CHAPTER 2

ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS (CHARGES AT REST)

Electrostatic field is produced by a static (time invariant) charge distribution.
A typical example of such a field is found in a cathode-ray tube.
Application Areas of Electrostatics:
 Electric power transmission, X-ray machines, and lightning protection systems.
 Solid-state electronic devices (resistors, capacitors, bipolar and field effect
transistors)
 Almost all computer peripheral devices (touch pads, capacitance keyboards,
cathode-ray
tubes, liquid crystal displays, and electrostatic printers).
 In medical work (in electrocardiograms, electroencephalograms, and recordings
of organs with electrical activity including eyes, ears, and stomachs).
 In industry (paint spraying, electrodeposition, electrochemical machining, and
separation of fine particles.)
 In agriculture (to sort seeds, direct sprays to plants, measure the moisture
content of crops, spin cotton, and speed baking of bread and smoking of meat).
The two fundamental laws governing electrostatic fields are
(1) Coulomb's law, and
(2) Gauss's law.
Regarding to these two laws:
 Both are based on experimental studies and are interdependent.
 Coulomb's law is used in finding the electric field due to any charge
configuration,
 Gauss's law is used in finding the electric field due to symmetrical charge
distribution.
Here we will see
⤿ Concept of electric field intensity based on Coulomb's law (to cases involving
point, line, surface, and volume charges) and
⤿ Special problems that are hard solving by using Coulomb's law will be solved
by applying Gauss's law easily.
2.1 Coulomb's Law
Coulomb's law:
 Deals with the force a point charge exerts on another point charge.

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 A point charge means a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions
are much smaller than other relevant dimensions. (eg: a collection of electric
charges on a pinhead). Charges are measured in coulombs (C).
18
1 C ≅ 6 x 10 electrons .
 States that the force F between two point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
⤿ Along the line joining them.
⤿ Directly proportional to the product Q1Q2 of the charges.
⤿ Inversely proportional to the square of the distance R between them.
K Q1 Q2
Expressed mathematically, F= 2 , where
R
1
K= ≅ 9 x 109 (m/ F) is proportionality constant,
4 π ε0
Q1 and Q2 are charges in coulombs (C), R is distance in meters (m), and F is force in
Newtons (N).
The constant ε 0 is known as the permittivity of free space (in farads per meter) and
has the value
−9
−12 10
ε 0=8.854 x 10 (F /m) ≅ (F /m)
36 π

Thus, the above equation becomes,

Q1 Q2
F= 2
4 π ε0 R

If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors r1 and r2,
then the force F12 on Q2 due to Q1, shown in Figure 2.1, is given by
Q1 Q2
F 12= 2
a R 12
4 π ε0 R

R12
Where R12=r 2 −r 1, R=¿ R 12∨¿, a R 12=
R

By substituting,

Q1 Q2 Q1 Q 2 Q1 Q 2 ( r 2 −r 1 )
F 12= 2
a R 12= 3
R12= 3
4 π ε0 R 4 π ε0 R 4 π ε 0|r 2−r 1|

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 Figure 2.1: Coulomb vector force on point changes Q1 and Q2.
Note the following conclusions from the above equations.
(1). As shown in Figure 2.1, the force F21, on Q1 due to Q2 is given by
F 21=¿ F 12∨a R 21=¿ F 12∨(−a¿¿ R 12)¿ or F 21=−F12 since a R 21=−aR 12

(2). Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other while unlike charge
attract. This is illustrated in Figure 2.2 below.

Figure 2.2 (a), (b) Like charges repel; (c) unlike charges attract
(3). Q1 and Q2 must be point charges.
(4). Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).
(5). The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into account.

Principle of Superposition
 Used to determine force on one particular charge due to more than two point
charges.
 The total force is the vector sum of individual contribution. i.e
 If there are N charges Q1, Q2,…, QN located, respectively, at points with position
vectors r1, r2,…, rN, the resultant force F on a charge Q located at point r is
Q Q1 ( r−r 1 ) QQ2 ( r −r 2 ) Q QN ( r−r N )
F= 3
+ 3
+…+ 3 or
4 π ε 0|r −r 1| 4 π ε 0|r−r 2| 4 π ε 0|r−r N|

Q
N
Qk ( r −r k )
F= ∑
4 π ε 0 k=1 |r −r |3
k

2.2 Electric Field Intensity (E)

(a) E Due to point Charges
The electric field intensity (or electric field strength) E is

⤿ The force per unit charge when placed in the electric field.

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 ⤿ In the direction of the force F and is measured in Newtons/Coulomb or
Volts/meter.
⤿ The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge Q located at r' is
given by
F Q Q ( r−r ' )
E=lim ⇒ E= 2
a R=
Q ' 3
Q →0 4 π ε0 R 4 π ε 0|r −r |
⤿ For N point charges Q1 ,Q2 , … , QN located at r 1 , r 2 , … , r N , then E at point r is

Q1 ( r −r 1 ) Q2 ( r−r 2 ) QN ( r −r N )
E= 3
+ 3
+…+ 3 or
4 π ε 0|r−r 1| 4 π ε 0|r −r 2| 4 π ε 0|r −r N|

1
N
Qk ( r−r k )
E= ∑
4 π ε 0 k =1 |r −r |3
k

Example: Point charges 1 mC and −2 mC are located at (3, 2, - 1) and (-1, -1,4),
respectively. Calculate the electric force F on a 10 nC charge located at (0, 3,
1) and the electric field intensity E at that point.
Solution: Let Q=10 nC @ r =(0 , 3 , 1)
Q1=1 mC @ r 1=(3 , 2 ,−1)
Q2=−2 mC @ r 2=(−1 ,−1 , 4)

PRACTICE EXERCISE
Point charges 5 nC and −2 nC are located at (2,0, 4) and (-3,0, 5), respectively.
(a) Determine the force F on a1 nC point charge located at (1, -3, 7).
(b) Find the electric field E at (1, - 3, 7).
Answer: (a) -1.004ax - 1.284 ay + 1.4 az nN,
(b) -1.004 ax - 1.284 ay +1.4 az V/m.

