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Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table

Atoms are made up of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by empty space. The nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in regions called orbitals. Subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons are so small that their masses and charges cannot be measured using conventional units and are instead compared relative to each other.

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42 views23 pages

Atomic Structure and The Periodic Table

Atoms are made up of a small, dense nucleus surrounded by empty space. The nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons. Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in regions called orbitals. Subatomic particles like protons, neutrons, and electrons are so small that their masses and charges cannot be measured using conventional units and are instead compared relative to each other.

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yashandalu
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an Atom in a nutshell……..

is made up of empty space around a very small, dense nucleus that contains
protons and neutrons

the nucleus has an overall positive charge


negatively charged electrons are found in orbitals in the empty space
around the nucleus
subatomic particles include protons, neutrons and electrons
subatomic particles are so small that it is not possible to measure their
masses and charges using conventional units (such as grams and coulombs)
Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other using
‘relative masses’ and ‘relative charges’

≈0

Atoms: Key Terms


The atomic number (or proton number) is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom and has symbol Z
The atomic number is equal to the number of electrons present in a neutral
atom of an element
Ex: the atomic number of lithium is 3 which indicates that the neutral lithium
atom has 3 protons and 3 electrons
The mass number (or nucleon number) is the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus of an atom and has symbol A
The number of neutrons can be calculated by:
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number
Protons and neutrons are also called nucleons
The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and
negatively charged electrons orbiting around it is what holds an atom
together

Subatomic Structure of Atoms & Ions


An atom is neutral and has no overall charge
Ions on the other hand are formed when atoms either gain or lose
electrons, causing them to become charged
The number of subatomic particles in atoms and ions can be determined
given their atomic (proton) number, mass (nucleon) number and charge
Mass number = number of protons + number of neutrons
Number of protons = mass number – number of neutrons

Task: Give it a try ……..


Tip: first raw has been done for you.
Isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that contain the same number of
protons and electrons but a different number of neutrons
The symbol for an isotope is the chemical symbol (or word) followed by a
dash and then the mass number
Ex: carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon containing 6 and 8
neutrons respectively

Isotopes of the same element display the same chemical characteristics.


This is because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell
isotopes have different physical properties such as small differences in their
mass and density

Relative Atomic Mass – RAM or Ar


Most elements consist of two or more isotopes
Isotopes are atoms of the same elements but with different mass numbers
Because of this, the mass of an element (in the Periodic table) is given as
relative atomic mass (Ar/RAM) by using the “average mass of the
isotopes”.
The RAM of an element can be calculated by using the relative abundance
values of each isotope present in a natural sample of an element.
Worked example: Calculating relative atomic mass of oxygen
A sample of oxygen contains the following isotopes:

What is the relative atomic mass of oxygen in this sample, to 2dp?

= 16.0044
= 16.00

FYI: the natural abundance of isotopes of an element can be determined


experimentally by an advance Analytical technique called ”Mass
spectroscopy”
– in the analysis of “elements”

Intro:
• Mass Spectrometry is a powerful analytical technique
• It is the most useful instrument for accurate determination of the
abundance and mass of each of its isotopes.
• It is also used to find the relative molecular mass of molecules (later in
Unit 2)
• In the analysis process the sample element will undergo several
changes in number of stages. Following are the main stages involved.
Stage 1: Vaporisation
Initially the element sample will be heated to convert its state to the gaseous
X (s) ---------- > X (g)

Stage 2: Ionisation
The vaporised sample subsequently bombarded with high energy electrons
(the electrons are ‘fired’ from an electron gun)
As the sample is bombarded by these electrons, an electron is knocked off
each particle, forming a 1+ ion
X(g) ---------- > X+(g) + e
Stage 3: Acceleration
The 1+ ions formed are accelerated using an electric field
They are all accelerated to have the same kinetic energy
Since all 1+ ions will have the same kinetic energy, their velocity will only
depend on their mass.
Fact: Lighter ions will move faster, and heavier ions will move slower

Stage 4: Deflection
The 1+ ions will pass through a tube surrounded by a strong electro-magnet
The time of flight of each 1+ ion in this tube depends on their velocity –
which depends on the mass and charge of ions
FYI: there is possibility that during ionisation, even 2+ or 3+ ions also could
generate. If so, there deflection would be affected – greater the charge
higher the deflection and vice versa.
Therefore, the deflection is based on the consideration of both parameters,
mass, and charge. It is as a ratio – m/z or m/e --- > mass/ charge ratio

Stage 5: Detection
As the ions hit on the detector plate and generate a small current which is
amplified to make a signal on a screen.
The final result which appears on the recorder/ screen is called a “mass
spectrum”.
The mass spectrum should be further analysed and interpret to discover
more information about the sample element that analysed.
Interpreting a Mass spectrum
Consider the mass spectrum of boron given below that obtained from the
mass spectrometry.

