the polynomial equation that has the roots:

1) 2, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3

2) √3, −√3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 1

3) −1, 2, −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3

4) 1, 1, −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1

II Find all possible information about the nature of the roots of the given equation,
through the rule of Descartes and determine the possible rational roots.

1) 2𝑥 5 − 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 24𝑥 + 36

2) 2𝑥 4 − 2𝑥 3 − 29𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 12

3) 12𝑥 5 − 6𝑥 4 + 60𝑥 3 − 30𝑥 2 + 72𝑥 − 36

III Express the polynomial factors

1) 6𝑥 3 − 7𝑥 2 − 29𝑥 − 12

2) 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 9

3) 𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 + 20

4) 2𝑥 4 − 11𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 8

5) 9𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 + 40𝑥 2 − 48𝑥 + 16

Page 28 of 125
 ANSEWERS

1) 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 12

2) 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 3

3) 𝑥 4 − 𝑥 3 − 11𝑥 2 + 9𝑥 + 18

4) 𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2

II

1)
𝑝 1 3 9
= ± , ±1, ± , ±2, ±3, ±4, ± , ±6, ±9, ±12, ±18, ±36
𝑞 2 2 2

Positive Negatives Imaginary

4 1 0
2 1 2
0 1 4

2)
𝑝 1 2 4
= ± , ± , ±1, ± , ±2, ±3, ±4, ±6, ±12
𝑞 3 3 3

Positive Negatives Imaginary

2 2 0
2 0 2
0 2 2
0 0 4

Page 29 of 125
3)
𝑝 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 3 9 9
= ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ± , ±1, ± , ± , ±2, ± , ±3, ±4, ± , ±6, ±9, ±12, ±18, ±36
𝑞 12 6 4 3 2 3 4 3 2 4 2

Page 30 of 125
 Positive Negatives Imaginary
5 0 0
3 0 2
1 0 4
III

1) (𝑥 − 3)(2𝑥 + 1)(3𝑥 + 4)

2) (𝑥 + √3)(𝑥 − √3)(2𝑥 − 3)

3) (𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 10)(𝑥 + 2)

4) (2𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)3

5) (𝑥 2 + 4)(3𝑥 − 2)2

Page 31 of 125
Determinants 1

DETERMINANTS OF SECOND And THIRD ORDER

Definition.

If To it is a square matrix of order two, to this a number can be assigned to him that
receives the DETERMINANT name and can represent by a letter anyone (A).

DETERMINANTS OF SECOND ORDER

Definition of the Value.

The value of a determinant of order two, is defined as the product of the elements of
the main diagonal ( ) minus the product of the elements of the other diagonal ( )

This is:

a b1  a1 b1
If A   1   A   a1b2  a2b1
 a2 b2  a2 b2

Example. Find the value of the indicated determinants:

DETERMINANTS OF THIRD ORDER

As the solution can be observed of it is not; "the main diagonal, except the other
diagonal" since they appear six terms here that must somehow be justified their value.

In order to visualize the solution of a method I practice, and "exclusive" for determinants
of order three the following thing can be done.

Page 32 of 125
Rain method

To add the first two columns to the right of the determinant and to draw up to diagonals
uniting three elements in the direction of the main diagonal will give the terms us with
positive sign, and the diagonals that "cross" the main diagonal uniting three elements will
give the terms us with negative sign:

= =

REMEMBER. This procedure is exclusive stops .

Example. Find the value of the determinant.

DETERMINANTS OF ORDER N

SOLUTION BY COFACTORES

The student will wonder itself if a unique method exists that solves determinants of any
order, the answer is affirmative and its demonstration starting off of the general solution
will occur of .

Removing common factor and grouping (observing the first row)

Page 33 of 125
Changing sign to the second term

What this between parenthesis is written with determinants of second order

( )

It is observed that the determinants that accompany the elements to 1 b 1 c 1 obtains when
eliminating the row and column to that they belong respectively, and that one of them has
negative sign. These determinants receive the name of COFACTOR of an element of a
determinant being their definition as it follows:

Definition.

COFACTOR of an element of a determinant is called to the determinant of inferior

immediate order that obtains when suppressing the row and column to that this element
belongs and that in addition has positive or negative sign.

In order to justify the sign of the cofactor of the element, it is possible to be thought
about two forms.

1. It will have positive sign if the position of the element as far as the sum of row
and column is even and negative number if the sum gives odd number .

2. The sign of the cofactor of the element of a determinant will have positive or
negative sign according to the following "table" of signs.

The value of any determinant of order n, is equal to one it adds algebraic of n terms, each
one of which each element of any row or column by its corresponding COFACTOR forms
when multiplying.

Example. To calculate the value of the Determinant of the previous example using the
Method of Cofactors’

a): taking as row bases the elements of 1er

Page 34 of 125
Solution.

a) Base to 1er row.

This method of solution "Complicated" when it is applied to Determinants of Superior Order.

This problem can be avoided if we know the Properties the Determinants to combine them with the
solution by cofactors.

Page 35 of 125
 determinants II

SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY MEANS OF DETERMINANTS

Given a System of Linear Equations with two incognitos to find its solution.

As a System were said previously in the subject of Matrices Linear Equations can be
ods of You synchronize as they are the Method Elimination by Sum and Reduces the one of Substitution the
of Graficas now we will solve it by the Rule of Cramer

CRAMER RULE

As the solution of a system of two Equations with two Incognitos were seen previously this
given by:

and

Solution that can be written with relation of Determinants like

And in simplified form:

in where

it is the delta of the System and it is formed by the Coefficients,

it is the delta "x" and this formed by the Constants (in the column of "x")

and by the Coefficients of" and " and

Page 36 of 125
 that it is the delta "and" and is formed by the Coefficients of "x" and by

the Constants (in the column of "and")

The Rule of Cramer can be generalized to solve Systems of Linear Equations of n incognito
equations with n, being written of the following form.

Where:

It represents anyone of the n incognito

It is the determinant of the coefficients of the incognitos with

ordered equations of the system of equations.

It is the determinant that forms when it replaces the terms

constants on the column of the incognito in

Example 1. To solve the Systems of Linear Equations given using the Rule of Cramer.

Solution: We will make four passages in the solution of a System of Linear Equations that
are the following ones:

The delta of the System calculates (  s) formed by the Coefficients of the system of
linear equations (by any method)

Conclusion: like there is unique solution.

Page 37 of 125
We calculated the deltas now: and staying formed as it follows:

* * *

Observe as the constant terms occupy the column of the incognito to calculate (noticeable
with asterisk) being:

The calculations are left like exercise the student.

The incognitos calculate x, y and z using the Cramer rule.

The solution by substitution in anyone of the given equations is verified.

Example 2. To solve the system of equations given.

Solution. Just as in the previous example One calculates by any method

Page 38 of 125
like then there is unique solution

We calculated the deltas and

Again these calculations are suppressed so that it is exercise for the student.

Page 39 of 125
We calculated the values of the variables using the Cramer rule.

We verified the solution by substitution in nobody equation

As I know can observe if systems of equations of superior order are solved the
process he becomes tedious, and it generates the fatigue mental if it is made
by hand, reason why is recommendable the use of the Computer for these
Systems of Linear Equations (Mat-lab) .

Page 40 of 125
determinants III

DEFINITION And I CALCULATE OF INVERSE MATRIX

Within the definitions of Matrices that occurred at the beginning of the subject of
Matrices, the definition of the Inverse Matrix was seen which we will remember.

Definition.