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(b) E Due To Continuous Charge Distributions
As we can have point charges, it is also possible to have continuous charge
distributions
 along a line,
 on a surface, or
 in a volume as illustrated in the following figure 2.3

Figure2.3: Various charge distributions and charge elements

 The line charge density, surface charge density, and volume charge density
are represented by ρ L ( C /m) , ρS ( C /m2 )∧ρV ( C /m3 ), respectively.
 The charge element d Q and the total charge Q due to these charge
distributions are
❑
dQ =ρ L dl ⟶ Q=∫ ρL dl=∫ ρ L dl(line charge)
L
❑
dQ=ρS dS ⟶Q=∫ ρS dS=∬ ρS dS (surface charge)
S
❑
dQ =ρv dv ⟶Q=∫ ρv dv=∭ ρ v dv (volume charge)
v

 E due to ρ L , ρS ∧ρV may be regarded as the summation of the field

contributed by the numerous point charges making up the charge
distribution.
 Thus, by replacing Q in the point charge expression with charge
element
dQ =ρ L dl , ρ S dS ,∨ρV dv and integrating, we get

ρL dl
E=∫ 2
a R (line charge)
4 π ε0 R
ρ S dS
E=∬ 2
aR (surface charge)
4 π ε0 R

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 ρ v dv
E=∭ 2
a R ( volume charge)
4 π ε0 R
Now, let see them one by one.
(1). A Line Charge ( ρ L)
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density ρ L extending from A to B
along the z-
axis as shown in Figure 2.4. The charge element dQ associated with element dl
= dz of the
line is dQ=ρ L dl=ρ L dz and hence the total charge Q is
zB

Q=∫ ρL dz
zA

Figure2.4: Evaluation of the E field due to line charge

NB:
 The field point is represented by the unprimed (x, y, z) and
 the source point represented by the primed (x', y', z').
Thus, E at an arbitrary point P(x, y, z) from the source point (x', y', z') in
figure2.4 is obtained as shown below

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Substituting all this into equation of E given above, we get

To evaluate this, it is convenient that we define α , α 1∧α 2 as in Figure 2.4

Hence, E becomes

Thus,
⤿ for a finite line charge,

⤿ for an infinite line charge,

π
Since point B will be ( 0 ,0 , ∞ ) ⟹ α1= 2 (0 , 0 , ∞) and
−π
A ( 0 , 0 ,−∞ ) ⟹ α 2=
2

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 ⤿ In general, ρis the perpendicular distance from the line to the
point of interest and a ρ is a unit vector along that distance
directed from the line charge to the field point.

(2). A Surface Charge ( ρ S)

Consider an infinite sheet of charge in the xy-plane with uniform
charge densit ρ S. The charge associated with an elemental area
dS is
dQ=ρS dS∧Q=∬ ρ S dS

The contribution to the E field at point P(0, 0, h) by the elemental

surface 1 in Figure 2.5 is
ρS dS
d E= 2
aR
4 π ε0 R

Figure 2.5: Evaluation of the E field due to an infinite sheet of charge.

From the above figure 2.5,

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Due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every element 1,
there is a corresponding element 2 whose contribution along a ρ
cancels that of element 1, as illustrated in Figure 2.5.
Thus, the contributions to E ρ add up to zero so that E has only z-
component.
This can also be shown mathematically by replacing a ρ with
a ρ=cos ∅ a x +sin ∅ a y. Integration of cos ∅ or sin ∅ over 0< ∅ < 2 π gives zero.

Therefore,

⤿ In general, for an infinite sheet of charge

ρS
E= a
2ε0 n

where an is a unit vector normal to the sheet.

⤿ E is normal to the sheet & is independent of the distance
between the sheet and the point of observation P.
⤿ In a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field existing
between the two plates having equal and opposite charges is
given by

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 ρS ρS ρS
E= an ± (−a¿¿ n)= an ¿
2ε0 2ε0 ε0

(3). A Volume Charge ( ρ v)

 Take the volume charge distribution with uniform charge
density ρ v in Figure 2.6.
 The charge dQ associated with the elemental volume dv is
dQ=ρv dv and hence, the total charge in a sphere of radius a is
3
4πa
Q=∭ ρ v dv=ρv ∭ dv=ρ v
3
 The electric field dE at P(0, 0, z) due to the elementary volume
charge is
ρ v dv
d E= 2
aR
4 π ε0 R

Figure 2.6: E field due to a volume charge distribution.

where a r=cosα a z + sinα a ρ. Due to the symmetry of the charge
distribution, the contributions to Ex or Ey add up to zero. We are left
with only Ez, given by
ρv dvcosα
E z=E . a z =∫ dEcosα= ∭ 2
4 π ε0 R

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Again, we need to derive expressions for dv, R2, and cosα .

