UNIT III

Local Area Network Technology: Token Ring. Error detection (Parity, CRC), Ethernet, Fast
Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, Personal Area Network: Bluetooth and Wireless Communications
Standard: Wi-Fi (802.11) and Wi-MAX.

LOCAL AREA NETWORK TECHNOLOGY:

Ethernet

Ethernet is a widely deployed LAN technology. This technology was invented by Bob
Metcalfe and D.R. Boggs in the year 1970. It was standardized in IEEE 802.3 in 1980.

Ethernet shares media. Network which uses shared media has high probability of data
collision. Ethernet uses Carrier Sense Multi Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
technology to detect collisions. On the occurrence of collision in Ethernet, all its hosts roll
back, wait for some random amount of time, and then re-transmit the data.

Ethernet connector is, network interface card equipped with 48-bits MAC address. This helps
other Ethernet devices to identify and communicate with remote devices in Ethernet.

Fast-Ethernet

To encompass need of fast emerging software and hardware technologies, Ethernet extends
itself as Fast-Ethernet. It can run on UTP, Optical Fiber, and wirelessly too. It can provide
speed up to 100 MBPS. This standard is named as 100BASE-T in IEEE 803.2 using Cat-5
twisted pair cable. It uses CSMA/CD technique for wired media sharing among the Ethernet
hosts and CSMA/CA (CA stands for Collision Avoidance) technique for wireless Ethernet
LAN.

Fast Ethernet on fiber is defined under 100BASE-FX standard which provides speed up to
100 MBPS on fiber. Ethernet over fiber can be extended up to 100 meters in half-duplex
mode and can reach maximum of 2000 meters in full-duplex over multimode fibres.

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Giga-Ethernet

After being introduced in 1995, Fast-Ethernet could enjoy its high speed status only for 3
years till Giga-Ethernet introduced. Giga-Ethernet provides speed up to 1000 mbits/seconds.
IEEE802.3ab standardize Giga-Ethernet over UTP using Cat-5, Cat-5e and Cat-6 cables.
IEEE802.3ah defines Giga-Ethernet over Fiber.

Virtual LAN

LAN uses Ethernet which in turn works on shared media. Shared media in Ethernet create
one single Broadcast domain and one single Collision domain. Introduction of switches to
Ethernet has removed single collision domain issue and each device connected to switch
works in its separate collision domain. But even Switches cannot divide a network into
separate Broadcast domains.

Virtual LAN is a solution to divide a single Broadcast domain into multiple Broadcast
domains. Host in one VLAN cannot speak to a host in another. By default, all hosts are
placed into the same VLAN.

In this diagram, different VLANs are depicted in different color codes. Hosts in one VLAN,
even if connected on the same Switch cannot see or speak to other hosts in different VLANs.
VLAN is Layer-2 technology which works closely on Ethernet. To route packets between
two different VLANs a Layer-3 device such as Router is required.

Local Area Network Technology

 Cost efficiency
 Installed base
 Maintainability
 Performance

Cost Efficiency

One of my central assumptions throughout this book is that the network is built for some
business reason. It may not directly involve making money, but there must be some benefit to
having the network that justifies the expense of building it. Clearly, the benefit is never
infinite, so as network designers, we have a responsibility to build a network that meets the
requirements for the lowest possible cost

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Installed Base

Installed base is another facet of cost effectiveness. The chances are slim that you are
building a new network from scratch. In most cases, there is existing equipment, existing
applications, servers, and a cable plant. A significantly cheaper alternative network
technology may be available. If migrating to that means that you have to absorb a high cost in
changing your installed base, then simply staying with the existing technology may be more
cost-effective.

Maintainability

One of the biggest potential hidden costs in a network is maintenance. I have mentioned how
using unmanageable workgroup devices in the Access Level of the network can make it
harder to find problems. I previously mentioned that the design principle of simplicity makes
network maintenance easier. Remember that these are not just annoyance factors for the
engineer who gets stuck with the ultimate responsibility for running the network. There are
costs are associated with these issues.

Performance

And this topic brings us to performance considerations. You always want to build the fastest
and best network you can for the money. Of course, by "best," I mean that the network best
fulfils the business application requirements. A brilliant network with unbelievable
throughput and low latency is useless if it doesn't support the applications for which it was
built.

TOKEN RING:

Token ring (IEEE 802.5) is a communication protocol in a local area network (LAN) where
all stations are connected in a ring topology and pass one or more tokens for channel
acquisition. A token is a special frame of 3 bytes that circulates along the ring of stations. A
station can send data frames only if it holds a token. The tokens are released on successful
receipt of the data frame.

