HUMANBEHAVI OR,

DEVELOPMENTandSOCIETY
Latent Class Analysis of Learning Strategies and Metacognition: Their Effects on 7–15
Mathematics Performance
Nelda A. Nacion and Edwin Balila

Perceptions of Premarital Sex among Students at a Faith-Based University 16–27

Hansel Teo Sze Yong and Amanda Simon

Analysis of the Effect of Profitability, Solvability, and Dividend Policy on Banking 28–37
Firm Value
Tonny I. Soewignyo

An Overview of Karl Barth’s Theology: Focused on the Doctrines of God, Jesus 38–46
Christ, and the Holy Spirit
Sanghoon Jee

Awareness and Practice of Standard Precautions for Infection Control among 47–55
Student Nurses
Tatyannah Maristela, Jemarjo Alano, Winston Wushoma, Tedd Jumarang,
and Susy A. Jael

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Records Management among Bank 56–67

Professionals: A Basis for a Competency Training Program
Diana Lobres, Jamaica Paduhilao, Marla Rodelas, Lowena G. De Ocampo, Lualhati
Sausa, Glenda Lopez, & Lailani Tanalas

The Effects of Using Particulate Diagrams on High School Students’ Conceptual 68–77
Understanding of Stoichiometry
Faridah Lausin and Jimmy Kijai

Factor Analysis of Students’ Satisfaction with Academic Courses 78–84

Reymand, Francis and Franklin Hutabarat

A Comparative Study of Ellen G. White’s Interpretation of Selected Synoptic 85–92

Gospels’ Parables with those of Modern Biblical Scholars
Alfredo G. Agustin

Consumption Patterns of Dormitory Students at a Private University 93–101

Andrew C. Aseng

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Human Behavior, Development and Society, Journal of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Studies,
Asia-Pacific International University
Online ISSN 2651-1762

Editor
Assistant Professor Dr Damrong Sattayawaksakul, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Managing Editor
Assistant Professor Dr Wayne A Hamra, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Associate Editors
Dr Daron Benjamin Loo, National University of Singapore, Singapore
Professor Dr Warren Shipton (Retired), James Cook University, Australia

Editorial Secretary
Chomphunut Phutikettrkit, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Administrative Board
Editor (Chair)
Managing Editor (Vice-Chair/Secretary)
Associate Editors
Director of Research
Associate Director of Research
Editorial Secretary (Recording Secretary)

Editorial Statement
Human Behavior, Development and Society is a refereed multidisciplinary journal that explores a wide
range of scholarly topics, especially in fields relating to the humanities and social sciences. It is
published online three times a year and is available free of charge through the ThaiJo and Asia-Pacific
International University (AIU) websites, with a limited number of hard copies available. The journal,
originally entitled Catalyst, has been published since 2006 by Asia-Pacific International University,
Muak Lek, Thailand, through its publishing arm Institute Press.

The journal has the following objectives:

a). To stimulate the creation and synthesis of beneficial information, as well as its broad dissemination,
especially in the varied fields of the humanities and social sciences,

b). To foster a deeper understanding regarding the impact of business policies and practices on
society, and

c). To promote the adoption of best practices in communities through education, and to aid in the
resolution of community issues for the betterment of society; this represents the development aspect
referred to in its name.

Editorial Objectives
The editorial objectives are to advance knowledge through use of classical – or the creation of
innovative – methods of investigation, and to foster the examination of cross-cultural issues to
increase mutual understandings among diverse social groups. Encouraging cooperative studies and
scholarly exchange across borders, as well as within Thailand, remains one of its aims. The application
of theoretical considerations to the field, business, or community situations is also an outcome that is
sought.

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Journal Positioning
The journal is broadly based and has the potential to impact thinking and practices across a range of
subject areas, dealing with substantive issues that arise in both developing and developed countries.
It will likely appeal to readers with a broad appreciation of the social issues facing organizations,
communities, and governments operating under varied challenges and constraints. Its contents are
meant to appeal to both the academic community and practitioners in numerous areas of interest.

The positioning of the journal means that a variety of topics is covered in most issues. These, in turn,
differ in their philosophical content, academic appeal, and practical implications.

Appropriate Content
The journal covers a broad spectrum of topics. These include, but are not limited to, anthropology,
allied health focused on community issues and health education, education from the primary to the
tertiary levels, literature, language use and acquisition, business, management, finance, geography,
psychology, social sciences, philosophy, and theology. Review essays and seminar/forum papers are
also accepted when appropriately focused. Well-executed studies that address interesting and
significant topics in the areas mentioned above are particularly welcomed. All articles accepted should
make significant contributions to understanding and add to the corpus of knowledge in their
respective fields.

The following constitutes a partial list of topics that are considered potentially suitable for publication:

1. Applied linguistic or linguistic studies that examine issues related to communication, language
pedagogy and use, as well as theories and meaning of language.
2. Religious or biblical studies that explore historical, philosophical, sociological, as well as
hermeneutical issues.
3. Anthropological or ethnographic studies which seek to reflect cultural nuances of
communities for a better understanding of the society.
4. Cultural/intercultural issues and diversity, including how tensions involving these parameters
might be handled to achieve social justice and acceptance.
5. Review articles or studies in the fields of marketing, business, stock market trading, and
auditing practices, and their significance to the business and broader community.
6. Organizational behavior, resilience, and the creation of a positive psychological work
environment and job satisfaction.
7. Teaching strategies, interventions, assessment, and other issues to the betterment of society.
8. Policies and political movements, and their impact on educational development.
9. Violence, discrimination, and marginalization: how these issues are viewed in contemporary
society, and the factors contributing to their emergence.
10. Social trends in addictive behavior; how to address such issues creatively.
11. Impact of specific policies and interventions on health care, including how to promote positive
health outcomes in communities.
12. Innovative and cost effective approaches to health care and education in poor, rural
communities.

Contact Information

Principal Contact Supporting Contact

Asst Prof Dr Wayne Hamra, Managing Editor Ms Chomphunut Phutikettrkit, Editorial Secretary
Asia-Pacific International University Phone: (036) 720 – 777 ext. 1152
Phone: (036) 720 – 777 ext. 1241 Email: hbdssec@apiu.edu
Email: whamra@apiu.edu

3
Editorial Board
Professor Dr Beulah Manuel Washington Adventist University, USA
Professor Dr Jazlin Ebenezer Wayne State University, USA
Professor Dr John Agak Maseno University, Kenya
Professor Dr Jolly Balila Adventist University of the Philippines, Philippines
Professor Dr Kai Arasola Retired Scholar, Finland
Professor Dr Miguel Luna Retired, Peruvian Union University, Peru
Professor Dr Warren Shipton Retired, James Cook University, Australia
Associate Professor Dr Edelweiss Ramal Retired, Loma Linda University, USA
Assistant Professor Dr Damrong Sattayawaksakul Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Wayne A Hamra Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Daron Benjamin Loo National University of Singapore, Singapore

Reviewers
Distinguished Professor Dr Anya Khanthavit Thammasart University, Thailand
Professor Dr Ben Maguad Andrews University, USA
Professor Dr Beulah Manuel Washington Adventist University, USA
Professor Dr Dolores Wright Loma Linda University, USA
Professor Dr Elizabeth Role Retired Scholar, Philippines
Professor Dr Gilbert Valentine La Sierra University, USA
Professor Dr Jimmy Kijai Andrews University, USA
Professor Dr Jolly Balila Adventist University of the Philippines, Philippines
Professor Dr Loren Agrey Burman University, Canada
Professor Dr Ron Bissell Retired Scholar, Canada
Professor Dr Siroj Sorajjakool Loma Linda University, USA and Asia-Pacific
International University, Thailand
Associate Professor Dr Evelyn V. Almocera Adventist International Institute for Advanced
Studies, Philippines
Associate Professor Dr Kenneth Swansi Adventist International Institute for Advanced
Studies, Philippines
Associate Professor Dr Ronny Kountur Binus University, Indonesia
Assistant Professor Advella Meikle Northern Caribbean University, Jamaica
Assistant Professor Aiyada Kharawarattanapichet Payap University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Catherine Tan Loma Linda University, USA
Assistant Professor Julie Cook AdventHealth University, USA
Assistant Professor Dr Lokweetpan Suprawan Bangkok University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Nguyen Thi Phuong Linh Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Nicole Mauzard Northern Caribbean University, Jamaica
Assistant Professor Dr Phanasan Kohsuwan Panyapiwat Institute of Management, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Sang-Hoon Jee Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Thanis Bunsom King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Wanlee Putsom Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr Wichayanee Ocha Rangsit University, Thailand
Assistant Professor Dr William Hamra Loma Linda University, USA
Dr Anthoney Thangiah Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Beryl Ben Mergal Adventist University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr Chew Sze Ted Aenon Health Care, Malaysia
Dr Darrin Thomas Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Divya Shukla St Theresa International College, Thailand
Dr Franklin Hutabarat Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

4
Dr Gerald Schafer Carroll University, USA
Dr Jade Abuga Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Jae Kim Retired Scholar, Sahmyook University, Korea
Dr Jariya Sudtho Srisaket Rajaphat University, Thailand
Dr Jeffrey Dawala Wilang King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Thailand
Dr Mack Tennyson Independent Scholar, England
Dr Meena Madhavan Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Dr Namala Tilakaratna National University of Singapore, Singapore
Dr Novriyanto Napu Gorontalo State University, Indonesia
Dr Oktavian Mantiri Universitas Klabat, Indonesia
Dr Paluku Kazimoto Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Romeo Barrios Adventist University of the Philippines, Philippines
Dr Rosario Canon Garcia St Theresa International College, Thailand
Dr Sayamol Nongbunnak Dhurakit Bundit University, Thailand
Dr Stephen Louw King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Thailand
Dr Stuart G. Towns King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, Thailand
Dr Surachet Insom Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand
Dr Vanlapa Wonchan Payap University, Thailand
Dr Virginia Smith Retired Scholar, USA
Dr Youssry Guirguis Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Publishing Schedule
Human Behavior, Development and Society is published four times per year by Institute Press
during the months of March, June, September and December.

All opinions, errors, omissions and such expressed in Human Behavior, Development and Society are
the responsibility of the authors.
© Institute Press, Asia-Pacific International University, 2020

Indexing
Thai-Journal Citation Index Centre (TCI)
EBSCO Information Services

Current and Past Issues

Volume 21 No 1 March 2020 Volume 11 June 2015
Volume 20 No 4 December 2019 Volume 10 December 2014
Volume 20 No 3 September 2019 Volume 9 July 2014
Volume 20 No 2 June 2019 Volume 8 December 2013
Volume 20 No 1 March 2019 Volume 7 December 2012
Volume 19 December 2018 Volume 6 December 2011
Volume 18 August 2018 Volume 5 December 2010
Volume 17 April 2018 Volume 4 November 2009
Volume 16 December 2017 Volume 3 November 2008
Volume 15 June 2017 Volume 2 November 2007
Volume 14 December 2016 Volume 1 November 2006
Volume 13 June 2016
Volume 12 December 2015

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From the Editor

Human Behavior, Development and Society (HBDS) is an interdisciplinary peer-reviewed

journal of Asia-Pacific International University (AIU). HBDS aims to publish findings and discussions in
all aspects of human behavior, development and society. The journal’s scope includes advancing
knowledge through the use of classical methods of investigation, and fostering examination of cross-
cultural issues to increase mutual understanding among diverse social groups in the international
community. The journal continues to be indexed in EBSCO and – beginning with this issue – in TCI Tier
2. It strives to maintain rigorous peer-reviewed standards and the highest level of ethical integrity,
ensuring consistency and scientific rigor in each of its research articles.
This is the first issue of HBDS for 2020. In addition, it is a special issue dedicated to papers
presented at the 7th International Scholars Conference, which is an annual research event co-hosted
by four Adventist higher educational institutions located in Southeast Asia: Asia-Pacific International
University, Thailand; Adventist University of the Philippines; Universitas Advent Indonesia; and
Universitas Klabat, Indonesia. Thus, these articles were recently presented at this conference, which
was most recently hosted by Universitas Advent Indonesia in October 2019. In this issue of HBDS, we
are pleased to present 10 articles submitted by various researchers. Six articles were submitted by
researchers external to the university, and four articles were submitted by internal researchers. We
are delighted to see reports and findings from various content areas, including business, education,
health education, science education, and religion. The majority of the articles in this issue reflect
interests from international environments in Asia. We hope this issue of HBDS will contribute to the
academic and professional development of society, and serve as a source of information for various
disciplines and researchers.
We appreciate all the authors, reviewers, editorial board members, executive board
members, as well as the journal’s staff who have contributed to make this achievement a reality.
Finally, we would like to invite our readers to publish your valuable papers with us. You can find more
information at our website: https://www.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/hbds. We would also appreciate
comments or suggestions from you to help us improve the journal.

Damrong Sattayawaksakul, Editor

6
 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Latent Class Analysis of Learning Strategies and Metacognition:

Their Effects on Mathematics Performance

Nelda A. Nacion1, De La Salle University Dasmariñas

Edwin A. Balila, Adventist University of the Philippines

Date Received: 6 November 2019 Revised: 23 January 2020 Accepted: 12 February 2020

Abstract
This paper aimed to determine the latent classes of learning strategies and metacognition and
their effects on the mathematics performance of selected senior high school students in the
Philippines. A total of 1,313 students was selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. A modified
questionnaire was used to collect data. Results revealed that a five-class model was the optimal fit
model for both learning strategies and metacognition. ANOVA test results revealed that there was a
significant difference in the mathematics performance of the students, implying that different types
of learning strategies affected student performance and that the “Control Strategies Group”
performed most effectively compared to other groups. On the other hand, the metacognition
approaches taken showed no significant differences. In addition, no significant interactions took place
between learning strategies and metacognition. This means that the two variables behaved
independently, and only the learning strategies affected respondents’ mathematics performance.

Keywords: Latent class analysis, learning strategies, metacognition

Introduction
Mathematics is a very important part of academics, as well as in everyday life. Knowledge and
skills in mathematics are necessary in the workplace and in everyday life to solve basic and complex
problems. Recognizing this, learning mathematics becomes a major emphasis at all levels of an
educational institution. In fact, in most countries, mathematics is being taught across primary and
secondary levels. Thus, everybody is expected to be equipped with the needed mathematical skills
and knowledge. However, it is alarming to know that mathematics literacy of students nowadays is
quite low.
Based on the report of the Programme for International Students Assessment (PISA) prepared
by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, 2018), mathematical literacy
is defined as the process of “formulation, employment, and interpretation of mathematics in a varied
circumstance.” It comprises thinking logically and using mathematical concepts and forecast
phenomena. It measures the capability of individuals to recognize the role that is being played by
mathematics in the world, and to make necessary decisions to be productive and yearning citizens.
The PISA also was able to establish baseline proficiency level 2, on a 1–6 scale, at which individuals
should be demonstrating this productive capacity as students, workers, and citizens. Based on the
results of PISA 2015, in more than half of the participating countries from the middle and low-income
class, the scores in mathematics obtained fell below level 2. This is an indication that the mathematics
literacy of students is low.
An international assessment like PISA has given a result that is not different from mathematics
literacy in the Philippines. The latest result of Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS; Fact Fish Research Made Simple! 2018) revealed that the mean performance of grade eight
Filipino Students was 377.7, whereas the center of the data was 500. This result is quite alarming when
compared to other countries in the world. Both the PISA and TIMSS results revealed that Filipino

1
Corresponding author email address: nanacion09@gmail.com
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

7
students are performing below average mathematical literacy. The Philippines joined the international
TIMSS assessment in 2003. Thus, this is the last reference that can be used in terms of international
assessments. PISA 2018 had not yet been released when this paper was written.
Learning strategies may be critical to the academic performance of students. In the process of
learning mathematics, students acquire learning strategies from their teachers and peers in order to
improve their learning efficiency. According to the OECD (OECD, 2017), students who have
outstanding mathematics performance usually adopt their learning strategies appropriately to
manage their learning. On the other hand, students who have poor mathematics performance cannot
actually apply effective learning strategies to solve problems. Based on the study of Lin and Tai (2015),
in mathematics learning, students learn more effectively by consciously adopting effective learning
strategies than just following their teachers’ instructions. Clearly, learning strategies are a factor to be
considered in attaining higher mathematics performance.
Besides learning strategies, another factor to focus on that affects mathematics performance
is students’ metacognition. As mentioned by Jaafar and Ayub (2010), mathematics performance and
metacognition of students are positively correlated. They concluded that students’ metacognition was
the principal predictor of academic achievement in mathematics. Therefore, mathematics educators
should give attention to mathematics metacognition as an important variable in mathematics
education.
The concept of metacognition is connected to the knowledge of “when and how” to use a
particular strategy for the learning process or in problem solving (Metcalfe & Shimamura, 1994).
Metacognition, as defined by Schoenfeld (1987), means thinking about thinking, and it encompasses
three important features which are: knowledge about our own thought processes, control or self-
regulation, and belief and intuition. Meanwhile, according to Ozsoy (2011), metacognitive strategy is
defined as methods used to help the students understand how they learn. By using a metacognitive
strategy, students will be able to develop suitable plans during the teaching and learning process
either by memorizing or routine.
The purpose of this study was to determine the latent classes of learning strategies and
metacognition and their effects on students’ mathematics performance. Most students in elementary
and high school have poor performances in mathematics. Helping both teachers and students improve
their performance by seeking possible solutions was one of the aims of this study. Although few
studies have been conducted about Latent Class Analysis (LCA) and its effect on mathematics
performance, the emphasis of this paper was the interaction of learning strategies and metacognition
after identifying the latent classes of the students. Also, this is the first time that the Philippines has
offered classes at senior high school level; hence, this paper is a pioneer in terms of including senior
high school students as respondents.

Methodology
The respondents of this study were 1,313 senior high school students in Region IV-A
(CALABARZON). The samples were selected using multi-stage cluster sampling. A modified instrument
was utilized in this study. It was composed of three major parts. The first part involved the
demographic profile of the students. The second part consisted of a questionnaire for learning
strategies, and the third part dealt with metacognition. The students chose among three given options
for each learning strategy, and in metacognition, they selected the item that best described their
preparation for a mathematics exam.
To determine the latent classes of the students’ learning strategies and metacognition, LCA
was used. According to Lin and Tai (2015), LCA is a multivariate method designed to identify
unobserved (or latent) subpopulations of individuals on the basis of multiple measures. LCA is like
cluster analysis applicable to latent variables or categorical variables only. In this study, the
respondents were divided into different groups based on learning and metacognition strategies using
conditional probabilities computed for each category. The subjects that were considered in each of
the classes of learning strategies and metacognition were highly homogeneous, and the groups

8
created were heterogeneous when compared with each other. The procedure was undertaken using
Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) and R studio software. These two packages were some
of those available that included Latent Class Analysis.
To determine the best fit model, Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) and Bayesian Information
Criterion (BIC) were used. The optimal fit model for learning strategies and metacognition was the
class number with the lowest AIC and BIC values.
To determine the effects of learning strategies and metacognition on students’ mathematics
performance, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used. To determine the interaction effect of learning
strategies and metacognition on the performance of the students, Two-way ANOVA was used.

Results and Discussion

Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics relevant to students in General Mathematics taken
during the first semester of Grade 11. The table also shows that the average grade of the 1,313
students was 86.86, with a standard deviation of 4.96. This implies that the majority of students were
performing well in math, with a slight deviation from the average grade across all genders, strands,
and types of school.
The same table shows the distribution of respondents according to grade interval. The figures
imply that most students obtained a grade from 85–89, which corresponded to 41.10% of the total
number of students. On the other hand, only a few obtained a grade between 90 and 100. Therefore,
most performed well, but not very well, and there was still a significant number of students who
performed low (between 75 and 79). Based on the description of grades of the Department of
Education, most students performed very satisfactorily in math, while few did not meet expectations.

Learning Strategies Results

The results of LCA for learning strategies are presented in Table 2. It shows two criteria (AIC
and BIC) for each class model. As previously presented, the lowest values for AIC and BIC give the
optimal fit model for learning strategies. The results imply that the AIC and BIC are the smallest for
the five-class model (14,783.33 and 15,114.90, respectively). Thus, the five-class model is a suitable
model for students’ learning strategies.