Applying the cosine rule to Figure, we have

2 2 '2 ' '
R =z +r −2 z r cosθ

'2 2 2
r =z + R −2 zRcosα
It is convenient to evaluate the integral in terms of R and r'.
Hence, we express cosθ ' , cosα and sinθ' d θ' in terms of R and r', that is,

Substituting yields

Thus,
Q
E= a
2 z
4 π ε0 z

⤿ This result is obtained for E at P(0, 0, z).

 In general, due to the symmetry of the charge distribution, E
at P(r , θ , ∅ ) is given by
Q
E= a
2 r
4 π ε0 r

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  This is identical to E at the same point due to a point charge
Q located at the origin or the center of the spherical charge
distribution.
Example1:
The finite sheet 0 ≤ x ≤ 1 ,0 ≤ y ≤ 1 on the z=0 plane has a charge density
3
nC
2 2
ρ S=xy (x + y +25) 2
. Find
m2
(a) The total charge on the sheet (b) The electric field at (0, 0, 5)
(c) The force experienced by a -1mC charge located at (0, 0, 5)

Solution:
1 1 3

(a) Q=∬ ρS dS=∫ ∫ xy (x + y +25) dxdy n C

2 2 2

0 0
1 2
Since xdx= 2 d (x ), we now integrate with respect to
x (¿ change variable : x =u so that xdx=du /2).
2 2

1 1 3
1
Q=∬ ρS dS= ∫ y ∫ xy ( x + y +25 ) d ( x )dy n C
2 2 2 2
20 0
1 5
1 2
¿ ∫ y ( x2 + y 2 +25 ) 2 ¿10 dy n C
20 5
1 5 5
1 1 2
¿ ∫ ( y +26 ) −( y + 25 ) d ( y )n C
2 2 2 2
50 2

[ ]
7 7
1 2 2
Q= . ( y +26 ) −( y +25 ) ¿ 0=33.15 n C
2 2 2 1
10 7

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Example 2:
Planes x=2∧ y=−3, respectively, carry charges 10 n C /m2 and 15 n C /m2. If
the line x=0 , z=2 carries charge 10 π nC /m, calculate E at (1, 1, -1) due to
the three charge distributions.
Solution:
Let E= E1+ E2 +E3
Where E1, E2 and E3 are respectively, the contributions to E at point
(1, 1,-1) due to the infinite sheet 1, infinite sheet 2, and infinite line 3
ρS −10.10
−9
E 1=
2 ε0
1
(−a x )= −9
a x =−180 π a x
10
2.
36 π
ρS 15.10 −9
E 2= (
2
a y) = a y =270 π a y
and
2 ε0 10−9
2.
36 π
ρL
E3 = a
2 πε 0 ρ ρ

where a ρ is a unit vector along LP perpendicular to the line charge

and p is the length LP to be determined from Figure 2.7

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(b). Figure 2.7(b) results from Figure 2.7(a)
if we consider plane y = 1 on which E3 lies.
From Figure 2.7(b), the distance vector from L to P is
R=−3 a z +a x → ρ=|R|= √ 10 ,
R 1 3
a ρ= = ax − az
|R| √ 10 √ 10
Hence,
−9
10 π .10 1
E3 = −9
. ( a x −3 a z ) =18 π ( ax −3 az )
10 10
2π .
36 π
Thus, by adding E1, E2 and E3 we obtain the total field as
E=−162 π a x +270 π a y −54 π a z V /m

Figure 2.7 For Example 2:

(a) three charge distributions;
(b) finding ρ and a ρ on plane y = 1.

2.3 Electric Flux Density(D)

 While E is dependent on the medium in which the charge is placed, D is
independent of the medium and is defined by
D=ε 0 E
 We define electric flux Ψ in terms of D using
Ψ =∬ D . d S

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  Since one line of electric flux emanates from +1 C and terminates on - 1
C, then Ψ is measured in coulombs(C). Hence, the vector field D is called
the electric flux density and is measured in coulombs per square meter
(C/m2).
 All the formulas derived for E from Coulomb's law can be used in
calculating D, except that we have to multiply those formulas byε 0 .
Thus,

{
ρL
a (infinite line charge)
2 πρ ρ
ρS
D= a (infinite surface charge)
2 ε0 n
Q
ar (volume∨ point charge)
4 π r2

Example:
Determine D at (4, 0, 3) if there is a point charge −5 πmC at (4, 0, 0) and a line
charge 3 πmC /m along the y-axis.
Solution:
Let D=D L + D Q where D L∧D Q are flux densities due to the line charge and point
charge, respectively,

Figure 2.8 Flux density D due to a point charge and an infinite line charge
'
Q Q(r −r )
DQ =ε 0 E= a=
2 r 3
4π r 4 π |r−r '|
Where r −r ' =( 4 , 0 ,3 )−( 4 , 0 ,0 )=( 0 , 0 , 3 ) . Hence,
−3
−5 π .10 (0 , 0 , 3)
DQ = 3
=−0.138 a z m C /m2
4 π |(0 , 0 , 3)|
Also
ρL
D L= a
2 πρ ρ
( 4 , 0 , 3 )−(0 , 0 , 0) (4 ,0 , 3)
In this case a ρ= ( = ∧ρ=|( 4 , 0 , 3 )−(0 , 0 , 0)|=5
| 4 , 0 , 3 )−(0 , 0 , 0)| 5

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Hence,
3π 2
D L= ( 4 a x +3 a z ) =0.24 ax +0.18 a z mC /m
2 π ( 25 )
Thus,
2
D=D L + D Q=240 a x +42 a z μC /m

2.4 Gauss's Law—Maxwell's Equation

Gauss's law states that

 Ψ through any closed surface is equal to the total charge enclosed by that
surface. i.e
Ψ =Qenc

since Ψ =∮ d Ψ =∯ D . d S∧Qenc =∭ ρv dv
Thus,
Qenc =∯ D . d S=∭ ρ v dv … … … (x)

By applying divergence theorem to the middle term

∯ D. d S=∭ (∇ . D)dv … … … .( xx)

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 Comparing right sides of equations (x ) and (xx ), we obtain
st '
ρ v =∇ . D(1 Maxwel l s equation)

i.e the volume charge density is the same as the divergence of D.