Token Passing Mechanism in Token Ring

If a station has a frame to transmit when it receives a token, it sends the frame and then
passes the token to the next station; otherwise it simply passes the token to the next station.
Passing the token means receiving the token from the preceding station and transmitting to
the successor station. The data flow is unidirectional in the direction of the token passing. In
order that tokens are not circulated infinitely, they are removed from the network once their
purpose is completed.

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ERROR DETECTION (PARITY, CRC):

Error Detection

When data is transmitted from one device to another device, the system does not guarantee
whether the data received by the device is identical to the data transmitted by another device.
An Error is a situation when the message received at the receiver end is not identical to the
message transmitted.

Errors can be classified into two categories:

 Single-Bit Error
 Burst Error

Single-Bit Error:

The only one bit of a given data unit is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

In the above figure, the message which is sent is corrupted as single-bit, i.e., 0 bit is changed
to 1.

Single-Bit Error does not appear more likely in Serial Data Transmission. For example,
Sender sends the data at 10 Mbps, this means that the bit lasts only for 1 ?s and for a single-
bit error to occurred, a noise must be more than 1 ?s.

Single-Bit Error mainly occurs in Parallel Data Transmission. For example, if eight wires are
used to send the eight bits of a byte, if one of the wire is noisy, then single-bit is corrupted per
byte.

Burst Error:
 The two or more bits are changed from 0 to 1 or from 1 to 0 is known as Burst Error.
 The Burst Error is determined from the first corrupted bit to the last corrupted bit.

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  The duration of noise in Burst Error is more than the duration of noise in Single-Bit.
 Burst Errors are most likely to occurr in Serial Data Transmission.
 The number of affected bits depends on the duration of the noise and data rate.
Error Detecting Techniques:

The most popular Error Detecting Techniques are:

 Single parity check

 Two-dimensional parity check
 Checksum
 Cyclic redundancy check

Single Parity Check

 Single Parity checking is the simple mechanism and inexpensive to detect the errors.
 In this technique, a redundant bit is also known as a parity bit which is appended at
the end of the data unit so that the number of 1s becomes even. Therefore, the total
number of transmitted bits would be 9 bits.
 If the number of 1s bits is odd, then parity bit 1 is appended and if the number of 1s
bits is even, then parity bit 0 is appended at the end of the data unit.
 At the receiving end, the parity bit is calculated from the received data bits and
compared with the received parity bit.
 This technique generates the total number of 1s even, so it is known as even-parity
checking.

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Drawbacks Of Single Parity Checking

 It can only detect single-bit errors which are very rare.

 If two bits are interchanged, then it cannot detect the errors.

Two-Dimensional Parity Check

 Performance can be improved by using Two-Dimensional Parity Check which

organizes the data in the form of a table.
 Parity check bits are computed for each row, which is equivalent to the single-parity
check.
 In Two-Dimensional Parity check, a block of bits is divided into rows, and the
redundant row of bits is added to the whole block.
 At the receiving end, the parity bits are compared with the parity bits computed from
the received data.

Drawbacks Of 2D Parity Check

 If two bits in one data unit are corrupted and two bits exactly the same position in
another data unit are also corrupted, then 2D Parity checker will not be able to detect
the error.
 This technique cannot be used to detect the 4-bit errors or more in some cases.

Checksum

A Checksum is an error detection technique based on the concept of redundancy.

It is divided into two parts:

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Checksum Generator

A Checksum is generated at the sending side. Checksum generator subdivides the data into
equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together by using one's
complement arithmetic. The sum is complemented and appended to the original data, known
as checksum field. The extended data is transmitted across the network.

Suppose L is the total sum of the data segments, then the checksum would be ?L

1. The Sender follows the given steps:

2. The block unit is divided into k sections, and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement to get the sum.
4. The sum is complemented and it becomes the checksum field.
5. The original data and checksum field are sent across the network.

Checksum Checker

A Checksum is verified at the receiving side. The receiver subdivides the incoming data into
equal segments of n bits each, and all these segments are added together, and then this sum is
complemented. If the complement of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise data
is rejected.

1. The Receiver follows the given steps:

2. The block unit is divided into k sections and each of n bits.
3. All the k sections are added together by using one's complement algorithm to get the sum
4. The sum is complemented.
5. If the result of the sum is zero, then the data is accepted otherwise the data is discarded.

