CHAPTER 3

Hardware
Types of memory and storage
Computers require some form of memory and storage.
Memory is usually referred to as the internal devices which the computer can
access directly. This memory can be the user’s workspace, temporary data or
data that is key to running the computer.

Internal memory includes components such as registers (which are part of the
processor). There is also memory cache (which is external to the processor);
this is used to store data which the processor will probably need to use again.

Primary memory
Primary memory is the part of computer memory which can be accessed directly
from the CPU and, as Figure 3.2 shows, contains the random access memory
(RAM) and read-only memory (ROM) memory chips. Primary memory allows
the processor to access applications and services temporarily stored in memory
locations.

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RAM
All computer systems come with some form of RAM. These memory devices
are not really random, it refers to the fact that any memory location can be
accessed independent of which memory location was last used. Access time to
locate data is much faster in RAM than in secondary devices. RAM can also be

» written to or read from, and the data stored can be changed by the user or
by the computer
» used to store data, files, part of an application or part of the operating
system currently in use
» volatile (memory contents are lost on powering off the computer).

In general, the larger the RAM, the faster the computer will operate. In reality,
RAM never runs out of memory, it continues to operate but just becomes slower and slower as more
data is stored.
There are currently two types of RAM technology,

 Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

 Static RAM (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Each DRAM chip consists of a number of transistors and capacitors. Each of
these parts is tiny since a single RAM chip will contain millions of capacitors
and transistors.
» Capacitors hold the bits of information (0 or 1).
» Transistors act like switches; they allow the chip control circuitry to read the
capacitor or change the capacitor’s value.
This type of RAM needs to be constantly refreshed (that is, the capacitor
needs to be re-charged every 15 microseconds otherwise it would lose its
value). If it is not refreshed, the capacitor’s charge will leak away very quickly,
leaving every capacitor with the value 0.

Static RAM (SRAM)

A major difference between SRAM and DRAM is that SRAM does not need to be
constantly refreshed.
It makes use of flip flops (see Chapter 15) which hold each bit of memory.
SRAM is much faster than DRAM when it comes to data access
DRAM is the most common type of RAM used in computers, but where absolute
speed is essential, for example in the processor’s memory cache, SRAM is the
preferred technology. Memory cache is a high speed portion of the memory.
It is effective because most programs access the same data or instructions
many times.
DRAMs have a number of advantages over SRAMs. They:
» are much less expensive to manufacture than SRAMs
» consume less power than SRAMs
» have a higher memory capacity than SRAMs.

PROM and EPROM

A programmable read-only memory (PROM) is a type of ROM chip that
can be altered once. A PROM is made up of a matrix of fuses. Programming
a PROM requires the use of a PROM writer which uses an electric current to
alter specific cells by ‘burning’ fuses in the matrix. Due to the method of
programming (writing), a PROM can only be written to once. They are often
used in mobile phones and in RFID tags.

An erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) is different to a PROM

because they use floating gate transistors and capacitors rather than fuses.
Ultra violet (UV) light is used to program an EPROM through a quartz window.
They are used in applications which are under development, such as the
programming of new games consoles.
Embedded systems
Embedded systems involve installing microprocessors into devices to enable
operations to be controlled in a more efficient way. Devices such as cookers,
refrigerators and central heating systems can now all be activated by a web-
enabled device (such as a mobile phone or tablet). The time a central
heating system switches on or off and the temperature can all be set from an
app on a mobile phone from anywhere in the world.

Secondary storage devices

Secondary storage includes storage devices that are not directly accessible by
the CPU. They are non-volatile devices which allow data to be stored as long as
required by the user.

Hard disk drives (HDD)

Hard disk drives (HDD) are still one of the most common methods used to
store data on a computer.
Data is stored in a digital format on the magnetic surfaces of the disks
(or platters, as they are frequently called). The hard disk drive will have a
number of platters which can spin at about 7000 times a second. A number
of read-write heads can access all of the surfaces in the disk drive. Normally
each platter will have two surfaces which can be used to store the data.

A sector on a given track will contain a fixed number of bytes.

Unfortunately, hard disk drives have very slow data access when compared
to, for example, RAM. Many applications require the read-write heads to
constantly seek for the correct blocks of data; this means a large number of
head movements.

Removable hard disk drives are essentially HDDs that are external to the
computer and can be connected to the computer using one of the USB ports. In
this way, they can be used as back-up devices or as another way of transferring
files between computers.

Solid state drives (SSD)

Latency is an issue in HDDs, as discussed earlier. Solid state drives (SSD)
reduce this issue considerably. They have no moving parts and all data is
retrieved at the same rate. They do not rely on magnetic properties. The most
common type of solid state storage devices store data by controlling the
movement of electrons within NAND chips

the main benefits of using an SSD rather than an HDD?