Table 1. Distribution of Respondents According to Grade Interval in General Mathematics

Grade Interval Frequency Percent
74 and below (Did not meet expectations) 5 0.4
75–79 (Fairly Satisfactory) 78 5.9
80–84 (Satisfactory) 277 21.1
85–89 (Very Satisfactory) 540 41.1
90–100 (Outstanding) 413 31.5
Total 1313 100.0
Mean 86.86
Standard Deviation 4.96

The results of LCA for metacognition are also presented in Table 2. The values were smallest
for the five-class model (15,689.48 and 16,021.06, respectively). Thus, the five-class model is a suitable
model for student metacognition. All 1,313 students were divided into five classes of metacognition.

Table 2. Summary of AIC and BIC Criteria by Class Model for Learning Strategies and Metacognition
Model Learning Strategies Metacognition
AIC BIC AIC BIC
2-class 16,639.81 16,769.31 17,672.73 1,7802.23
3-class 16,185.26 16,382.10 16,996.28 1,7193.12
4-class 15,494.10 15,758.28 16,437.76 1,6701.94
5-class 14,783.33 15,114.90 15,689.48 1,6021.06

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 After finding the optimal fit class model for learning strategies, the next step in the process
was to determine the class probabilities and label each class. The probabilities of the five-class model
are shown in Table 3. For class 1, the class probability (last row) indicated that 25% of the students
were thus classified. For the remaining classes 16% of the students were classified as Class 2, 13%
classified as Class 3, 16% classified as Class 4, and 3% classified as Class 5.
Table 3 shows the conditional probability of students in each class for individual items and
options. The conditional probability for Class 1 students was .53, implying that 53% of students in Class
1 chose “I try to figure out what are the most important points to learn.” Similarly, the conditional
probability for Class 1 students was .24, which also indicates that 24% of students under Class 1 chose
“I learn as much as I can by heart.” The probability values presented in each category for individual
indicators were used to assign a label to each class. Based on the distribution of conditional
probabilities presented in Table 3, students under Class 1 who prepared for a mathematics exam,
study mathematics, and solve mathematics problems, tend to use “Control” as learning strategy, since
this strategy obtained the highest probability for each category (A1 to A3).

Table 3. Conditional and Class Probabilities on Learning Strategy Scale for the 5-Class Model
Item Code Statement Strategy Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
A1 I try to figure out what are the Control .53 .30 .33 .32 .24
most important points to learn.
A2 I try to understand new Elaboration .24 .40 .39 .40 .31
concepts by relating them to
things I already know.
A3 I learn as much as I can by Memorization .24 .29 .28 .22 .44
heart.
B1 I try to figure out which Control 1.00 1.00 1.00 .00 .00
concepts I still do not
understand completely.
B2 I think of new ways to get an Elaboration .00 .00 .00 .98 .00
answer.
B3 I make myself check to see if I Memorization .00 .00 .00 .00 .00
remember the work I have
already done.
C1 I try to relate the work to Control 1.00 .30 .73 .41 .29
things I have learned in other
subjects.
C2 I start by working out exactly Elaboration .00 .56 .00 .42 .39
what I need to learn.
C3 I go over some problems so Memorization .00 .13 .25 .15 .56
often that I feel as if I could
solve them in my sleep.
D1 I go through examples again Control 1.00 .00 .00 .25 .18
and again in order to
remember the methods for
solving mathematics problems.
D2 I think about how the Elaboration .00 .32 1.00 .58 .15
mathematics I have learned cam
be used in everyday life.
D3 I always search for more Memorization .00 .67 .00 .17 .67
information to clarify the
problem when I cannot
understand something.
Class Probability .25 .16 .13 .16 .03

10
 For items B1, B2, and B3 under Class 1, the highest probability approached a value of one
corresponding to item B1. This means that essentially all the students chose the item “I try to figure
out which concepts I still do not understand completely.” This item falls under the “Control Strategy.”
For items C1, C2, and C3, still under Class 1, the highest probability of one was obtained by
C1. This implies that all the students chose the item “I try to relate the work to things I have learned
in other subjects.” This item falls under the “Control Strategy” as well, and none of the students chose
the other two options.
For the last items D1, D2, and D3 under Class 1, the highest probability of one was again
obtained by D1. This means that all the students chose “I go through examples again and again in
order to remember the methods for solving mathematics problems.” On the other hand, none of the
students chose the other two options. D1 still falls under “Control Strategy.” Among all the indicators
under Class 1, the highest probabilities were under “Control Strategy.” Thus, the students under Class
1 were labeled as the “Control Strategy” students.
For the Class 2 probability values, it can be noticed in Table 3 that the highest conditional
probabilities for the different indicators were obtained by A2, B1, C2, and D3, with probabilities of .40,
1.00, .56, and .67 respectively. These probabilities were under “Elaboration,” “Control,” “Elaboration,”
and “Memorization.” Thus, Class 2 was labeled as a “Multiple Strategies” group. The students under
this class tended to use all the strategies when studying for mathematics exams and solving
mathematical problems. Class 3 students show a preference for using “Control” and “Elaboration”
strategies since these strategies obtained the highest conditional probability for all the categories. The
items A2, B1, C1, and D2 obtained the highest probabilities of .39, 1.00, .73, and 1.00 respectively.
Hence, Class 3 students were labeled the “Control and Elaboration” group.
Class 4 students tended to use the “Elaboration” strategy, since this obtained the highest
conditional probability for all the categories and options. The items A2, B2, C2, and D2 obtained the
highest probabilities of .40, .98, .42, and .58 respectively. These items were all under the “Elaboration
Strategy” group. Thus, Class 4 was labeled the “Elaboration Strategy” group. The last class in the
model, Class 5, tended to use the “Memorization” strategy. Since this category obtained the highest
conditional probabilities, the items A3, C3, and D3 obtained the highest probabilities of .44, .56, and
.58, respectively. These items were all under the “Memorization Strategy” group. As a result, “Class
5” was labeled as the “Memorization Strategy” group. The students under this class tended to use
memorization in studying for mathematics exams and solving mathematical problems.
Table 4 shows descriptive statistics regarding students’ mathematics performance for the five
classes of learning strategies.

Table 4. Mathematics Performance Descriptive Statistics for Five-Class Model of Learning Strategies
Class Type N Mean Std. Deviation
1 Control 326 87.58 4.61
2 Multiple Strategies 211 86.44 4.98
3 Control and Elaboration 171 86.55 5.00
4 Elaboration 209 86.61 5.40
5 Memorization 396 86.74 4.93
Total 1313 86.86 4.96

ANOVA analysis indicated significant differences existed (p < .046). Thus, it can be concluded
that learning strategies affected the mathematics performance of the selected respondents. Further
analysis was performed using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) post hoc test (Table 5). It also
showed that significant differences existed, as all the significance values were less than the 5% level.
Referring back to Table 4, the mean score of students for the five types of learning strategies
showed that students in the Control Strategies group performed better; this was followed by the
Memorization Strategies group. The students with the lowest mathematics performance were found
in the Multiple Strategies group. These results contradict those of Lin and Tai (2015) in Taiwan. In their
study, the multiple strategies group was found to be the most effective among all the learning

11
strategies. Their control strategy group had the lowest performance. In can be noticed, however, that
there are minimal differences in the performance between the groups in the present study, and the
means differed only at around the 5% level.
On the basis of the present results, it is concluded that the control strategy was the most
effective in achieving high performance in mathematics among the selected senior high school
students. Control strategies are defined as determining what students have learned and what they
are still needing to learn. On the other hand, students using multiple strategies tended to have low
mathematics performance. This implies that using multiple strategies in learning mathematics is not
as effective as using a single strategy–specifically, the control strategy.

Table 5. LSD Post Hoc Test on Mean Grade Differences between Classes
95% Confidence Interval
Mean Std. Lower Upper
(I)Highest Probability Class Difference (I-J) Error Sig Bound Bound
LSD Control Multiple 1.13 0.44 .100 0.28 1.99
Control and Elaboration 1.02* 0.47 .029 0.11 1.94
Elaboration 0.96* 0.44 .028 0.10 1.82
Memorization 0.83* 0.37 .025 0.11 1.56
* p < .05

Metacognition Results
The next part shows the results of the metacognition of the respondents selected for the
study. The probability values of the five-class model are presented in Table 6. For students under Class
1, the mean class probability was .23, implying that 23% of the students were classified as Class 1
students. For Classes 2, 3, 4, and 5, the class probabilities are shown, indicating that 20% of the
students were classified as Class 2 and also as Class 3, 24% were classified as Class 4, and 13% were
classified as Class 5.
Table 6 shows the conditional probabilities of students in each class for individual items and
options. The conditional probability for Class 1 students indicated that no student chose either the E1
or E3 options. On the other hand, there was a high probability (99%) of students choosing “I set specific
goals before I begin a task.” This item falls under the “Task Strategy” heading.
The probability in each category for individual indicators was used to assign a label to each
class. Based on the distribution of conditional probabilities presented in Table 6, students under Class
1 who prepared for the mathematics exam, studied, and solved mathematics problems tended to have
knowledge of both “Person and Task,” since this strategy obtained the highest probability for each
category. The items E2, F1, G1, and H2 obtained the highest probabilities. All these items are under
“Task” and “Person” knowledge of metacognition. Thus, Class 1 was labeled the “Knowledge of Person
and Task” group.
The students under Class 2 were inclined to have “Multiple” strategies when studying for a
mathematics exam and in solving mathematics problems. All metacognitive strategies obtained the
highest conditional probabilities, with items E3, F2, G1, and H3 obtaining the highest probabilities.
These items fell under different metacognition strategies. As a result, Class 2 was labeled “Knowledge
of Multiple Strategies” group.
The students under Class 3 tended to have knowledge of “Strategy,” since this metacognitive
strategy obtained the highest conditional probability for all categories. The items E3, F3, G3, and H3
obtained the highest probabilities. These items are all under the “Strategy” group. Hence, Class 3
students were labeled “Knowledge of Strategy” group.
Class 4 students had an inclination to have knowledge of “Person,” since this class obtained
the highest conditional probabilities for all the categories and options. The items E1, F1, G1, and H1
obtained the highest probabilities. These items are all under the “Person” group. Thus, Class 4 was
labeled “Knowledge of Person” group.

12
Table 6. Conditional and Class Probabilities on the Metacognition Scale for the 5-Class Model
Item Code Statement Strategy Class 1 Class 2 Class 3 Class 4 Class 5
E1 I am aware of my intellectual Person .00 .00 .00 1.00 .00
strengths.
E2 I set specific goals before I begin a Task .99 .00 .00 .00 .00
task.
E3 I use different learning strategies Strategy .00 1.00 1.00 .00 1.00
depending on the situation.
F1 I know what kind of information is Person .38 .00 .00 .37 .95
most important to learn.
F2 I have a specific purpose for each Task .24 1.00 .00 .30 .00
strategy I use in doing a task.
F3 I summarize what I’ve learned Strategy .37 .00 1.00 .33 .00
after doing a learning task.
G1 I learn best when I know Person .63 .70 .16 .65 .70
something about the topic.
G2 I am good at organizing Task .19 .15 .16 .13 .14
information.
G3 I have control over how well I Strategy .17 .13 .66 .21 .16
learn.
H1 I know how well I did once I finish Person .27 .27 .28 .36 .28
a test.
H2 I ask myself periodically if I am Task .40 .30 .29 .32 .32
meeting my goals.
H3 I organize my time to best Strategy .33 .43 .43 .32 .40
accomplish my goals.
Mean Class Probability .23 .20 .20 .24 .13

The last class in the model, Class 5, tended to have knowledge of both “Person and Strategy,”
since these metacognitive strategies obtained the highest conditional probabilities. The items E3, F1,
G1, and H3 obtained the highest probabilities. These items are under the “Person” and “Strategy”
groups. The students under this class tended to have a knowledge of strategy in studying for a
mathematics exam and solving mathematical problems. As a result, Class 5 was labeled as “Knowledge
of Person and Strategy” group.
Table 7 shows the descriptive statistics about the mathematics performance of the students
using the five classes of metacognition. It can be noticed that there are slight differences in
performance between the groups. Further testing (ANOVA) was conducted to investigate if the
differences were significant; no differences were found (p = .61). Thus, it can be concluded that the
metacognition approaches of students had no effect on the performance of the selected students in
mathematics.

Table 7. Descriptive Statistics of Mathematics Performance for Five-Class Model of Metacognition

Class Type N Mean Std. Deviation
1 Person and Task 296 86.60 5.11
2 Multiple Strategies 267 86.75 5.03
3 Strategy 256 86.93 4.58
4 Person 320 86.86 4.93
5 Person and Strategy 174 87.35 5.18
Total 1313 86.86 4.96

Interaction Effect of Learning Strategies and Metacognition

As shown in Table 8 below, the significance value for the interaction effect of learning
strategies and metacognition on the performance of selected students in mathematics was .36, which

13
is greater than .05. This means the null hypothesis must be rejected. Thus, learning strategies and
metacognition of students did not affect the performance of students in mathematics in this study.
The purpose of using Two-way Analysis of Variance was to test the interaction effect of two factors on
the dependent variable. In this case, the interaction effect was not significant, implying that the
learning strategies and metacognition of students had no interaction effects on their performance in
mathematics. However, the learning strategy value (p = .037) was significant, while the effect of
metacognition was not significant. This implies that the learning strategies alone can affect the
mathematics performance of the selected students. As shown in the partial eta squared column, the
effect of interaction on the performance of students was only 1.3%, which is quite insignificant. In
addition, learning strategies accounted for 0.8% effect, while metacognition recorded a 0.2% effect
on the variation of the mathematics performance of the selected students.

Table 8. Interaction Effect of Learning Strategies and Metacognition on Student Performance

Sources Type III Sum of df Mean Square F Sig. Partial
Squares Eta
Squared
Corrected Model 737.32 24 30.72 1.26 .184 .023
Intercept 8,465,277.03 1 8,465,277.03 345,843.08 .000 .996
Metacognition 65.23 4 16.31 .67 .615 .002
Learning Strategies 250.09 4 62.52 2.55 .037 .008
Interaction 426.33 16 26.65 1.09 .361 .013
Error 31,526.66 1288 24.48
Total 9,937,762.75 1313
Corrected Total 32,263.97 1312

In terms of learning strategies, the results of this study confirmed the results of other studies
conducted in the Philippines and abroad. However, in terms of metacognition, the results of this study
contradict the results of all other studies conducted locally and internationally. This might be because
the sample for this study was senior high school students. Senior high school in the Philippines just
started in 2016. The students might still be in the period of adjusting from being in high school to
preparing for college. Another reason to be considered is that the results of studies conducted in other
countries might differ on account of differences in their curricula. Hence, this study showed that the
learning strategies practiced by students affect their performance in mathematics. On the other hand,
this study does not support the theory that metacognition practiced by students affected their
performance.

Conclusions
Learning strategies and metacognition of the students are vital in achieving higher performance
in mathematics. In this study, it was found that the learning strategies affected the way students study
and prepare for examinations in mathematics. However, metacognition was not shown to affect their
performance. Hence, educators should focus more on developing students’ learning strategies. The
Department of Education could draft policies for using the empirically sound results of this study to
boost the mathematical abilities of learners.

Limitations
A similar study could be conducted using other types of learning strategies and metacognition. It
is recommended to have a larger sample size to ensure the aptness of the Latent Class Models. A more
in-depth LCA could be done regarding the metacognition strategies of the students using other
metacognition types.

14
References
Fact Fish Research Made Simple! (2018). Philippines: TIMSS, mathematics, mean performance, grade 8, total.
Retrieved from http://www.factfish.com/statistic-country/philippines/timss
Jaafar, W., & Ayub, A. (2010). Mathematics self-efficacy and meta-cognition among university students.
Proceedings of International Conference on Mathematics Education Research 2010 (ICMER 2010),
Malaysia, 8, 519–524. doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.071
Lin, S., & Tai, W. (2015). Latent class analysis of students' mathematics learning strategies and relationship
between learning strategy and mathematical literacy. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 3(6),
390–395. doi: 10.13189/ujer.2015.030606
Metcalfe, J., & Shimamura, A. (Eds.). (1994). Metacognition: knowing about knowing. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2017). How does PISA for development
measure mathematical literacy? PISA for development 2017. Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/
pisa/aboutpisa/9-How-PISA-D-measures-math-literacy.pdf.
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2018). PISA 2015: PISA results in focus.
Retrieved from https://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisa-2015-results-in-focus.pdf
Ozsoy, G. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between metacognition and mathematics achievement.
Asia Pacific Education Review, 12(2), 227–235. doi 10.1007/s12564-010-9129-6
Schoenfeld, A. H. (1987). What's all the fuzz about metacognition? In A. H. Schoenfeld (Ed.), Cognitive science
and mathematics education (pp. 189–215). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Perceptions of Premarital Sex among Students at a Faith-Based University

Hansel Teo Sze Yong1 and Amanda Simon, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Date Received: 8 November 2019 Revised: 20 January 2020 Accepted: 2 February 2020

Abstract
In this study, the relationship between moral development activities and perceptions of
premarital sex was investigated among students at a faith-based university. Information was gathered
using survey questionnaires, distributed through the university intranet, and the data were analyzed
using a statistical software package. Undergraduate students (N = 103) took part in the study. Most
university students were against sex before marriage. Moral development activities taught them to
abstain from premarital sex. Responses showed that the factor that most affected perceptions of
premarital sex was the Internet. Movie/television viewing was also found to be an important factor
that shaped perceptions of premarital sex. Moral development activities and perceptions of
premarital sex were shown to be weakly related (r =.03). Further improvement of moral development
activities is needed to help students understand the value of sex. Future research in this area could
use qualitative approaches to examine the factors that influence perceptions of premarital sex.

Keywords: Moral development, morality, premarital sex, sexual activity

Introduction
Empirical studies (e.g., Chiao & Yi, 2011; Christopher & Frandsen, 1990; Gyan, 2018) have
focused on strategies to reduce premarital sex, but not many have incorporated the impact of religious
moral development on such behavior. This study addressed this knowledge gap. The prevalence of
premarital sex has increased over the years. In 2002, 34% of America women aged 18–24 years were
involved in sexual activity, and this figure increased to 41% from 2006–2010 (Abma & Martinez, 2017;
Abma, Martinez, Mosher, & Dawson, 2004; Martinez, Copen, & Abma, 2011). According to Finer and
Zolna (2016), 75% of unintended pregnancies occurred among American girls 15 to 19 years old, and
adolescent pregnancies accounted for about 15% of all unintended pregnancies worldwide due to
premarital sex.
According to Focus on the Family (1999), factors associated with premarital sex among
American adolescent were alcohol and drug use; limited parental monitoring; frequent family
relocations; only one parent in the household; early steady relationships among adolescents; and peer
pressure. Peer pressure influences how young people dress, the kind of music they listen to, and the
types of behavior they engage in, including sexual activity (Wells, 2020). Often young people are
challenged by strong social, peer, and cultural pressure to engage in premarital sex (Chekole,
Gebrehana, & Terefe, 2017; Sieving, Eisenberg, Pettingell, & Skay, 2006).
Sexual practices displayed on the Internet or in the media influence the behavior of young
people, as do social media such as adult videos and pictures of nude people (Collins, Elliott, Berry,
Kanouse, Kunkel, Hunter, & Miu 2004). Asekun-Olarinmoye, Asekun-Olarinmoye, Adebimpe, and
Omisore (2014) found that media portrayals of sexual attitudes and expectations made to young
people at a critical developmental stage influenced them to normalize or take part in such behaviors.
These results are also supported by other studies. Adolescents were more permissive towards sex
because of Internet access, exposure to Sexually Explicit Media (SEM), and pornography or nudity on
the web (Arulogun, Ogbu, & Dipeolu, 2016; Bragg & Buckingham, 2002; Owens, Behun, Manning, &
Reid, 2012).

1
Corresponding author’s email address: Hanselt86@gmail.com
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

16
 Despite the powerful influence of peers, the media, and the Internet, Tant (2011) suggested
that religious moral development could reshape the behavior and attitudes of young people towards
premarital sex. Moral development focuses on emergence, change, and understanding of morality
from adolescence to adulthood. Moral development is influenced by an individual’s experiences and
responses when faced with moral issues. It concerns an individual’s growing sense of what is right and
wrong (Homiak, 2019). Moral development is a process through which appropriate attitudes and
behaviors towards other people in society are developed, based on social and cultural norms, rules,
and laws (Wells, 2020). Teaching institutions could be effective resources in implanting moral values
in young people if moral development and sex education topics were integrated into curricula (Kanzal,
Subikshalakshmi, & Goswami, 2016). Lamb supports this perspective, suggesting that behavior and
attitudes among young people towards premarital sex could be modified, and a respectful attitude
towards others could be developed, to the benefit of society (Lamb, 1997).
This study was conducted in a private university in Thailand that emphasizes the importance
of religious moral principles. The Christian belief is that sex before marriage is a sinful act towards
God; thus, the University is against premarital sex, and only supports sex within marriage. This context
includes strict rules governing student relationships and physical contact–such as holding hands,
hugging, and kissing on and off campus–as an aid to maintaining its Christian ethos.

