Special Infrastructure

(Bridges)
Assistant Professor: Omer Javaid
NUTECH
Department of Civil Engineering
&
Professor: Choi, Dong Ho
Hanyang University
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
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Bridge Engineering
Contents
• Introduction (1)
• Structural Elements of a Bridge (2)
• Classification of bridges (1)
• Selection of a Bridge Type (1)
• Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design (1 & 2)
• Introduction, brief history and sectional overview of AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specification
• Introduction to ASD and LRFD (1)
• Design limit states (1)

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Bridge Engineering

Reference books
1. Design of Highway Bridges, An LRFD Approach, Richard M. Barker and Jay A.
Puckett, 3rd Edition
2. Steel Bridges, Conceptual and Structural Design of Steel and Steel Concrete
Composite Bridges, Jean-Paul Lebet, Manfred A. Hirt

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Introduction
Bridge
• Any structure having an opening not less than 20.0 ft. that forms part of a highway or
that is located over or under a highway (AASHTO LRFD).
• Generally bridges carry a road or railway across a natural or artificial obstacle such as, a
river, canal or another railway or another road.

Golden Gate Bridge, San Francisco, California Epsom Railway crossing, England
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Bridge, A Key Element In Transportation System

If width of bridge is insufficient to carry

Control Volume of Traffic number of lanes required for traffic flow,
(Volume carrying capacity)
• It control the capacity thus constricts traffic flow.

If strength of bridge is deficient and unable

Control Weight of Traffic
to carry heavy trucks, post load limitation
(Weight carrying capacity)
to traffic, thus reroute heavy vehicles traffic.

• The highest cost per mile

Typical cost of bridge is multiple times that of approach roadways.

• If the bridge fails, the system fails • Bridge failure detour the traffic flow.
• Increase volume of traffic over routes not designed for
• Cause traffic jams
• Waste of time and fuel expenses

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Bridge Engineer
• Bridge, being a key element in transportation system, puts heavy responsibility on
bridge engineer
• Bridge engineer must keep balance between handling Future traffic volume and loads
and cost of bridge (capacity vs. cost).
• Bridge engineer must not compromise safety, as strength is always a foremost
consideration
• Bridge engineer works closely with transportation engineer
• Bridge engineer controls bridge type, aesthetics and technical details
• The decision of bridge engineer affect long-term site aesthetics, serviceability and
maintainability

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Structural Elements of Bridge
Main structural elements of bridge are;
• Superstructure
• Substructure
• Other Components
• Superstructure & Substructure are separated at bearing level
• Girder Bridge is provided here as an example for explanation of bridge elements

Structural Elements
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Structural Elements of Bridge
Superstructure
• Superstructure comprised of Slab, main beams, shear
connectors and cross bracing
• Slab connected to main beam together is also called
bridge deck
• Slab transfers traffic load to primary structural elements
• Main beams (rolled beams, plate girders or trusses etc.) Elements of Superstructure
are longitudinal member which transfer load from slab to
supports
• In composite steel concrete bridge, concrete slab is
connected to main beams through shear connector.
• Cross bracing (steel plate, truss or frame) are
perpendicular to bridges axis which ties main beams
together. Steel plate cross bracing
(Diaphragm)

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 Structural Elements of Bridge
Substructure
• Comprises of piers, abutments & foundation
• Supports superstructure and transfer load to ground
• Piers take load from main beams
• Abutments are at end of bridges and assure integration with surrounding terrain.
• In some cases abutment also support embankments
• Foundation transfer load from piers to ground e.g. piles raft etc.

Elements of Substructure
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Other Components
Bearings
• Bearings are found at the interface between the superstructure and substructure
• Transfer vertical & horizontal forces from superstructure to piers and abutments
• Allow the necessary movements of the superstructure
• The bearings may be fixed - in which case transfer horizontal forces to the
substructure without any relative movement of the superstructure.
• Must be checked for maintenance

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Other Components
Road and Expansion Joints
• These joints assure continuity of rolling surface between the deck & abutments or two
separate parts of deck.
• Allow movement of superstructure relative to the substructure e.g. variations in length
due to changes in temperature, or rotations that result from loads applied to the deck
Joints formed from polymer modified bitumen:
• Allow small movements- expansion: 20 mm, shortening: 10mm
Joints that include steel elements anchored in the concrete slab and the abutments:
• Allows greater movements, up to ±1200 mm and is generically known as an expansion
joint.