Solid state drives
» are more reliable (no moving parts to go wrong)
» are considerably lighter (which makes them suitable for laptops)
» do not have to ‘get up to speed’ before they work properly
» have a lower power consumption
» run much cooler than HDDs (both these points again make them very
suitable for laptop computers)
» are very thin (because they have no moving parts)
» access data considerably faster.

The main drawback of SSD

is the still unknown longevity of the technology.
Most solid state storage devices are conservatively rated at only 20 GB write
operations per day over a three year period – this is known as SSD endurance.

Optical media: CDs, DVDs and Blu-ray discs

CDs and DVDS are described as optical storage devices. Laser light is used to
read data from, and write data onto, the surface of a disk.
Both CDs and DVDs use a thin layer of metal alloy or light-sensitive organic
dye to store the data. As shown in Figure 3.7, both systems use a single, spiral
track which runs from the centre of the disk to the edge. When a disk spins, the
optical head moves to the point where the laser beam ‘contacts’ the disk surface
and follows the spiral track from the centre outwards. As with an HDD, a CD/DVD
is divided into sectors allowing direct access of data.
DVD
The data is stored in ‘pits’ and ‘bumps’ on the spiral track. A red laser is used to
read and write the data. CDs and DVDs can be designated R (write once only) or
RW (can be written to or read from many times).
DVD technology is slightly different to that used in CDs. One of the main
differences is the use of dual layering which considerably increases the
storage capacity. This means that there are two individual recording
layers. Two layers of a standard DVD are joined together with a transparent
(polycarbonate) spacer, and a very thin reflector is sandwiched between the
two layers.

USES
All these optical storage media are used as back-up systems (for photos,
music and multimedia files). This also means that CDs and DVDs can be used
to transfer files between computers. Manufacturers sometimes supply their
software (such as printer drivers) on CDs and DVDs

Input and output devices

This section will consider laser printers, inkjet printers, 3D printers, speakers,
microphones, screens and sensors.
Laser printers

Laser printers use dry powder ink rather than liquid ink and make use of the
properties of static electricity to produce the text and images. Unlike inkjet
printers, for example, laser printers print the whole page in one go. Colour laser
printers use four toner cartridges – blue, cyan, magenta and black. Although
the actual technology is different to monochrome printers, the printing method
is similar, but colour dots are used to build up the text and images.

Inkjet printers
Inkjet printers are made up of
» a print head consisting of nozzles that spray droplets of ink onto the paper
to form characters
» an ink cartridge or cartridges; either one cartridge for each colour (blue,
yellow and magenta) and a black cartridge, or one single cartridge
containing all three colours and black (note: some systems use six colours)
» a stepper motor and belt which moves the print head assembly across the
page from side to side
» a paper feed which automatically feeds the printer with pages as they are
required.
The ink droplets are currently produced using one of two technologies: thermal
bubble or piezoelectric.
Thermal bubble – tiny resistors create localised heat which makes the ink
vaporise. This causes the ink to form a tiny bubble, as the bubble expands
some of the ink is ejected from the print head onto the paper. When the
bubble collapses, a small vacuum is created which allows fresh ink to
be drawn into the print head. This continues until the printing cycle is
completed.
Piezoelectric – a crystal is located at the back of the ink reservoir for each
nozzle. The crystal is given a tiny electric charge which makes it vibrate. This
vibration forces ink to be ejected onto the paper and at the same time more ink
is drawn in for further printing

3D printers

3D printers are used to produce working, solid objects. They are primarily based
on inkjet and laser printer technology. The solid object is built up layer by layer
using materials such as powdered resin, powdered metal, paper or ceramic.
The artificial bone framework in Figure 3.12 was made from many layers (100 μm
thick) of powered metal using a technology known as binder 3D printing.
Various types of 3D printers exist; they range from the size of a microwave
oven up to the size of a small car.
3D printers use additive manufacturing (the object is built up layer by layer);
this is in contrast to the more traditional method of subtractive manufacturing
(removal of material to make the object). For example, making a statue using
a 3D printer would involve building it up layer by layer using powdered stone
until the final object was formed.

Direct 3D printing uses inkjet technology; a print head can move left to right
as in a normal printer. However, the print head can also move up and down to
build up the layers of an object.
Binder 3D printing is similar to direct 3D printing. However, this method uses
two passes for each of the layers; the first pass sprays dry powder and then on
the second pass a binder (a type of glue) is sprayed to form a solid layer.
Newer technologies use lasers and UV light to harden liquid polymers; this
further increases the diversity of products which can be made.

Speakers and microphones

Speakers
Digitised sound stored in a file on a computer can be converted into sound as
follows:
» The digital data is first passed through a digital to analogue converter (DAC)
where it is converted into an electric current.
» This is then passed through an amplifier (since the current generated
by the DAC will be small) to create a current large enough to drive a
loudspeaker.
This electric current is then fed to a loudspeaker where it is converted into
sound.

if the sound is stored in a computer file, it must first

pass through a digital to analogue converter (DAC) to convert the digital
data into an electric current which can be used to drive the loudspeaker.
Figure 3.14 shows how a loudspeaker can convert electric signals into sound
waves.