Purpose of the Study

This study’s purpose was to describe, analyze, and evaluate perceptions of premarital sex at
a faith-based university. More specifically, student perceptions about premarital sex, the extent to
which moral development activities on campus influenced these perceptions, and major factors
contributing to perceptions of premarital sex were investigated. The study posed the following
research questions:
1. What are the perception levels of students pertaining to premarital sex?
2. How often do students attend moral development activities on campus?
3. To what extent have student perceptions of premarital sex been influenced by the moral
development activities on campus?
4. What are the key factors that have impacted student perceptions of premarital sex?

Literature Review
Prevalence of Premarital Sex amongst Young People
In many countries, premarital sex is a common practice among young people (e.g., Finer, 2007;
Podhisita, Xenos, & Varangrat, 2004; Wang, Li, Stanton, Kamali, Naar-king, Shah, & Thomas, 2007). For
example, in the Indian slums of Delhi and Lucknow, it was discovered that 75.3% of young people
engaged in premarital sexual activity, while in Malaysia, 47.2% of the young girls aged 12 to 14 years
old engage in premarital sex (Ghani, Abdullah, Akil, & Nordin, 2014). Peltzer and Pengid (2015) found
that 76.7% of adolescents reported engaging in premarital sex in the region of Central America. The
reasons for the prevalence of premarital sex among young people are their attitudes towards sex,
such as a desire for sex, and the seeming appropriateness of it in their societies (Bhatta, Koirala, & Jha,
2013; Yip, Zhang, Lam, Lam, Lee, Chan, & Fan, 2013).

Factors that Impact Premarital Sexual Activity

There are a number of factors that impact the prevalence of premarital sex across different
countries. Wong, Chan, Koh, Tan, Lim, Emmanuel, and Bishop (2009) showed that the major factors
that influenced premarital sexual activity among young people in Malaysia were peer pressure and
permissiveness regarding sex. Chi, Yu, and Winter (2012) found that the major factors of premarital
sexual behavior among young people in China were watching pornography, spending time on the
Internet, and talking with friends about sex. In Cambodia, the factors that influence premarital sex are
associated with family, peers, school, and community. Premarital sexual behavior in both males and
females was influenced by drug use and peer pressure (Yi, Poudel, Yasuoka, Palmer, Yi, & Jimba, 2010).

17
In Ethiopia, Hurissa, Tebeje, and Megersa (2014) found that 39.7% of young people between 15–19
years old were engaged in premarital sex. They discovered that falling in love, peer pressure, desire,
and alcohol were all factors that contributed to premarital sex.
Exposure and accessibility to SEM has also been found to be a major contributer to the
prevelance of premarital sexual behaviour (Brown & L’Engle, 2009; Kraus & Russell, 2008). Findings
from Lou, Cheng, Gao, Zuo, Emerson, and Zahin (2012) suggested that young people learnt mainly
about sex from the Internet and media. These authors stated that higher levels of premarital sexual
behavior were found among young people who viewed SEM, and that young people learn about sex
when they see it on the Internet and are encouraged to engage in such behavior.
The family environment, such as levels of family connectedness, also are related to premarital
sex attitudes among youth (e.g. Markham, Tortolero, Escobar-Chaves, Parcel, Harrist, & Addy, 2003;
Henrich, Brookemeyer, Shrier, & Shahar 2006; Manlove, Wildsmith, Ikramullah, Terry-Humen, &
Schelar, 2012.) Dittus, Michael, Becasen, Gioppen, McCarthy, and Guilamo-Ramos, 2005 found that
students who perceived high levels of family connectedness were less likely to engage in premarital
sexual activity. Other studies by Donenberg, Wilson, Emerson, and Bryant (2002), Mehrotra,
Zimmerman, Noar, and Dumenci (2013), and Suwarni, Ismail, Prabandari, and Adiyanti (2015) suggest
that those who experienced lower parental monitoring were more likely to engage in premarital sex.

The Interrelation of Moral Development and Religious Values

Moral development consists of creating an appropriate environment for incorporation of
components of social morality into the student’s personality structure, which leads to the
implementation of proper moral conduct. Moral development and religious values are related
because religious values strengthen moral knowledge and action (Manea, 2014). According to Kuar
(2015), moral development and religion have similar concepts about influencing thinking, feeling, and
acting regarding issues of right and wrong. Historically, moral teachings have been central to
Christianity, and the Bible–a book of ethical guidance–is at its core (Noelliste, 2020). Moral
development is therefore associated with religion.

Impact of Moral Development Activities on Premarital Sex

Researchers have found that religion has significant correlations with premarital sex (Ghaffari,
Gharghani, & Rakshanderou, 2015; Opayemi, 2011; Penhollow, Young, & Bailey, 2007). Penhollow et
al. (2007) discovered that regular religious service attendance and a positive religious feeling
associated with religious exercises were associated with lesser premarital sexual activity among
college students. Religious involvement is also a protective factor from premarital sexual behavior
among young people (Ghaffari et al., 2015; Helm, McBride, Knox, & Zusman, 2009; McCree, Wingood,
DiClemente, Davies, & Harrington, 2003; Penhollow et al., 2007; Regnerus, 2005).
According to the research featured in this section, factors such as peer pressure, exposure to
sexually explicit media, and family environment are important factors that influence young people’s
perceptions of premarital sex. The literature also suggested that religious moral development is
related to premarital sexual attitudes among young people.

Methodology
In this research, religious moral development activities were used to promote the Christian
ethos of the university where this study was conducted. These included certain forms of collective
worship. Collective worship is where people are given an opportunity to worship God within a
particular faith, as in Christianity or Islam (Humanists UK, 2019). Collective worship such as dorm
worship, morning worship, and assembly were part of the moral development activities on campus.
A quantitative design was used to examine students’ perceptions of premarital sex and to
investigate any correlations between their involvement in moral development activities and
perceptions of premarital sex. Opinions were collected via a quantitative online, self-completed
questionnaire. Student anonymity was preserved throughout. This was particularly significant, given

18
the sensitive nature of the research topic. No time limitations were placed on completion of the
survey. The data were analyzed using a statistical software package.
The null hypothesis adopted was that: “There is no relationship between moral development
activities attendance and perceptions of premarital sex among international students”.

Sampling
Students studying in the international program were surveyed (N = 400). The sample size
needed for the study was calculated using the equation devised by Yamane (1957), n = calculated
sample size, N = total number if population, and e = allowable error. In this research, the margin of
error was 8% of the sample size. Hence, the sample size was 110.

400
𝑛= = 110
1 × 400(0.08)2
The sample was drawn from the population by convenience sampling. The online survey was
distributed through the university intranet to all students in the international program. Students could
then choose whether to take part or not. The reason that this sampling technique was chosen was
because it eliminated bias by giving all members of the population an equal chance to participate. A
total of 103 students responded to the survey.

Research Instrument
The questionnaire was divided into five sections: demographic data, perceptions toward
premarital sex, participation in religious moral development activities, impact of religious moral
development activities on perceptions of premarital sex, and the factors that influenced perception
of premarital sex. Apart from the demographic data, each of the aforementioned sections contained
a series of statements to which participants responded by choosing one of the options on a five-point
Likert scale. The final section asked participants about the factors that influenced their perceptions of
premarital sex. This section contained an open-ended question so that participants could write their
personal opinions. Responses given within this section gave further insights into the key influencers
of student perceptions, and the means by which these perceptions were shaped.

Validity and Reliability

The section of the questionnaire that focused on perceptions of premarital sex was adopted
from Adhikari and Adhikari (2017). The original questionnaire was reviewed by experts. Modifications
were made according to their feedback. Validity was calculated using Cronbach Alpha coefficient (a
score of .70 was obtained).
The sections of the questionnaire that focused on moral development activities participation
and the impact of moral development activities on premarital sex perception were self-constructed.
Measurement was in the form of responses such as Strongly Agree, Agree, Neutral, Disagree, and
Strongly Disagree. The Item-Objective Congruence index, devised by Rovinelli and Hambleton (1977),
was used to test the validity of these questions. It was given to five experts within the University, and
amendments were made according to their feedback. These experts assessed each item, and overall
the questionnaire was given a validity coefficient score of more than .50.

Data Collection
A link to the survey was sent to all undergraduate students within the international program
through the university intranet. During the process of completing of the questionnaire, participants
had no contact with the researcher or anyone else involved with the research.

19
Data Analysis
The data were analyzed using a statistical software package. A thematic analysis was used to
analyze the factors that affected premarital sex among students. Thematic analysis is a widely-used,
foundational method for analyzing qualitative data (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Results
Demographic data are given in Table 1. The chart shows that the vast majority (90.3%) of the
participants were from Asia. Most participants were unmarried, 73.8% were single (not in a dating
relationship), and 20.4% were dating. The majority of respondents were between the ages of 16 and
24; half were aged between 21–24 years old. Most respondents (85.4%) classified themselves as
Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) or ‘other Christian.’ The rest of this section focuses on responses to
research questions.

Table 1. Demographic Description of the Sample of University Students

Male Female
Gender
57 (55.3%) 46 (44.7%)
Africa Asia Australia Europe South America
Nationality
6 (5.8%) 93 (90.3%) 1 (1%) 2 (1.9%) 1 (1%)
Dating Married Single
Status
21 (20.4%) 6 (5.8%) 76 (73.8%)
16–20 21–24 25–29 30 above
Age
30 (29.1%) 53 (51.5%) 14 (13.6%) 6 (5.8%)
SDA & Other
Buddhist Others No religion
Religion Christian
12 (11.7%) 1 (1%) 2 (1.9%)
88 (85.4%)

1. What are the perceptions of surveyed students on premarital sex?

In terms of students’ perceptions of premarital sex, most students were against sex before
marriage (Table 2). The results of the first four questions indicate that students generally “Agreed”
(mean range 3.26–4.00), which shows that they were largely against premarital sex. Scores also
showed that students mostly “Disagreed” that premarital sex is acceptable for relation purposes such
as selecting an ideal spouse, if a couple practiced safe sex, and if he/she had only one sexual partner.

Table 2. Perceptions of Premarital Sex among Students

Perception Mean
PM 1 A woman should be virgin at marriage. 3.80
PM 2 A man should be virgin at marriage. 3.70
PM 3 Neither a man nor woman should have premarital sex. 3.63
PM 4 Premarital sexual relationships should be absolutely prohibited. 3.62
PM 5 Sexual relations before marriage is a normal phenomenon because it is a kind of biological need. 2.70
PM 6 Premarital sexual relationships should be acceptable because they can help to select an ideal
wife/husband. 2.27
PM 7 Pre-marital sexual relations are acceptable if a “couple” fall in love. 2.26
PM 8 Premarital sexual relations are acceptable if a “couple” practice safe sex. 2.48
PM 9 Premarital sexual relations are acceptable if he/she has only one sexual partner. 2.50
PM 10 Premarital sexual relations are acceptable if the “couple” plan to marry in the future. 2.71
Legend: 1.00–1.75 = Strongly Disagree; 1.76-2.50 = Disagree; 2.51–3.25 = Neutral; 3.26–4.00 = Agree; 4.01+ =
Strongly Agree

20
 However, in regards to the statement that premarital sexual relations are acceptable “if [a]
couple plan to marry in the future,” scores reflected some neutrality amongst students (mean range
2.51–3.25). Notable numbers of students remained “Neutral” for every statement, with no “Strongly
Agree” (4.01 or more) nor “Strongly Disagree” (1.00–1.75) scores; perhaps this was due to the topic’s
sensitivity.

2. How often do students attend moral development activities on campus?

The findings (Table 3) suggest that most students “Often” (mean score 3.26–4.00) or “Always”
(mean score 4.01 or more) attended Moral Development Activities. Dorm worships, family groups,
and AY programs were the least-well attended activities; many “Never” attended AY programs. Chapel
was the best-attended moral development activity, with most students “Always” attending.

Table 3. Attendance at Moral Development Activities on Campus

Activities on Campus Mean
10 Days of Prayer 3.56
Adventist Youth (AY) Program 2.21
Assembly 4.17
Chapel 4.60
Church Service 4.03
Dorm Worship 3.35
Family Group 3.24
Festival of Faith 4.08
Sabbath School 3.66
Vespers 4.08
Legend 1.00–1.75 = Never; 1.76-2.50 = Occasionally; 2.51–3.25 = Sometimes; 3.26–4.00 = Often; 4.01 or more =
Always

3. To what extent have students’ perceptions of premarital sex been influenced by the moral
development activities on campus?
Participants assessed the extent to which participation in moral development activities had
influenced their perceptions of premarital sex. The data are given in Table 4.

Table 4. The Impact of Moral Development Activities on Perceptions of Premarital Sex

Moral development activities have taught me… Mean
To view sex as sacred to marriage. 3.67
To value sexual abstinence before marriage. 3.79
I should respect my body and keep it pure for marriage. 4.02
I should respect others and help them keep their bodies pure. 3.99
I should control my sexual desires until marriage. 3.90
Sex is important and that of should not be taken lightly. 3.95
The importance of controlling sexual thoughts. 3.90
Sex is not only about physical intimacy but also spiritual and emotional. 3.90
To avoid sexual activity with a partner in a relationship. 3.85
Premarital sex is unholy. 3.87
Sex is God’s gift to be used in marriage, not before marriage. 3.98
Premarital sex is a sinful in a sight of God. 3.91
Legend: 1.00–1.75 = Strongly Disagree; 1.76-2.50 = Disagree; 2.51–3.25 = Neutral; 3.26–4.00 = Agree; 4.01+ =
Strongly Agree

21
 The results indicate that students generally “Agreed” or “Strongly Agreed” (mean score 3.26–
4.25) that they have been taught not to have sex before marriage in moral development activities, a
minority of students remained “Neutral”. A small number of students “Disagreed” with the
statements, indicating that they have not been taught to abstain from premarital sex in the moral
development activities. Maybe this is because students did not regularly attend any of the moral
development activities.

4. What are the key factors that have impacted student’s perceptions of premarital sex?
The findings shown on Table 5 were generated from the final section of the questionnaire
where participants were asked to select the key factors that had influenced their perceptions of
premarital sex. The table shows the percentage of participants who selected the various factors listed.

Table 5. Factors that Impacted Student’s Perception of Premarital Sex

Internet 33.0%
Movies/Television 28.2%
Other 28.2%
Influence from Friends 7.8%
Drugs/Alcohol 2.9%

The key factor that influenced students’ perceptions of premarital sex was the Internet. The
following most significant factors were “Movies/Television” and “Other”—such as family, church,
desire, Western culture, and community influence mention by the participants, being both at 28.2%.
The results also indicate that “Influence from friends” and “Drugs/Alcohol were the least impacting
factors on perception of premarital sex.
In the final section of the survey, respondents choose to give a more detailed explanation of
how specific factors influenced their personal perception of premarital sex. Only 46% of participants
completed this section and most of these participants gave general responses that were not related
to their own personal opinions or experiences. The qualitative statements of participants will be
discussed later.

5. Correlation between attendance at moral development activities and perceptions of premarital sex
Table 6 shows correlation coefficients between the overall attendance score for each moral
development activity and the overall scores for each of 10 statement pertaining to students’
perceptions of premarital sex (please see statements in Table 2, PM 1 to PM 10).

Table 6. Correlation Coefficients - Moral Development Activities and Perceptions of Premarital Sex
(n = 103)
Program PM1 PM2 PM3 PM4 PM5 PM6 PM7 PM8 PM9 PM10
Ten Days Prayer .19 .30** .21* .36** -.25** -.15 -.35** -.40** -.39** -.40**
AY Program .19 .16 .12 .30** -.05 -.17 -.30** -.25* -.33** -.34**
Assembly .28** .32** .14 .14 -.05 -.03 -.04 -.10 -.12 -.12
Chapel .23* .27** .12 .16 .07 .06 .03 -.12 .03 -.15
Church Service .22* .33** .18 .26** -.16 -.12 -.29** -.30** -.29** -.37**
Dorm Worship .20* .24* .08 .29** -.12 -.09 -.35** -.25* -.22* -.23*
Family Group .17 .15 .17 .24* -.10 .01 -.21* -.19 -.26** -.32**
Fest. of Faith .32** .32** .20* .34** -.08 -.15 -.21* -.29** -.18 -.30**
Sabbath School .30** .31** .22* .30** -.19 -.09 -.25* -.31** -.20* -.30**
Vespers .28** .31** .16 .24* -.18 -.15 -.25* -.32** -.26** -.37**

The correlation analysis indicated that for the first four statements, a positive correlation was
found between moral development activities attendance and perceptions of premarital sex. For the
last six statements, a negative correlation was found between moral development activities and

22
perceptions of premarital sex. However, for the statement that a premarital sexual relationship is
acceptable because it could help to select an ideal wife/husband, no correlation was found between
it and any moral development activities. Overall, moral development activities and perceptions of
premarital sex were weakly correlated.

Discussion
The findings suggested that the majority of students’ were against sex before marriage. This
could be because the vast majority of students attended most moral development activities, or it could
also be because almost 90% of participants were Christian, and so they were generally against
premarital sexual activity. According to Podhisita et al. (2004), most Thai young people have
permissive attitudes towards sex, but this study was not conducted in a religious-based context.
The findings suggest that students’ perceptions of premarital sex could be influenced by moral
development activities. Most students had been taught not to engage in premarital sex in moral
development activities. This could be one reason that most students were less permissive towards sex
before marriage, or perhaps they were inspired to follow the university’s principles and values due to
their frequent attendance at the moral development activities in which these were promoted (Helm
et al., 2009). At least 30% had a neutral stance towards premarital sex. This might be because these
students did not regularly attend moral development activities, or disagreed with the values and
principles of the university. It could also be the case that there was not sufficient discussion on
premarital sex in moral development activities. In previous research, it was found that students who
regularly attended religious moral development activities and had more discussions about sex were
influenced in their perceptions (Burdette & Hill, 2009; Ghaffari et al., 2015; Opayemi, 2011; Regnerus,
2005). In this study, the findings suggest that there was a weak correlation between moral
development activities attendance and perceptions of premarital sex, indicating that these activities
may have had a small impact on students’ perceptions.
The major contributing factor to perceptions of premarital sex was the Internet, a finding
similar to that found by Brown and L’Engle (2009), as well as Habesha, Aderaw, and Lakew (2015). The
findings also suggest that movies/television were an important factor that contributes to perceptions
of premarital sex, which agrees with Ward and Friendman (2006). Interestingly, other findings
(Markham et al., 2003; Henrich et al., 2006; Suwarni et al., 2015; Romer et al., 1999) indicated that
family environment is an important factor affecting perception of premarital sex. This study did not
look at the role played by family environment in shaping perception of premarital sex. However, it was
mentioned by participants in the “Other” category.
In the open-ended question, there were five factor categories: 1) Internet; 2)
movies/television; 3) drugs and alcohol; 4) influence from friends; and 5) other. In the category
“Other,” participants mentioned factors that impacted their perception of premarital sex, such as
family, church and cultural factors, but only a few shared their personal opinions. The following
analysis only focused on Internet and movie/ television factors, because many participants shared
comments that related to these factors in particular.
Within the responses related to the Internet, the theme of ‘power’ was predominant. The
participants suggested that the Internet had power to cause individuals to think and act in certain
ways. This is shown in the following statements:
Participant 2: “The Internet has a wide variety of information that causes one’s mind to be influenced by
world’s perception.”
Participant 19: “Internet is the most influential. People nowadays believe in everything the Internet says
specifically Google. And if the Internet says it’s normal to have sex, then people will assume it’s normal,
since everyone on the Internet is doing it.”