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Other components
Water Evacuation
• An efficient and reliable way to evacuate rainwater must be conceived
• Standing water is dangerous for traffic (increased braking distance, slippery surface)
and also can accelerate structural degradation
• Provide complete system for water evacuation considering both transverse and
longitudinal directions

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Classification of Bridges

Based on Material - Steel, Concrete, Wood, Hybrid, stone/brick

Based on Usage - Highway, railway, Pedestrian and Runway

Based on Geometry - Straight, Curved and Skew Bridges

Bridge
Classification
Based on Span Length - Short, Medium, Large and Long (Extra Large)

Based on Structural Form - Girder, Truss, Arch, Cable Suspension and Cable Stayed

• Main structure below the deck Line

Based on Structural Arrangement • Main structure above the deck Line
• Main structure coincides with the deck Line

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Classification Based on Material

Steel Truss Bridge Concrete Bridge Wood Bridge

Bricks Bridge Stone Bridge

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Classification Based on Usage

Highway Bridge Railway Bridge Pedestrian Bridge

Runway Bridge

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Classification Based on Geometry

Straight Bridge

Curved Bridge

Skew Bridge

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Classification Based on Span Length
1. Short Span Length (Up to 15 m)
• Culvert Bridge Culvert Bridge Slab Bridge
• Slab Bridges
• T-beam Bridge
• Wood Bridge
• Rolled Steel Beam Bridge

T-beam Bridge Rolled Steel Beam Bridge

Cross-section

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Classification Based on Span Length
2. Medium Span Length (Up to 50 m)
• Pre-cast Concrete Box Beam Pre-cast concrete box beam Pre-cast concrete I beam
Bridge Bridge
• Pre-cast Concrete I-Beam
• Cast-in-place RCC Box Girder
Bridge
• Composite Steel Box Girder

Composite Steel box girder Cast-in-place box girder

Bridge Bridge

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Classification Based on Span Length
3. Large Span Length (50 to 150 m) Cast-in-place Post Tensioned
concrete box girder Bridge
• Composite Steel Plate Girder Bridge
• Cast-in-place Post-Tensioned concrete Box Girder
• Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental Construction
• Concrete Arch and Steel Arch

Composite Steel Plate Girder Post-Tensioned Concrete Segmental

Bridge Steel Arch Bridge Construction

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Classification Based on Span Length
4. Long Span Bridges (Extra Large)
• Cable Stayed Bridge
• Cable Suspension Bridge

Incheon Bridge, Seoul, South Korea Yi Sun Sin Bridge, Yeosu, South Korea

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Classification Based on Structural Form
1. Distinctive Features of Girder Bridges
• Most simple & widely constructed
• Usually used for short and medium spans
• Carry load in shear and flexural bending
• Economical & long lasting solution for vast
majority of bridges
• Concrete decks & girder act together to
support load, is called composite girder
Deck

Girder

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Classification Based on Structural Form
2. Distinctive Features of Truss Bridge
• Truss, a triangular assembly of slender axial
members
• Only loaded at nodes and resisted primarily by
axial forces
• Centroidal axis of members is straight &
concurrent at node
Banghwa Bridge, Seoul, South Korea
• The open web system permits the use of a
greater overall depth than for an equivalent solid
web girder, hence reduced deflections.
• Economical in material and a reduced dead
weight
• Higher fabrication & maintenance cost
• Truss also used to stiffened suspension bridges
to reduce aerodynamic vibration
Tokyo Gate Bridge, Tokyo, Japan
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Classification Based on Structural Form
3. Distinctive Features of Arch Bridges
• Most commonly used in mountainous regions
& predominantly a compression structure
• Conventional arch has two moment resistant
components: the deck and the arch rib
• Near the crown of the arch and the region
where spandrel columns are short, undesirable
B.M. can occur. By using pin ended columns it Cold Spring Canyon Arch Bridge, California, US
can be avoided.
• Aesthetically it is good & curve shape is
pleasing
• Materials; steel, concrete, bricks, truss etc.