 Gauss's law is an alternative statement of Coulomb's law;
 Gauss's law provides an easy means of finding E or D for symmetrical
charge distributions such as
 a point charge,
 an infinite line charge,
 an infinite cylindrical surface charge, and
 a spherical distribution of charge
 A continuous charge distribution has
 rectangular symmetry if it depends only on x (or y or z),
 cylindrical symmetry if it depends only on ρ , or
 spherical symmetry if it depends only on r (independent of θ
and ∅ ).
 Whether the charge distribution is symmetric or not, Gauss's law always
holds.

Example
Consider the charge distribution in Figure 2.9 where v 1 and v2 are closed
surfaces (or volumes). The total flux leaving v1 is 10 n C−5 n C=5 nC because
only 10 n C and −5 n C charges are enclosed by v1.

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 Since charges 20 n C and 15 n C outside v1 do not contribute to the flux crossing
v1; the net flux crossing v1, according to Gauss's law, is irrespective of those
charges outside v1. Similarly, the total flux leaving v2 is zero because no charge
is enclosed by v2.
Thus, we see that Gauss's law,Ψ =Qenc is still obeyed even though the charge
distribution is not symmetric. However, we cannot use the law to determine E
or D when the charge distribution is not symmetric; we must use Coulomb's
law to determine E or D in that case.

Figure 2.9: Illustration of Gauss's law;

flux leaving v 1 is 5 n C and that of leaving v2 is 0

2.4.1 Applications Of Gauss's Law

The procedure for applying Gauss's law to calculate E and D involves
⤿ First know whether symmetry exists.
⤿ Once symmetric charge distribution exists, construct a mathematical
closed surface (known as a Gaussian surface). The surface is chosen
such that D is normal or tangential to the Gaussian surface.
⤿ When D is normal to the surface, D . d S=DdS since D is constant on
the surface. When D is tangential to the surface, D . d S=0.
⤿ Thus, we must choose a surface that has some of the symmetry
exhibited by the charge distribution. Let us see the ideas to the
following cases.

( i ) Point Charge
Suppose a point charge Q is located at the origin. To determine D at a point P,
choosing a spherical surface containing P will satisfy symmetry conditions.
Thus, a spherical surface centered at the origin is the Gaussian surface in this
case and is shown in Figure 2.10, below.

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 Figure 2.10: Gaussian surface about a point charge
Since D is everywhere normal to the Gaussian surface, that is, D=D r ar D.
If we applying Gauss's law (Ψ =Qenc ) we get (to know Dr )
Ψ =Qenc =∯ D . d S=Dr∯ dS=Dr 4 π r
2

2π π

Where ∯ dS= ∫ ∫ r 2 sinθdθd ∅ =4 π r 2 is the surface area of the Gaussian

∅=0 θ =0
surface
(area of sphere of radius r).
Thus,
Qenc Qenc
Dr = 2
⟹ D= 2
a r (equal with that of page 11 for point)
4πr 4πr

( ii ) Infinite LineCharge
Suppose the infinite line of uniform charge ρ L C /m lies along the z-axis. To
determine D at
a point P, we choose a cylindrical surface containing P to satisfy symmetry
condition as shown in Figure 2.11.
D is constant on and normal to the cylindrical Gaussian surface; that is, D=D ρ a ρ.
If we apply Gauss's law to an arbitrary length l of the line (to know D ρ)

ρ L l=Q=∯ D .d S=D ρ∯ dS=D ρ 2 πρl

Where ∯ dS=2 πρ l is the surface area of the Gaussian surface (area of cylinder
whose radius is ρ and height l ).
Note that∬ D .d S=0 on the top and bottom surfaces of the cylinder since D has
no z-component; that means that D is tangential to those surfaces.
Thus,
ρL ρL
D ρ= ⟹ D=D ρ a ρ= a ( equal withthat of page 11for line)
2 πρ 2 πρ ρ

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 Figure 2.11 Gaussian surface about an infinite line charge
( iii ) Infinite surface Charge
Consider the infinite sheet of uniform charge ρ S C /m2 lying on the z = 0 plane.
To determine D at point P, we choose a rectangular box that is cut symmetrically
by the sheet
of charge and has two of its faces parallel to the sheet as shown in Figure 2.12
below.
As D is normal to the sheet, D=D z a z, and applying Gauss's law gives (to know D z).

[ ]
❑ ❑
ρ S∬ dS=Q=∯ D. d S=D z ∬ dS+ ∬ dS
top bottom

∬ D .d S=0 on the sides of the box since D has no components along ax and ay.
If the top and bottom area of the box each has area A, the above equation
becomes
ρS
ρ S A=D z ( A+ A ) ⟹ D z=
2
Thus,
ρS
D=D z a z= a ¿
2 z

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 Figure 2.12: Gaussian surface about an infinite line sheet of charge.