Participant statements suggested that the Internet had power to change perceptions of
premarital sex because it is influential and it is able to normalize certain forms of sexual behavior.
These responses correspond with findings from a study conducted by Habesha et al. (2015), who

23
implied that there is much information regarding sex on the web, which has the power to change the
mindset of young people about sex. Participants in this study had very little discussion about sexual
behavior with parents or in school, which led them to search for sexual information online.
Furthermore, another participant mentioned that the wide availability of adult content, such as
pornography, causes young people to assume that premarital sex is normal.
Participants also suggested that the Internet has a wealth of information that is open and
available to everyone, which also connects to the issue of the Internet being very powerful:

Participant 27: “the Internet is the major reason that leads to all other existing factors. Since everything can
be searched for, people usually have a tendency to find interesting things that could satisfy their
physical and emotional needs. Also, all the facts and video about sex can be found on the Internet.”

This participant’s statement is similar to the findings of Kraus and Russell (2008) who found
that because of accessibility to the Internet, young people can view SEM, such as pornographic videos
and information related to sexual activity, and that the Internet promotes and sells SEM, which causes
young people to change their attitudes towards premarital sex.
In the analysis of respondents’ comments, movies/television were shown to be the second
most influential factor. The key theme within this category was the normalizing of sexual activity.
Analyzing the statements, it seems that frequency and openness of sexual activity in movies and on
television contributes to premarital sexual activity among young people.

Respondent 1: “often the movies will show the scenes of a couple is having premarital sex before marry, and
the couple later on still have a blessed marriage. Since it is shown by the TV, then the audience who are
watching will have a mindset that premarital sex is fine.”
Respondent 2: “Movies or dramas seem to have no problem with sexual relationships, so it could influence
people.”
Respondent 4: “Dramas, movies are showing too much of romantic scene that only should be done after
marriage.”

The respondents’ comments suggest that there is an openness and frequency of sexual
activity in the media, which may convince young people that premarital sex is normal, a finding
supported by the research of Ward and Friedman (2006).

Conclusion
The majority of participants were against sex before marriage. Most of the students had been
taught to value sex within marriage. Moral development activities might have a small impact on
students’ perceptions of premarital sex, because the findings suggest that moral development
activities and perceptions of premarital sex were related. The Internet is a major factor that
contributed to perceptions of premarital sex, and the results indicated that movies/television were
also an important factor that influenced participants’ perceptions.

Implications
There is a need for improvement of moral development activities so that students would want
to participate regularly. Moral development activities might incorporate more discussions about sex
before marriage that could help students to understand the value of sex. The university might also
take note of factors that influence perceptions of premarital sex, and these factors could be
incorporated into discussions within moral development activities.

Recommendations for Future Research

Future research could investigate how religious moral development activities influence
perceptions of premarital sex among young people using regression analysis; this would be beneficial
for investigating the extent to which religious moral development influences perceptions of premarital

24
sex. Qualitative research would also be helpful in conducting detailed examination of the factors that
influence perceptions of premarital sex, because it may give a deeper understanding of the context of
these factors, and how religious moral development activities can affect perceptions about premarital
sex.

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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Analysis of the Effect of Profitability, Solvability, and

Dividend Policy on Banking Firm Value

Tonny I. Soewignyo1, Universitas Klabat, Indonesia

Date Received: 13 November 2019 Revised: 26 January 2020 Accepted: 11 February 2020

Abstract
This research was conducted to investigate the effect of profitability, solvability, and dividend
policy on the maximization of firm value. In this study, profitability was represented by Return on
Equity (ROE) and Return on Assets (ROA), while solvability was examined by the Debt to Equity ratio
(DER) and Debt to Assets ratio (DAR). The dividend payout ratio (DPR) was a proxy for the firm’s
dividend policy, and firm value was examined by Price to Book Value (PBR). The purpose of this study
was to examine the influence of profitability, solvability, and dividend policy on firm value. The sample
included banks listed on the Indonesia Stock Exchange for the 2012–2014 period with a total of five
banks using purposive sampling method. The analysis tool used was multiple regression analysis.
Results from an F-test showed that the model has prediction ability of 80.4%, while the remaining
19.6% were influenced by other factors outside of this model. ROE had a significantly positive
influence on firm value, implying that higher profitability (ROE) of a firm will result in higher firm
value. However, solvability (DAR) was significantly negative. An increase in solvability (DAR) of a firm
will result in lower firm value.

Keywords: Bank, dividend policy, firm value, profitability, solvability

Introduction and Research Problem

As a financial intermediary, a bank is an institution that collects and distribute funds from the
public or investors, as well as provides various services in the context of a financial intermediary
(Usman, 2001; Widati, 2012). The growing number of banks, with some listed in the stock market,
means that investors must tread carefully in terms of investment.
According to Wijaya, Ihsan, and Solikhin (2012), investors will put their investments in the form
of share purchases in banks with good reputations in order to obtain maximum returns. Therefore,
each bank strives to maintain continuity and to enhance its business development in order to carry
out its business activities continuously (Bangun & Wati, 2007).
Out of all the information and financial statements periodically issued by banks, investors
generally pay attention to profitability, solvability, and dividend policy. This is because the level of
returns received by investors depends on the level of profitability (profit), a company’s ability to meet
its long-term liabilities (solvability), and the dividend policy. The greater the appraisal value by
investors, the higher the stock price. Thus, the value of the company itself increases (Bangun & Wati,
2007).
The value of the firm as seen through its market value is the market perception derived from
investors, creditors, and other stakeholders of the firm’s condition, which are reflected in the
company’s stock market value as a measure of its value (Wardjono, 2010). The market value can be
measured using the Price-to-Book Value (PBV) Ratio. Research conducted by Bangun and Wati (2007)
found that profitability significantly affected firm value, while the dividend policy did not significantly
affect firm value. In contrast, Sambora, Handayani, and Rahayu (2014) found no significant effect of
profitability on firm value. In addition, Sari (2013) found a positive and significant effect of dividend

1
Author’s email address: tonnysoewignyo@unklab.ac.id
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

28
policy on firm value. In terms of solvability, Rompas (2013) found that solvability significantly affects
the value of state-owned enterprises.
The aim of this study is to examine the effect of profitability, solvability, and dividend policy
simultaneously on firm value, particularly in the banking sector as listed on the Indonesian Stock
Exchange for the 2012–2014 period using multiple linear regression.
The presentation of the study is divided into: literature review and hypothesis, methodology,
results and discussion, as well as the conclusion and suggestions.

Literature Review and Hypothesis

This study is based on several theories and concepts related to the characteristics of firm value,
profitability, solvability, and dividend policy.

Firm Value
According to Fuad, Christine, Nurlela, Sugiarto, and Paulus (2006), firm value represents the
amount that prospective investors are willing to pay if a firm is sold. For publicly traded companies,
the firm value indicator is the stock price traded on the stock exchanges. In other words, firm value is
reflected in the stock’s bargaining power. Thus, if a company is assessed to have prospects in the
future, then the value of the shares will be high (Mardiyati, Ahmad, & Putri, 2012). High corporate
value is desired by every shareholder as owners of the company, because high firm value indicates
prosperity of owners (Nurhayati, 2013). Greater firm value, which is also shareholder value, shows
that the public has assessed a stock market price above book value.

Profitability and Firm Value

Bangun and Wati (2007) defined profitability as the company’s ability to generate income or
profit in relation to total assets (ROA) and stockholders’ equity (ROE). Profitability is an indicator of
management performance in handling the company’s assets as shown by the income generated
through the sales and investments made by the company (Sudarmadji & Sularto, 2007). The greater
the profits obtained, the greater the company’s ability to pay its dividends and carry on its business
(Nurhayati, 2013).
Profitability ratio is used to measure a company’s ability to generate profits from business
activities carried out, in order that investors can see how efficiently the company uses its assets in
operations to generate profit. Profitability ratios are the end result of a number of policies and
decisions made by the company (Mardiyati, Ahmad & Putri, 2012). In this study, the researcher used
Return on Equity (ROE) and Return on Assets (ROA) as proxies for profitability.
Return on Equity (ROE) shows a company’s ability to generate net income returns on
shareholders’ equity (Hermuningsih, 2013). Therefore, ROE reflects the wealth of shareholders or the
firm’s value (Handono, 2009). The larger the results of ROE, the better the performance. An improving
ratio indicates increasing management performance in managing sources of operational funds
effectively to generate net profits. ROE growth shows that a company’s prospects are getting better
as it indicates that potential increases in corporate profits exist. This is captured by investors as a
positive signal from the company such that it will improve investor confidence and facilitate
management to attract capital in the form of shares. When the demand for shares of a company
increases, the price of such shares on capital markets will increase indirectly (Hermuningsih, 2013).
Return on Assets (ROA) represents the ability of a firm to generate net income from assets used
in operations. Sugiono (2009) stated that ROA is used to measure the rate of return of the business of
all its existing assets or–in other words–ROE describes the efficiency of assets used in the company.
ROE growth can also increase investor confidence and stock prices.
Several studies using trade, service, and investment companies listed on the Jakarta Stock
Exchange showed that profitability as measured by ROE significantly affects firm value as measured
by PBV (Kontesa, 2015; Sucuahi & Cambarihan, 2016; Bangun & Wati, 2007). Other researchers also
found the same results using the same measurement, namely ROE. Among others, this includes

29
research conducted by Hermuningsih (2013) on publicly listed companies on the Indonesian Stock
Exchange for the 2006–2010 period, and research conducted by Mardiyati, Ahmad, and Putri (2012)
on companies listed on the Indonesian Stock Exchange from 2005 up to 2010. On the contrary,
research conducted by Sambora, Handayani, and Rahayu (2014)—as well as by Hirdinis (2019)—found
that profitability as measured by ROE has no significant effect on firm value (PBV).
In addition, research conducted by Chen and Chen (2011) on companies listed in Taiwan for
the 2005–2009 period found that profitability—as measured by return on assets (ROA)—significantly
affected the value of the company as measured by closing stock prices.
The higher the profits earned by a firm, the higher the returns earned by investors. The
assessment of investors is affected by the level of returns, such that a high appraisal on stock will lead
to increased firm value (Bangun & Wati, 2007). High profits give an indication of good prospects, thus
prompting investors to increase demand for stocks. Rising demand of stocks will then lead to the
increase of firm value (Mardiyati, Ahmad, & Putri, 2012).

Solvability and Firm Value

Every company must have the financial resources needed to carry out its activities and to
expand its business. However, the financial resources available are not necessarily sufficient.
According to Herprasetyo (2009), to cover the shortage of financial resources, the sources of funds
should be divided into two, external and internal sources. Internal funding sources come from within
the company, such as a capital increase from owners and retained earnings. On the other hand,
external sources include bank, third-party debt, and the issuance of securities to obtain resources
from outside the company.
Solvability is the ability of the company to generate profits during a certain period to pay its
debts, both short-term debt and long-term debt, while the company is well-run, as well as when it is
going into liquidation (Brown & Gutterman, 2005). Ross, Waterfield and Jordan (2003) explained that
the solvability of capital refers to the extent to which the company relies on debt. The more a
company uses debt financing in its capital structure, the greater the level of solvability. Therefore, the
selection of funding sources depends on the purpose, terms, benefits, and so forth, knowing that each
funding source has its advantages and disadvantages. Assessing a company’s ability to meet its
obligations can be done by measuring:
1. the Debt to Assets Ratio (DAR), which measures how much of the company’s assets is
financed by debt, or how much debt affects the management of assets.
2. the Debt to Equity Ratio (DER), which is used to determine the amount of funds provided
and owned by the company’s owners. In other words, it determines the amount of
owners’ equity used to guarantee its debts.
Typically, a safe level of DER is less than 50%. The smaller the Debt to Equity Ratio, the better it
is for the company (Fakhruddin & Hardianto, 2001; Kuswadi, 2006). Larger DER indicates that the
capital structure includes more debt rather than capital, reflecting a relatively high level of company
risk (Natarsyah, 2000).
Anzlina and Rustam (2013) conducted research on real estate and property companies in
Indonesia and found that DER had no effect on firm value, implying that any increase in DER would
not be followed by an increase or decrease in firm value. The same result was also found by Fadhli
(2015), who stated that DER does not have a significant influence on changes in the value of banking,
insurance, or other financial institutions. The higher use of debt will provide benefits in the form of
tax payment savings, and increases in profits per share to be received by shareholders. However,
negative effects may also result from high levels of debt, such as default risk as a result of the high
cost of interest and principal, which may exceed the benefits provided from debt so as to cause firm
value to drop.
Research conducted by Rompas (2013) on state-owned non-bank companies listed on the
Indonesia Stock Exchange concluded that DAR has a significant effect on firm value. Management

30
policy to increase debt leads to a high cost of capital to be borne by company operations. This may
result in the reduction of corporate profits, and contribute to investors’ consideration regarding
whether their funds should remain invested in the company or be withdrawn, particularly if this policy
may reduce a company’s future earnings. If investors decide to withdraw their funds, then the price
of existing shares in the capital market will be affected, and consequently, the company’s value will
decrease.

Dividend Policy and Firm Value

Dividend policy is an integral part of a company’s funding decisions. Dividend policy is usually
measured using the Dividend Payout Ratio (DPR). DPR shows the amount of profit which can be held
in the company as a source of funding.
Dividend policy affects the assessment of investors regarding a company’s merits because
dividend policy affects stock prices (Mardiyati, Ahmad, & Putri, 2012). According to Weston and
Brigham (2005), an optimal dividend policy will maximize a company’s stock price.
Based on research conducted on companies listed on the Indonesian Stock Exchange from 2009
to 2011, Sari (2013) found that dividend policy as measured by DPR positively and significantly affected
firm value. When greater dividends were distributed to shareholders or investors, a company’s
performance was considered better. Thus, firm value increased. Moreover, when a company
established a higher dividend than in the previous year, higher returns were received by investors.
This is what affected investors’ appraisal. In addition, high investors’ appraisal will result in the
increased value of the firm (Bangun & Wati, 2007). Increasing dividend payments are a positive signal
in regards to a company’s prospects. As a result, investors will be interested in buying the stock, which
then will increase firm value (Artini & Puspaningsih, 2011).
Several researchers such as Noerirawan and Muid (2012)—as well as Luh and Ni (2011)—also
found the same result, implying that dividend policy as measured by DPR affects firm value positively
and significantly. Nevertheless, other researchers such as Bangun and Wati (2007), as well as
Mardiyati, Ahmad, and Putri (2012), found different results, suggesting that dividend policy has no
significant effect on firm value.
Through simultaneous tests conducted by Bangun and Wati (2007), it was found that
profitability and dividend policy simulatenously have a significant effect on firm value. Investor
interest on the rate of return received is one determining factor for the increasing value of a firm.
The rate of return received by investors depends on the level of profitability and dividend policy.
Likewise, a high level of profitability indicates that the company’s prospects are good as well, thus
giving rise to demand for shares by investors. The positive response will increase stock prices, which
then will utimately increase the value of the company itself (Hermuningsih, 2013).
Similarly, when the company provides and establishes a higher dividend than in the previous
year, the returns that will be received by investors will also be higher. The higher the returns, the
higher the appraisal of investors regarding its stock price. As a result, there will be an increase in firm
value (Bangun & Wati, 2007). Mardiyati, Ahmad, and Putri (2012) stated that simultaneously,
profitability, debt policy, and dividend policy on manufacturing companies have a significant effect on
firm value.

Methodology
The alternative hypothesis tested in this study related to the presence and absence of
significant influence of the independent variables on the dependent variable and to determine which
variables significantly affect firm value.
This study used the causal method to indicate whether the independent variables affected the
dependent variable (Juliandi, Irfan, & Manurung, 2014), particularly to know whether profitability,
solvability, and dividend policy affected the value of banking companies. The independent variables
in this study included profitability, solvability, and dividend policy. Profitability was measured by ROE;
the larger the results of ROE, the better the performance. An improving ratio indicated increasing

31
management performance in managing sources of operational funds effectively to generate net profit.
In addition, this study also measured profitability with ROA. Moreover, solvability was measured by
DAR and DER, while dividend policy was measured by DPR.
The dependent variable was firm value as measured by PBV. PBV measured how much the
market valued the book value of a company’s stock. A higher ratio indicated that the market is more
confident regarding a firm’s prospects (Sugiono, 2009). According to Wardjono (2010), a well-run
company generally has a PBV ratio of above 1 (one)—that is, stock market value is greater than its
book value. Table 1 shows how variables were measured.

Table 1. Measurement of Variables

Variable Measurement
Dependent Variable
Firm Value Market Price per Share
PBV =
Book Value per Share
Total Assets – Total Liabilities
Book Value per Share =
Number of Shares of Stock Outstanding

Independent Variables
Profitability Net Income
ROE =
Total Equity

Net Income
𝑅𝑂𝐴 =
Total Assets
Solvability Debt
DER = ×100%
Equity
Debt
DAR = ×100%
Total Assets

Dividend Policy Dividends per Share

DPR =
Earnings per Share

In sample selection, the researcher used a purposive sampling method. This method is a
sampling technique that is based on judgment of certain criteria (Sugiyono, 2013). The criteria
included publicly traded companies which had consistently published financial statements and had
paid dividends for the 2012–2014 period.
Based on the stated criteria, the number of samples acquired were five companies. The list of
companies used as sample is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. List of Publicly Traded Companies Included in Sample

No. Code Name
1. BBNI Bank Negara Indonesia (Persero) Tbk
2. BBTN Bank Tabungan Negara (Persero)
3. BDMN Bank Danamon Indonesia Tbk
4. BMRI Bank Mandiri (Persero) Tbk
5. BNBA Bank Bumi Arta Tbk
Source: Indonesian Stock Exchange

For data that did not meet the assumption test, the original data measurement scale was
converted into another form using root transformation and logarithm. Through classical assumption
test with normal analysis using Kolmogorov-Smirnov, the significant value was .88 > .05. Therefore, it
can be concluded that the sample data used in this study was normally distributed. Furthermore, a

32
multicolinearity test was done, and it was found that all independent variables, ROE, ROA, DAR, DER,
and DPR had tolerance values > 0.10 and VIF values < 10; thus, it can be inferred that no
multicolinearity occurred. Through a Durbin-Watson test (n = 15, x = 5, α = .01) = 1.96 < 2.04 < 2.04,
no autocorrelation problem occurred in the regression model. In addition, a heteroscedasticity test
using scatterplot test showed no clear pattern emerging, spreading above and below 0 on the Y-axis.
Thus, it was concluded that no heteroscedasticity problem existed.

Results and Discussion

Based on Table 3, an F-test showed significance of .001 < .05. Further, ROE had a significant
effect on firm value (p < .01), whereas ROA had a marginally significant negative effect on firm value
(p < .1). DAR had significant and negative effect on firm value at p < .05. Nevertheless, DER had no
significant effect on firm value. In addition, dividend policy had no significant effect on firm value.

Table 3. Simultaneous Tests of ROE, ROA, DER, DAR, and DPR on Firm Value (PBV)
Unstandardized Standardized
Model Coefficients Coefficient T F Sig
Std.
B Error B
Constant 16.97 8.457 2.006 0.076
12.48 0.001
ROE 6.90 1.17 1.23 5.91 0.000
ROA -16.34 8.73 -0.45 -1.87 0.094
DAR -4.40 1.75 -0.41 -2.51 0.033
DER 0.04 0.08 0.08 0.54 0.604
DPR -0.50 0.98 -0.10 -0.50 0.627
a. Dependent Variable: Price to Book Value (PBV)

Adjusted R² value = .80 as shown in Table 4, signified that the amount of contribution from
profitability, solvability, and dividends on firm value amounted to 80.4%, while the remaining 19.6%
was influenced by other variables. The results of the study are in accordance with previous studies
(Bangun & Wati, 2007; Mardiyati, Ahmad & Putri, 2012; Hasna, 2014; Chen & Chen, 2011, Moningka,
2013); however, they were in contrast to certain other studies (Sambora, Handayani & Rahayu, 2014;
Daryanti & Bahar, 2010).