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

CRC is a redundancy error technique used to determine the error.

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Following are the steps used in CRC for error detection:

 In CRC technique, a string of n 0s is appended to the data unit, and this n number is
less than the number of bits in a predetermined number, known as division which is
n+1 bits.
 Secondly, the newly extended data is divided by a divisor using a process is known as
binary division. The remainder generated from this division is known as CRC
remainder.
 Thirdly, the CRC remainder replaces the appended 0s at the end of the original data.
This newly generated unit is sent to the receiver.
 The receiver receives the data followed by the CRC remainder. The receiver will treat
this whole unit as a single unit, and it is divided by the same divisor that was used to
find the CRC remainder.

If the resultant of this division is zero which means that it has no error, and the data is
accepted.

If the resultant of this division is not zero which means that the data consists of an error.
Therefore, the data is discarded.

Suppose the original data is 11100 and divisor is 1001.

CRC Generator

 A CRC generator uses a modulo-2 division. Firstly, three zeroes are appended at the
end of the data as the length of the divisor is 4 and we know that the length of the
string 0s to be appended is always one less than the length of the divisor.
 Now, the string becomes 11100000, and the resultant string is divided by the divisor
1001.
 The remainder generated from the binary division is known as CRC remainder. The
generated value of the CRC remainder is 111.
 CRC remainder replaces the appended string of 0s at the end of the data unit, and the
final string would be 11100111 which is sent across the network.

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CRC Checker

 The functionality of the CRC checker is similar to the CRC generator.

 When the string 11100111 is received at the receiving end, then CRC checker
performs the modulo-2 division.
 A string is divided by the same divisor, i.e., 1001.
 In this case, CRC checker generates the remainder of zero. Therefore, the data is
accepted.

ETHERNET:

Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. However,
Ethernet can also be used in MANs and even WANs. It was first standardized in the 1980s as
IEEE 802.3 standard. Since then, it has gone through four generations, as shown in the
following chart

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Standard Ethernet is also referred to as Basic Ethernet. It uses 10Base5 coaxial cables for
communications. Ethernet provides service up to the data link layer. At the data link layer,
Ethernet divides the data stream received from the upper layers and encapsulates it into
frames, before passing them on to the physical layer.

The main parts of an Ethernet frame are

 Preamble − It is the starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission.
 Destination Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of
destination stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6-byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Length − It stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data and Padding − This carries the data from the upper layers.
 CRC − It contains error detection information.

Standard Ethernet has many physical layer implementations. The four main physical layer
implementations are shown in the following diagram

FAST ETHERNET:

In computer networks, Fast Ethernet is a variation of Ethernet standards that carry data traffic
at 100 Mbps (Mega bits per second) in local area networks (LAN). It was launched as the

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IEEE 802.3u standard in 1995, and stayed the fastest network till the introduction of Gigabit
Ethernet.

Fast Ethernet is popularly named as 100-BASE-X. Here, 100 is the maximum throughput, i.e.
100 Mbps, BASE denoted use of baseband transmission, and X is the type of medium used,
which is TX or FX.

Varieties of Fast Ethernet

The common varieties of fast Ethernet are 100-Base-TX, 100-BASE-FX and 100-Base-T4.

 100-Base-T4
o This has four pairs of UTP of Category 3, two of which are bi-directional and
the other two are unidirectional.
o In each direction, three pairs can be used simultaneously for data transmission.
o Each twisted pair is capable of transmitting a maximum of 25Mbaud data.
Thus the three pairs can handle a maximum of 75Mbaud data.
o It uses the encoding scheme 8B/6T (eight binary/six ternary).
 100-Base-TX
o This has either two pairs of unshielded twisted pairs (UTP) category 5 wires or
two shielded twisted pairs (STP) type 1 wires. One pair transmits frames from
hub to the device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 100m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses MLT-3 encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.
 100-BASE-FX
o This has two pairs of optical fibers. One pair transmits frames from hub to the
device and the other from device to hub.
o Maximum distance between hub and station is 2000m.
o It has a data rate of 125 Mbps.
o It uses NRZ-I encoding scheme along with 4B/5B block coding.