Bloukrans Bridge, Western Cape, South Africa

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Classification Based on Structural Form
4. Distinctive Features of Cable Suspension Bridges
• Cable is major element & loads is transferred by tension
• Deck is supported by main cable through hangers
• Main cable is supported by tower and transfer load to
anchorage
• Truss or steel girders at deck level are used to increase
stiffness & reduce aerodynamics vibration.
• Aesthetically attractive & suitable for very long span. Kokonoe Yume Bridge, Oita, Japan

Baling River Bridge, Guizhou, China 24

Classification Based on Structural Form
5. Distinctive Features of Cable Stayed Bridges
• Deck is directly connected to tower by cables.
• Much stiffer than suspension bridge
• Horizontal force component in cable causes
compression in deck
• There is a great freedom of choice in selecting
the structural arrangement
• Suitable & economical for medium span
(100-350m)
• Aesthetically the most attractive option
• Less expensive & faster to build than
suspension bridges
Octavio Frias de Oliveira bridge, Brazil

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Classification Based on Structural Form

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Classification Based on Structural Arrangement
1. Main Structure below the deck Line
• Supporting structure is below the deck
• Primarily transmit loads by axial Concrete Arch Bridge Masonry Arch Bridge
compressive forces
• Examples are arch bridges and steel
truss arch bridge.

• Masonry Arch Bridge

Arch • Inclined Leg Frame Arch Bridge
Bridges • Concrete Arch Bridge Steel Truss Arch Inclined Leg Frame Arch
• Rigid Frame Arch Bridge Bridge Bridge

Truss Arch • Steel Truss Arch Bridge

Bridge • Steel Deck Truss Arch Bridge

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Classification Based on Structural Arrangement
2. Main Structure above the deck Line
• The main supporting structure is above
deck line
• Examples are suspension bridge, cable
stayed bridge & through truss bridge

Akashi Bridge, Kobe, Japan

Samuel Beckett Bridge, Dublin, Ireland Rio Puerco Bridge, West of New Mexico
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Classification Based on Structural Arrangement
3. Main Structure Coincide with the deck Line
• Slab (solid and voided)
• T-Beam (cast-in-place)
• I-beam (pre-cast or pre-stressed
• Wide-flange beam (composite & non-
composite)
• Concrete Box (cast-in-place, segmental Aizhai Bridge, Jishou, China
& pre-stressed
• Steel Plate Girder
• Steel box

San Diego - Coronado Bridge, Coronado, U.S. 29

Moveable Bridges/Drawbridge, A special Type
• A vehicular bridge that can be opened or lifted to allow passage of waterborne vessels
• Bascule Bridges whole or some sections of bridge is raised and then lowered again
• Swing Bridges Bridge swings around a pivot
• Vertical Lift Bridges The bridge vertically lift up to allow passage

Gateshead Millennium Bridge, England

Friedrich bayer bridge, São Paulo, Brazil

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Rethe bascule bridge, Hamburg, Germany Pont Jacques Chaban-Delmas bridge, Bordeaux, France
Selection of a Bridge Type
Bridge type selection requires consideration of number of factors. Some of them are listed
below.

• Geometric conditions of Site: horizontal & vertical alignment of highway route and
clearance above & below the roadway, airport, navigable waterways.
• Subsoil condition of the site: seismicity of region, type of foundation depends on
subsurface soil.
• Functional requirements: traffic volume to be carried, side walks, environmental
condition (snow, flood) etc.
• Aesthetics: Bridge type must provide positive aesthetics.
• Economics & Ease of Maintenance: addition to initial cost, maintenance cost over the
life also need to be considered .
• Construction and Erection consideration: time required to construct the type of bridge.
• Legal Considerations: regulations that determines what bridge type can be built at which
location. e.g. a bridge must not obstructs navigable waterways, noise control act,
environmental policy etc.
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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
• Only gathering a lot of information about a bridge site does not make the selection of
bridge type automatically.
• Defining function of structure properly does not make it aesthetically pleasant.
• Only using some great structural design equations and satisfying all design specification
does not give you the best possible bridge configurations.
• A well conceived bridge depends on “certain principal characteristics” which guides
engineer in developing a good conceptual design.
• An engineer should keep in mind the following qualities:
1. Reliability
2. Robustness
3. Durability
4. Aesthetics
5. Economy

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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
1. Reliability
• Reliability of a bridge relates to its ability to satisfy the “design limit states” for the
planned service life.
• It is expressed in terms of the probability of limit states being exceeded and is assured
by verification of design criteria for the serviceability limit state and for the ultimate
limit state.
• To assure the reliability of bridge, it is necessary to take into account uncertainties
associated with:
- Definition of actions (loads)
- Modeling of structure
- Determination of effects of actions (loads)
- Resistance of materials