Main interpretation points:


1. (generally) number of peaks/ signals is the number of different isotopes
naturally exist
2. height of each signal is the natural % abundance
3. m/e value corresponds each signal/peak gives the mass of each
isotope(RIM) – assuming ions hit the detector are 1+ charged
How to manipulate/ process data on a spectrum?
As per the boron’s spectrum above:
1. Boron naturally consists of 2 isotopes ( 2 peaks )
2. Boron has isotopes of 10B and 11B ( m/e value is the RIM/mass of
isotope)
3. 10B has abundance of 19.9% and 11B is of 80.1% ( heights of peak
against Y axis)
Processing of data – enables to deduce the RAM of boron accurately.
(RIM of 10
B x 10.9 + RIM of 11
B x 80.1)
=
(10.9 + 80.1)

Total mass of all atoms


(10 x 10.9 + 11 x 80.1)
=
100.0 Total count of atoms or total %

RAM = 10.8 Average mass of an atom of Boron

Outcome of the analysis – Determine the Relative Atomic Mass(Ar) of the


element accurately.
Atomic structure…..journey to explore new information

Shells, n

The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the electron configuration


Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in Principal energy levels or Main
energy levels
Closer the shell to the nucleus lower the energy and vice versa
Each principal quantum number has a fixed number of electrons it can hold
n = 1 : up to 2 electrons
n = 2 : up to 8 electrons
n = 3 : up to 18 electrons
n = 4 : up to 32 electrons

Subshells
Each of the principal quantum shell/energy level is split into subshells which
are given the letters s, p and d
Elements with more than 57 electrons also have an f shell
The energy of the electrons in the subshells increases in the order s < p < d
The order of subshells appears to overlap for the higher principal quantum
shells as seen in the diagram below:

Shells Sub-shells
Orbitals
Subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
Orbital – is specific space/ volume within an atom where an electron is likely
to be found

Orbitals exist at specific sub-shells and electrons can only be found at these
sub-shells, not in between them
Each atomic orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two(2) electrons
This means that the number of orbitals in each subshell is as follows:
s sub-shell : one(1) orbital (1 x 2 = total of 2 electrons)
p sub-shell : three (3) orbitals ( 3 x 2 = total of 6 electrons)
d sub-shell : five (5) orbitals (5 x 2 = total of 10 electrons)
f sub-shell : seven (7) orbitals (7 x 2 = total of 14 electrons)

Sub-shells
Orbital
More about orbitals……
s orbital
The s orbitals are spherical in shape
The size of the s orbitals increases with increasing shell number
Ex: the s orbital of the third quantum shell (n = 3) is bigger than the s
orbital of the first quantum shell (n = 1)
Normally drawn as

p orbital
The p orbitals have a dumbbell or “Figure 8” shape
Every shell has three p orbitals except for the first one (n = 1)
The p orbitals occupy the x, y and z axes and point at right angles to each
other, so are oriented perpendicular to one another in three planes
The lobes of the p orbitals become larger and longer with increasing shell
number
Normally drawn as

Note: that the shape of the d orbitals is not required at AS level


Electron arrangement in terms of sub-shells ( s, p, d notation)
Ground state
The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which
has the lowest amount of energy
Fact (Rule): electrons fill into subshells of energy with the lowest energy
first (1s) – in order of increasing energy

Must remember this order:1s → 2s → 2p → 3s → 3p → 4s → 3d → 4p → 5s


Writing the Electron configuration
Electron Configuration gives information about the number of electrons in
each shell, sub-shell and orbital of an atom or ion
There is a specific notation of writing the electronic configuration.