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Frame Format of IEEE 802.3

The frame format of IEEE 802.3u is same as IEEE 802.3. The fields in the frame are:

 Preamble − It is a 7 bytes starting field that provides alert and timing pulse for
transmission.
 Start of Frame Delimiter (SOF) − It is a 1 byte field that contains an alternating
pattern of ones and zeros ending with two ones.
 Destination Address − It is a 6 byte field containing physical address of destination
stations.
 Source Address − It is a 6 byte field containing the physical address of the sending
station.
 Length − It a 2 bytes field that stores the number of bytes in the data field.
 Data − This is a variable sized field carries the data from the upper layers. The
maximum size of data field is 1500 bytes.
 Padding − This is added to the data to bring its length to the minimum requirement of
46 bytes.
 CRC − CRC stands for cyclic redundancy check. It contains the error detection
information.

GIGABIT ETHERNET:

In computer networks, Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) is the family of Ethernet technologies that
achieve theoretical data rates of 1 gigabit per second (1 Gbps). It was introduced in 1999 and
was defined by the IEEE 802.3ab standard.

Varieties of Gigabit Ethernet

The popular varieties of fast Ethernet are 1000Base-SX, 1000Base-LX, 1000BASE-T and
1000Base-CX.

1000BASE-CX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 The initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet
 Uses shielded twisted pair cables with DE-9 or 8P8C connector
 Maximum segment length is 25 metres
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/6B block encoding
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1000BASE-SX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a shorter wavelength having 770 – 860 nm
diameter
 The maximum segment length varies from 220 – 550 metres depending upon the fiber
properties.
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

1000BASE-LX

 Defined by IEEE 802.3z standard

 Uses a pair of fibre optic cables of a longer wavelength having 1270 – 1355 nm
diameter
 Maximum segment length is 500 metres
 Can cover distances up to 5 km
 Uses NRZ line encoding and 8B/10B block encoding

1000BASE-T

 Defined by IEEE 802.3ab standard

 Uses a pair four lanes of twisted-pair cables (Cat-5, Cat-5e, Cat-6, Cat-7)
 Maximum segment length is 100 metres
 Uses trellis code modulation technique

PERSONAL AREA NETWORK:

Personal Area Network (PAN) is a the computer network that connects computers/devices
within the range of an individual person. As PAN provides a network range within a person’s
range typically within a range of 10 meters(33 feet) it is called as Personal Area Network. A
Personal Area Network typically involves a computer, phone, tablet, printer, PDA (Personal
Digital Assistant) and other and other entertainment devices like speakers, video game
consoles etc.
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Types of Personal Area Network (PAN) :
Personal Area Network can be of 2 types depending upon its connection i.e., Wireless PAN,
and Wired PAN.
These are explained as following below.

Wireless PAN –
Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) is connected through signals such as infrared,
ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultrawideband etc.

1. Wired PAN –
Wired PAN is connected through cables/wires such as Firwire or USB (Universal
Serial Bus).

Examples of PAN :

 Body Area Network –

It is a mobile network that moves with a persona range for example when person
connects his smart phone to the Bluetooth headphone and moves in the market that
refers to a body area network.

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  Offline Network –
In this multiple devices are connected through Bluetooth or Wi-Fi. The devices
attached to your computer including printers, mouse, speakers, and other appliances
are integrated using a Personal Area Network (PAN) and do not use internet. So a
communication network is formed between the devices used in a small single space
for example home.

 Home Office –
In Home Office setup a separate smaller network is setup for work purpose which is
separate from the network used by other home appliances. This network works as a
separate body with multiple other devices connected for office work purpose.

Advantages and disadvantages of PAN –

 PAN is relatively flexible and provides high efficiency for short network range.
 It needs easy setup and relatively low cost.
 It does not require frequent installations and maintenance
 It is easy portable.
 Needs less technical skill to use.

Disadvantages of PAN :

 Low network coverage area/range.

 Limited to relatively low data rates.
 Devices are not compatible with each other.
 Inbuilt WPAN devices are little bit costly.

Applications of PAN –

 Home and Offices

 Organizations and Business sector
 Medical and Hospital
 School and College Education
 Military and Defense

BLUETOOTH AND WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS STANDARD:

Bluetooth wireless technology is a short range communications technology intended to

replace the cables connecting portable unit and maintaining high levels of security. Bluetooth
technology is based on Ad-hoc technology also known as Ad-hoc Pico nets, which is a local
area network with a very limited coverage.

History of Bluetooth

WLAN technology enables device connectivity to infrastructure based services through a

wireless carrier provider. The need for personal devices to communicate wirelessly with one
another without an established infrastructure has led to the emergence of Personal Area
Networks (PANs).