Table 4. Adjusted R-Squared Value

Model Summary
Model R R2 Adjusted R2 F-test Sig.
1 .94 .87 .80 12.48 .001

Further, profitability as measured by ROE had a significant positive effect on firm value, with
a level of .000 < .05, and unstandardized beta 6.899, which means that a one unit increase of ROE
would increase the value of firm by 6.899.
The company’s ability to generate net income for shareholder returns on equity attracts much
investors attention. Investor interest regarding the rate of return is one of the determining factors for
increasing firm value. The rate of return received by investors depends on the level of profitability
(ROE). A high level of profitability indicates that a company has good prospects, which triggers demand
for shares by investors. The positive response will increase stock prices, which ultimately will increase
the value of the firm itself (Hermuningsih, 2013).
In addition, solvability, which is the ratio of debt to total assets (DAR), was found to have a
significant negative effect on firm value, with a significant value of .033 < .05 and unstandardized beta

33
of -4.402. This implies that for each unit increase in DAR, there will be a 4.402 decrease in firm value.
The ability of Indonesian banks to pay their debts as compared to their total assets showed a greater
risk. This was in contrast to the results of Rompas (2013) on non-bank state-owned enterprises. A
management policy of increasing debt results in high capital costs, which must be borne as part of
conducting operations. This will result in the reduction of profits, and may cause investors to withdraw
funds, which will then cause firm value to decline.
Dividend policy as measured by DPR had no significant effect on firm value. Dividend policy is
often regarded as a signal in assessing the merits of a company. If a company decides to pay dividends
in cash, then the company has lower funds to finance investment, which will exacerbate stock price
woes. That is why companies should establish an optimal dividend policy (Sugiarto, 2011).
This study also found that profitability, as measured by ROA, did not show a significant effect
on firm value. High profits may indicate an efficient use of assets and thus boost investors’ demand
for the stock. Nevertheless, data obtained still show very low efficiency in the use of assets (Mardiyati,
Ahmad & Putri, 2012).

Conclusion
Investors who invest in the stock market, particularly in the Indonesian banking industry,
generally consider firm value. The level of firm value depends on profitability and solvability, as well
as the ability of companies to meet their short and long-term liabilities. The conclusions in this study
are as follows:
1. When investors purchase banking shares, they observe a firm’s value. Simultaneously, the
model shows an adjusted R² value of 80.4%, implying that the remaining 19.6% is determined
by other factors.
2. Profitability as measured by ROE has a highly significant and positive effect on firm value. In
addition, ROA has a significant effect on firm value (p < .10) due to low efficiency in the use of
assets. This implies that investors are interested in a company’s ability to generate net income
in regards to return on equity for shareholders. A high level of profitability indicates good
company prospects.
3. Indonesian banks still rely on debt financing in their capital structures. The ability of
Indonesian banking companies to pay debts compared to their assets show great risk. A high
DAR will lower the value of a firm significantly.
4. Dividend policies of banking companies had no significant effects. Dividend policy was not
considered as optimal.

Recommendations
This study did not measure other factors that may affect value of banking companies, such as
corporate governance, liquidity, capitalization, and asset quality. By adding these factors, future
research may make a larger contribution and input to the banking industry by paying more attention
to these factors that may affect firm value. With increasing value, a company will experience
substantial growth.
Further research is expected to increase the sample size, as the sample used in this study was
small. In addition, further research is also expected to use profitability ratios such as net profit margin
(NPM), operating expense/operating income (OEOI), as well as gross profit margin in measuring the
impact of profitability on firm value. Similarly, to measure the impact of dividend policy on firm value,
future research can use dividend yield and dividend per share as proxies. By using these additional
ratios as mentioned, future research is expected to provide more accurate results in determining the
effects of profitability, solvability, and dividend policy on firm value.
For the banking industry, and in particular publicly traded banks, in their efforts to increase
firm value, companies should pay more attention to increasing profitability and solvability, as it was
found that profitability and solvability have a significant effect in increasing firm value. When firm
value increases, it is expected that investors will be attracted.

34
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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

An Overview of Karl Barth’s Theology:

Focused on the Doctrines of God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit

Sanghoon Jee1, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Date Received: 6 November 2019 Revised: 20 January 2020 Accepted: 19 February 2020

Abstract
Karl Barth, the founder of neo-orthodoxy, is one of the most influential theologians in the
modern Christian world. He has turned the direction of the stream of Protestant theology in the
twentieth century. The purpose of this study was to give an overview of the theology of Karl Barth.
This is useful in order to gain an accurate grasp of the trends in modern Christian theology. After a
brief survey of his life and works, this study provides an overview of Barth’s theology, focusing on three
major areas of his theology: the doctrines of God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. In order to give a
better understanding of trends in modern Christian theology, Barth’s emphasis upon the
transcendence of God, the centrality of Jesus Christ in Christian theology, and the importance of the
Holy Spirit in the Trinity cannot be ignored. In a word, Barth’s theology has both a continuity with and
a discontinuity from liberal theology at the same time.

Keywords: Karl Barth, neo-orthodoxy, transcendence, Christology, Holy Spirit

Introduction
Karl Barth (1886–1968) has generally been considered as one of the most outstanding
Protestant theological thinkers of the twentieth century (Peerman & Marty, 1965, p. 396), and he could
be called a modern “church father.” Torrance (1962, p. 15), in his elaborate study of the theology of
Karl Barth, says “it is acknowledged by many in all quarters that Barth must be accorded an honored
position among the greatest theologians of the Church [such as] Athanasius, Augustine, Anselm,
Aquinas, Luther, and Calvin.” In this sense, Mueller (1972, p. 13) says, “Barth dominated much of the
theology of the twentieth century and is the father of neo-reformation [neo-orthodox] theology.” Thus,
it can be said that Barth, the founder of neo-orthodox theology, was one of the most influential
theologians in modern Christian theology. Neo-orthodox, also known as dialectical theology, is an
approach to theology in Protestantism that was developed in the aftermath of the First World War
(1914–1918). It is characterized as a reaction against doctrines of liberal theology in the nineteenth
century. It is primarily associated with two Swiss theologians and pastors, Karl Barth (1886–1968) and
Emil Brunner (1899–1966). Neo-orthodoxy was characterized by a return to modified forms of
orthodox doctrines in contrast with the liberal desertion of such doctrines.
Neo-orthodoxy came to prominence in the wake of World War II. During the 1940s and 1950s,
neo-orthodoxy realism was welcome by many in mainline Protestant denominations. As
alternative to liberalism and fundamentalism, it offered a fresh means of hearing the Gospel
(Reid, Linder, Shelley, & Stout, 1990).
Neo-orthodoxy theology emphasizes the transcendence of God, man’s responsibility as a
creature, sin and guilty, the uniqueness of Christ as mediator of revelation and grace, and speaks of a
personal encounter with God in revelation (Brown, 1978). Barth has turned the direction of the stream
of Protestant theology in the twentieth century.
Therefore, it is necessary to have an overview of Barth’s theology in order to have an accurate
grasp of the trend of modern Christian theology. In other words, having an overview of Barth’s

1
Author’s email address: shjee@apiu.edu
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

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theology, though not necessarily exhaustive, will help many students of theology not to have a poor
grip of the development of contemporary Christian theology.
This study deals with three major areas of his theology: the doctrine of God, Jesus Christ, and
the Holy Spirit.

Barth’s Life and Works

In order to have an accurate overview of Barth’s theology, it is necessary, as a background, to
search and understand his personal life as well as his major theological works.

Barth’s Life
Karl Barth was born in Basel, Switzerland, on May 1886. He was the eldest son of Johann
Friedrich (Fritz) and Anna Katharina Barth. Both of Barth’s grandfathers were ministers within the Swiss
Reformed church. His father was an ordained minister and a professor of theology at a Reformed
seminary, and moved to the University of Berne in 1889 as professor of Church History and New
Testament Exegesis (Barth, 1966; Busch, 1976). This shows that Barth had grown up under the
influence of the Reformed Church and its theological environment.
At the age of sixteen, Barth decided to become a theologian, and at the age of eighteen (in
1904), he began his study at the University of Berne, initially taking instruction from his father. In 1906,
Barth came into contact with Adolf von Harnack, whose advocacy of “Liberal Theology” had a huge
impact on Barth’s thinking. In addition, he was much influenced by Wilhelm Herrmann.
After completing his studies in 1909, Barth was called to be a minister of the Reformed Church
and accepted a posting first in Geneva in 1909, and then in Safenwil, located on the border that divided
Switzerland and Germany in 1911 (Barth, 1966). Subsequently, he spent about ten years of his
ministering and preaching life as a liberal Protestant, especially in harmony with von Harnack’s
teachings, rather than his father's.
According to his later memories, however, Barth came to reject liberal Protestantism, finding
that it was not suitable to address the problems of his parish and useful for his personal journey. These
thoughts came especially when he saw his theological teachers, such as von Harnack and other
German theologians, reinforce the Kaiser's war policy in 1914. Hence, he became disillusioned with
the theology of liberal Protestantism. Godsey (1928, pp. 21–22) said:
On what he [Barth] has called a ‘black day’ in August 1914, ninety-three German intellectuals
impressed public opinion by their proclamation in support of the war policy of Kaiser Wilhelm
II, and to his horror he [Barth] discovered that many of his former professors were among
them. This convinced him that he could no longer follow them in their ethics, and therefore
not in their theology.
Barth’s treatments of his shifting views are shown in his maiden work, Der Römerbrief (Epistle to the
Romans) which was published in 1919. In this theological commentary, he set forth the basic precepts
for the theology of ‘the Word of God’ and ‘the otherness of God.’ In contrast to the liberal theology he
was taught by Harnack and Hermann, Barth saw that, “the Gospel proclaims a God utterly distinct from
men. Salvation comes to them from him [God], and because they are, as men, incapable of knowing
him, they have no right to claim anything from him” (Barth, 1968, p. 28).
In 1913, while he was ministering in the village of Safenwil, Barth married Nelly Hoffmann, a
talented violinist. Together, they had four sons and a daughter. Barth served as a church pastor until
1921, when he started his career as a professor.
In 1921, Barth became a professor of Reformed theology at the University of Göttingen
(1921–1925). Afterward, he taught at the Universities of Münster (1925–1930) and Bonn (1930–1935)
in Germany. While teaching at Bonn, he commenced to write a complete work of systematic theology
based on God’s Word with the title Kirchliche Dogmatik (“Church Dogmatics”). This was a thirteen-
part work, which he continued to develop throughout his later life, but remained incomplete at his
death on December 10, 1968.

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 In 1934, Barth was forced to leave Germany because of his outspokenness against the Nazi
party. He returned to Basel (in 1935), where he taught theology until his retirement in 1962. After his
retirement, Barth visited the U.S. and lectured at various places such as Princeton Theological Seminary,
the University of Chicago, Union Theological Seminary, and the San Francisco Theological Seminary.
Furthermore, he was invited as a guest at the Second Vatican Council. By 1962, Barth’s influence was
widespread. It reached out of academic and ecclesiastical circles and into mainstream American
religious culture, as was demonstrated through him being featured on the cover of the April 20 issue
of Time.
One matter that should be noted in an overview of Karl Barth’s life is that his relationship to
liberal theology was both crucial as well as ironic. Though influenced and trained by liberal
theologians, Barth departed from his former training and eventually criticized liberal theology. He
concluded that he could not accept an understanding of the Bible as characterized by liberal
theologians due to their attempts to understand it through modern biblical criticism and historical
criticism. He also opposed new doctrinal views that were taught regarding the Trinity and the
Godhead. He accused these liberals of bringing God down from heaven and imprisoning Him in a
naturalistic view of reality. This conflicted with Barth’s view that God is the object of His own self-
knowledge, and revelation in the Bible means the self-unveiling of God, who cannot be discovered by
human beings. As a result, Barth evaluated liberalism as hopelessly compromised by worldly agendas
and pastorally useless to the church. For Barth, liberalism rejected the supernatural essence of the
Christian faith in order to accommodate erroneous anthropocentric explanations of divine realities.

Barth’s Works
Barth’s theology is central to the history of modern western Christian thought and remains as
a major voice in contemporary Christian theology. His writings often have been the subject of intensive
scrutiny and re-evaluation. The study of Barth’s thought and theology is a significant enterprise.
Literature on him and conferences devoted to his works abound. It would therefore be appropriate to
say that Barth’s works are significant resources for the understanding of modern contemporary
Christian theology.
Barth’s works, which are significant in modern contemporary Christian theology, include:
1. Epistle to the Romans (1919);
2. Die Christliche Dogmatik in Entwurf [Church Dogmatics in Draft] (1927);
3. The Word of God and the Word of Man (1928);
4. Church Dogmatics (1932);
5. The Knowledge of God and the Service of God According to the Reformation (1938);
6. ‘No!’ in Natural Theology (1946);
7. Dogmatics in Outline (1949);
8. Anselm: Fides Quaerens Intellectum [Anselm’s Proof of the Existence of God in the Context
of His Theological Scheme] (1960);
9. The Humanity of God (1961); and
10. Evangelical Theology (1963).
Among these works and other books, papers, and articles, two notable and influential ones should be
mentioned in detail.
The first one is Der Römerbrief (“The Epistle to the Romans”), first written in 1919, and later
thoroughly modified in 1922. This work is significant as it was Barth’s first major work defined by his
reaction against German Protestant Liberalism. Many theologians and historians consider the work to
be the most important theological treatise of the twentieth century. In this theological commentary,
Barth argued that God, who was revealed on the cross of Jesus, challenges and overthrows all attempts
to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. God’s saving grace and the
insufficiency of the human understanding of God is emphasized in this work, along with many of his
other works.

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 The second one of his most famous works is Kirchliche Dogmatik (“Church Dogmatics”). This
thirteen-part work has been widely regarded as one of the most important theological works of the
twentieth century. Barth published the first volume of Church Dogmatics in 1932 and continued
working on it until his death in 1968. The pinnacle of Barth’s achievement as a theologian is clearly
represented through this work. Barth’s theology finds its most sustained and compelling expression
through this thirteen-part magnum opus.
The Kirchliche Dogmatik is divided into four main volumes: (1) the Doctrine of the Word of
God; (2) the Doctrine of God; (3) the Doctrine of Creation; (4) and the Doctrine of Reconciliation. Barth
initially also had intended to complete his Church Dogmatics addressing the Doctrine of Redemption,
but has not completed the project until his death (Brown, 1978). a

An Overview of Karl Barth’s Theology

The purpose of this paper is to give an overview of Barth’s theology.b However, it is impossible
to deal with all areas of his theology. Thus, this study tries to cover, though not exhaustively, only three
major areas of his theology: the doctrines of God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit.

Doctrine of God
This section deals with Barth’s doctrine of God into three divisions: (1) the transcendent God;
(2) the unknown God; and (3) the revelation of God in Jesus Christ.

1) The Transcendent God

One of the essential ideas of Barth’s doctrine of God is that he understood and emphasized
the transcendence of God. According to Barth, God is “above us, above space and time, and above
concepts and opinions and all potentialities” (Barth, 1960). In his first work, The Epistle to the Romans,
Barth describes his understanding of the transcendence of God as follows:
God, the pure limit and pure beginning of all that we are, have, and do, standing over in infinite
qualitative difference to man and all that is human, nowhere and never identical with that
which we call God, experience, surmise, and pray to as God, the unconditioned Halt as
opposed to all human rest, the yes in our no and the no in our yes, the first and last and as
such unknown, but nowhere and never a magnitude amongst others in the medium know to
us, God the Lord, the Creator and Redeemer . . . that is the living God (Barth, 1968, p. 315).

According to Barth, therefore, God can be perceived neither in the world of nature nor in the
souls of human beings. There is no such point of context in human beings that they can reach to God.
The distinction between God and human beings is too deep and wide for man to approach God. God
is in the most noteworthy where human beings cannot reach Him unless He reveals Himself to human
beings. In other words, there is an utter separation between the high God and the low world. In a word,
God is the “wholly other” and human beings have no capacity for reaching God.
This concept of the transcendence of God is a natural result of Barth’s epistemology. For him, it
is obvious that if God is “wholly other,” then there is no ontological nor epistemological basis for
natural theology. The transcendence of God in his philosophical presupposition is the rejecting of the
acknowledgement of natural theology, and opposition to the teaching of liberalism (or liberal
theology). All modern ideas of the immanence of God are explicitly rejected by Barth’s epistemology
on the transcendence of God.

2) The Unknown God

Barth makes it explicit from the beginning of his famous work, Church Dogmatics, that God is
the unknowable and indescribable God (Barth, 1936). Simply, for Barth, God is the incomprehensible
Reality. As he refers to the personality of God, Barth says, “God is personal, but personal in an
incomprehensive way, in so for as the conception of his personality surpassed all our views of
personality” (Barth, 1955, p. 31). In his comment on Romans 1:19–20, Barth once again emphasizes
the incomprehensiveness of God as follows:

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 We know that God is He whom we do not know, and that our ignorance is precisely the
problem and the source of our knowledge. The Epistle to the Romans is a revelation of the
unknown God; God chooses to come to man, not man to God, for he [God] is ever the unknown
God. In manifesting himself [God, Himself] to man he [God] is farther away than before (Barth,
1968, p. 48).

Therefore, Barth’s assertion that God is unknowable is clear. He rejects natural theology,
generally understood as knowledge of God, deduced from general revelation. He states, “We must be
clear that whatever we say of God in such human concepts can never be more that an indication of
Him; no such concept can really conceive the nature of God. God is inconceivable” (Barth, 1949, p. 46).
The mentioning of his philosophical presupposition seems adequate and necessary in order
for one to understand the concept of the unknown God in Barth’s theology. His basic presupposition
is the limitations of fallen nature to come to a knowledge of God without God’s self-revelation. For
him, there is no such thing as a propositional truth given by prophetic revelation. It is implied in his
theological framework that fallen human beings are incapable of knowing a transcendent, holy God.
He uses the phrases “finitum non capax infiniti” (the finite has no capacity for the infinite) and
“peccator non capax Verdi divini” (the sinner has not capacity for the divine word) (Barth, 1956).

3) The Revelation of God in Jesus Christ

As noticed in his two previous presuppositions of God, Barth must have believed that there
is no way from man to God to find the transcendent and unknown God. However, according to Barth,
there is a way from God to man through Jesus Christ that man could find and know God, “He who has
seen Me has seen the Father” (John 14:9, NASB). Barth claims that Jesus Christ is the sole Word of God
to human beings.
According to Barth, Jesus Christ is the Revelation of God, thus identifying revelation with Jesus
Christ. He asserts that Jesus Christ is “the authentic Revealer of God as God Himself. Again, He is the
effective proof of the power of God as God Himself. Yet again, He is the fulfiller of the covenant as
Himself God. He is nothing less or other than God Himself, but God as man” (Barth, 1956). Thus, for
Barth, human beings do not have the ability to know God apart from the revelation given through
Jesus Christ. Barth asserts that Jesus Christ is the revelation of God, but he considers the Bible as a
mere record of revelation, functioning as an authoritative pointer to revelation. According to Barth,
the Bible is not the Word of God in the same sense that Jesus Christ is, but only contains the Word of
God. He says, “The Bible is God’s Word to the extent that God causes it to be His Word, to the extent
that He speaks through it” (Barth, 1936, p. 241). For Barth, the Bible is one form of God’s Word, not
the primary, but a secondary source. He believed that the Bible becomes God’s Word whenever God
decides to use it to encounter and confront people with the gospel of Jesus Christ.
Barth’s rejection of the inerrancy of the Bible comes from such views on the Bible. According
to him, the Bible is a book of human testimony to Jesus, thus referring to the Bible as a human product.
Hence, the statements of the Bible could be wrong at some point, but in spite of its humanness, the
Bible is unique because God uses it. In his hermeneutical presupposition, the Bible itself is only a
witness to revelation, not revelation itself.
Therefore, according to Barth, a satisfactory solution to problems raised by the transcendence
of God and the incomprehensiveness of God can be found in Jesus Christ. In other words, it is only
through Jesus Christ that the impossibilities are combined and the irreconcilables are reconciled (Barth,
1928; Barth, 1968). According to Barth, God has primarily revealed Himself in Jesus Christ, so that
revelation does not take place through the form of general revelation in nature, history, and human
conscience, or through special revelation in the Bible. Thus, Barth fails to do justice to the fact that
God can influence humans through general revelation. In an extreme sense, to Barth, any revelation
which is not “in Christ” becomes an idol by making competitive claims about the knowledge of God.