Electronic configuration can be done using the full electron configuration


or the shorthand version
1. The full electron configuration describes the arrangement of all
electrons from the 1s subshell up
Ex: 11Na - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
2. The shorthand electron configuration includes using the symbol of the
nearest preceding noble gas to account for however many electrons are
in that noble gas
Ex: 11Na - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

10Ne

Short version : 11Na - [Ne] 3s1

Presenting/drawing the Electron Configuration


Info: Electrons can be imagined as small spinning charges which rotate
around their own axis in either a clockwise or anticlockwise direction

The spin of the electron is represented by its direction

Electrons with similar spin repel each other which is also called spin-
pair repulsion

Electrons will therefore occupy separate orbitals in the same subshell


where possible(single occupy), to minimize this repulsion and have
their spin in the same direction

Box Notation: The electron configuration can be represented using the


electrons in boxes notation. Each box represents an atomic orbital
Ex: 22Ti –
Task: Write the electronic configuration of first 36 elements using the s, p, d
notation.

Atomic Element Electronic Configuration


Number
1 H 1s1
2 He 1s2
3 Li 1s2 2s2 2s1
4 Be 1s2 2s2 2s2
5 B 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p1
6 C 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p2
7 N 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p3
8 O 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p4
9 F 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p5
10 Ne 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6
11 Na 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
12 Mg 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2
13 Al 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1
14 Si 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2
15 P 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3
16 S 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4
17 Cl 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5
18 Ar 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
19 K 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1
20 Ca 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2
21 Sc 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
22 Ti 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
23 V 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
24 Cr 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
25 Mn 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
26 Fe 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
27 Co 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
28 Ni 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
29 Cu 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
30 Zn 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
31 Ga 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p1
32 Ge 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p2
33 As 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p3
34 Se 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p4
35 Br 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p5
36 Kr 1s2 2s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2 4p6
Electronic configuration of ions using the s, p, d notation

Fact: Ions- Atoms either lose(to form cations, +) or gain electrons( to form
anions, -) from/to the furthest sub-shell of the valence shell.

Task: use the s, p, d notation to write the full electronic configuration of the
following ions in the table.

Ion Electron configuration


3-
7 N

11 Na+

13 Al3+

16 S2-

20 Ca2+

21 Sc3+

23 V2+

24 Cr2+

26 Fe2+

27 Co3+

29 Cu2+

35 Br–
Ionisation energy, IE

The literal meaning of Ionisation energy implies that it is the energy involves
in making ions from atoms.
However, it is not the case.

It refers specifically only when atoms turn into Cations(+ ions).

Ionisation energy in detail……….

Ionisation energy can be defined, when electrons are removed successively


starting with an atom to make cations with one or more positive charges.

First Ionisation Energy, IE1

Definition: The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one
mole of gaseous atoms of an element to form one mole of
unipositive (1+) gaseous ions.

The units of IE are kilojoules per mole (kJ mol-1)

Ionisation energies are measured under standard conditions which


are 298 K and 1 atm
Task: Write chemical equations to represent the first ionisation energy of the
following elements.

Element Equation for IE1

Na

Ca

Cl

H
Second Ionisation Energy, IE2

Definition: the energy required to remove mole of electrons from one of


unipositive (1+) gaseous ions to form one mole of dipositive (2+)
gaseous ions

Task: Write chemical equations to represent the second ionisation energy of


the following elements.

Element Equation for IE2

Mg

Al

Cl

Third Ionisation Energy, IE3

Definition: the energy required to remove mole of electrons from one of


dipositive (2+) gaseous ions to form one mole of tripositive (3+)
gaseous ions

Element Equation for IE2

Ar

Note: all ionisation energies are endothermic. Guess why…?


…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Exam Tip
Remember that equations to represent ionisation energies must have
gaseous (g) state symbols for the atoms and ions but not for the electrons.
You will lose the mark in your exam if you do not include the state symbols,
even if the question does not specify for you to include them.

Trends in Ionisation Energies (with respect to the Periodic Table)


(Successive 1st ionisation energies of elements)
1st ionisation energy refers to the furthest electron that removes from an
atom of an element.
The energy requires for this is different from one atom to another.
Because there are obvious factors that determine the magnitude of 1st
ionisation energy

Factors affecting Ionisation energy


Mainly three :
1. Atomic/ ionic radius:
1
Ionisation energy ∝
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

Explanation: The larger the radius, the greater the distance between the
nucleus and the outer shell electron(s)
Increasing distance weakens the strength of the attractive
forces
Less energy is required to remove the outer shell electron(s)