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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
2. Robustness
• Robustness is the ability of a structure to withstand unforeseen events like fire,
explosions, impact or the consequences of human error, without being damaged to an
extent disproportionate to the original cause of collapse.
• A structure designed to be robust should not suffer from disproportionate collapse
under accidental loading.
• A structure susceptible to disproportionate collapse is one where accidental damage of
small part or one element lead to collapse of whole or major part of structure.
• To conceive a robust structure the flowing aspect should be considered:
- Additional paths should be available to loads if any member of structure fails, the
idea of redundancy
- Using structural forms that are stable and insensitive to ground movements, such as
seismic events.
- Providing protection against accidental actions e.g. crash barriers
- Provide easy access to all parts of structure for inspection and remedies.
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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
2. Robustness

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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
3. Durability
• A bridge is said to be durable if its overall configuration and its detailing satisfy the
requirements of the serviceability and ultimate limit states, under the expected loads.
• Durability is associated with the planned service life of the structure and its
components.
• Assuring durability during the course of the planned design life is primarily dependent
on the following:
- The choice of materials and their adequate corrosion protection
- Careful execution of the details
- An overall bridge concept, and detailing concepts that facilitate observations and
inspections.

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Qualities of a well Conceived Bridge Design
4. Aesthetics
• Most common words you will find in definition of aesthetics, will be beauty,
philosophy and effect on the senses.
• A simple definition could be: Aesthetics is the study of qualities of beauty of an object
and of their perception through our senses.
• Pleasant aesthetics does not means increases in the cost all the time. Least expensive
aesthetically pleasing bridge can also be found.
• Although it cannot be measured or quantified, aesthetic value is counted among the
important qualities of a bridge.
• It is based on an overall judgement that takes into account the local environment, the
structural form of the bridge, expression of the details, the color, as well as other
parameters, according to the specific case.
• Some of the qualities of successful Aesthetics are summarized below:
• Function, Proportion, Harmony, Order and Rhythm, Contrast and Texture, Light and
Shadow

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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Function
• A successful bridge design, must always safely perform its function
• The very first notion of beauty in a bridge is that it performs its function efficiently and
people using it are satisfied.
• For example, if a bridge fulfills every requirements of aesthetic consideration and other
requirements but is somehow unable to perform its intended function, it would not be
appealing.

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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Proportion
• Good proportions are fundamental to achieve an aesthetically pleasing bridge structure
• The proportions are a function of the relative size of the structural elements and their
repetition in space, the interactions between solid and open surfaces, the interaction
between the dimensions of the piers and deck, between the thickness of the deck and its
span length, the width and height of the piers.
• It is generally agreed that when a bridge is placed across a relatively shallow valley, the
most pleasing appearance occurs when there are an odd number of spans with span
length decreases going up side of valley.
• It is also considered true (odd spans) for bridge over deep valley but with all spans of
equal length.

Bridge in shallow valley with decreasing span length Bridge in deep valley with same span length
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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Proportion
• Practical example of bridge in valley:

Magnan Viaduct, France

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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Harmony
• Harmony means getting along well with others. The parts of the structure must be in
agreement with each other and the whole structure must be in agreement with its
surroundings.
• Harmony between the elements of a bridge: Depends on the proportions between the
span lengths and depth of girders, height and size of piers
• Harmony between structure and surroundings: Scale & size of a bridge should be
relative to its environment.
• For example, a long bridge crossing a wide valley can be large because the landscape is
large. But when a bridge is placed in an urban setting, the size must be reduced.

Harmony among bridges 41

Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Order and Rhythm
• Bridges should demonstrate order, equilibrium and regularity.
• Abrupt changes in the dimensions of the structural elements, cross sections, or spans
should be avoided.
• Numerous changes in alignment of the structural elements, stops, breaks or
discontinuous curves in the lines of the bridge give an appearance of disorder.
• Changes interrupt the flow of beauty and rhythm is lost.
• The basic philosophy must always be to search for regularity and symmetry.

Tunkhannock Viaduct, Pennsylvania, United States

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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Contrast and Texture
• Contrast is necessary in bridge aesthetics
• All bridges do not have to blend in with their surroundings. It depends on the
dimension and dominance of bridge e.g. dominance is true for cable supported bridges
• Texture can also be used to soften the hard appearance of concrete and make certain
elements less dominant
• Choices of color for the steel elements, the texture of the concrete elements such as the
edges and parapets, and the faces of the abutments and piers are of equal importance.