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Doctrine of Christ
The theology of Barth is “Christo-centric” (Kantzer, 1958). It means, for Barth, that all Christian
theology should find its central focus in Jesus Christ, and that all fullness of knowledge of God is
obtainable only through Jesus Christ (Barth, 1958b). Barth holds that Jesus Christ, who is the
Revelation of God, is the foundation of Christian theology and knowledge of God.
Regarding the relationship between the person and the work of Jesus Christ, Barth insists that
the person of Jesus Christ cannot be considered separately from the work of Jesus Christ. In this sense,
Barth follows the early church tradition.
In the early history of the church, the two [the person and the work of Jesus Christ] were held
together in rather close connection. This approach changed during the medieval period, however.
Scholastic theology separated the doctrine of the person of Christ (his divinity, humanity, and the
union of the two) from the offices and work of Christ (Erickson, 1998, p. 692).
This means that the study of the person of Jesus Christ must be done in the context of the
study of the work of Jesus Christ (Erickson, 1998). In the same way, he insists that the redemptive work
of Jesus Christ was and is possible only because of who Jesus Christ is.
It is clear, in Barth’s Christology, that the true divinity of Jesus Christ is affirmed explicitly.
Barth strongly believed that Jesus Christ is “very God of very God,” and possessed all the divine
attributes during His earthly life, even as a baby born in Bethlehem, and even in His death on the cross
of Calvary (Barth, 1936). At the same time, he also firmly believed the reality of the human nature of
Jesus Christ. For him, the clear gospel record of the perfect humanity of Jesus Christ is enough to
believe in the reality of His human nature. Essentially, Barth fully accepted the Nicene Creed and the
later Chalcedonian formula, presenting two natures as united in the one person of Jesus Christ.
However, Barth’s understanding of the sinlessness of Jesus Christ is somewhat ambiguous. In
his first work, he says that Jesus Christ is a “sinner among sinners” (Barth, 1968). His assertion that
Jesus Christ took a sinful human nature is sharpened, but more ambiguous, in his Church Dogmatics.
He asserts, “He [Jesus Christ] was not a sinful man. But inwardly and outwardly His situation was that
of a sinful man.… He lived life in the form it must take on the basis and assumption of Adam’s act. He
bore innocently what Adam and all of us in Adam have been guilty of” (Barth, 1956, pp. 151–152) Once
again, Barth insists as follows:
The nature God assumed in Christ is identical with our nature as we see it in the light of
the Fall. If it were otherwise, how could Christ be really like us? ... God's son not only
assumed our nature but He entered the concrete form of our nature, under which we stand
before God as damned and lost. He did not produce and establish this form differently from
all of us; though innocent, He became guilty; though without sin, He was made to be sin.
But these things must not cause us to detract from His complete solidarity with us and in
that way to remove Him to a distance from us (Barth, 1956, p. 158).

At this juncture, it seems necessary to mention Barth’s view on the relationship of Jesus Christ,
the living Word, to the Bible, the written word, and to the church, the proclaimed word. For Barth,
God’s revelation to man through His word is communicated through three major mediums: Jesus Christ,
the Bible, and the proclamations of the Church (Hart, 1999). On this relationship among the three,
Barth is clear that Jesus Christ is the Lord of the Bible and the church. Jesus Christ is the only Lord; the
Bible is not, neither is the church. The Bible could be said as having the authority in the church only in
the sense that it is the primary witness to Jesus Christ. The church is the context in which the Bible is
explained and Jesus Christ is proclaimed. For Barth, all of these three are divine revelations, but each
of them centers upon Jesus Christ.

Doctrine of the Holy Spirit

Barth demonstrates a strong belief in the deity of the Holy Spirit (Barth, 1958a). He fully
accepts the Nicene-Constantinople Creed, which, in the relation to the Holy Spirit, says, “1. We believe
in the Holy Ghost, the Lord; 2. We believe in the Holy Ghost, the giver of life; 3. We believe in the Holy

43
Ghost, who proceedeth from the Father and the Son; [and] 4. We believe in the Holy Ghost ‘who with
the Father and the Son together is worshiped and glorified’” (Barth, 1936).
Barth also exhibits his belief in the Holy Spirit as the (1) Creator, (2) Reconciler, and (3)
Redeemer (Barth, 1993). According to his Church Dogmatics, Barth sees that the Holy Spirit was and is
with God the Father and the Son. He states, “The Holy Spirit is with the Father and the Son the true,
eternal God in so far as, like begetting Father and the begotten Son” (Barth, 1958, p. 56a). In fact, Barth
equalizes the Holy Spirit with God Himself:
In both the Old Testament and the New Testament the spirit of God, the Holy Spirit, is very generally
God Himself to the degree that in an incomprehensibly real way, without on this account being and
the less God, He can be present to the creature, and in virtue of this presence of His effect the
relation of the creature to Himself, and in virtue of this relation to Himself grant the creature life.
The creature needs the Creator to be able to live. It thus needs the relation to Him. But it cannot
create this relation. God creates it by His own presence in the creature and therefore as a relation
of Himself to Himself. The Spirit of God is God in His freedom to be present to the creature, and
therefore to create this relation, and therefore to be the life of the creature (Barth, 1936, p. 450).

Regarding the role of the Holy Spirit, Barth not only views the Holy Spirit as the One who
makes the union between God and humanity possible in Christ, but also as the gatherer of the believers
as a community (Barth, 1958b), as well as the binder of the believers in Christ (Barth, 1958c). In relation
to the event which is called revelation, Barth adds three dimensions of the work of the Holy Spirit. First,
“the Spirit guarantees man what he cannot guarantee himself, his personal participation in revelation”
(Barth, 1936, p. 453) Second, “the Spirit gives man instruction and guidance he cannot give himself”
(p. 454) Third, “the Spirit is the great and only possibility in virtue of which men can speak of Christ in
such a way that what they say is witness and that God's revelation in Christ thus achieves new actuality
through it” (Barth, 1936).

Summary and Conclusions

As mentioned in the introduction, Karl Barth is generally considered as one of the most
outstanding Protestant theological thinkers of the twentieth century. As the founder of neo-orthodoxy,
he is one of the most influential theologians in contemporary Christian theology. Thus, it is essential
to have an overview of Barth’s theology in order to have an accurate grasp of the trend of modern
Christian theology.
In the first section, as a background necessary for an understanding his theology, the study
surveyed the life and the major works of Karl Barth. He was born under the context of the conservative
Reformed Church tradition, but was educated under the influence of liberal theologians, such as Adolf
von Harnack and Wilhelm Herrmann. However, through experiences of ministering for the local church,
Barth found out the importance and the priority of the Bible in the theology and in the practice of
Christianity. His two prominent works include (1) The Epistle to the Romans, his first publication, and
(2) Church Dogmatics, his most famous work.
In the second section, this study discussed Barth’s theology by trying to cover, not necessarily
exhaustively, three major areas of his theology: The doctrine of God, Christ, and the Holy Spirit.
First, Barth understood God as the transcendent God and the unknown God. He also
emphasized the revelation of God in Jesus Christ. For Barth, God is not the same God as understood
by liberal theologians and the proponents of natural theology. Rather, God is the incomprehensible
and unapproachable God by man himself. In this sense, there is a sharp contrast between Barth’s
theology and liberal theology.
Second, Barth’s theology is Christ-centered. For Barth, all theology should find its focal center
in Jesus Christ, as well as all knowledge of God is obtainable only through Jesus Christ. In other words,
Jesus Christ, who is the Revelation of God, is the foundation of theology and the knowledge of God.
Essentially, Barth’s Christology is built upon the tradition of the Nicene-Constantinople Creed, and
following in the Chalcedonian formula setting forth two natures united in the one person of Jesus
Christ. However, Barth’s understanding of the sinlessness of Jesus Christ seems somewhat ambiguous.

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Regarding the relationship of Jesus Christ (the living Word) and to the Bible (the written word), and to
the church (the proclaimed word), Barth is clear that Jesus Christ is the Lord of both the Bible and the
church. All other elements of the divine revelation and even of theology should be centered upon
Jesus Christ.
Third, Barth not only believes in the deity of the Holy Spirit, according to the Nicene-
Constantinople Creed, but also places emphasis upon the Holy Spirit as the (1) Creator, (2) Reconciler,
and (3) Redeemer. Barth’s understanding of the importance of the Holy Spirit in the Trinity as well as
his explanation of the work of the Holy Spirit is of significance for believers. He sees the Holy Spirit as
gatherer of the believers as a community as well as the binder of the believers in Christ. In relation to
the event which is called revelation, Barth adds three dimensions of the work of the Holy Spirit: The
Holy Spirit (1) ensures man what he can’t ensures himself, his personal participation in revelation; (2)
gives man instruction and guidance he can’t give himself; and (3) helps man to experience God’s
revelation in Jesus Christ.
In conclusion, Barth’s theology has made a turning point in modern Christian theology. His
theology was a kind of reaction against liberal theology, but, at the same time, his theology was not
able to completely break free from the influence of liberal theology. In other words, Barth’s theology
has both a continuity with and a discontinuity from liberal theology at the same time. The emphasis
on the transcendence of God and the centrality of Jesus Christ in Christian theology made by Karl Barth
should not be ignored for a better understanding of modern Christian theology.

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Brown, C. (1978). Barth, Karl. In J. Douglas (Ed.), The new international dictionary of the Christian church (pp.
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Busch, E. (2004). The great passion: An introduction to Karl Barth's theology. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans.
Busch, E. (1976). Karl Barth: His life from letters and autobiographical texts. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress.
Erickson, M. (1998). Christian theology (2nd ed.). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker.
Godsey, J. (1966). Barth’s life until 1928. In K. Barth, How I changed my mind (pp. 21–22). Edinburgh, UK: The
Saint Andrews Press, 1966.
Hart, T. (1999). Regarding Karl Barth: Toward a reading of his theology. Leicester, MA: InterVarsity Press.
Hartwell, H. (1964). The theology of Karl Barth. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press.
Kantzer, K. (1958). The Christology of Karl Barth. Bulletin of the Evangelical Theological Society, 1(2), 25–28.
Mueller, D. (1972). Karl Barth, makers of the modern theological mind. Waco, TX: Word Book.
Peerman, D., & Marty, M. (1965). A handbook of Christian theologians. Cleveland, NY: World Publication.

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Reid, D., Linder, R., Shelley, B., & Stout, H. (1990). New orthodoxy. In Dictionary of Christianity in America.
Downer Groves, IL: Intervarsity Press.
Torrance, T. (1962). Karl Barth: An introduction to his early theology, 1910–1931. London, UK: SCM Press.

Endnotes

a
The content of the Church Dogmatics is as follows: volume I/1 - the Word of God as the Criterion of
Dogmatics; the Revelation of God; volume I/2 - the Revelation of God; Holy Scripture: the Proclamation of the
Church; volume II/1 - the Knowledge of God; the Reality of God; volume II/2 - the Election of God; the
Command of God; volume III/1 - the Work of Creation; volume III/2 - the Creature: volume III/3 - the Creator
and His Creature; volume III/4 - the Command of God the Creator; volume IV/1 - the Subject-Matter and
Problems of the Doctrine of Reconciliation; volume IV/2 - Jesus Christ, the Servant as Lord; volume IV/3/1 -
Jesus Christ, the True Witness; volume IV/3/2 - Jesus Christ, the True Witness; volume IV/4 - the Foundation of
Christian Life; and volume V - Index, With Aids for the Preacher (Brown, C. (1978). Barth, Karl. In J. D. Douglas
(Ed.), The new international dictionary of the Christian church. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan (pp. 107–108).
b
For more understanding on Barth’s theology, see the following references (Bromiley, G. W. (1979). An
Introduction to the theology of Karl Barth. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Busch, E. (2004). The great passion: An
introduction to Karl Barth’s theology. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Hartwell, H. (1964). The theology of Karl
Barth. Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press).

46
 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Awareness and Practice of Standard Precautions

for Infection Control among Student Nurses

Tatyannah Alexa E. Maristela, Jemarjo Coleen R. Alano, Winston T. Wushoma,

Tedd Abiel L. Jumarang, and Susy A. Jael1, Adventist University of the Philippines

Date Received: 8 November 2019 Revised: 20 January 2020 Accepted: 2 February 2020

Abstract
Infection control knowledge is critical among healthcare providers. This study sought to
determine the awareness and practice of standard precautions (handwashing, safe handling of
needles and other sharp devices, and disposal of contaminated materials) for infection control among
student nurses. Students (N = 121) were surveyed through purposive sampling. The awareness of the
respondents was very high to excellent for practices involving handwashing along with proper
handling and disposal of contaminated materials, with very good practice in the safe handling of
sharps. There was a statistically significant positive relationship between awareness and practice in
the handling and disposal of contaminated materials. However, no such relationship was shown with
handwashing and safe handling of sharps. Year level and gender did not make any significant
difference in safety practices. However, year level and gender were significant predictors of the
practice of standard precautions for infection control in terms of safe handling of sharps, wherein
students at higher training levels tended to have better practices. Awareness was a significant
predictor of the practice of standard precautions involving proper handling and disposal of
contaminated materials; the higher the awareness, the better was the practice. This study affirmed
that awareness of standard precautions for infection control promoted better practice.

Keywords: Standard precautions, awareness, infection control

Introduction
Infection control should be observed by every nurse because non-compliance with standard
precautions is associated with the spread of infection. According to Samson-Akpan and Bassey (2012),
one of the major causes of morbidity in the clinical area is nosocomial infection. Healthcare-associated
infections are grave problems in the healthcare sector that impose a great threat to patient safety
(Hammoud, Ghazi, Nassredine, & Haidar, 2017). Nurses should have proper knowledge of infection
control and should act according to standard precautions while giving care to patients. This provides
an initial level of infection control. Previous studies have shown that student nurses can perform
poorly when it comes to standard infection control, although they have good knowledge about the
standard precautions (Barikani & Afaghi, 2012). Studies have been completed among staff nurses on
practice and knowledge of standard precautions to control infection. However, there is dearth of
literature and studies among nursing students.
The aim of the study was to determine the level of awareness and the extent of practice
pertaining to standard precautions for infection control among nursing students, i.e., in terms of
handwashing, safe handling of needles and other sharp devices, and proper handling and disposal of
contaminated materials. Moreover, the relationship between awareness and infection control
practice was investigated considering the year level of training and gender, as well as the predictors
of infection control practices.

1
Corresponding author email address: SAJael@aup.edu.ph
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

47
Literature Review
Awareness
Despite developments in health care systems, the risk of having hospital-acquired infection
still exists. Nursing personnel possess a high risk of acquiring disease from patients and may possibly
transmit infections to their patients. Having an awareness of standard precautions and practicing
them has a vital role in preventing infection and reducing the risk of succumbing to hospital-acquired
infections (Acharya, Khandekar, Sharma, Tilak, & Kataria, 2013; Kulkarni et al., 2016). Solutions to the
growing problem of healthcare-associated infections and their impact on healthcare systems have
relied greatly on infection control policies that have emphasized good hygiene. However, healthcare
workers’ must consistently follow these practices for the infection control strategies to be effective
(Aboelela, Stone, & Larson, 2012). Nurses who have a high level of awareness regarding infection
control tend to educate their patients and family members more about these practices compared to
nurses with low awareness (Hammoud et al., 2017).
Iliyasu, Dayyab, Habib, Tiamiyu, Abubakar, Mijinyawa, and Habib (2016) argued that poor
knowledge about the risk of transmission of blood borne pathogens meant under-estimation of the
risk of transmission. This situation may put healthcare workers at risk of being infected with blood
borne pathogens after exposure. Awareness is essential in health care and delivery systems, and helps
the medical staff deliver care more effectively.

Practice of Standard Precaution for Infection Control

Standard precautions are a set of protocols for infection control practices. This set of protocols
is used to prevent transmitting diseases that can be acquired by contact with non-intact skin and
mucous membranes, blood, or body fluids. Even if the client or equipment/materials seem non-
infectious, these infection control practice standards are needed in providing care to every individual
(Wisconsin Department of Health Services, 2018).
Hamadah, Kharraz, Alshanqity, AlFawaz, Eshaq, and Abu-Zaid (2015) argued that the
compliance of all healthcare workers with universal standards on precautions for infection control was
an effective tool in controlling and also in preventing the occurrence of hospital-acquired infections.
Following these control precautions protects patients and also healthcare workers. It is essential to
implement these processes and procedures to safeguard patients, care providers, and facilities.
Infections developed in hospitals or healthcare facilities can affect people of any age. These
infections can worsen existing or underlying health conditions of clients, can delay their recovery, and
can affect the quality of life. Healthcare-associated infections can occur not only among sick clients,
but even among healthy individuals. This means that healthcare workers and family members are also
at risk of acquiring health care-associated infections when caring for people. High standards of
infection prevention and keeping the environment clean can help reduce the risk of healthcare
associated infections (Mehta et al., 2014).
Three indicators of practice of standard precautions for infection control are included in this
study, namely: (a) hand washing, (b) safe handling of needles and other sharp devices, and (c) proper
handling and disposal of contaminated materials.

Hand Washing
According to Hamadah et al. (2015), hand washing is the most essential precautionary tool in
reduction of nosocomial healthcare associated infections. Also, the Wisconsin Department of Health
Services (2018) stated that hand washing should be performed before and after every interaction and
process done in a facility. Hand washing should be performed every time there is a contact with the
client, immediately after touching body fluids and blood, contact with contaminated items,
immediately after removing gloves, when moving from contaminated body sites to clean body sites
during client care, and after touching objects and medical equipment in the immediate client-care
vicinity.

48
 The importance of proper hand hygiene must be given emphasis in health-related curricula
and healthcare facilities because improper hand washing may lead to patient’s morbidity and
mortality. The higher and wider the level of knowledge and awareness that nurses have regarding
hand washing standards, the more precautions will be observed, and the greater will be the reduction
in health associated infection rates (Hamadah et al., 2015).

Safe Handling of Needles and Other Sharp Devices

To prevent health care workers from being exposed to blood borne pathogens, safe handling
of needles and other sharp devices is necessary (Wisconsin Department of Health Services, 2018). The
US Needle Stick Safety and Prevention Act (Foley & Leyden, 2000) ordered the use of sharp items with
engineered safety features if suitable devices existed and were available. Due to outbreaks of hepatitis
B and C infections, healthcare facilities should re-emphasize safe injection practices. All healthcare
personnel who give injections should strictly follow the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDCP) recommendations—whenever a medication vial or IV bag is being retrieved, new needles and
syringes should be used, every injection given to a client requires new needles and syringes, and only
one client should be treated per medication vial as much as possible (CDCP, 2017).
Sharps must be in a container that is rigid, puncture resistant, closable, and leak proof–with a
label that says sharps–and with the biohazard symbol. Sharps must be used with extreme caution. The
clipping, breaking, and recapping of needles is discouraged. Containers for sharps should not be filled
more than two-thirds full. If a container is filled with sharps, it must be closed securely and destroyed
as medical waste by incineration (Hraishawi & Naji, 2015).

Proper Handling and Disposal of Contaminated Materials

The World Health Organization (2018) defined infectious waste as a contaminated waste if it
included blood, infectious agents, waste from patients who were isolated, diagnostic samples that
were discarded because they contained blood and body fluids, other contaminated materials such as
swabs and bandages, and equipment such as disposable medical devices.
According to Burton (2017), items that can be a threat to cleaners and people who are
handling waste disposal includes syringes and needles, scalpel blades, bandages, bedding, soiled
clothing and sanitary waste products. When personnel are working in an environment with high risks,
like a healthcare setting, they should consider, act and think that everything being handled is
infectious. According to the World Health Organization (2018), generally, 85% of waste involving
health care settings is non-hazardous, but 15% of the waste is possibly infectious. This waste material
may contain organisms that are harmful, and it may affect other patients, staff and the general public.

Methodology
This study utilized a quantitative descriptive-evaluative, descriptive-comparative, and
descriptive-correlational research design.

Population and Sampling

Data were collected from 121 nursing students who were in their second, third and fourth
years, selected through purposive sampling, from a nursing school in Cavite, Philippines. Out of the
121, 49 were males and 72 were females; 39 were in their second year, 39 were in their third year,
and 43 were in their fourth year. Those who had clinical experience or practice aside from what is
required in the nursing curriculum were excluded from the study.