2. Nuclear charge

Ionisation energy ∝ nuclear charge

Explanation: nuclear charge(+ve) increases with increasing number of


protons/atomic no
The greater the positive charge, the greater the attractive
forces between the outer electron(s) and the nucleus
More energy is required to overcome these forces
3. Shielding
1
Ionisation energy ∝
𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
What is shielding?
The process of which electrons occupying the inner shells repel electrons
located in shells further outside the nucleus(valence shell) and prevent them
from feeling the full effect of the nuclear charge/attraction
Shielding acts opposite(antagonistic) to nuclear pull/attraction on electrons

Explanation: The greater the shielding effect is, the weaker the attractive
forces between the positive nucleus and the negatively charged
electrons
Less energy is required to overcome the weakened attractive
forces

Trend 1: Ionisation energy down a group


Description: decrease (for any group)
Ex:

Explanation:
• the nuclear charge increases (FYI-proton number increases)
• atomic radii increase (FYI- adding of more shells of electrons)
• shielding increases (FYI-as there are more shells of electrons)
• These factors outweigh the increased nuclear charge.
• Less energy is required to ionise
Trend 2: Ionisation energy across a period (limited to Period 2 & 3)
Description: “General” increase

Period 2 Period 3
Explanation:
• the nuclear charge increases
• the atomic radii of the atoms decrease (FYI: as the outer shell is pulled
closer to the nucleus due to increasing nuclear charge, so the distance
between the nucleus and the outer electrons decreases_
• The shielding by inner shell electrons remains reasonably constant (FYI:
as electrons are being added to the same shell)
• It becomes harder to remove an electron as you move across a period;
more energy is needed to overcome nuclear attraction on the last
electron

Why “ Dips “ in the trend?


Dip 1 : Group II to Group III ex: Be to B and Mg to Al

4Be – 1s2 2s2 12Mg - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

5B – 1s2 2s2 2p1 13 Al - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1


Explanation:
• the fifth electron in boron is in the 2p subshell, which is further away
from the nucleus than the 2s subshell of beryllium
• also, 2p1 electron is more shielded than 2s electrons
• these factors in B outweighs the higher nuclear charge and smaller
radius of it.
• Slightly less energy is required.
Note: same explanation applies for Mg to Al dip
Dip 2 : Group V to Group VI ex: N to O and P to S

5N – 1s2 2s2 2p3 15P - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

6O – 1s2 2s2 2p4 16S - 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4


2p
Explanation:
• there are 2 electrons in a 2p orbital of Oxygen, so the repulsion
between those electrons called the spin-pair repulsion and not there
in Nitrogen
• it slightly easier for one of those electrons to be removed from Oxygen
• Further, the 2p sub-shell in N is half-filled, which is considered to be
having a higher stability than O. So, removal of an electron from N
demands extra energy.
• these factors outweigh the higher nuclear charge and smaller radius of
O over N.
• So, O ionisation requires slightly less energy than N.
Note: same explanation applies for P to S dip

Summary:

Ionisation Energy Trends across a Period & going down a Group Table
Successive ionisation energies of an element
This is all about the energy involved as the electrons of an atom are
kept removing one after the other(successively)
Fact: The successive ionisation energies of an element increase as the
nuclear attractive forces increase due to decreasing shielding and an
increase in the proton to electron ratio

Common Trend: The increase in ionisation energy, however, is not constant


and is dependent on the atom’s electronic configuration
Example: Successive ionisation energies of Ca

• The first electron,4s2 removed has the lowest IE1 as it is easily removed
from the atom due to the spin-pair repulsion of the electrons in the 4s
orbital
• The second electron,4s1 is more difficult to remove than the first
electron as there is no spin-pair repulsion and greater p : e ratio
• The third electron, 3p6 is much more difficult to remove than the
second one corresponding to the fact that the third electron is in an
inner shell (n=3) which is closer to the nucleus (3p). So, there is big
“jump” between the 2nd and 3rd ionisations. – indicates the change of a
shell from valence to inner shell
• Removal of the fourth electron is more difficult as the orbital is no
longer full, and there is less spin-pair repulsion
• The big jumps on the graph show the change of shell and the small
jumps are the change of subshell
Electronic configuration and the blocks of element in the Periodic table:

Elements in the periodic table are divided into 4 blocks, s, p, d and f based
on to which sub-shell the last electron is filling in.
Group 1 & 2 – s block
Group III to VIII – p block
Transition metals – d block
(Refer the picture below)

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