Microphones
Microphones are either built into the computer or are external devices
connected through the USB port or through wireless connectivity.
Figure 3.15 shows how a microphone can convert sound waves into an electric
current. The current produced can either be stored as sound (on, for example, a
CD), amplified and sent to a loudspeaker, or sent to a computer for storage.

The electric current output from the microphone can also be sent to a computer
where a sound card converts the current into a digital signal which can then be
stored in the computer

Screens
Screens are used to show the output from a computer. Modern screens use an LCD,
backlit with LEDs or the newer organic light emitting diode (OLED) technology.

OLEDs use organic materials (made up of carbon compounds) to create flexible

semiconductors. Organic films are sandwiched between two charged electrodes
(one is a metallic cathode and the other a glass anode). When an electric field
is applied to the electrodes, they give off light. This means that no form of
back lighting is required. This allows for very thin screens. It also means that
there is no longer a need to use LCD technology, since OLED is a self-contained
system.

Touch screens (which act as both input and output devices) also make use
of LCD and OLED technology. They are particularly used in mobile phones and
tablets.
We shall now consider LCD capacitive and resistive touch screen technologies.
Capacitive
» Made up of many layers of glass that act like a capacitor creating electric
fields between the glass plates in layers.
» When the top glass layer is touched, the electric current changes and the
coordinates where the screen was touched are determined by an on board
microprocessor.
Benefits
» Medium cost technology.
» Screen visibility is good even in strong sunlight.
» Permits multi-touch capability.
» Screen is very durable; it takes a major impact to break the glass.

Drawbacks
» Only allows use of bare fingers as the form of input; although the latest
screens permit the use of a special stylus to be used.
Resistive
» Makes use of an upper layer of polyester (a form of plastic) and a bottom
layer of glass.
» When the top polyester layer is touched, the top layer and bottom layer
complete a circuit.
» Signals are then sent out, which are interpreted by a microprocessor
and the calculations determine the coordinates of where the screen was
touched.
Benefits
» Relatively inexpensive technology.
» Possible to use bare fingers, gloved fingers or stylus to carry out an input
operation.
Drawbacks
» Screen visibility is poor in strong sunlight.
» Does not permit multi-touch capability.
» Screen durability is only fair; it is vulnerable to scratches and the screen
wears out through time.

Virtual headsets
Virtual reality has now been around for many years and has many applications.
For example, it is possible to ‘walk around’ inside dangerous areas – such as a
nuclear power plant – without actually being there.
It allows engineers to plan modifications or repairs to a plant in complete
safety and to try out different scenarios first before implementing them. One
of the devices used is a virtual reality headset

Sensors
Sensors are input devices which read or measure physical properties, such as
temperature, pressure, acidity, and so on.
Real data is analogue in nature – this means it is constantly changing and
does not have a discrete value. Analogue data usually requires some form of
interpretation, for example, the temperature shown on a mercury thermometer
requires the user to look at the height of the mercury to work out the
temperature. The temperature, therefore, can have an infinite number of values
depending on the precision of how the height of the mercury is measured.

Working of Sensors
When a computer is used to control devices, such as a motor or a valve,
it is often necessary to use a digital to analogue converter (DAC), since
these devices need analogue data to operate in many cases. Frequently,
an actuator is used in these control applications. Although these are
technically output devices, they are mentioned here since they are an
integral part of the control system. An actuator is an electromechanical
device such as a relay, solenoid or motor. Note that a solenoid is an example
of a digital actuator as part of the device is connected to a computer which
opens and closes a circuit as required. When energized, the solenoid may
operate a plunger or armature to control, for example, a fuel injection
system.
Anti-lock braking systems (on cars)
Anti-lock braking systems (ABS) on cars use magnetic field sensors to stop the
wheels locking up on the car if the brakes have been applied too sharply.
» When one of the car wheels rotates too slowly (it is locking up), a magnetic
field sensor sends data to a microprocessor.
» The microprocessor checks the rotation speed of the other three wheels.
» If they are different (rotating faster), the microprocessor sends a signal to
the braking system and the braking pressure to the affected wheel is reduced.
» The wheel’s rotational speed is then increased to match the other wheels.
» The checking of the rotational speed using these magnetic field sensors is
done several times a second and the braking pressure to all the wheels can
be constantly changing to prevent any of the wheels locking up under heavy
braking.
» This is felt as a ‘judder’ on the brake pedal as the braking system is constantly
switched off and on to equalise the rotational speed of all four wheels.
» If one of the wheels is rotating too quickly, braking pressure is increased to
that wheel until it matches the other three.

3.2 Logic gates and logic circuits