 Ericsson's Bluetooth project in 1994 defines the standard for PANs to enable
communication between mobile phones using low power and low cost radio
interfaces.
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  In May 1988, Companies such as IBM, Intel, Nokia and Toshiba joined Ericsson to
form the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) whose aim was to develop a defacto
standard for PANs.
 IEEE has approved a Bluetooth based standard named IEEE 802.15.1 for Wireless
Personal Area Networks (WPANs). IEEE standard covers MAC and Physical layer
applications.

Bluetooth specification details the entire protocol stack. Bluetooth employs Radio Frequency
(RF) for communication. It makes use of frequency modulation to generate radio waves in
the ISM band.

Special Features:

 Bluetooth offers a uniform structure for a wide range of devices to connect and
communicate with each other.
 Bluetooth technology has achieved global acceptance such that any Bluetooth enabled
device, almost everywhere in the world, can be connected with Bluetooth enabled
devices.
 Low power consumption of Bluetooth technology and an offered range of up to ten
meters has paved the way for several usage models.
 Bluetooth offers interactive conference by establishing an adhoc network of laptops.
 Bluetooth usage model includes cordless computer, intercom, cordless phone and
mobile phones.

WIRELESS COMMUNICATIONS STANDARD:

Different methods and standards of wireless communication have developed across the
world, based on various commercially driven requirements. These technologies can roughly
be classified into four individual categories, based on their specific application and
transmission range. These categories are summarised in the figure below.

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WI-FI (802.11):

Wireless LANs are those Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves instead
of cables for connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around
within the area of network coverage. Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11
or WiFi.

IEEE 802.11 Architecture

The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows

1) Stations (STA) − Stations comprise all devices and equipments that are connected to the
wireless LAN. A station can be of two types:

 Wireless Access Pointz (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally
wireless routers that form the base stations or access.
 Client. − Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.

Each station has a wireless network interface controller.

2) Basic Service Set (BSS) −A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at
physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon mode of operation:

 Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through
access points.
 Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.

3) Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.

4) Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.

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Advantages of WLANs

 They provide clutter free homes, offices and other networked places.
 The LANs are scalable in nature, i.e. devices may be added or removed from the
network at a greater ease than wired LANs.
 The system is portable within the network coverage and access to the network is not
bounded by the length of the cables.
 Installation and setup is much easier than wired counterparts.
 The equipment and setup costs are reduced.

Disadvantages of WLANs

 Since radio waves are used for communications, the signals are noisier with more
interference from nearby systems.
 Greater care is needed for encrypting information. Also, they are more prone to errors.
So, they require greater bandwidth than the wired LANs.
 WLANs are slower than wired LANs.

WI-MAX:

WiMAX is one of the hottest broadband wireless technologies around today. WiMAX
systems are expected to deliver broadband access services to residential and enterprise
customers in an economical way.

Loosely, WiMax is a standardized wireless version of Ethernet intended primarily as an

alternative to wire technologies (such as Cable Modems, DSL and T1/E1 links) to provide
broadband access to customer premises.

More strictly, WiMAX is an industry trade organization formed by leading communications,

component, and equipment companies to promote and certify compatibility and
interoperability of broadband wireless access equipment that conforms to the IEEE 802.16
and ETSI HIPERMAN standards.

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WiMAX would operate similar to WiFi, but at higher speeds over greater distances and for a
greater number of users. WiMAX has the ability to provide service even in areas that are
difficult for wired infrastructure to reach and the ability to overcome the physical limitations
of traditional wired infrastructure.

WiMAX was formed in April 2001, in anticipation of the publication of the original 10-66
GHz IEEE 802.16 specifications. WiMAX is to 802.16 as the WiFi Alliance is to 802.11.

WiMAX is

 Acronym for Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access.

 Based on Wireless MAN technology.
 A wireless technology optimized for the delivery of IP centric services over a wide
area.
 A scalable wireless platform for constructing alternative and complementary
broadband networks.
 A certification that denotes interoperability of equipment built to the IEEE 802.16 or
compatible standard. The IEEE 802.16 Working Group develops standards that
address two types of usage models −
o A fixed usage model (IEEE 802.16-2004).
o A portable usage model (IEEE 802.16e).

WiMAX Goals

A standard by itself is not enough to enable mass adoption. WiMAX has stepped forward to
help solve barriers to adoption, such as interoperability and cost of deployment. WiMAX will
help ignite the wireless MAN industry by defining and conducting interoperability testing and
labeling vendor systems with a "WiMAX Certified™" label once testing has been completed
successfully

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