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Qualities of Aesthetics Design
Light and Shadow
• Designer must be aware of how the shadows occur on the structure throughout the day
• Bridge running north to south will have shadow different than one running east to west.
• For example, when sunlight is parallel to the face of a girder or wall, small
imperfections in workmanship can cast deep shadows. Construction joints in concrete
may appear to be discontinuous.
• One of the effective ways to make a bridge girder appear slender is to put it partially or
completely in shadow.
• Creating shadow becomes especially important with the use of solid concrete safety
barriers that make the girders look deeper than they actually are.

Shadow cover the depth of girder Girder not covered in shadow Barrier can make girder look deeper
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Economy
• Choosing the right type of structure, number and length of the spans, and its location can
positively influence the cost of a bridge.
• The cost of a bridge is not simply the cost associated with its design and execution.
Additional costs accompany its use and maintenance, the cost of money (interest,
inflation), and the cost of demolition and recycling (life cycle costs).

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Bridge Design Specification
• Meaning of design specifications
• Need and brief history of bridge design specifications
• Overview of AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specification

AASHTO 3rd Ed. 2004 AASHTO 4th Ed. 2007 AASHTO 5th Ed. 2010 AASHTO 6th Ed. 2012 AASHTO 7th Ed. 2014

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Meaning of Design Specification
• Design is proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a bridge
• In oxford dictionary the word “specification” is defined as, “A standard required to be
met in a piece of work”.
• In general terms specifications can be defined as a collection of standards set on the
basis collective experience (practical & theoretical knowledge ) and judgment of a
qualified group of people/engineers.
• In U.S. highway bridge design community, AASHTO is such a qualified group.
• Thus bridge design specification is set of standards needs to be met in the design of
bridge.
Or
• Bridge Design Specification- Standards required to be met in proportioning and
detailing the components of bridge.

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Need and Brief History of Bridge Specification
• Bridge specification were not there from start.
• Early bridges were constructed under design-build type contract e.g. A bridge company
would agree, for some lump-sum price, to construct a bridge connecting one location to
another. There were no standard bridge specifications.
• As a result both very good and very poor bridges were built.
• Of the highway and railroad bridges built in the 1870s, one out of every four failed, a
rate of 40 bridges per year.
• Investigation on major failure cases results in the number of shortcomings in the design
procedures at that time.
• On December 12, 1914, the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO)
was formed, and in 1921 its committee on Bridges and Allied Structures was organized.
The charge to this committee was the development of standard specifications for the
design, materials, and construction of highway bridges.
• The first edition of the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental
Structures was published in 1931 by AASHO

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Overview of AASHTO Bridge Design Specification 5th Ed.
• The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications are intended for use in the design,
evaluation, and rehabilitation of bridges, and are mandated by the Federal Highway
Administration for use on all bridges using federal funding.
• These specifications employ the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
methodology using factors developed from current statistical knowledge of loads and
structural performance.

AASHTO 5th Ed. 2010 49

Sectional Overview of AASHTO LRFD 5th Ed.
1. Introduction: cover design philosophies
2. General Design and Location Features: covers minimum requirement for
environmental protection, aesthetics, geological studies, economy, durability,
constructability, inspectability, and maintainability
3. Loads and Load Factors: covers minimum requirements for loads and forces, load
factors, and load combinations used for the design of new bridges
4. Structural Analysis and Evaluation: covers methods of analysis suitable for the design
and evaluation of bridges and is limited to the modeling of structures and the
determination of force effects
5. Concrete Structures covers the design of bridge and retaining wall components
constructed of normal weight or lightweight concrete, reinforced & prestressed
concrete with addition of seismic design
6. Steel Structures: covers the design of steel components, splices and connections for
straight or horizontally curved beam and girder structures, frames, trusses and arches,
cable-stayed and suspension systems, and metal deck systems, as applicable
7. Aluminum Structures covers the design of aluminum members, splices, and
connections for highway bridges, including beam and girder structures, frames,
trusses, and arches
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Sectional Overview of AASHTO LRFD 5th Ed.
8. Wood Structures: covers requirements for structural components made of sawn lumber
products, stressed wood, glued laminated timber and wood piles
9. Decks and Deck Systems: covers the provisions for the analysis and design of bridge
decks and deck systems of concrete, metal, and wood or combinations thereof
subjected to gravity loads
10. Foundations: covers the provisions for the design of spread footings, driven piles,
drilled shaft, and micropile foundations
11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls: covers requirements for design of abutments and walls
12. Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners: provides requirements for the selection of
structural properties and dimensions of buried structures, e.g., culverts & and steel
plate used to support tunnel excavations in soil
13. Railings: applies to railings for new bridges and for rehabilitated bridges
14. Joints and Bearings: covers requirements for the design & selection of structural
bearings and deck joints
15. Design of Sound Barriers: applies to the structural design of sound barriers which are
either ground-mounted or structure-mounted
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Design Limit States
Design Philosophy
• A general statement for assuring safety in engineering design is that the resistance of
the components supplied exceed the demands put on them by applied loads, that is:

Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads

• It is essential for above statement that both sides are evaluated for same conditions and
units e.g. compressive stress on soil should be compared with bearing capacity of soil.
• Resistance of structures is composed of its members which comes from materials &
cross-section
• Resistance, capacity and strength are somewhat synonym terms
• Terms like demand, stresses and loads are used to express effect of applied loads

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Design Limit States
• When particular loading reaches its limit, failure is the assumed result, i.e. the loading
condition become failure modes, such a condition is referred to as limit state and it can
be defined as
“A limit state is a condition beyond which a structural system or a structural component
ceases to fulfill the function for which it is designed.”
• Examples of limit states, cracking, torsion, shear, buckling fatigue etc.
• An important goal of design is to prevent a limit state from being reached
• Design procedures have been developed by engineers over years
• With the passage of time and improvement in knowledge, design techniques have been
changed and improved.
• For better understanding, we have thrown some light on earlier design techniques.
- Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
- Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

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1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• We have described design statements as:

Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads

• ASD method achieves safety by putting limits only on the right hand side of design
statement
• Safety in the design was obtained by specifying that the effect of the load should
produce stresses that were a fraction of the yield stress fy, say one-half. This value will
be equivalent to providing a safety factor of 2, i.e.

Resistance = R
Effect of Loads = Q = 0.5fy
R  0.5 fy
Resistance, R fy
Factor of safety = FoS =  2
Effect of Loads, Q 0.5fy
• Since specification set limits on the stresses, this became known as allowable stress
design (ASD) method.

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Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
• In past most of bridges were open-web trusses or arches and members were in tension or
compression.
• Using ASD for steel bridge design, the required area of a tension member is selected by:
effet of load T
Required Anet  
allowable stress ft
• Using ASD for steel bridge design, required area of a compression member is selected by:
effet of load C
Required Agross  
allowable stress f c

• Using ASD for beams in bending, required section modulus can be determined (dividing
bending moment by bending stress):
effet of load M
Required S  
allowable stress fb
• ASD assume zero stresses in members before application of load, neglect residual stresses
• It might be nearly true for solid bars and rod than for thin elements of rolled beams.
• In thin elements of rolled section residual stresses results due to non uniform cooling rate.
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Shortcomings of ASD
• The resistance concept is based on the elastic behavior of materials
• It does not give reasonable measure of strength which is more fundamental measure of
resistance than is allowable stress
• The safety factor is applied only to the resistance and loads are considered to be
deterministic.
- ASD does not recognizes that different loads have different level of uncertainty. All
loads, dead, live and environmental loads are treated equally.
• Selection of a safety factor is subjective and it does not provide a measure of reliability
in terms of probability of failure
-ASD Factor of Safety does not give quantitative measure of risk. If the safety factor is
higher the number of failures is lower . It does not give probability of survival. It is
more meaningful to say “This bridge has probability of 1 in 10,000 of failure in 75
years,” than to say, “This bridge has a safety factor of 2.3.”

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Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method
• Design statement is: Resistance ≥ Effect of applied loads
• To overcome deficiencies of ASD, LRFD consider variation in both side of above
statement.
• The resistance side is multiplied by a statistically based resistance factor ϕ, whose value
is usually less than 1.
• The load side is multiplied by a statistically based load factor γ , whose value is usually
greater than 1.
• Thus design statement becomes:  Rn  effect of  Q i i

• A load effect at a particular limit state involves combination of different load types, and
each type have different degree of predictability, so summation of γi Qi is used.
• As the method include both load factor and resistance factor thus called, “Load and
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method” and it can be defined as:
“A reliability-based design methodology in which force effects caused by factored loads
are not permitted to exceed the factored resistance of the components.”