Be To a square matrix of order n, for which its determinant he is different from zero,
and In their corresponding matrix identity, then it exists a square matrix of order n
so that: where it is the INVERSE MULTIPLICATIVA OF A.
Which suggests a form of calculation of the Inverse Matrix which we will give next:

Be To a Square Matrix of Order 2 whose determinant he is different from zero.

Then its Inverse Matrix exists and this given by:

Where they are COFACTORES of .

Example. To calculate the Inverse Matrix of the given matrix if it exists.

Solution. First: we calculated

like if it exists

Second: we replaced the elements of B by its respective COFACTORES having taken care
of to place them in its place. (of rows to columns) to form the First Associate of B ( )

Page 41 of 125
Third: we wrote the Inverse Matrix by substitution in the expression:

where she is the First Associate

It is possible to be verified that this "Method" of solution of I calculate of the Inverse

Matrix is possible to be applied to matrices of order n following the same used procedure
in those of order two and can be improved if a consisting of intermediate extra step
writing the transposed matrix of the matrix is added to invest being left these steps as it
follows:

· To calculate the Determinant of the Matrix

· To write the Transposed Matrix (

· To calculate the First Associate ( )

· To write the Inverse Matrix ( by substitution in:

NOTE. - to write the Transposed Matrix of the Matrix, allows to replace each element of
her and by her Cofactor to form the First Associate, avoiding to be changing of Rows
(Lines) to Columns.

Example. Calculate the Inverse Matrix of C if it exists.

Solution: we will firstly calculate the value of the determinant by any method
(smaller)

Page 42 of 125
 It exists

the transposed matrix of C is written ( ), in where the lines of C are the columns in

the first associate of C calculates ( replacing each element of by his cofactor.

Inverse matrix C -1 by substitution is written in:

being of the following way:

Another form that exists for him I calculate of the Inverse Matrix consists of writing to
the right of the Matrix who is desired to calculate his inverse one, the First corresponding

Page 43 of 125
Identity forming a matrix of nxn2n and to make elementary transformations of line with
the purpose of obtaining that the First Identity appears left alongside being left
therefore the Matrix Inverse alongside straight.

Or to place to the right of the Matrix that is desired to find its Inverse one, the First
Identity and to apply to the Algorithm Post (this method I know side later in Determinants
4).

-1
Example: To calculate the Inverse C of the following Matrix if it exists using the Method
Post.

Solution. The Steps that are used to make this process find in AYUDÁNDOTE

final solution

APPLICATION OF THE INVERSE MATRIX

The main application of the inverse matrix it is in the Solution of Systems of Linear
Equations by means of the Multiplication of two Matrices as it is demonstrated next.

Note: this application is the one that uses the computational program Mat-lab in order to
solve a System of Linear Equations

Given a system of linear equations to express it with matrices.

(system of 3x3)

Solution.

Page 44 of 125
That they are respectively the Matrix of the Coefficients of the incognitos: (A), the
Matrix of the Incognitos (x) and the Matrix of the constants (k) reason why in simplified
form can be written of the following way:

Matrix Equation.

If the inverse matrix of A ( ) it exists, we can multiply the previous equation by

by the left, being:

Like we have left:

Also we know that

What it demonstrates to us that if we multiplied the Inverse Matrix of the Matrix of the
Coefficients of a system of linear equations by the Matrix of the Constants the result it
will be the Matrix of the Incognitos of the system; said of another form it will give the
solution us of the System of Linear Equations, we see an example of this application.

Example. To solve the System of Linear Equations given using the Inverse Matrix of
the Coefficients of the incognitos.

Solution. We calculated the value of the Determinant

Page 45 of 125
Transposed his it is:

Its associate she is:

-1
Its inverse one To is:

The solution of the system is expressed by:

Page 46 of 125
Page 47 of 125
METHOD POST and ITS APPLICATIONS

We will present/display next the method of I calculate matrix well-known like the Method
Post in its diverse applications such as:

· Solution De Determinants

· Solution De Sistemas De Linear Ecuaciones

· I calculate Of the First Associate

· I calculate of the Inverse Matrix Of a Given Matrix

· Etc.

This method unlike the method Gaussian Jordán presents/displays the advantage of which
if when initiating the solution of any Matrix or Determining single east has Whole
Numbers will only work with whole numbers and it does not give rise to the appearance of
fractional elements facilitating the procedure in him I calculate manual. The method Post
originally was called "Algorithm Post" because from the mathematical point of view it is an
algorithm but from the numerical point of view it is a method.

This method was developed and applied by the Ing. Rene Mario Montante Pardo Post in
the Faculty of Mechanical and Electrical Engineering of the Independent University
again Leon

ALGORITHM POST

The algorithm Post is based on making transformations of the elements of the

Determinants or the Matrices, to transform them to Determinants or equivalent Matrices.

These transformations "turn" on a called element "Pivot" (P) which can be in any Row (line)
or Column. It formulates Post for the transformations of the elements is the following
one:

In where.

N.E. New Element (or transformed element)

P. Pivot

E.A. Present element (or element to transform)

E.C.F.P. Element Corresponding to the Row of the Pivot

E.C.C.P. Element Corresponding to the Column of the pivot

Page 48 of 125
 P.A. Previous Pivot

ALGORITHM POST APPLIED To The SOLUTION OF DETERMINANTS

Next some steps will be detailed that will serve us to find the solution of Determinants

· Any element can be taken like "Pivot", except elements "zero", (to less of than it is
the last transformation).

· The Pivot is chosen, It isolates the Row and the Column of the Pivot

· In the first transformation the "Previous Pivot" takes the value from one.

· The elements of row and column of the element pivot only take part for the
calculations, corresponding to the remaining elements the transformations by the
application of the formula Post.

· To each transformation a Positive sign corresponds to him or Negative according to it

is the sign of the cofactor of the Pivot.

· All number that is multiplied by the Pivot will consider Main Diagonal him

Example. To calculate the following Determinant of order 2.

Anyone of the four elements can be "Pivot" we will treat whenever the Pivot is the first
element (3) like "Pivot"

Example. To calculate the following Determinant of order 3

Solution.

Explaining the 4 initial operations of it formulates Post that are:

Page 49 of 125
NOTE. - If when dividing between the Previous Pivot in the Method Post, it appears a
fractional amount, this will be a signal that an error was committed, this is one of the
advantages that using has the Method Post (the divisions between the Previous Pivot
always are exact).

Example. To calculate the following Determinant of order 4

Solution.

Note: The passages of the development are left for the Student.

ALGORITHM POST APPLIED To The SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS

OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

The Algorithm Post also is applied in the solution of Systems of Linear Equations with
whole coefficients, reason why we must have well-taken care of which if some equation is
given with decimal or fractional amounts first that we must do it is to transform using it
the multiplication by a no null constant so that it leaves only whole numbers us in the
equations.

When applying it formulates Post to the Matrix of the System of Equations makes
transformations of this to pass it to another Equivalent Matrix that has the same solution
that the original one, until reducing it to a system that easily can be solved. The rules to
apply are the following ones. Given to a System of n Incognito Equations with n.

Page 50 of 125
 Rules.

· The Increased Shade is placed

· They take n Pivots (P.) taking one and single one from each row and column of the
coefficients of the incognitos. It is recommended to take the elements from the
Main Diagonal like Pivots.

· In each transformation the elements of row of the Pivot they happen equal without
being modified.

· The elements of the column of the Pivot become "zeros" except the Pivot.