( iv ) Uniformly Charged Sphere

Consider a sphere of radius a with a uniform charge, ρ v C /m3 .
To determine D everywhere, we construct Gaussian surfaces for cases
r ≤ a∧r ≥ a separately. Since the charge has spherical symmetry, it is obvious
that a spherical surface is an appropriate Gaussian surface.

Figure2.13: Gaussian surface for a uniformly charged sphere

( a ) r ≤ a and (b)r ≥ a

⤿ For 0< r ≤ a , the total charge enclosed by the spherical surface of radius r, as
shown in Figure 2.13 (a), is
2π π r
4 3
Qenc =∭ ρ v dv =ρv ∭ dv=ρ v ∫ d ∅ ∫ sinθdθ ∫ r dr=ρ v
2
πr
∅ =0 θ=0 r =0 3
2π π

And Ψ =∯ D . d S=Dr∯ dS=Dr ∫ d ∅ ∫ r 2 sinθdθ=Dr 4 π r 2

∅ =0 θ=0

Hence, Ψ =Qenc gives

2 4 3 r r
Dr 4 π r =ρv π r ⟹ D r= ρ v ∨D= ρv ar
3 3 3

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 ⤿ Forr ≥ a, the Gaussian surface is shown in Figure 2.13 (b). The charge
enclosed by the surface is the entire charge in this case, that is,
2π π a
4 3
Q enc =∭ ρ v dv =ρv ∭ dv=ρ v ∫ d ∅ ∫ sinθdθ ∫ r dr=ρ v
2
πa
∅ =0 θ=0 r =0 3

While Ψ =∯ D . d S=D r∯ dS=D r 4 π r

2

Hence, Ψ =Qenc gives

3 3
2 4 3 a a
Dr 4 π r =ρv π a ⟹ Dr = 2 ρ v ∨D= 2 ρ v a r
3 3r 3r

In summary,

{
r
ρ a , 0<r ≤ a
3 v r
D= 3
a
ρ a ,r ≥a
2 v r
3r

Graphically,

Figure 2.14: Sketch of |D| against r for a uniformly charged sphere.

⤿ In all cases from (i) to (iv), the ability to take D out of the integral sign is
the key to finding D using Gauss's law. i.e, D must be constant on the
Gaussian surface.

Example1:
Given that D=zρ cos 2 ∅ a z C /m2, calculate the charge density at (1 , π /4 , 3) and the
total
charge enclosed by the cylinder of radius 1 m with −2 ≤ z ≤ 2m .

Solution:

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 ∂ Dz 2
ρ v =∇ . D= =ρ cos ∅
∂z
2 π C
()
at (1 , π /4 , 3), ρ v =1.cos 4 =0.5 3 . The total charge enclosed by the cylinder can
m
be found in two ways:
Method 1: This method is based directly on the definition of the total volume
charge.

Q=∭ ρ v dv=∭ ρ cos ∅ ρdρd ∅ dz

2

1 2π 2
¿ ∫ ρ dρ ∫ cos ∅ d ∅
ρ=0
2

∅=0
2
∫
z=−2
dz = ( 13 ) ( π ) ( 4 )= 43π C
Method 2: Alternatively, we can use Gauss's law.
Q=Ψ =∯ D . d S=¿
Where Ψ s , Ψ t ,Ψ b are the flux through the sides, the top surface, and the bottom
surface of the cylinder, respectively.
⤿ Since D does not have component along a ρ, then Ψ s=0
⤿ For Ψ t , d S= ρdρd ∅ a z so
2π 1 2π 1
Ψ t= ∫ ∫ zρ 2
cos ∅ dρd ∅ ¿@ z=2=2 ∫ cos ∅ d ∅
2 2
∫ ρ 2 dρ=2 ( π ) ( 13 )= 23π C
∅ =0 ρ=0 ∅=0 ρ=0

⤿ For Ψ b , d S=− ρdρd ∅ a z , so

2π 1 2π 1

⤿ Ψ b =− ∫ ∫ zρ 2
cos ∅ dρd ∅ ¿@ z =−2=2 ∫ cos ∅ d ∅
2 2
∫ ρ 2 dρ=2 ( π ) ( 13 )= 23π C
∅=0 ρ=0 ∅=0 ρ=0
2π 2π 4π
Thus, Q=Ψ =0+ 3 C+ 3 C= 3

2.5 Electric Potential(V)

Just like gravity—the potential (possibility) of falling to earth,

charges have the potential to move toward or away from each
other

Page | 23
 • Force of attraction/repulsion causes the potential
• Potential is energy divided by charge—since charge is usually
small, potential can be relatively large—5000 volts on a charged
balloon
• A larger amount of charge makes larger potential

So far, we have seen as E due to a charge distribution can be obtained

 from Coulomb's law in general or
 from Gauss's law when the charge distribution is symmetric.
 Another way of obtaining E is from the electric scalar potential V to be
defined in this section.

Suppose we wish to move a point charge Q from point A to point B in an

electric field E as shown in Figure 2.15. From Coulomb's law,
 the force on Q is F = QE so that the work done in displacing the charge by
dl is
dW =−F . d l=−Q E . d l
 The negative sign indicates that the work is being done by an external
agent.
 Thus, the total work done, or the potential energy required, in moving Q
from A to B is
B
W =−Q∫ E .d l
A
W
 gives the potential energy per unit charge. This quantity, denoted by
Q
V AB, is known as the potential difference between points A and B. Thus,
B
W
V AB= =−∫ E . d l
Q A

Page | 24
 Figure2.15: Displacement of point charge Q in an electrostatic field E.