Questionnaire
The survey questionnaire included three parts. The first part involved demographic profiles of
the respondents. The second part consisted of questions on awareness of standard precautions for
infection control adapted from the study of Samson-Akpan and Bassey (2012). Some items were
modified on the basis of relatability to the target population and relevant literature. Each item was

49
scored on a five-point Likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, neither agree not disagree, agree and
strongly agree). The final section contained questions to evaluate the practice of standard precautions
for infection control that included handwashing, safe handling of needles and other sharp devices,
and proper handling and disposal of contaminated materials. The questions were adapted from the
study of Tufail, Afzal, Perveen, Waqas, and Gilani (2017), with some modifications to fit the
respondents and related literature. Responses were measured using a five-point Likert scale (never,
rarely, sometimes, most of the time, and always). The survey questionnaire was tested for reliability
and content validation by five experts who were nurse educators and clinical practitioners who held
masters and doctoral degrees in nursing.

Analysis of Data
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 22 was used for analysis. Descriptive
statistics such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used to describe the
demographic profiles of respondents, the level of awareness, and the extent of practice. Pearson
product-moment correlation was used to determine the relationship between awareness and practice
of standard precautions for infection control. Analysis of variance was used to determine differences
in practice when gender and year level were considered. Further, linear regression was used to
determine the predictors of practice of standard precautions for infection control.

Ethical Considerations
Approval was secured from the institution where the study was conducted, and from the
institution’s Ethics Review Committee. The students were given a detailed explanation about the
nature and the purpose of the study. It was emphasized that participation was voluntary, and that
participation in the study would have no influence on either their coursework grade or clinical
requirements. Informed verbal consent was secured and all data sheets were kept confidential and
anonymous.

Results
Level of Awareness on Standard Precautions for Infection Control
Table 1 shows that the level of awareness was Very High.

Table 1. Level of Awareness of the Respondents

Feature Investigated Qualitative
Mean SD
Descriptor
Used needles and sharps should be disposed of in sharp 4.84 0.59 Very High
containers.
Disinfection of instruments should be done after each 4.80 0.57 Very High
contact with patients.
Gloves should be used to handle contaminated 4.83 0.57 Very High
materials.
Needle injuries should be reported to authority. 4.70 0.65 Very High
Hands should be washed before and after procedures. 4.88 0.45 Very High
Hands should be washed before and after each patient 4.86 0.46 Very High
care.
Precautionary measures prevent HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis 4.69 0.62 Very High
B.

Awareness 4.80 0.45 Very High

Legend: 1.00–1.49 = Very Low, 1.50–2.49 = Low, 2.50–3.49 = Fair, 3.50–4.49 = High, 4.50–5.00 = Very High

50
Handwashing Awareness
Table 2 indicates that the practice of standard precautions for infection control in terms of
handwashing had an overall mean score of 4.54, which was Excellent.

Table 2. Extent of Practice on Standard Precautions for Infection Control in Terms of Handwashing
Qualitative
Feature Investigated Mean SD
Descriptor
I wash my hands before and after each procedure for 1
4.29 0.82 Very Good
minute.
I wash my hands with soap under running water. 4.64 0.72 Excellent
I wash my hands before and after donning of gloves. 4.60 0.69 Excellent
I wash my hands above the elbow. 3.93 1.08 Very Good
I wash my hands before and after invasive procedures. 4.87 0.39 Excellent
I wash my hands after touching patient’s surroundings. 4.57 0.72 Excellent
I wash my hands when I come in contact with patient’s
4.91 0.29 Excellent
blood, bloody fluids, and secretions.
Handwashing 4.54 0.45 Excellent
Legend: 1.00–1.49 = Poor; 1.50–2.49 = Fair; 2.50–3.49 = Good; 3.50–4.49 = Very Good; 4.50–5.00 = Excellent

Safe Handling of Needles and Other Sharp Devices

Table 3 shows that the practice on standard precautions for infection control in terms of safe
handling of needles and other sharp devices had an overall mean score of 3.91, which is interpreted
as Very Good. Using new needles for each injection of a client received the highest score, while the
lowest score was recorded for recapping needles before disposing of them. This practice received a
score of 1.63 and was interpreted as fair.

Table 3. Extent of Practice in Terms of Safe Handling of Needles and Other Sharp Devices
Qualitative
Feature Investigated Mean SD
Descriptor
I use a separate syringe for aspirating different vials. 4.80 0.52 Excellent
I recap needles before disposing of them. 1.63 1.15 Fair
I use a new needle for each injection of a client. 4.89 0.35 Excellent
I reuse syringes for the same client. 3.98 1.50 Very Good
I use the same needle for aspirating different vials. 3.76 1.61 Very Good
I use a separate needle for aspirating different vials. 4.39 1.15 Very Good
Sharps 3.91 0.56 Very Good
Legend: 1.00–1.49 = Poor; 1.50–2.49 = Fair; 2.50–3.49 = Good; 3.50–4.49 = Very Good; 4.50–5.00 = Excellent

Proper Handling and Disposal of Contaminated Materials

Table 4 (please see following page) shows that the practice on standard precautions for
infection control in terms of proper handling and disposal of contaminated materials was Excellent,
with an overall mean score of 4.85.

51
Table 4. Extent of Practice in Terms of Proper Handling and Disposal of Contaminated Materials
Feature Investigated Qualitative
Mean SD
Descriptor
I wear gloves when handling soiled linens and clothing. 4.70 0.67 Excellent
I dispose of the following in a designated bin for
infectious waste material:
a. Used dressings 4.94 0.23 Excellent
b. Used gloves 4.93 0.28 Excellent
c. Used masks 4.87 0.46 Excellent
d. Used needles 4.78 0.83 Excellent
e. Used syringes 4.88 0.55 Excellent
Disposal 4.85 0.32 Excellent

Legend: 1.00–1.49 = Poor; 1.50–2.49 = Fair; 2.50–3.49 = Good; 3.50–4.49 = Very Good; 4.50–5.00 = Excellent

Awareness and Practice on Standard Precautions for Infection Control

Table 5 figures show that there was no significant relationship between awareness and
practice on standard precautions for infection control among student nurses in terms of handwashing
and safe handling of needles and other sharp devices. However, there was a significant relationship (r
= .18; p ≤ .05) between awareness and practice in terms of proper handling and disposal of
contaminated materials.

Table 5. Relationship between Awareness and Practice on Standard Precautions for Infection Control
Feature Awareness Qualitative
Investigated r p Descriptor
Handwashing .14 .115 Not Significant
Sharps .02 .796 Not Significant
Disposal .18 .044 Significant

Precautions for Infection Control Influenced by Year Level and Gender

There were no significant differences in the practice of standard precautions for infection
control among student nurses when year level was considered. Trends suggested that differences
might be observed among the years in a larger study. When gender was considered, there also were
no significant differences in the practice of standard precautions for infection control among student
nurses regarding handwashing, safe handling of needles and other sharp devices, and proper handling
and disposal of contaminated materials.

Predictors for Safe Practices

Among the variables (Awareness, Year Level, Gender), there was no predictor of standard
precautions for infection control in terms of handwashing. Year level and gender were significant
predictors of safe handling of needles and other sharp devices (Table 6). Together they explained 6.8%
of the variance in practices on needles and sharps, of which 3.4% can be explained by each variable.
Table 6. Predictors on Practice in Terms of Safe Handling of Needles and other Sharp Devices
UC SC
Predictors 𝑹𝟐 Change
𝑩 𝑺𝑬 𝜷 𝒕 𝒑
(Constant) 3.24 .24 13.67 .000
Year Level .034 0.16 .06 .229 2.51 .013
Gender .034 0.22 .11 .190 2.08 .040

𝑅 = .26, 𝑅2 = .07, F = 4.33, 𝑝 = .015

Equation for Practice on Needles and Sharps = 3.24 + .16Year Level + .22 Gender

52
 Awareness was a predictor for proper handling and disposal of contaminated materials (Table 7).

Table 7. Predictors on Practice in Terms of Proper Handling and Disposal of Contaminated Materials
UC SC
Predictors 𝑹𝟐 Change
𝑩 𝑺𝑬 𝜷 𝒕 𝒑
(Constant) 4.23 .31 13.69 .000
Awareness .03 0.13 .06 .18 2.03 .044

𝑅 = .18 , 𝐹 = 4.13, 𝑝 = .044

Equation for Practice on Proper Handling and Disposal of Contaminated Materials = 4.23 + .13Awareness

Discussion
The results revealed that nursing students studied were very aware of standard precautions
for infection control. This may be due to the fact that the respondents were already exposed to clinical
practice as required in the nursing curriculum, with the concepts previously learned in class. According
to Hammoud et al. (2017), nurses who have high awareness of infection control tend to educate their
patients and the family members about these practices. In addition, Iliyasu et al. (2016) mentioned
that poor knowledge about transmission of blood-borne pathogens could increase these risks, which
may put health care workers at risk of being infected with these pathogens following exposure.
Further, the results indicated that the respondents had excellent handwashing practice in the
clinical area. This could be on account of the students being aware of the standard precautions for
infection control through knowledge gained in class and in the clinical area. Handwashing is
considered very important and one of the most effective and economical method to prevent infection.
It is necessary for nurses and patients to wash hands to prevent the spread of microorganisms.
The results also revealed that the respondents displayed very good practices in terms of safe
handling of needles and other sharp devices. The knowledge gained by students in the classroom may
have contributed to this outcome. All healthcare personnel who give injections should strictly follow
to the CDCP recommendations–safe injection practices, which include the following: use of a new
needle and syringe every time a medication vial or IV bag is accessed, use of a new needle and syringe
with each injection of a client, and use of medication vials for one client only (CDCP, 2017).
Moreover, the respondents had excellent practices in regards to proper handling and disposal
of contaminated materials. This might also be an outcome of knowledge gained in class.
The results showed that there was no significant relationship between awareness and
practices in terms of handwashing and safe handling of needles and other sharp devices. However,
there was a significant relationship between awareness and practices in terms of proper handling and
disposal of contaminated materials. Having the knowledge and awareness about standard precautions
and practicing them plays a vital role in preventing infections (Acharya et al., 2013). The study by Lee,
Park, and Jo (2017) on awareness and performance of standard precaution guidelines–designed to
prevent medical-related infections–showed that awareness of infection control was positively
correlated with performance of standard precautions.
Hamadah et al.’s (2015) study confirmed that compliance of healthcare workers to universally
agreed standards on infection control precautions is an effective tool in controlling and preventing
possible occurrence of hospital-acquired infections for patients and healthcare workers. Our results
did not show differences among student training levels in the practice of handwashing, proper
handling and disposal of contaminated materials, and safe handling and disposing of contaminated
materials. This contrasts with the study done by Luo, He, Zhou, and Luo (2010). They showed that
student nurses at higher levels of training had greater compliance than those who had received lower
levels of exposure.
Year training level and gender were predictors of practices in safe handling of needles and
other sharp devices. Further, females tended to have better practices than males. Suliman (2018)
concurred that higher education can make a difference in patient safety in many situations. Nurses in

53
their final year naturally have undertaken more courses, been exposed to more concepts, and had
more experience in infection control practices than those in the lower years.
Moreover, awareness is a predictor of proper handling and disposal of contaminated
materials. Awareness positively influenced practices of handling and disposal, which implies that those
with high awareness are more likely to have better handling and disposal practices. According to
Mathur, Dwivedi, and Misra (2012), education is a critical element in the training of all health care
workers. Emphasis should be given in training regarding biomedical waste management that will make
an impact on practices of appropriate waste disposal. Furthermore, according to these authors,
adequate knowledge about the health hazards of hospital waste, proper techniques and methods of
handling the waste, and practice of safety measures would be a great help to protect healthcare
workers and community members from various adverse effects of hazardous waste.

Conclusions
The study concluded that the nursing students under study were aware of and practice
standard precautions for infection control in respect to handwashing, proper handling and disposal of
contaminated materials, and safe handling of needles and other sharp devices. The higher the
awareness of the students, the better their practical application of safety procedures. Females tended
to have better habits of safe handling of needles and other sharp devices than males.

Limitations
Variables such as years of clinical practice, clinical area specialty, and clinical exposure may
be explored in future studies in different nursing schools, and among registered nurses in the clinical
area. Sampling different demographic profiles and the use a larger sample size would be beneficial.
The survey tool used may not have been sufficient to measure the actual awareness and practice
variables, because it was totally dependent on the honesty of respondents in answering the questions;
thus, another tool might be tested in future investigations. A qualitative study also might be done to
gain a deeper understanding of the phenomenon, and to explore what additional factors might
contribute to better practice of infection control.

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Wisconsin Department of Health Services. (2018). Infection control and prevention–Standard precautions.
Retrieved from https://www.dhs.wisconsin.gov/ic/precautions.htm
World Health Organization. (2018). Health-care waste. Retrieved from https://www.who.int/mediacentre/
factsheets/fs253/en/

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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Knowledge, Attitudes, and Practices of Records Management among Bank

Professionals: A Basis for a Competency Training Program

Diana C. Lobres, Jamaica C. Paduhilao, Marla Jayne M. Rodelas,

Lowena G. De Ocampo1, Lualhati P. Sausa, Glenda Joy B. Lopez, and
Lailani C. Tanalas, Adventist University of the Philippines

Date Received: 8 November 2019 Revised: 27 January 2020 Accepted: 20 February 2020

Abstract
This study was undertaken to determine the relationship of variables on records management
practices. The population surveyed, through purposive sampling, consisted of 74 professionals from
selected banks in Santa Rosa, Laguna, Philippines. Questionnaires were used to examine the
relationships of the moderating variables used. These were age, gender, marital status, educational
qualifications, and length of service. Descriptive statistics were used to measure the knowledge,
attitudes, and practices of the respondents on records management. The statistical techniques applied
to data were Pearson correlation analysis, two-tailed independent samples t-test, and analysis of
variance. The respondents’ level on knowledge was high, and they had a positive attitude towards the
records management practices. A high level was attained on records management practices.
Knowledge and attitudes had a significant positive effect on practices implemented concerning
records management. Attitude had predictive ability on practices adopted in records management.
Practices on records management were not influenced by age, marital status, educational
qualifications, and length of service, but gender did influence management outcomes significantly.

Keywords: Knowledge, attitude, practices, records management

Introduction
One of the most striking changes that has impacted today’s office professionals is the expanse
of knowledge required for success. Office professionals must understand and be able to manage
records and information from creation to preservation and disposition (Brereton, 2016; Franks, 2013).
Managing records involves more than collecting and keeping data and information. It also
concerns the knowledge of what records must be kept, where they are to be stored, how they are to
be managed, and who has the right of access. Records are created daily and organizations must ensure
that these records can be used as evidence to support transactions to keep the business viable
(Unegbu, 2013).
The significance of record keeping and management might be illustrated by reference to the
higher education sector in Ghana. Lack of record management has caused damage to the country’s
entire education sector. Personnel in-charge of the maintenance of the registry system were ignorant
of their responsibilities. It has caused the reliability and authenticity of the records in the system to
be questionable (Seniwoliba, Mahama, & Abilla, 2017).
Such findings encouraged the researchers to conduct an investigation on the knowledge,
attitude and practices of professionals in records management. The main purpose of this study was to
determine the following: (a) knowledge, attitude and practices on record management among office
professionals, (b) relationships among variables, (c) significant difference on records management
practices considering respondent profiles, and (d) a proposed competency training program.

1
Corresponding author email address: moilowie@gmail.com
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

56
Review of Literature
Records Management
In defining records management, the concept of records needs to be known. It is defined in
terms of its physical format or in the information it contains (Tagbotor, Adzido, & Agbanu, 2015). In
the book, Record Management Handbook, Penn, Pennix, and Coulson (2016) defined records
management as “the management of any information captured in reproducible form that is required
for conducting business.”
Records play a major role in establishing the stages of development, implementation,
monitoring, evaluation and renewal of an institution’s programs which, overall, are crucial information
that is involved in the survival of the institution. The premise of why records need management is the
same as questioning why other resources require management. In institutions of higher learning, it is
important to regard records as being at the heart of successful institutional operations (Seniwoliba,
Mahama, & Abilla, 2017).
In state run organizations, the public relies heavily on records. In fact, record keeping helps
maintain and uphold the operation of a democratic society by keeping the government accountable.
Thus, record keeping is crucial to normal day to day business operations (Ondieki, 2017)
The International Organization for Standardization (2001) defined records management as the
field of management responsible for the efficient and systematic control of the creation, receipt,
maintenance, use and disposition of records, including the process for capturing and maintain
evidence of and information about business activities and transactions of records.

Knowledge
Knowledge is the awareness of, or familiarity with, various objects, events, ideas, or ways of
doing things (Henriques, 2013). According to a Corporate Storage Services document, as cited in
Unegbu (2013), records management concerns record keeping, but it also involves knowledge on how
records are to be managed.
In different parts of the world, records management varies in terms of the nature and extent
depending on its purpose, setting and context of the services. The employees have to be
knowledgeable and familiar with the requirements needed in managing records, such as the level of
confidentiality, proper maintenance security, preservation of content, and other necessities that are
to be considered (Seniwoliba, Mahama, & Abilla, 2017).
In the control of records management, staff development is an essential tool in building
awareness and knowledge of records management and its significance in service delivery. The
objective is for knowledge to generate effectiveness in an organization’s day-to-day operation.
Without control, records have the potential to raise operating costs and expose organizations to risk
unnecessarily (DeBenedetti, 2018; Musumbe, 2016).
The knowledge dimension of record management includes benefits, confidentiality,
findability, and safety. The benefits in recordkeeping and management are simple processes that give
a framework for the keeping, maintenance, and provision for the disposition of all records and
anything cited on them. Records are there for the purpose of benefiting the staff of institutions in
facilitating continuous and elevating services while preserving privacy. In turn, such frameworks are
managed under a set of guidelines meant to educate the staff on decisions for professional record
keeping (Seniwoliba, Mahama, & Abilla, 2017).
The Oxford Dictionary defines findability as the ‘quality or fact of being findable.’ Read and
Ginn (2016) stated in their book Records Management that a record loses its value at the time when
it is needed but cannot be located. The system an organization uses must make it possible for any
person to be able to locate files quickly. It is crucial to have the ability to find the records, regardless
of the form in which they may be.

57
Attitudes
Attitudes play a great role in records management. According to ISO 15489, every person
involved in the business has a part in the recordkeeping system by ensuring that the records are
created and captured. It is vital for every employee to recognize their responsibilities in this respect
(Oliver & Foscarini, 2014).
Upholding accurate records and maintaining an up-to-date system for filing are both
important jobs for administrative assistants. Each and every filing system that has been made requires
an operator who will maintain the system with pride. The operator should also have a great amount
of confidence that any file asked for can be retrieved as quickly as possible (Stroman, Wilson, &
Wauson, 2014).
Bad record keeping and lack of policy guidelines in records management programs have led
to inefficiency in administration and to the loss or unavailability of vital information needed for
decision-making (Unegbu, 2013).
For more effective record management, managers of records and information should know
how the organization works, which in turn would allow better chances of identification and provision
of intellectual and physical control of the records created. To ensure that staff show a proper and
effective compliance, management needs to be aware of the responsibilities of managing records and
the systems used and the procedures adopted (Franks, 2013; Luthuli & Kalusopa, 2017).

Practices
Record management, though a vital part in any institution, is commonly underestimated until
the time a needed record cannot be located. Record management is the practice of proper
maintenance or records of organizations and institutions, from the time of the foundations of the
creation of the institution, to the time deemed for their disposal. It is an essential component of office
administration. An effective record management program allows the organization to render better
customer service, provide legal defensibility, and leads to improved profitability (Betty, 2018; Unegbu,
2013).
The importance of records management is increasingly being recognized in organizations. It is
therefore the responsibility of records managers to ensure that they gain the attention of decision-
makers in their organizations (Tagbotor, Adzido, & Agbanu, 2015).
The American National Standards Institute cooperated with the International Organization for
Standardization in creating ISO 15489. It is a set of standards for records management policies and
procedures, and it guarantees the purpose of ensuring the applications of appropriate attention and
protection to all records so that evidence and information they contain can be retrieved efficiently
and effectively (Read & Ginn, 2016).
Creation. In the Philippines, the National Archives refers to the creation of records as the
organization’s way of transmitting ideas between two sources in a written form, the ability to control
records and retain them in a record keeping system, and the making of records to provide evidence
of administrative activities (Official Gazette, 2009).
Records should be created and collected to meet operational, policy, legal and financial
purposes. Document accuracy and adequacy permits government functions, policies, procedures,
decisions and transactions to serve as reliable evidence. The creation of records should be adequate
but not excessive. They should be created or kept in the most suitable medium and format. In
particular, records that are known to have permanent value should be created in a format that will
permit such records to be preserved. Records are created to document actions and decisions as soon
as possible in order to ensure that the reliability and completeness of records will not be adversely
affected due to the passage of time (Government Records Service, 2018)
Use. The ultimate reason why records are created is that someone will require the information
in the future. The prime objectives of records keeping is to appraise, arrange, describe, and preserve
information so as to enhance future information use (Sundqvist, 2015).