· The "hollows" that are in the new matrix will be filled with the transformation of the
corresponding elements of the previous matrix by means of the application of
formulates Post.

Let us apply these rules to the solution of the following ones:

Examples.

Solution. We will write the Increased Matrix and we applied the rules.

It completes matrix represents the system of linear equations equivalent:

and its solution is and

NOTE. If the rule of Cramer were applied to solve this system of equations it would be
that: and that they are the numbers that appear in
the equivalent matrix.

Page 51 of 125
 EXERCISES

I Get the value of the determinant:

2 −1 2𝑥 3𝑦
1) | | 2) | |
3 −4 1 2

6 −2 5 4
3) | | 4) | |
0 3 −2 0

2 1 3 1 3 5
5) | 4 −2 1| 6) | −1 0 2|
0 5 −3 −1 2 −4

2 3 6 1 2 −2
7) | 6 1 2| 8) | 3 5 7|
−2 5 4 −3 −6 6

1 7 8
9) |0 5 −6 |
0 0 9

II Solve the following systems using Cramer's rule.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3 4) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑤 = 4

Page 52 of 125
 𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 𝑏) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑤 = 0

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2 𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑤 = 1

𝑑) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 5

III Compute the inverse of the given matrix.

2 −1 2
2 3
1) ( ) 2) ( 3 5 −2 )
−1 1
1 4 −1

1 3 4 1 2 −1
3) (2 1 −3 ) 4) ( −3 1 3)
3 −2 −1 2 5 −2

IV Solve systems of equations by applying the inverse of the matrix.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2

V Get the value of determinant by using MONTANTE algorithm

upright.

Page 53 of 125
 2 1 3 1 3 5
1) | 4 −2 1| 2) | −1 0 2|
0 5 −3 −1 2 −4

2 3 6 1 2 −2
3) | 6 1 2| 4) | 3 5 7|
−2 5 4 −3 −6 6

1 7 8
5) |0 5 −6 |
0 0 9

VI Solve systems of equations given using the augmented matrix

MONTANTE algorithm upright.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3 4) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑤 = 4

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 𝑏) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑤 = 0

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2 𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑤 = 1

𝑑) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 5

Page 54 of 125
 ANSWERS

1) − 5 2) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 3) 18 4) 8 5) 74

6) − 32 7) 96 8) 0 9) 45

II

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3
3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2
4) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = −2, 𝑤=1

III

3 7 −8
11 −3 1
1) ( ) 2) ( 1 −4 10 )
5 1 2 21
7 −9 13

−7 −5 −13
1
3) − ( −7 −13 11 ) 4) 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡.
56
−7 11 −5

IV

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3
3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2

Page 55 of 125
V

1) 74 2) − 32 3) 96 4) 0 5) 45

VI

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3
3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2
4) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = −2, 𝑤=1

Page 56 of 125
matrices I

INTRODUCTION.

The utility of the Matrices and its true one to be able in the applications, come from the
properties of the same matrices, in the characteristics of a matrix that this serving to
us as model to mark some situation on a map in the Physics, Engineering, the
Communications, Theory of the Probabilities and in the same Mathematics. Very little ]
can be declared of its importance in the applications with single handling the Algebra of
Matrices can Be denoted of two ways with Hooks [ or with Great Round Parentheses ( in
this I capitulate we will use them of the two ways.

DEFINITION OF A MATRIX.

A matrix is a rectangular mathematical adjustment of elements that can be numbers or

letters formed by rows (m) and columns (n) that issues the order to us of the matrix and
which imagines generally with capital letters with numerical subscripts (

With the following representation we will deal to clear the doubts that could have arisen

Matrix of order m x n

in any Matrix the "Main Diagonal" can be distinguished that is the formed one by the
elements , , , ....

When a Matrix has the same one I number of Rows that the one of Columns forms what it
is known like a square matrix which him ú can be represented by a n mere real this
adjustment will be called Determinant to him.

Examples:

its determinant is

its determinant is

A great amount of definitions of Matrices exists that must be named, some of them occur
next:

Page 57 of 125
TRANSPOSED MATRIX ( )

The transposed Matrix is that that respectively obtains when interchanging the Rows by
Columns and the Columns by Rows of a Matrix (A) given.

If the order of the Matrix A given, it is then m x n Transposed his it will be of order
n x m.

Examples:

Transposed his it will be

Transposed his it will be

FIRST IDENTITY ( )

The First Identity is that square matrix that has in its main diagonal elements that are
the unit () and the other elements are zeros (0)

Examples, of matrices identity of Order 1, Order 2 and of Order 3 respectively

etc.

FIRST STEP

The First Step is the rectangular matrix that has elements "one” in the Main Diagonal and
below these Diagonal elements ”zero" and by above of this Diagonal any value.

Example:

First Step of 3 xs 4

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NULL MATRIX (0)

The Null Matrix m x n symbolized by a zero, has m rows and n columns in which all their
elements are "zeros" and the flame Identity Additive in where

INVERSE MATRIX

It is that square Matrix that is obtained from another similar Matrix of such form
that when multiplying them in any order gives a First Identity us.

With Matrices can to make almost all operations fundamental that they are made with the
real numbers with exception of the division of Matrices, that does not exist in the
Algebra of Matrices, next we will initiate the study of these operations with:

EQUALITY OF TWO MATRICES

Two Matrices of order they are equal if and single if each element of one of them is
equal to corresponding element of the other

If and single if

An example we will be able to clear the existing doubts:

The equality of two Matrices can generate Systems of Linear Equations as we can see it
in the following example:

These Matrices are equal yes and single yes

Page 59 of 125
SUM OF TWO MATRICES

In order to be able to make the sum of two Matrices it is necessary that these are of the
SAME ORDER and each element of the first Matrix Will be added with the corresponding
element of the second matrix we will clarify the previous thing with the following example:

Example: given the Matrices and to B to carry out its sum.

Solution:

The operation To reduce a Matrix of another one is similar to the sum of Matrices is only
necessary to respect the operations of signs

Example: to calculate the difference (it reduces) of the Matrices To and B.

Solution:

Note: The Sum of Matrices is Commutative and also Associative it is to say:

Multiplication of a matrix by a non-zero constant

A Matrix of order m x n can be multiplied by a number different from zero giving like
result another matrix of the same order, being this expression expressed by the following
definition:

The product of a Matrix To of order m x n by a constant no null k is the Matrix kA of

order m x n that obtains when multiplying each element of A by the constant k giving like
result:

Page 60 of 125
Example: if and to calculate

Division of a matrix by a non-NULL constant

A Matrix of order m x n can Be divided by a number different from zero giving like result
another matrix of the same order, being this expression expressed by the following
definition:

The Quotient of a Matrix To of order m x n by a constant no null k is the Matrix of order m x n that

obtains when dividing each element of A by the constant k giving like result:

Example: if and to calculate

Multiplication of two MATRICES.

In order to multiply two matrices A and B he is REQUISITE (necessary) that the number
of columns of the first matrix is equal to the number of rows of the second matrix,
obtaining a resulting Matrix that will be formed with the number of rows of the first
Matrix (m) and with the number of columns of the second Matrix (p). If C is the product
of A  Then B:

Requirement

Example. To calculate the product of matrices A by B of being possible.

Page 61 of 125
 2 xs 3 3 xs 4

Observe that the columns of A and the lines of B are equal; therefore, yes the
multiplication can be carried out being the resulting matrix (c) with 2 lines and 4 columns.
The calculations of the elements of C are the following ones.