 In V AB, A is the initial point while B is the final point.

 If V AB is negative, there is a loss in potential energy in moving Q from A to B;
this implies that the work is being done by the field.
 If V AB is positive, there is a gain in potential energy in the movement; an
external agent performs the work.
 AB is independent of the path taken (conservative/solenoidal vector)
V
 V AB is measured in joules per coulomb, commonly referred to as volts (V).

Example: Find V AB due to a point charge Q located at the origin.

Solution: From page 3,we have seen that E due to a point charge is given by

[ ] or
rB
Q Q Q 1 1
E= a ⟹ V AB =−∫
2 r
a . dr a r=
2 r
−
4 π ε0 r r 4 π ε0 r
A
4 π ε0 rB r A
V AB=V B−V A

NB:
 V B and V A are absolute potentials at B and A, respectively.
 Thus, the potential difference V AB is regarded as the potential at B with
reference to A.
 In problems involving point charges, infinity is taken as reference; that is,
we assume the potential at infinity is zero. Thus, if V A =0(r A ⟶ ∞), then the
potential at any point (r B ⟶ r ) due to a point charge Q located at the origin
is
Q
V=
4 π ε0 r
 The potential at any point is the potential difference between that point and
a chosen point in which the potential is zero. i.e

Page | 25
 By assuming zero potential at infinity, the potential at a distance r from
the point charge is the work done per unit charge by an external agent in
transferring a test charge from infinity to that point. Thus,
r
Q
V =−∫ E .d l=
∞ 4 π ε 0r
 If the point charge Q is not located at the origin but at a point whose
position vector is r', the potential V(x, y, z) or simply V(r) at r becomes
Q
V (r )=
4 π ε 0|r−r '|
 So far, we have considered the electric potential due to a point charge. The
same basic ideas apply to other types of charge distribution because any
charge distribution can be regarded as consisting of point charges.
 The superposition principle, which we applied to electric fields, applies to
potentials.
 For N charges Q1, Q2,…, QN located at points with position vectors r1, r2,…, rN,
the potential at point r is
Q1 Q2 QN
V (r )= +
4 π ε 0|r−r 1| 4 π ε 0|r −r 2|
+ …+
4 π ε 0|r −r N|
or
N
1 Qk
V (r )= ∑
4 π ε 0 k=1 |r−r k| (point charges)

 For continuous charge distributions,

 replace Qk with charge element ρ L dl , ρS dS∨ρ v dv
 replace the summation with an integration,
 so the potential at r becomes
❑ ' '
1 ρL (r )dl
V ( r )= ∫
4 π ε 0 L |r−r '|
(line charge)

❑ ' '
1 ρS (r ) dS
V ( r )= ∬
4 π ε 0 S |r−r '|
(surface charge)

❑ ' '
1 ρ v (r )dv
V ( r )= ∭
4 π ε 0 v |r−r '|
(volume charge)

NB:
⤿ The primed coordinates are used to denote source point location and the
unprimed coordinates refer to field point (the point at which V is to be
determined).
⤿ The zero potential (reference) point has been chosen arbitrarily to be at
infinity. If any other point is chosen as reference, the equation becomes

Page | 26
 Q
V= +C
4 π ε0 r

where C is a constant that is determined at the chosen point of

reference.
⤿ The potential at a point can be determined in two ways depending on
whether the charge distribution or E is known. If the charge distribution is
known, we use the above equations depending on the charge distribution.
If E is known, we simply use
V =−∫ E .d l +C
⤿ The potential difference V AB can be found generally from
B
W
V AB=V B−V A=−∫ E . d l=
A Q
Example1: Two point charges - 4 uC and 5uC are located at (2, - 1 , 3) and (0,
4, - 2 ) ,
respectively. Find the potential at (1, 0, 1) assuming zero potential at infinity.

Example2: A point charge 5 nC is located at (-3 , 4, 0) while line y = 1, z = 1

carries uniform charge 2 nC/m.
(a) If V = 0 Volt at O(0, 0, 0), find V at A(5, 0, 1).
(b) If V = 100 Volt at B(1, 2, 1), find V at C(-2, 5, 3).
(c) If V = - 5 Volt at O, find VBC.
Solution: Let the potential at any point be
V = VQ + VL
where VQ and VL are the contributions to V at that point due to the point
charge and the
line charge, respectively.
For the point charge,

Page | 27
where
 C = C1 + C2 = constant,
 ρ is the perpendicular distance from the line y = 1, z = 1 to the field
point, and
 r is the distance from the point charge to the field point.
(a). If V = 0 Volt at O(0, 0, 0), and V at A(5, 0, 1) is to be determined, we must
first determine the values of ρ and r at O and A.
To find ρ for any point (x, y, z), we utilize the fact that ρ is the perpendicular
distance from
(x, y, z) to line y = 1, z = 1, which is parallel to the x-axis. Hence p is the
distance between (x, y, z) and (x, 1, 1) because the distance vector between
the two points is perpendicular to ax. Thus,

(b) If V = 100 at 5(1, 2, 1) and V at C(-2, 5, 3) is to be determined, we find

Page | 28
(c) To find the potential difference between two points, we do not need a
potential reference if a common reference is assumed.
VBC= Vc - VB = 49.825 - 100= -50.175 V as obtained in part (b).