57
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) Method
Resistance Factor ϕ : A statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal resistance
accounting for uncertainties in;
- Material properties
- Equations that predict strength
- Structural dimension and workmanship
Load Factor γ: A statistically-based multiplier applied to force effects accounting primarily
for uncertainties in;
- Magnitude of Loads
- Position of loads
- Possible combination of loads

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Advantages of LRFD Method
Advantages
• It accounts for both variability in resistance and load
• It achieves fairly uniform factor of safety for different limit states
• It provides a rationale and consistent method of design
Disadvantages
• Requires a change in design philosophy (from previous AASHTO methods)
• Requires an understanding of the basic concepts of probability and statistics
• Requires availability of sufficient statistical data and probabilistic design algorithms to
make adjustments in resistance factors

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Design Limit States
• Limit state is defined as, “A condition beyond which the bridge or component ceases to
fulfill its the purpose for which it was designed.”
• Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of
constructability, safety and serviceability.
• To obtain a buildable, serviceable bridge, capable of carrying design loads for specified
lifetime following limit states should be considered.
1. General – Ductility Factor, Redundancy Factor, Operational Importance Factor
2. Service Limit State – Service I, II, III and IV
3. Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
4. Strength Limit State – Strength I, II, III, IV and V
5. Extreme Event Limit States – Extreme limit state I, II and III

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1- General
• Basic design expression that must be specified for all limit states is given as,

 Rn  i i Qi
• ηi = Load modifier and it take into account ductility, redundancy factor and operational
importance.
• Loads for which a maximum value of γi is appropriate:
i   D R I  0.95
• Loads for which a minimum value of γi is appropriate:
1
i   1.0
 D R I
 D ,  R and  I are defined in the following section.
 D and  R related to physical strength of members.
• Ductility and redundancy factor are part of resistance side but place on load side to
reflect maximum and minimum load factors (Table 3.4.1-2)
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1- General
Ductility Factor ηD
• Ductility is important to the safety of the bridge.
• If ductility is present overloaded portion of the structure can redistribute the load to other
portions that have reserve strength.
• This redistribution is dependent on the ability of the overloaded component and its
connections to develop inelastic deformations without failure.
• Brittle behavior is to be avoided, because it implies sudden loss of load carrying capacity
if elastic limit is exceeded.
For the strength limit state ductility factors are:
ηD ≥ 1.05 for no ductile components and connections
ηD = 1.00 for conventional designs and details complying with the specifications
ηD ≥ 0.95 for components and connections for which additional ductility-enhancing
measures have been specified beyond those required by these specifications
For all other Limit states: ηD = 1.00
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1- General
Redundancy Factor ηR
• Redundancy effect the safety margin
• A statically indeterminate structure is redundant, that is, it has more restraints than
necessary to satisfy conditions of equilibrium.
• For example, a fixed ended beam is indeterminate by 2 degrees so it has two redundant
actions. Two reactions could be lost without immediate collapse, because the loads
could find alternative paths to the ground.
• For the strength limit state redundancy factor
ηR ≥ 1.05 for nonredundant members
ηR = 1.00 for conventional level of redundancy
ηR ≥ 0.95 for exceptional level of redundancy Fixed ended beam- 2 redundant

• For all other limit states

ηR = 1.00

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Redistribution – 2 plastic hinge formed
1- General
Operational Importance Factor ηI
• Bridges can be considered of operational importance if they are on the shortest path
between residential areas and a hospital or a school or provide access for police, fire,
and rescue vehicles to homes, businesses, industrial plants etc.
• It is difficult to find a situation where a bridge would not be operationally important.
• In the event of an earthquake, it is important that all lifelines, such as bridges remain
open. Therefore, following requirements apply to the extreme event limit state as well as
to the strength limit state.
ηI ≥ 1.05 for a bridge of operational importance
ηI = 1.00 for typical bridges
ηI ≥ 0.95 for relatively less important bridges
• For all other limit states
ηI = 1.00

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1- General - Operational Importance Factor ηI

To Hospital

To Park

65
Load Designation
• For better understanding of remaining limit states introduction to load designation is
necessary.
• Permanent and transient loads used in permanent and transient loads and forces that
must be considered in a design are designated as follows:

Note: Detail description of loads will be provided in next chapter

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AASHTO LRFD Load combination and Load Factor

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Load Factors for Permanent Loads

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2. Service Limit State
• This limit state refers to restrictions on stresses, deflections and crack widths of bridge
components that occur under regular service conditions.
• For the service limit state the resistance factors ϕ = 1.0 and nearly all the load factors γi
are equal to 1.0
• Four service limit conditions given in the Table 3.4.1-1 to cover different design
situations
Service I
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating to the normal operational
use of the bridge with 90 km/h wind and with all loads taken at their nominal values.
• It also relates to deflection control in buried structures, crack control in reinforced
concrete structures, compressive stress in prestressed concrete.
Service II
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to steel structures
and is intended to control yielding and slip of slip-critical connections due to vehicular
live load.