C11 = (3)(1)+(-2)(5)+(5)(0) = -7

C12= (3)(2)+(-2)(4)+(5)(-3)=-17

C13= (3)(-3)+(-2)(1)+(5)(-2)=-21

C14= (3)(0)+(-2)(6)+(5)(5)=13

C21= (1)(1)+(0)(5)+(4)(0)=1

C22= (1)(2)+(0)(4)+(4)(-3)=-10

C23= (1)(-3)+(0)(1)+(4)(-2)=-11

C24= (1)(0)+(0)(6)+(4)(5)=20

Result

It will be possible to be observed at first that the product of two matrices is not
commutative. In effect in the multiplication previous To x B if it were possible to be made
but if we tried to multiply B x To, we will realize that is not possible to make it.

The associative law is fulfilled as long as the multiplication of the matrices is defined. This
implies that the number of columns of A is equal to the number of lines of B, in addition
the number of columns of B will have to be equal to the number of lines of C and the
resulting matrix will have the number of lines of A and the number of columns of C,
symbolically is represented as it follows:

mxn nxp pxq = mxn nxp pxq = mxq

The multiplication of matrices also fulfills the law Distributive as long as the

Page 62 of 125
involved matrices have the suitable number of lines and columns as in the
previous case being represented as it follows:

To x (B + C) = To x B + To x C

This is fulfilled if To it is of order mxn and B and C of nxp

(A+B) x C = To x C + B x C

That one is fulfilled if To and B is of mxn and C of nxp .

When all the matrices are square the properties associative and distributive
they verify, this considers as a special case of the multiplication of matrices.

Page 63 of 125
matrices II

SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF FIRST LINEAR EQUATIONS USING.

The systems of linear equations can be solved by the method of Elimination by Sum and Subtraction
the one of Substitution the one of Equalization or the one of Graphs . In this subject an alternative
will occur him to the student one more than she is the one to use the matrices for his solution.

Let us suppose that one occurs to a system of n incognito equations us with n.

This system can be represented by a matrix as it follows.

This matrix that represents the system of linear equations with the ordered equations is
called the INCREASED MATRIX , also we can distinguish other two matrices in the same
system that are:

MATRIX OF THE COEFFICIENTS

And

Page 64 of 125
 MATRIX OF THE CONSTANT TERMS

ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATIONS OF LINE.

In systems of linear equations we can conduct the following operations.

1. To interchange an equation by another one

2. To multiply an equation by a no null constant

3. To add two equations (or to reduce)

4. To multiply an equation by a constant and the product to add it

to another one of the equations.

These operations conducted with the equations are with the objective to form " Systems
Equivalent " to the system since it has the same solution that the original system and
whose solution is but easy to obtain.

The same operations conducted to the "Equations" can be made in the matrices on the
"Lines" being known with the name of elementary transformations of line of a matrix and
are the following ones.

ELEMENTARY TRANSFORMATIONS OF LINE

1. Interchange of two lines

2. Multiplication of all the elements of a line by a constant different from zero

3. Multiplication of a line by a no null constant and the product to add it to the

corresponding element of any other line.

GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION

The process consists of forming a "Stepped Matrix" that has elements "Zero" below the
main diagonal and elements "or Zeros" in the main diagonal (of preference) that will
represent the system of "Equivalent Equations" with which it will be possible to be solved
"in reverse" or of the last equation very easily until the first system of equations.

Page 65 of 125
Next the solution of a system of 3 will be obtained linear equations of x3 in which it will
express with words the conducted operations

Example. To solve the System of Linear Equations given.

Solution. The increased matrix is written

Rows 1 and 2 interchange

Now each element of Line 1 by (-2) and the Extreme Result with the corresponding
element of Line 2 Is multiplied, and also To multiply each element of Line 1 by (3) and the
turn out To add it with the corresponding element of Line 3 and we has left:

It is multiplied by (1/5) Line 2 and we have left:

Line 2 by (2) Is multiplied and Extreme to Line 3 and we have left ourselves:

Finally line 3 is multiplied by (1/4) and we obtain:

Page 66 of 125
This last matrix represents the Equivalent System of Equations:

placing the Variables to the Coefficients we have left:

And solving in "reverse" this system they looked for solution is obtained.

, and .

As it is already known a system of equations can have: Unique solution (like the
one of the previous example), Not to have Solution or To have an Infinite
Number of Solutions.

Page 67 of 125
matrices III

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS HOMOGENOUS, DEFECTIVE And REDUNDANTE.

Systems of Linear Equations exist that can be considered like special, these are the
Homogenous, Defective linear systems and the Redundant, which we will treat next.

A system of equations is HOMOGENOUS if all their equations are even to zero, is to say the
constant terms are all zero.

A Homogenous system of equations has like solution which is known with the name of
TRIVIAL SOLUTION that is obtained giving the value of zero to all the variables, as long as
the Delta of the System is Different from Zero.

But in some cases the mentioned Systems have solutions non-trivial and have an Infinite
Number of Solutions. The form to know if this System of Equations has Solutions non-trivial
Is calculating the Delta of the System ( ), if this Delta is Equal to Zero, two options exist

· It does not have Solution and he is Undetermined

· It has an Infinite Number of Solutions

Next the solution of one of them acquires knowledge.

Example. To determine the solution of the given Homogenous system.

Solution. - As it were already mentioned the system has like solution , and
(trivial solution) if the Delta of the System is Different from Zero.

But if they exist solutions non-trivial will be come as it follows: the increased matrix is
written and the elementary operations of Line are made.

Line 1 Is multiplied by (-2) and later Extreme with Row 2, also Line 1 Is multiplied by (1)
and later Extreme with Line 3 and we obtain ourselves:

Page 68 of 125
now Line 2 Is multiplied by (1/3),

now Line 2 Is multiplied by (2), and the Result add to Line 3

Matrix that represents the equivalent system of equations:

from equation 2 it is obtained:

and of equation 1:

Where it is possible to be observed that for any value of z one can be obtained of y and
with z and to obtain x being left the solution general as it follows:

where r is any real number.

Some particular solutions are

Yes

Page 69 of 125
 etc.

A system of equations is defects when the number of Incognitos is Greater than number
of Equations; as special case treated the one that has n Incognito and n+1. Equations

All the Defective systems have an infinite number of solutions, since also they can be
considered like "Dependent Systems", which as its name says it, the values of some of
variables "depend" on the assigned value to one of them who are considered like
independent or constant term.

Example. To obtain the general solution when solving the following system defective
Two Solutions Will occur .

Solution 1.

The Increased matrix is written that represents the system and the necessary
transformations of line are made.

now Line 1 Is multiplied by (1/2),

also Line 1 by (-3) Will be multiplied and the Result Will be added with Line 2

now Equation 2 Is multiplied by (-2).

this last matrix represents the following system of equations equivalent:

Page 70 of 125
of equation 1 and 2 it is possible to be cleared x and respectively based on z , being the
general solution:

Some of the particular solutions are:

If:

etc...

Solution 2.

it is transferred alongside straight of the Equation one of the Variables and we will
consider a Constant

The Deltas calculate

Using the Rule of Cramer:

As it is possible to be observed the Resulting Equations are Equal to which we found

previously now if we assigned any Value to him "to z"

Page 71 of 125
A system of equations REDUNDANT is characterized to have But Equations that he
number of Incognitos. The special case in that will study they exist n Incognito Equations
and n-1. An example of a redundant system of 4 Equations with 3 Incognitos is the
following one

A Condition so that a System of Linear Equations Redundant is Compatible is that the

Determinant formed by the Coefficients and the Constants is equal to ZERO

Firstly it will be come to calculate the value of the Determinant and knowledge if it fulfills
the Condition, to thus be able later to find the Values of the Variables

in the solution of the previous Determinant the Method of Cofactors will be used

as if System Fulfills the Condition east is Compatible and it is possible to be

solved eliminating one of Equations and solving the normal system of equations,
(n equations, with n incognito) for finally, to see if "the eliminated" equation
has the found solution.