2.6 Relationship Between E And V (Maxwell's Equation)

As shown in the previous section, the potential difference between points A
and B is independent of the path taken. Hence,

V BA=−V AB ⟹ V BA +V AB =∮ E .d l=0 ⟹ ∮ E . d l=0

This shows that

 The line integral of E along a closed path as shown in Figure 2.16 must
be zero.
 No net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an
electrostatic field.
 Applying Stokes's theorem to the above equation gives

∮ E . d l=∬ (∇ ¿ x E). d S=0 ⟹ ∇ x E=0 ¿

 Any vector field whose curl is zero as such is said to be conservative, or
irrotational.
 Thus, an electrostatic field is a conservative field. The Equation is
referred to as Maxwell's equation.
 In short,
E=−∇ V
 That is, the electric field intensity is the gradient of V.
 The negative sign shows that the direction of E is opposite to the
direction in which V increases; E is directed from higher to lower levels
of V.

Page | 29
 Figure 2.16 Conservative nature of an electrostatic field.

Example:
10
Given the potential V = 2
sinθcos ∅
r
(a). Find the electric flux density D at (2 , π /2, 0).
(b). Find the work done in moving a 10 μ C charge from point A(l, 30°, 120°) to
B(4, 90°, 60°).
Solution:
(a). D=ε 0 E but
E=−∇ V =−
[
∂V
∂r
ar+
1 ∂V
r ∂θ
aθ +
1 ∂V
a
rsinθ ∂ ∅ ∅ ]
20 10 10
¿ 3 sinθcos ∅ a r− 3 cosθcos ∅ aθ + 3 sin ∅ a ∅
r r r
@(2 , π /2 , 0),
D=ε 0 E=ε 0
20
8 ( ) C
ar−0 aθ +0 a ∅ =2.5 ε 0 a r 2
m
(b). The work done can be found in two ways, using either E or V.
Method 1:
B B
W
W =−Q∫ E .d l∨ =−∫ E . d l
A Q A

and because the electrostatic field is conservative, the path of integration is

immaterial. Hence, the work done in moving Q from A(l, 30°, 120°) to B(4, 90°,
60°) is the same as that in moving Q from A to A', from A' to B', and from B' to B
where

That is, instead of moving Q directly from A and B, it is moved from

' ' '
A→ A , A →B ,B' →B

Page | 30
so that only one variable is changed at a time. This makes the line integral a lot
easier to evaluate. Thus,

Method 2:
Since V is known, this method is a lot easier.
B
W =−Q∫ E .d l=Q V AB=Q(V B−V A )
A

¿ 10 ( 1016 sin 90 cos 60 − 101 sin 30 cos 120 ). 10

0 0 0 0 −6
=28.125 μJ

2.7 An Electric Dipole And Flux Lines

An electric dipole is formed when two point charges of equal magnitude but
opposite sign are separated by a small distance.
An electric flux line (electric lines of force) is
 An imaginary path or line drawn whose direction at any point is the
direction of the electric field at that point. Or
 They are the lines to which the electric field density D is tangential at
every point.
An equipotential surface
⤿ Is any surface on which the potential is the same throughout.

Page | 31
 ⤿ Its intersection with a plane results in a path or line known as an
equipotential line. No work is done in moving a charge from one point
to another along an equipotential line or surface (VA - VB = 0) and hence,
on the line or surface,
∫ E . d l=0
⤿ Thus, the lines of force or flux lines (or the direction of E) are always
normal to equipotential surfaces. Examples of equipotential surfaces for
point charge and a dipole are shown in Figure 2.17 below.

Figure2.17: Equipotential surfaces for

(a) a point charge and (b) an electric dipole.

2.8 Energy Density In Electrostatic Fields

To determine the energy present in an assembly of charges, we must first
determine the
amount of work necessary to assemble them.
 Suppose we wish to position three point charges Q1, Q2, and Q3 in an
initially empty space shown shaded in Figure 2.18 below.
 No work is required to transfer Q1 from infinity to P1 since the space is
initially charge free and there is no electric field [thus, W = 0].
 The work done in transferring Q2 from infinity to P2 is equal to the product
of Q2 and the potential V21 a t P2 due to Q1.
 Similarly, the work done in positioning Q3 at P3 is equal to Q3 (V32 + V31),
where V32 and V31 are the potentials at P3 due to Q2 and Q= respectively.
 Hence ,the total work done in positioning the three charges is

Page | 32
 Figure2.18: Assembling of charges

If, instead of point charges, the region has a continuous charge distribution,
the summation becomes integration; that is,

Page | 33
By applying divergence theorem to the first term on the right-hand side of this
equation,
we have we recall that V varies as 1/r and D as 1/r2 for point charges; V varies
as 1/r2 and
D as 1/r3 for dipoles; and so on. Hence, VD in the first term on the right-hand
side of must
vary at least as 1/r3 while dS varies as r2. Consequently, the first integral must
tend to zero
as the surface S becomes large. Hence, reduces to

Example: Three point charges - 1 nC, 4 nC, and 3 nC are located at (0, 0, 0), (0,
0, 1), and (1, 0, 0), respectively. Find the energy in the system

Page | 34
 2.9 Electric Fields In Material Space
2.9.1 Convection And Conduction Currents
Material classification
 Under normal condition atom is electrically neutral and outermost
electron and nucleus tied by covalent bond.
 Electric field breaks this bond and electrons become free and produce
conduction current
 Based on conductivity , materials are classified into three as:
 Conductor: weak bond ,high conductivity, large no free
electrons
 Semiconductor: moderate bond & free electrons , mid-range
conductivity
 Insulator: strong bond, low conductivity, small no free
electrons
 consider current flowing in a cylindrical conducting wire(length=l,
conductivity =σ and area= A)