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2. Service Limit State
Service III
• This service limit state refers to the load combination for longitudinal analysis relating
to tension in prestressed concrete superstructures with the objective of crack control.
• E.g. Longitudinal forces result from the transfer of momentum from the truck braking or
accelerating on a bridge.
• The statistical significance of the 0.80 factor on live load is that the event is expected to
occur about once a year for bridges with two traffic lanes, less often for bridges with
more than two traffic lanes, and about once a day for bridges with a single traffic lane.
Service IV
• This service limit state refers to the load combination relating only to tension in
prestressed concrete columns with the objective of crack control.
• The 0.70 factor on wind represents an 84-mph (135-km/h) wind. This should result in
zero tension in prestressed concrete substructures for 10-year mean reoccurrence winds.

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3. Fatigue and Fracture Limit State
• This limit state refers to restrictions on stress range caused by a design truck.
• The restrictions depend upon the stress range excursions expected to occur during the
design life of the bridge.
• This limit state is used to limit crack growth under repetitive loads and to prevent
fracture due to cumulative stress effects in steel elements, components, and connections.
• For the fatigue and fracture limit state, ϕ = 1.0
• Since, the only load that causes a large number of repetitive cycles is the vehicular live
load, it is the only load effect that has a non-zero load factor in the fatigue limit state
(Table 3.4.1-1).
• Fatigue I is load combination related to infinite load-induced fatigue life and it reflects
load levels enough to propagate a crack.
• Load factor of 0.75 is used for fatigue II and applied to vehicular live load, dynamic
load allowance and centrifugal force. It is for finite fatigue life design.
• Use of load factor less than 1.0 is justified because statistics show that trucks at slightly
lower weights cause more repetitive cycles of stress than those at the weight of the
design truck.
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4. Strength Limit State
• This limit state refers to providing sufficient strength or resistance to satisfy the inequality
of
 Rn  i i Qi

for significant load combinations that a bridge is expected to experience in its design life.
• This limit state include the evaluation of resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial
load.
• The resistance factor ϕ will usually be less than 1.0 and will have different values for
different materials and strength limit states.
• The load factors γi are given in five separate load combinations in Table 3.4.1-1 to address
different design consideration.
• For permanent load effects, load factors γp of Table 3.4.1-2 shall be selected to give most
critical load combination for a specific limit state.
Strength I
• It is the basic load combination related to normal vehicular use of bridge without wind.
Strength II
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the use of the bridge by owner-
specified special design vehicles, evaluation permit vehicles, or both without wind.72
4. Strength Limit State
Strength III
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to the bridge exposed to wind
velocity exceeding 55 mph (90 km/h). The high winds prevent the presence of
significant live load on the bridge.
Strength IV
• This strength limit state is the load combination relating to very high dead- and live-load
force effect ratios.
• The standard calibration process used to select load factors γi and resistance factors ϕ for
the strength limit state was carried out for bridges with spans less than 200 ft.
• Dead to live load ratio is higher for large span bridge, thus resistance factor will be
different than short and medium span bridge
Strength V
• This strength limit is the basic load combination relating to the normal vehicular use of
the bridge with wind of 55 mph (90 km/h)velocity.
• It differs from the strength-III limit state by the presence of the live load on the bridge,
wind on the live load and reduced wind on the structure. (Table 3.4.1-1)

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5. Extreme Event Limit State
• It refers to the structural survival of a bridge during a major earthquake or flood or when
collided by a vessel, vehicle, or ice floe, possibly under scoured conditions.
• The probability of these events occurring simultaneously is extremely low; therefore,
they are specified to be applied separately.
• For the extreme event limit state, ϕ = 1.0.
Extreme Event I
• This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to earthquakes. This limit
state also includes water load WA.
• Load factor for live load γEQ shall be determined on a project-specific basis. Suggested
values are 0.0, 0.2 and 1.0
Extreme Event II
• This extreme event limit state is the load combination relating to ice load, collision by
vessels and vehicles and to certain hydraulic events with reduced live load.
• The 0.50 live-load factor signifies a low probability of the combined occurrence of the
maximum vehicular live load, other than CT, and the extreme events.
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Thank You

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