Page 72 of 125
 Exercises

I Get the transposed matrix:

3
2 −1 5
1) 𝐴 = [−2 ] 3) 𝐶=[ ]
3 9 7
4
3 5 −2
2) 𝐵 = [ 1 −4 7 0] 4) 𝐷 =[4 7 6]
0 8 1

II Obtain the values of x, y, z, and w which make that matrices are

equivalent.

3𝑥 − 1 𝑦 + 2𝑥 11 7
[ ]=[ ]
𝑤 + 2𝑥 3𝑦 − 𝑤 5 0

III Given matrices A, B and C get the following operations.

5 2 6 −4 2 0
𝐴 = [−1 0 ] 𝐵 =[3 5] 𝐶 =[8 6]
4 3 1 −2 7 −9

1) 𝐴+𝐵 3) (𝐴 + 𝐵 ) − (𝐴 − 𝐶 )

2) 𝐴−𝐶

IV Multiplying the matrix by the constant k.

5 −3
1) 𝐴=[ 0 4] 𝑘=4
−1 6
−1 7 −5 3 ] 𝑘 = −2
2) 𝐵=[
8 −4 2 0

Page 73 of 125
V Divide the matrix by the constant k.

2 −4 8 6
1) [ ] 𝑘=4
1 −6 3 −2

18 − 3
2) [ 0 6] 𝑘 = −3
− 5 −24

VI Divide the matrix by the constant k.

−1 8 1 0 0
5 3
𝐴2𝑥2 =[ ] 𝐵3𝑥2 =[ 0 7] 𝐶3𝑥3 =[0 1 0]
−2 4
−3 2 0 0 1
−2 7 3
9 2 −1
𝐷3𝑥3 =[ 5 9 10 ] 𝐸2𝑥3 = [ ]
5 −3 10
6 −4 1

1) 𝐵●𝐴 5) 𝐶●𝐷 9) 𝐸●𝐷

2) 𝐴●𝐵 6) 𝐷●𝐶 10) 𝐷●𝐸

3) 𝐵●𝐸 7) 𝐷●𝐵 11) 𝐸●𝐶

4) 𝐸●𝐵 8) 𝐵●𝐷 12) 𝐶●𝐸

VII Solve the following system using transformations of space and

Gaussian elimination.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = −2 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 − 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 11

𝑏) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 14 𝑏) 2𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 = −5

𝑐) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 12 𝑐) 𝑥 − 3𝑧 = −8

Page 74 of 125
VIII Solve the following system.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 3𝑧 = 0 3) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2𝑧 = −4

𝑏) 5𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 0 𝑏) 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 16

𝑐) 𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0 𝑐) 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 12

𝑑) 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 5𝑧 = −7

2) 𝑎) 4𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2

𝑏) 3𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 4

IX Get the value of the determinant:

2 −1 2𝑥 3𝑦
1) | | 2) | |
3 −4 1 2

6 −2 5 4
3) | | 4) | |
0 3 −2 0

2 1 3 1 3 5
5) | 4 −2 1| 6) | −1 0 2|
0 5 −3 −1 2 −4

2 3 6 1 2 −2
7) | 6 1 2| 8) | 3 5 7|
−2 5 4 −3 −6 6

1 7 8
9) |0 5 −6 |
0 0 9

Page 75 of 125
X Solve the following systems using Cramer's rule.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3 4) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑤 = 4

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 𝑏) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑤 = 0

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2 𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑤 = 1

𝑑) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 5

XI Compute the inverse of the given matrix.

2 −1 2
2 3
1) ( ) 2) ( 3 5 −2 )
−1 1
1 4 −1

1 3 4 1 2 −1
3) (2 1 −3 ) 4) ( −3 1 3)
3 −2 −1 2 5 −2

Page 76 of 125
XII Solve systems of equations by applying the inverse of the matrix.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2

XIII Get the value of determinant by using algorithm upright.

2 1 3 1 3 5
1) | 4 −2 1| 2) | −1 0 2|
0 5 −3 −1 2 −4

2 3 6 1 2 −2
3) | 6 1 2| 4) | 3 5 7|
−2 5 4 −3 −6 6

1 7 8
5) |0 5 −6 |
0 0 9

XIV Solve systems of equations given using the augmented matrix

algorithm upright.

1) 𝑎) 𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 1 2) 𝑎) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = −1

Page 77 of 125
 𝑏) 3𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4𝑧 = −9 𝑏) 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧= 4

𝑐) 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 6 𝑐) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 26

3) 𝑎) 2𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 = −3 4) 𝑎) 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑤 = 4

𝑏) 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 10 𝑏) 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 3𝑤 = 0

𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 4𝑧 = 2 𝑐) 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 𝑧 − 𝑤 = 1

𝑑) 𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 𝑧 + 2𝑤 = 5

Page 78 of 125
 SOLUTIONS

I 2 3
𝑇 𝑇
1) 𝐴 = [3 −2 4] 3) 𝐶 = [−1 9]
5 7

1 3 4 0
2) 𝐵 𝑇 = [−4 ] 4) 𝑇
𝐷 =[ 5 7 8]
7
0 −2 6 1

II

𝑥 = 4, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = 2, 𝑤 = −3

III
11 −2 8 −4
1) [ 2 5] 3) [ 11 11 ]
5 −5 8 −11

3 2
2) [−9 −6 ]
−3 6

IV

20 −12
2 −14 10 − 6
1) [ 0 16 ] 2) [ ]
−16 8 − 4 0
−4 24

V
1 3 −6 1
−1 2
1) [ 2
1 3 3
2
1 ] 2) [ 0 5
−2 ]
− − 8
4 2 4 2 3

Page 79 of 125
VI
−21 29 − 7 −39
1) [−14 28 ] 7) [−35 123 ]
−19 −1 − 9 22

2) No es posible 8) No es posible

31 −26 81
−14 85 46
3) [ 35 −21 70 ] 9) [ ]
35 −32 −5
−17 −12 23

−6 84
4) [ ] 10) No es posible
−35 39

−2 7 3
9 2 −1
5) [ 5 9 10 ] 11) [ ]
5 −3 10
6 −4 1

−2 7 3
6) [ 5 9 10 ] 12) No es posible
6 −4 1

VII

1) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −2, 𝑧 = 2 2) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −2, 𝑧 = 3

VIII

1) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 1, 𝑧 = 2 3) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = −3

Page 80 of 125
 −22+11𝑧 10−5𝑧
2) 𝑥= , 𝑦=
−29 −29

XI

1) − 5 4) 8 7) 96

2) 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 5) 74 8) 0

3) 18 6) − 32 9) 45

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3
3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2
4) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = −2, 𝑤=1

XI

3 7 −8
11 −3 1
1) ( ) 2) ( 1 −4 10 )
5 1 2 21
7 −9 13

−7 −5 −13
1
3) − ( −7 −13 11 ) 4) 𝐷𝑜𝑛´𝑡 𝐻𝑎𝑣𝑒.
56
−7 11 −5
XII

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3

Page 81 of 125
 3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2

XIII

1) 74 2) − 32 3) 96 4) 0 5) 45

XIV

1) 𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = 2, 𝑧=2

2) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧=3
3 1
3) 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦= , 𝑧=−
2 2
4) 𝑥 = 2, 𝑦 = −1, 𝑧 = −2, 𝑤=1

Page 82 of 125
Vectors 1

Amount To scale and Vectorial Amount

Amount To climb. It is a magnitude that is specified by a number (and its respective

unit), all the numbers you will climb are Real, and they imagine by a letter that can be
(capital or very small) to or for an example of an amount climbing it could be, Mass,
Volume, Energy, Work etc.