Page | 35
 The total current flowing through a surface S is
❑ ❑ ❑
I =∬ J . d S=∬ J . ds an=∬ J n ds( A)
S S S

 For the special case when the current density is uniform over the
surface S
❑
I =∬ J n ds=J n A
S

 The voltage b/n the ends of the wire can be expressed as

 The voltage and the uniform electric field may be written as

 Uniform current density can be expressed as

 The power density in the conductor given by

 The total power dissipated in the conductor is

⤿ Depending on how I is produced, there are different kinds of current

densities (J); convection current density, conduction current density,
and displacement current density
(i)Convection current
 Occurs when current flows through an insulating medium
(dielectric) such as liquid, rarefied gas, or a vacuum.
 With charge density ρ v & charge velocity u, it is given by
J= ρv u
 When an electric field is applied to dielectric materials the charge
in the atom will be polarized as shown in fig below

Page | 36
Page | 37
  The dielectric material after polarized modeled as Equivalent
electric dipole
 The polarization within the dielectric produces an additional
electric flux density component which is included in the electric
flux density Equation as Vector polarization P

 With polarization P, electric susceptibility χ e , permittivity of the

dielectric ε
D=ε o E+ P or D=ε E=ε r ε 0 E
ε
P= χ e ε 0 E , ε r=1+ χ e=
ε0
 A dielectric material (in which D=ε E applies) is linear if ε does
not change with the applied E field, homogeneous if ε does not
change from point to point, and isolropic if ε does not change with
direction.
(ii) Conduction current
⤿ Requires a conductor. With conductivity σ & field strength EJ=σ E

Page | 38
 ⤿ A conducting material (in which J=σ E applies) is linear if σ does not
change with the applied E field, homogeneous if σ does not change from
point to point, and isolropic if σ does not change with direction
⤿ A perfect conductor cannot contain an electrostatic field within it. Under static
conditions,

⤿ The continuity of current equation (from which KCL is derived) is

given by
−∂ ρv
∇ .J=
∂t
(iii)Displacement Current
 is a result of time-varying electric field.
 ∇ x H= { J (static EM field )
J + J d (time varying EM field ) where

∂D
Jd=
∂t
2.10 Electrostatic Boundary Conditions
 If the field exists in a region consisting of two different media, the
conditions that the field must satisfy at the interface separating the media
are called boundary conditions.
 The boundary condition in electric field relates
 Tangential components of electric field
 Normal components of electric field
 Thus, we need to use Maxwell's equations:
❑ ❑

∮ E . d l=0 and ∯ D. d S=Q enc

L S

Tangential Electric Field

Page | 39
 The closed line integral of the electric field Yields a result of zero. i.e
❑

∮ E . d l=0
L

 If we take the limit of this integral as Δy=0, The integrals on the vertical
paths vanish, leaving

 The electric field is assumed constant over the paths of length Δx yielding

Et 1=Et 2
 In other words, the tangential components of electric field are
continuous across a media interface
Normal electric Flux Density
 In order to determine the boundary condition on the normal electric flux
❑

density, we apply Gauss’s Law ∯ D. d S=Q enc

S

 If we take the limit as the height of the volume Δz shrinks to zero , we

have

Page | 40
 Assuming electric flux density constant the upper and lower surface
integrals reduce to

 Evaluating the integral and rearranging we have,

That is, the difference in the normal component of the electric flux density
across the media interface is equal to the charge density on the
surface
 If the fields make an angle θ with the normal to the interface, combining
the two equations, we get law of refraction for electric flux lines
tanθ1 ε 1
=
tanθ2 ε 2
Example: Determine E and D everywhere for the charge-free boundary
shown below
Given

Page | 41
Dividing the first equation by the second gives

The electric field and electric flux density boundary conditions on the charge-
free boundary are

Capacitors and Capacitance

When a voltage is applied to the capacitor, charge will be stored in the
capacitor

The capacitance of the capacitor is given by

Characteristics of ideal parallel plate capacitor

Page | 42
 Q
 Surface charge density is uniform (Qs =± A ). The electric field is uniform
the electric field outside the volume between the plates is zero.

 Uniform electric field means uniform flux density (D) given by

 Hence, the capacitance of an ideal parallel plate capacitor is given by

Cylindrical and spherical type of capacitors

 Similar to parallel plate capacitor the fringing effect will be assumed to be
zero

 The capacitance of Cylindrical the capacitor is given by

 The electric field in the ideal spherical capacitor is radially-directed , the

capacitance of Spherical capacitor is given by

Page | 43
 Resistance, capacitance and Relaxation Time
If the medium between the conductors of a capacitor is not a perfect
insulator, there is a
finite resistance between the conductors . The finite resistance between the
conductors is
given by

 The product of resistance and capacitance is called relaxation time (T r )

 Hence, the resistance of a Ideal Coaxial capacitor & Ideal spherical

capacitor are given respectively as follows

Energy in terms of the Electric field

 The total energy stored in an electric field is determined by integrating the
energy density (WE ) where

 And the total energy is W

 Electrostatic Boundary value Problems :

' 2 −ρv
Poisso n s equation :∇ =
ε

Page | 44
 ' 2
Laplac e s equation :∇ =0

Page | 45