Vectorial Amount. In order to be able to specify it is needed to know aside from his
Magnitude the Direction and its Sense. One imagines by a letter made a will, or made a will

with an arrow or or (some text books indicate with very small letters in black a as
an example we can mention Force, Speed, Displacement, Acceleration to it, etc.

The Vectors can also be defined as ordered pair of numbers.

The Length of a Vector is what measures the Magnitude of the Vector and imagines of the
following way.

or or

in where to this module also completes is called Norm to him (of )

P Q

Point of Beginning Full stop

Types of Vectors

Own Vectors: They are those that have Magnitude, Direction and Sense.

Sliding Vectors: They are those that can be moved.

Anchored vectors (fixed): They are those that cannot be moved and has the same tail or
point of application.

Equal Vectors: They are those that have the same Magnitude Direction and Sense.

Unitary Vector: He is that that has the equal module to the unit

Page 83 of 125
( )

Null Vectors: They are those that measure ZERO and they do not have Magnitude.

Parallel Vectors: Two no null Vectors and they are PARALLEL if Scalars c exists so
that:

Example. If we have 2 Vectors

Definition and Representation of a Vector in the Plane

If w is a vector in a plane with starting point in the origin and full stop ( ) in where

and they are the components of

Definition and Representation of a Vector in the Space

Until today we have exclusively handled systems of coordinates in two dimensions, reason
why now one will introduce systems of coordinates in three dimensions.

In order to extend the concept of two to three dimensions we will introduce a three-
dimensional system of coordinates, placing a perpendicular z-axis in the origin to x-axis
and as one is in the following figure.

Page 84 of 125
In order to be able to represent a point in the space it is required of a ordered Trio of
Numbers that contains a value for X as much, for and like for Z

Example 1: Draw up the following point .

Example 2: Draw up the following point (2, 4, 5) to explain this example we will turn the
axes to try to see a little clearer the positioning of the point

Page 85 of 125
In order to be able to represent a Vector in the Space it is required of Two ordered Trios
of Numbers one of which it full stop represents the Point of Beginning of the Vector and
the other of the Vector.

Example 1: To represent the following Vector that has like coordinates in the Point of
Beginning the Origin (0, 0, 0) and in Full stop (3, 4, 5)

Example 2: To represent the following Vector that has like coordinates the Point of

Beginning (1, 1, 1) and in Full stop (4, 5, 3)

Page 86 of 125
 Length of a Vector in the Plane and the Space

Length of a Vector in the Plane:

The length of a Vector as it said previously is what measures the Magnitude and it is
possible to be calculated of the following way

Example: To calculate the Length of the following Vector that has like coordinates the P
point (5,5) and point q (2,1)

Length of a Vector in the Space:

The length of a Vector as it said previously is what measures the Magnitude

and many of Formulas that is been worth for the Plane (two dimensions) also
are it for the Space (three dimensions), as for example it is enough to apply
the Theorem of Pythagoras twice and with that it is obtained formulates it to
find the length between two points in the Space.

Example: to calculate the Length between the Points (1, 2, 1) and (-1, 3, -3)

Direction of a Vector

It measures the Inclination of the Segment (the Vector)

Page 87 of 125
Vectors 11

Sum and Subtraction of Vectors (Graphically)

The Sum of two Vectors (Graphically) it is made sliding one of the Vectors and making
agree the Point of Beginning of one with Full stop of the other and the Sum it will be the
Vector that forms when uniting the Point of Beginning of one with Full stop of the other

Example: To carry out the sum of the following Vectors

If we slid to Vector B and the Point of Beginning we make it agree with him Full stop of
the Vector would have left:

The serious Sum the Vector that forms when uniting the Point of Beginning of the
Vector To with Full stop of Vector B

Note: in the following point one demonstrated that it is the same to add

A + B that B + A

Rested of two Vectors (Graphically) is made making both agree the Point of Beginning of
Vectors that are going away To reduce and Rested will be the Vector that forms when
uniting the Final Points.

Example: To carry out Rested of the following Vectors.

Page 88 of 125
Solution: if we slid the Vector To and we make agree the Points of Beginning of each
Vector we would have left:

Serious Subtraction the Vector that both forms when uniting the Final Points of Vectors

B = (A + B) - A

or

B = A - (A + B)

Note: one is due to make notice that the sense of vector B changes depending like I know
this carrying out Rested. (the sense of Vector B always is towards the Vector that is
Positive)

Sum and Subtraction of Vectors in a Plane and the Space (Analytically)

In the Plane

I already explain myself previously as one takes place the Sum or Subtraction of two
Vectors of Graphical way therefore now it will be explained of the Analytical way.

If we have two vectors To and B whose components are respectively and

Page 89 of 125
Its serious Sum:

and its serious Subtraction:

which we can understand it of the following way:

The components of X either of and directly Add or Reduce one with the other.

In the Space

Of equal way that in the plane the Sum and Subtraction of two Vectors in the Space To

and B whose components are respectively and

Its serious Sum:

and its serious Subtraction:

With some examples the doubts were clarified

Given the Vectors and to find:

and and

Given the Vectors and to find:

and and

Page 90 of 125
Properties that must fulfill the Sum and Subtraction

If we have two Vectors

And one requests us A + B

Sliding the Point of Beginning of B to Full stop of A and uniting the Point of Beginning of A
with Full stop of B we would have left:

On the other hand if it requests B to us + A

Sliding the Point of Beginning of A to Full stop of B and uniting the Point of Beginning of B
with Full stop of A we would have left:

Of which we can see that:

To + B = B + A

Therefore the Sum is Commutative

If we have three Vectors

and one requests us A + B + C we would obtain D

Page 91 of 125
But if they request us To + (B + C), as B + C is the union of the Point of
Beginning of B with Full stop of C we would have left D:

D = To + (B + C)

but if + C are requested to us (To + B), as To + B it is the union of the Point of

Beginning of A with Full stop of B we would have left D:

D = (To + B) + C

Therefore The Sum Is Associative

Also it is important to make notice that the operations that are made in the
Sum, Subtraction and the Multiplication are of the CLOSED type .

Page 92 of 125
vectors 3

Definition of a Unitary Vector

One says that a Vector is Unitary when its Module (norm) is equal to 1 or to the unit and it
is denoted of the following way:

(Unitary)

A Unitary Vector has the same Direction and Sense That another Vector that is the Plane
or in the Space

In where:

Example: Find a Unitary Vector with the same direction of

Canonical Unitary vectors in a Plane

The Unitary Vectors and Canonical Unitary Vectors are called and they are
denoted by:

and

In terms of these Vectors, as one is in the following figure is possible to be expressed any
vector of the Plane of the following form:

Page 93 of 125
In where the Vector a linear combination is called of and of and you will

scale them and they are called respectively, Horizontal Component and
Component Vertical of .

Canonical Unitary vectors in the Space

In the Space the Vectors are denoted as it were said previously by ordered trios

. Vector zero is denoted by . Using the Unitary Vectors

and in the direction of z-axis, therefore the

canonical annotation in terms of Unitary Vectors for a Vector V is:

Naturally operations with the Vectors can be made in the Space.

Extreme of Vectors in the Space (it gives another Vector us)

Yes To it is equal a and then

Subtraction of Vectors in the Space (it gives another Vector us)

Yes To it is equal a and then

Page 94 of 125
Multiplication of a vector by a scalar

(it gives another Vector us) and the Distributive property is used

If To it is equal a and we are multiplied by scaling p would have

left, another Vector

Product To climb between Unitary Vectors

Page 95 of 125
Examples:

Definition of the Product Point (To climb or Internal)

Up to here one has studied three operations with Vectors, the Sum and Subtraction of
two Vectors and the Multiplication of a Vector by Scalar, which give by result a Vector.
From one third operation will be introduced here the Product To climb (Internal Point or)
whose result is not a vector but Scalar (a Number).

Note: The Product Point we are going it to denote by a Point

If we have two Vectors and that they form an

angle to each other, it is possible to be said then by definition:

and if we used the law of the Cosines

if we elevated to the Square the left side we would have left

cancelling similar terms

in where

Page 96 of 125
and the Angle it is obtained from the following way

With the following example the doubts will be clarified that could have arisen

To find the Angle that exists both between following Vectors:

Solution: as Formula were said previously to find the Angle is:

firstly we will calculate the Product Point

now we will calculate the Product of the Magnitudes

replacing these Values in Formula of the Cosine and clearing

Page 97 of 125
Properties of the Product Point (To climb or Internal)

If we have two Vectors and and if we

carried out the Multiplication we have left:

on the other hand if We multiplied we have left:

what it indicates to us that it is the Commutative Property

On the other hand if we have Scalar p and Multiplicands by we would

have left:

that it is the Associative Property

If we have two numbers You will scale p and q and Multiplicands by we

would have left:

Associative Property

Yes

in this case the Vectors are Orthogonal

Page 98 of 125
If We multiplied a Vector by itself, the Angle that forms among them is of
therefore:

and like him

Page 99 of 125
Vectors 4

Components

The component of a Vector in the direction of the Vector it is Scalar that is

obtained from the following way

In where the component of the Vector on the Vector he is equal to the Vector

it is

Analytically the Component of a Vector in the direction of the Vector it is obtained

from the following way:

like him

clearing the Vector we would have left:

and like therefore.

Page 100 of 125

Of equal way we will be able to find the component of a Vector on a Vector

If the Component is Positive the Angle formed by the Vectors he is Acute and the
Component has the same sense that the Vector .

If the Component is Negative the Angulo formed by the Vectors is Obtuse and the
Component has sense in opposition to the Vector .

Projections

If we have a Vector in the Space and we want to see its Projections

In where the Projections (component) Vectorial of the Vector they are:

Page 101 of 125

 the projection of the Vector on the Y-axis of the Xs,

the projection of the Vector on the Y-axis of and and

the Projection of the Vector on the Y-axis of the Z.

Vector of Position is called to that Vector that has the Point of Beginning in the Origin
(Or) and in where Full stop of this Vector it indicates the position to us of a P point .

The Projection of the Vector ( in the direction of the Vector it is Scalar that is
obtained projecting the Vector on the Vector

Analytically the Projection of the Vector ( ) on the Vector it is obtained from

the following way:

in where

And like and

in the same way the Projection of a Vector can be found on a Vector

Page 102 of 125

NOTE: It is very common to confuse a Component that is Scalar, with a Projection that is
a Vector.

Applications of the Product Point (To climb or Internal)

a) To find the Projection of the Vector on the Vector

remembren that and that

b) To find the Component of the Vector on

Vector

Page 103 of 125

remembren that

Page 104 of 125

vectors

Definition of the Product Cross (Vectorial)

Given two Vectors and Vectorial Product or Product is defined as Cross

in where it is a perpendicular Vector to Plane of the Vectors and and in where it

is a Unitary Vector with the same direction and sense of the Vector

it is a

it is a

Product of unit vectors vectorial

Page 105 of 125

 EXERCISES

I It locates the position of points in space:

1) 𝐴( 3, 2, 5) 3) 𝐶 ( 2, −4, −3 )

2) 𝐵( −4, −3, 6) 4) 𝐷( −3, 3, −4 )

II In the coordinate plane represent the vectors:

1) 𝑨 = 〈4, −3, 2 〉

2) Initial Point 𝑃 ( 0, 3, 4 ) y final Point 𝑄 ( 3, −4, 0 ).

III Calculate the magnitude of the vector that starts at the point P (4, 5, - 3) and ends at
the point Q (- 2, - 1, 2).

IV Given vectors A = 〈-2, 3, 5〉, B = 〈 1, - 5, 4〉 and C = 〈7, 0, 3〉 get:

1 1 3
1) 𝑨+𝑩 5) 2
𝑨 +2𝑩 −2𝑪

1 2
2) 𝑩−𝑪 6) (𝑨−𝑩)+ 𝑪
3 3

3) −2𝑩 7) ‖ 𝑩 − 𝑪‖

4) 3𝑪 − 2𝑨

V Be A = 3i-3j + 4 k and the vector B = 2i + 6j + 3 k get:

1) 𝑨●𝑩 3) The angle between the vectors A and B.

2) 𝑨 𝑋 𝑩

VI Obtain the projection of the vector A = 〈-2, 1, 2〉 in vector B =〈 4, - 4, 2〉.

VII Si 𝑨 = 〈 4, −3, 1 〉 y 𝑩 = 〈−2, 2, 1 〉 obtain:

1) 𝑨𝑋 𝑩 2) 𝑼𝑨 𝑋 𝑩

VIII Obtain 𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 ● 𝑪 si 𝑨 = 〈 3, 4, −2 〉, 𝑩 = 〈−1, 2, 3〉 y 𝐶 = 〈−2, 2, 1 〉.

Page 106 of 125

 SOLUTIONS

II

III ‖𝑷𝑸‖ = 7

IV
1 1 3
1) 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 〈−1, −2, −1〉 5) 𝑨 + 𝑩 − 𝑪 = 〈−11, −1, 4〉
2 2 2

1 2 11 8
2) 𝑩 − 𝑪 = 〈−6, −5, 7 〉 6) (𝑨 − 𝑩 ) + 𝑪 = 〈 , , −5〉
3 3 3 3

3) −2𝑩 = 〈−2, 10, −8 〉 7) ‖𝑩 − 𝑪‖ = √110

4) 3𝑪 − 2𝑨 = 〈 25, −6, 1 〉

1) 𝑨●𝑩 = 0 3) 𝜃 = 900

2) 𝑨 𝑋 𝑩 = 〈−33, −1, 24 〉

𝟖 𝟖 𝟒
VI 𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒚𝑩 𝑨 = 〈− , , − 〉
𝟗 𝟗 𝟗

VII
〈−5,−6,2〉
1) 𝑨 𝑋 𝑩 = 〈−5, −6, 2 〉 2) 𝑼𝑨 𝑋 𝑩 =
√65

VIII 𝑨 𝑿 𝑩 ● 𝑪 = −𝟑𝟔

Page 107 of 125

When They are multiplied Unitary Vectors it is important to make notice the following
thing:

· If the Product is in favor of the small hands of the clock he is NEGATIVE

· If the product is against the small hands of the clock he is POSITIVE

If we have two Vectors and and we carried

out the product we would have left:

this we can easily demonstrate it either by a simple multiplication or developing the

method of MINORS of a determinant by the first Row

So that the product of two Vectors is not Zero these Vectors do not have to be Parallel,
because if is Parallel the angle that forms among them or is (so that they are in the
same Direction) or it is of (because they are in opposite sense) and if we
remembered it formulates it of the product that is

Page 108 of 125

and like the sine of and the sine of they are equal to 0

Properties of the Product Cross (Vectorial)

· The product of a Vector by itself is zero

· The product of a Vector by the null Vector is zero

Law Distributive

Law Distributive

If the Vectors and this given is the contiguous sides of a then PARALLELOGRAM
the area of this parallelogram by:

If the Vectors and they are the contiguous sides of a then TRIANGLE the area of
the triangle is equal a:

so that it is but clear we will explain it with an EXAMPLE

If the Points and they are the Vertices of a Triangle to

find his Area.

Page 109 of 125

Solution:

Triple Product To climb

Given the Vectors and we have the Triple Product To climb is defined as:

or

its NEGATIVE

If the Vectors and this dice is the contiguous sides of a then PARALELEPÍPEDO
the Volume of this Parallelepiped by:

Page 110 of 125

If the Vectors and they are the contiguous sides of a TETRAHEDRON (pyramid
of 4 triangular sides) then the Volume of this Tetrahedron this dice by:

If three Vectors are COPLANARIOS (in the same Plane) then their triple product TO
CLIMB he is equal to ZERO.

If two of the three Vectors and they are Parallel then the Triple Product To
climb is equal to ZERO.

it is parallel a

it is parallel a

it is parallel a

Example: To carry out the following Product if

and (first one takes place )

And recalling that the multiplication of unit vectors

Page 111 of 125

we would have left:

which can be written of the following way

Triple Vectorial Product

Given the Vectors and we have the Triple Vectorial Product is defined as:

Page 112 of 125

In where the Vector it is coplanar and Perpendicular to the Vector and to

the Vector

The Vector he is Perpendicular to the Vectors and

(it does not obey the law Commutative)

Rule of the Average Factor

With the following example we will clarify the doubts.

If we have the Vectors and to

find

Page 113 of 125

Applications of the Product Cross

To find the Volume of the Parallelepiped that has like contiguous edges the
following Vectors,

, and

To find a Vector that has a magnitude of 25 and which he is Perpendicular to

the Plane formed by the vectors, and

Solution: carrying out the product Cross is its perpendicularity

calculating the Unitary Vector ( the direction and sense of the Vector) in

multiplying the Unitary Vector by 25 we have left:

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Note: A problem of this type has two solutions in agreement with the sense of
the Vector (the other serious answer the same Vector but multiplied by -1)

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The React and the Plane

Equation of the Straight line in Vectorial, Parametric and Symmetrical Forma

It forms Vectorial. Normally the Slope is used to express the Equation of a Straight line
in a Plane, in the Space is more advisable to use VECTORS.

If we considered the straight H that happens through the point and by the

point and she is Parallel to the Vector in where the Vector it is

the Vector of Direction or Vector Director of the straight H and to, b, and cs are their

numbers directors, that means that the Vector it is a multiple To climb of so that

where it is Scalar (a Number)

In where the Equation of a Straight line in the Space this given by:

Parametric equations of a Straight line in the Space. In agreement with the previous
equation if we equaled:

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and now we cleared x, and, and z we obtain:

That they are the Parametric Equations (where it is the parameter)

Symmetrical Equations. If of the three previous Parametric Equations we cleared and

we equaled them has left:

Distance of a Point in the Space to a Straight line

The distance of a Point Q to a Straight line in the Space is determined by:

in where it is a Vector of direction of Recta and P is a Point of the Straight line.

Example 1. Finds the distance from a Point Q (2,1,2) to the Straight line that happens
through Points P (3,2,3) and R (2, -2, 1)

Solution:

Formula of the Distance is:

Firstly we needed the Vectors Position and Direction which serein the Vectors formed by

the points P and Q Position and the points P and R Address

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 Carrying out the Product Cross

Example 2. To find the Distance of the Point Q(1, 2, 1) to the Straight line that this given
by the following Parametric Equations

, and

Solution:

Formula of the Distance is:

With the Parametric Equations we are going to both deduce points of the Straight line
that we needed so that along with the Point (Q) said to be able to find the Distance

Remembering that the Equation of a Straight line in the Space this given by:

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 , and

And since the Vector we have then that and if we

determined a Point of the Straight line with the Parametric Equations and knowing
that the Independent variable is the parameter () and choosing the simple value
but it stops that he is the 0 (zero) therefore the Point of the P Straight line we
would have left that

now if we calculated the Magnitude we have left:

calculating the product now Cross

finally if we used it formulates it of the Distance

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The react and the Plane

To deduce the Equation of a Plane in Canonical and General Forma

The Plane that contains the Point and it has a Normal Vector it
can imagine in canonical Form by the following equation:

It forms Canonical

and if we regrouped the terms can be represented in General Form by the following
equation:

It forms General

in where to, b, c, and d is constant and the Perpendicular Vector (Normal) to the Plane this
dice by:

Example 1: the Normal Vector (Perpendicular) to the Plane it is:

Example 2: to find the Equation of the Plane that happens through the Points

and

Solution:

If we had aside from those 3 points another point but, we could then form 3 Vectors that
serein Coplanarios and if we remembered that the Triple Product To climb of three
Coplanarios Vectors is equal to zero that that way it we will be able to find

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It is understood that the P Point is an arbitrary Point that can be anywhere of the Plane
therefore:

Equation of the Plane That contains the Points To, B and C

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Another way to solve the serious previous example:

Example 3: To find the Equation of the Plane that happens through the Points

and

compute the range and the distance

and

and if we found the Vector Normal

of where we concluded that and and replacing these values in

the Equation of the Plane that this in Canonical Forma

Equation of the Plane That contains the Points To, B and C

Distance of a Point in the Space to a Plane

The distance of a Point (no pertaining to the Plane) to the Plane

this given by the following relation:

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Example 1: Compute the range of the Point to the Plane

Example 2: Compute the range between two Parallel Planes

Solution: In this occasion a Point does not occur us, therefore we are going it to

choose of the equation assigning values a Y and to Z and

clearing X we will find a P Point

if and replacing them in the chosen equation and clearing x we have

left:

therefore the found point is and coming like in the previous example

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 EXERCISES

1) Obtain the parametric equations of the straight line that passes through (5, 1, - 3) and
is parallel to the vector 〈8, 5, -2〉.

2) Obtain the distance of the point (- 1, 3 - 2) to the straight line of parametric equations
x = 5, y = 3t, z = 3-2t.

3) Obtain the equation of the plane that passes through the point (3, - 2, 6) and is
perpendicular to the vector 〈-2, 5, 1 〉.

4) Obtain the equation of the plane passing through the points (2, - 6, - 1), (5, 0, 2),
(4, 2, 5).

5) Obtain the distance of the point (2, 1, 3) the plane 2 x-4y + z = 1.

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 ANSWERS

1) 𝑥 = 5 + 8𝑡 , 𝑦 = 1 + 5𝑡 , 𝑧 = −3 − 2𝑡 .

3√793
2) 𝑑=
13

3) 2𝑥 − 5𝑦 − 𝑧 = 10

4) 12𝑥 − 12𝑦 + 12𝑧 = 84

2√21
5) 𝑑= 21

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