58
 Yeo (2005) indicated that studies of how records have been used have been mainly focused
on how staff and employees access and look into records. There is a clear need to understand the
users’ needs when it comes to records. This is frequently not known. The diversity of needs requires
careful study and considerable effort is required in order to satisfy interested users.
Maintenance. In the Oxford Dictionary, the term maintenance is spoken of as the process of
preserving or keeping something in good condition. Maintenance has the objective of preserving the
condition of records so that they may be of use and function as needed though their life cycle.
Maintenance is an important part to ensure functionality, eco-efficiency, and in extending the life time
of records. Thus, the term ‘life cycle maintenance’ is used to stress the role of life cycle management
(Takata et al., 2004)
Disposition. Disposal has been termed and defined as destruction of public documents or
information in public documents. This involves destroying information entirely, but also includes the
partial loss of information via transfers through alternative media. Proper disposal practices are there
to insure there is proper space saving with no chance of losing vital information. Thus, before
destroying or disposing of any information, the importance of such documents or information must
be established (Tersmenden, 2018).
Erasing, deleting, and destroying are the different ways to dispose of records from their
holding medium. Destruction is recorded in a digital format to account for its disposal. Meanwhile,
electronic records are reviewed by authorized employees to ensure which documents are to be sent
for storage in the form of microfilms, tapes, disks, and other storage devices (Rajan, 2013).

Theoretical Framework
Records Continuum. The records continuum provides a way of making sense of the complexity
of record keeping in our digital environment. The four dimensions (creation, use, maintenance and
disposition) and the four axes (record keeping containers, evidentiality, transactionality, and identity)
can be used as a practical tool to identify the stage of development an organization has reached in
terms of managing its information as evidence for accountability (Oliver & Foscarini, 2014).
The concept of the records continuum is a consistent and coherent process through the
lifecycle of records. It implies that the four actions continue or recur through-out the records’ lifecycle.
According to the Standards Association of Australia, the records continuum is “a consistent and
coherent regime of management processes from the time of the creation of records, through to the
preservation and use of records as archives” (Seniwoliba et al., 2017).

Figure 1. Records Continuum Model

59
 The records continuum model was formulated by an Australian archivist named Frank
Upward. He based his formulation on four principles which are: (a) “The concept of record inclusive
of records of continuing value (archives) stresses their use for transactional, evidentiary, and memory
purposes and unifies approaches to archives/recordkeeping, whether records are kept for a split
second or a millennium; (b) “There is a focus on records as logical rather than physical entities,
regardless of whether they are in paper or electronic form; (c) “Institutionalization of the
recordkeeping profession’s role requires a particular emphasis on the need to integrate recordkeeping
in business and societal processes”; and lastly (d) “Archival science is the foundation for organizing
knowledge about recordkeeping. Such knowledge is revisable but can be structured and explored in
terms of the operation of principles for action in the past, the present and the future.” The model
gives importance to the overlapping characteristics of recordkeeping. Unlike the records lifecycle,
which deemphasizes the time-bound stages, the records continuum merges the recordkeeping and
archiving processes into the time space dimensions (Franks, 2013).

Data Privacy Act of 2012

The Republic Act of 10173 (2011), also known as the Data Privacy Act of 2012, seeks to
minimize data privacy in the Philippines. This Act states that “although the free flow of information
promotes innovation and growth, it is essential that personal data in the government and private
sector’s information and communication systems are to be secured and protected at all times”
(Palabrica, 2012).
The Implementing Rules and Regulations of Republic Act No. 10173, took effect in the year
2016. This law was passed hopefully to protect the fundamental human right of privacy while ensuring
there was a free flow of information. This Act has raised the definition of what data privacy should be,
such as the protection of information and balancing the free flow of information by controlling and
integrating its responsible use by any organization.

Methodology
The respondents of this descriptive-correlational study were 60 professionals chosen
purposively from 11 banks in Sta. Rosa, Laguna, whose jobs involved the creation, use, maintenance
and disposition of records in their offices. Out of 77 respondents, 37 (48.1%) belonged to the group
21–30 years old, 24 (31.2%) belonged to the group 31–40 years old, 16 (20.7%) belonged to the group
40 years old and above. The majority of the respondents were female (54 or 70.1%), had taken
vocational courses (73 or 94.8%), married (51.9%) and single (45.5%) and had worked for up to five
years (44.2%), 6–15 years (41.6%), and 16 years and above (14.3%).
The self-constructed survey-type used in this study was divided into four parts. The first part
dealt with the respondents' demographic profile such as their age, educational qualifications, marital
status, and length of service. The second part consisted of 15 items that measured the respondents’
knowledge about record management based on four dimensions. The response options were ‘true’ or
‘false.’ The knowledge scores were converted to intervals as follows: 1–3 (Very low); 4–6 (Low), 7–9
(Average), 10–12 (High), 13–15 (Very High). The third part consisted of 10 items that measured the
attitudes of professionals on records management. The scale utilized a four-point Likert scale of
Strongly Disagree (1), Disagree (2), Agree (3), and Strongly Agree (4). These numbers corresponded to
a verbal interpretation of Highly Negative, Negative, Positive, and Highly Positive, respectively. The
last part measured the practice on records management. It consists of parts with four subcategories
such as creation, use, maintenance, and disposal. The response choices were ‘never,’ ‘rarely,’
‘sometimes,’ ‘oftentimes’ and ‘always,’ interpreted as Very low, Low, Average, High, Very High,
respectively.
Descriptive statistics, such as frequency, percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used
to describe the demographic profile of the respondents. Pearson correlation, t-test and ANOVA were
also used in the study.

60
Results
Knowledge on Records Management
Table 1 shows that the respondents were highly knowledgeable in records management
(mean = 12.07, SD = 2.34) with a total score of 15. Most of the respondents (98.4%) answered item 4
correctly, which means that they clearly knew that records have an important impact in the efficiency
and economical operations of all organizations. Ninety-seven percent (97%) answered item 1 correctly
which implies that the respondents believe that the assurance of privacy of their company is achieved
through managing records. Item 8 was correctly answered by ninety-six (96%) of the population, which
shows that most of the respondents are aware of the use of data security when it comes to the
prevention of cases where data could possibly leak. On item 14, only 52.2% answered it correctly by
believing the Republic Act #10173 is only for the government sector, while a large number believed
the opposite.
Table 1. Knowledge on Records Management
Correct
Items Considered in the Questionnaire
answers (%)
4 Records have an important aspect for the efficient and economic operations of all 98.7
organizations
1 Managed records give assurance of privacy for the institution 97.0
8 Data security comes into action to prevent cases such as leaking of valuable 96.0
information
2 Valuing information requires the determination of what is private, confidential, or 94.7
restricted
5 Computer crime awareness is important for the organization to avoid huge amount 94.7
of damage
12 Records management is a great asset to the organization when maintained in a 93.4
systematic fashion
10 Records are used as references for making important decisions 92.0
15 Record management is the supervision and administration of digital or paper records 90.7
regardless of form
3 A lost record will not cost the organization as it still can be replaced 82.2
9 An envelope or folder is only used if the record contains sensitive information 74.7
7 Cross referencing is not a necessary step in filing records 72.2
11 Indexing is done only when the record being filed is highly valuable 67.1
13 Discussion of sensitive information among the staff will cause no damage to the 62.2
organization as long as it is kept as a secret
6 Organizing records alphabetically is the only way to manage records 61.8
14 The Republic Act # 10173 is an act protecting individual information and 52.2
communication systems in the government sector only
Verbal Interpretation
Grand Mean of Knowledge Mean = 12.07, SD = 2.34
High

Attitudes Regarding Records Management

Table 2 shows the possession of a positive attitude regarding records management (Mean =
3.21). The respondents strongly agreed (mean = 3.60) that they felt that their work would be easier
when records were managed properly. In addition, respondents (mean = 3.56) strongly agreed that a
records management system was of great importance in the workplace. In item 1, the respondents
agreed (mean = 3.46) that they felt that records management was given importance in their
workplace. The rest of all items are presented in Table 2.

61
Table 2. Attitudes Regarding Records Management
Scaled Verbal
Items Considered in the Questionnaire Mean SD
Response Interpretation
9 I feel that proper record management Strongly
3.60 0.79 Highly Positive
can make office work easy Agree
8 It is important to have a record Strongly
3.56 0.86 Highly Positive
management system in the workplace Agree
1 I feel that records management is not
3.46 0.96 Agree Positive
important in our workplace
2 I feel that we are very efficient in
3.33 0.74 Agree Positive
managing records
7 I feel that I can manage my records
3.32 0.70 Agree Positive
properly
10 The thought of losing important records
3.27 0.90 Agree Positive
frightens me
6 I feel that it’s important to give
2.97 0.97 Agree Positive
customers the records that they need
3 I feel responsible whenever a record
2.92 0.95 Agree Positive
gets lost
4 I am confident to find any file even if it
2.89 0.96 Agree Positive
is not organized
5 There is no possibility of losing any
records in my office as long as I 2.62 0.95 Agree Positive
remember its creation
Grand Mean of Attitude 3.21 0.46 Agree Positive

Legend: 3.50–4.00 = Strongly Agree (Highly Positive), 2.50–3.49 = Agree (Positive),

1.50–2.49 = Disagree (Negative), 1.00–1.49 = Strongly Disagree (Highly Negative)

Practices on Records Management

Practice is the way a person is able to apply or use an idea, thought or the things learned.
Records management was measured in terms of creation, use, maintenance, and disposal. Table 3
(following page) shows observations for the dimension of creation which had an over-all mean of 3.83,
which shows that the respondents oftentimes practice the creation of management records. This
means that they were highly practiced in this function.
The first highly practiced item among others was, “Whenever I make a record, I always
proofread the whole document before I print it.” It returned a mean of 4.28. On the other hand, the
item “I entrust someone else to manage our records in the office” was sometimes practiced by the
respondents in a borderline satisfactory manner (mean = 2.69).
Use is an important part of a records life cycle. Detailed data are not shown on account of the
high values obtained. The results of the respondents’ answers to practices related to use on records
management returned a mean of 3.94 (SD = 0.69), which was interpreted as highly practiced. The
single question that received an average response was “I track records by writing the names of those
who accessed it.”
Maintenance is the act of preserving certain things. The over-all results for this section were
interpreted as high, (mean = 4.18, SD = 0.718), which indicates that the respondents maintain their
records in a good manner. This also shows that their company practiced good maintenance when
keeping their records.

62
Table 3. Practices Related to Creation
Sealed Verbal
Items Considered in the Questionnaire Mean SD
Response Interpretation
1 Whenever I make a record, I always
proofread the whole document before I 4.28 0.89 Oftentimes High
print it
2 I immediately document officially
4.25 0.91 Oftentimes High
approved decisions
4 I routinely collect the records to ensure it
4.00 0.80 Oftentimes High
has fulfilled its purpose
5 I backup my documents right after I finish
3.88 0.98 Oftentimes High
making them
3 I entrust someone else to manage our
2.69 1.13 Sometimes Average
records in the office
Grand Mean of Creation 3.83 0.64 Oftentimes High
Legend: 4.50–5.00 = Always (Very High) , 3.50–4.49 Oftentimes (High), 2.50–3.49 = Sometimes
(Average) 1.50–2.49 = Rarely (Low), 1.00–1.49 = Never (Very Low)

Disposal of records helps the company maintain proper storage of old records and new
records. The respondents surveyed in this study disposed of records at the appropriate time by
following a retention schedule in their workplace. Disposal of records management returned a mean
of 3.89 (SD = 0.749). Respondents oftentimes evaluated records to know which were to be disposed
of and make sure government guidelines were followed. Disposal could involve storing records in
digital form in case they were needed in the future.

Relationship of Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices on Records Management

Analysis indicated that knowledge and attitude showed a positive relationship with the
Pearson correlation giving a value of .383 (p = .001). This means that as professionals learn more about
records management their approach to it will also become better.

Table 4. Relationship between Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices of Records Management

K A P C U M D
Knowledge r 1 .38** .35** .29* .28* .38** .25*
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .002 .012 .017 .001 .029
N 76 76 75 75 75 75 75
Attitudes r .38** 1 .49** .37** .39** .52** .42**
Sig. (2-tailed) .001 .000 .001 .001 .000 .000
N 76 76 75 75 75 75 75
Practices r .35** .49** 1 .84** .88** .87** .85**
Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .000 .000 .000 .000 .000
N 75 75 76 76 76 76 76
Legend: K – Knowledge A-Attitude P-Practices C-Creation U-Use M-Maintenance D-Disposal
** Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed).
* Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed).

The relationship between knowledge and practices was significant at the 1% level. This implies
that if professionals are more knowledgeable about the theories and methods of records
management, the level of their practice will increase in a way that will make them more efficient in
the office.

63
 Attitude and practices on records management were also significantly (p = .000) related to
each other that implies that as professionals show a more positive approach to the practice of records
management, there will be an increase in productivity in their office.

Difference in Practices of Records Management

Comparison of the practice on records management by age showed no significant difference
(F(2,73) = 0.18, p = 0.837). However, the record management practices were significantly different
between male and female, with females returning superior outcomes (t = -2.58, p = .012). No
significant differences were noted in the practice of records management when marital status,
educational background, and length of services were compared (p > .05).

Predictors of Practices Related to Records Management

Predictors refer to factors that significantly contribute to records management practices. Only
the variable attitude was considered to significantly predict practices of professionals related to
records management. Table 5 summarizes the results of the regression model for the predictors of
practice on records management.

Table 5. Predictors of Practice on Records Management

Standardized
Unstandardized Coefficients
Predictors Coefficients R R2 R2 Change T Sig.
B Std. Error Beta
(Constant) 1.83 .44 - - - - 4.14 .000
Attitude 0.66 .14 .49 .49a .24 .24 4.84 .000

The results of the linear regression model were significant, attitudes significantly predict
practices (p = .000). The results imply that 24.3% (R2 Change = .24) of the variance of the attitudes
contributes to the practice of records management. This means that positive attitude will lead an
increase of acceptable practices in records management.

Discussion
This study aimed to assess the respondent’s knowledge, attitude, and practices on records
management. Findings showed that many of the respondents had high knowledge on records
management. Attitude towards records management was positive. The practices on records
management were also revealed to be positive. Responsibilities of employees in records management
involved maintenance of existing files, but also designing and installing a records system. Factors such
as findability, confidentiality, and safety are to be considered in the making of an effective records
system. The results also revealed that gender was a moderating variable affecting the practices on
records management. Age, marital status, educational qualifications, and length of service did not
affect professionals’ practices on records management.
It has been observed that practices involving poor management could likely lead to the loss
of all corporate memory, which are records that document the development of functions and provide
data for research. Improper approaches to record keeping will result in the records being misplaced
or destroyed in an untimely manner. Although some materials may be left, their value as evidence
may still mean nothing (Tagbotor, Adzido, & Agbanu, 2015).
The findings of this study showed that knowledge was significantly related with practices on
records management. Corporate records management concerns not only record keeping, but also
knowledge on how records are to be managed. An employee’s outlook on records and records
management are manifested in certain attitudes and behaviors, such as usage in records management
systems, preparation in applying the record management policy, voluntarily practicing records
management procedures, readiness in setting up personal systems to support personalized work-

64
related information needs, and willing participation in record management training programs (Oliver
& Foscarini, 2014; Read & Ginn, 2016).
Perhaps not surprisingly, attitude and practices were significantly related in the present study.
It was found that 24.3% of variance in records management could be attributed to the attitudes held,
indicating that much more work is required to identify other influential contributors to variance.
According to Arena Solutions (2019), the major element of quality management, compliance,
and regulatory practices and employee safety is the training of records management. Records
management is not often given notice, however, without the proper training record management
automation; manufacturers are prone to compliance challenges and unnecessary administrative costs.
Based on our results it also seems evident that educational records management programs would be
most beneficial if they were run with an emphasis on enhancing knowledge, particularly attitudes
towards the practices of records management. The competency training program might include a
review on the definition of records, their importance, and the reasons why they should be managed
efficiently. The provision of case reports dealing with the consequences of poor corporate
management practices needs to be passed on to all those involved in record keeping.
In our fast-changing world, there is a need for all companies to train employees in advanced
operating procedures as they incorporate new technologies, meet new challenges, and encompass
new practices. Whether the company is required to comply with the FDA, ISO or any other standards,
training ideally should be done.

Conclusions
Effective records management retains documentation on the development of functions in
organizations and facilitates future research. The misplacing of records needs to be carefully guarded
against and records should be destroyed only after careful consideration. Training is surely necessary
to ensure a thorough understanding of, and compliance with, new methods of data storage and
changing procedures within an organization.
This study identified the factors that affect the practices on records management among
banking professionals in the Sta. Rosa, Laguna region. While the respondents’ level on knowledge was
high and they had a positive attitude towards the practices on records management, there was room
for improvement. Knowledge and attitudes affected the practices on records management among the
professionals that worked in the selected organizations. An increase in knowledge and a positive
attitude could lead to an improvement in the practices on managing records.
Gender also made a significant difference in the practices on records management of the
professionals studied. According to the findings, females received a higher score in comparison with
the male population in terms of exemplary records management. Since attitude best predicts the
practices of records management among professionals, a positive attitude such as being responsible,
being confident in their work, and being aware of and open-minded to the changes that take place in
their office is beneficial. The primary indication arising from the study is the need for educational
records management programs with an emphasis on enhancing knowledge of and attitudes toward
the practices relevant to records management.

Recommendations
1. Office professionals should update their current knowledge regarding records keeping and
filing systems and keep abreast with current trends, especially in the fast-changing world
transitioning to the digital age.
2. Seminars/workshops should be made available for the instructors of record management.
3. Ensure that records management topics are integrated into the course syllabi of Office
Management programs.
4. Research might be conducted to evaluate an organization’s records management system to
determine what factors are most likely to make the operation more efficient and economical.

65
 5. Investigations might be conducted to identify other variables affecting current practices on
records management. The aim should be to improve efficiency and at the same time support
data privacy acts.

References
Arena Solutions. (2019). Training record management software: The first 3 steps to automation. Retrieved
from https://www.arenasolutions.com/resources/articles/training-record-management/
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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

The Effects of Using Particulate Diagrams on High School Students’

Conceptual Understanding of Stoichiometry

Faridah Lausin1 and Jimmy Kijai, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Date Received: 6 November 2019 Revised: 16 February 2020 Accepted: 19 February 2020

Abstract
The lack of a conceptual understanding of stoichiometry among high school students is a valid
concern because it impedes students’ problem-solving ability, which is a significant predictor of
performance in college chemistry. In this study the effects of a visual-based pedagogical approach was
investigated on the understanding of four concepts of stoichiometry among tenth-grade chemistry
students at an international high school in Thailand. The approach involves the systematic use of
particulate diagrams in the instruction of stoichiometry in a real classroom setting. The study further
examined the attitudes of the students towards the approach. Conducted using a one-group pre-
test/post-test design, data for the study were collected using a conceptual stoichiometry test and an
attitude questionnaire. Analyses of the test data indicated that the approach had a significantly
positive effect on the students’ conceptual understanding of stoichiometry, and they generally had a
favorable attitude towards it.

Keywords: Stoichiometry, conceptual understanding, particulate diagrams, pedagogical model

Introduction
Stoichiometry problem-solving can pose challenges to high school chemistry students. From
an analysis of student responses at Adventist International Mission School (AIMS), Muak Lek, Thailand
to a variety of stoichiometric questions, it was noted that the primary source of these challenges was
students’ minimal or complete lack of conceptual understanding of stoichiometry. AIMS students
appeared to have misconceptions regarding some stoichiometry concepts, including the concepts of
mole, representative particles, mole ratio, theoretical yield, and limiting reagent. Their inadequate
understanding of these concepts impeded their ability to solve stoichiometry problems successfully.
Although studies have shown that the use of particle diagrams can effectively improve students'
conceptual understanding of stoichiometry, this visual tool has not been applied systematically and
extensively in AIMS chemistry classes, and its impact specifically on AIMS students’ conceptual
understanding of stoichiometry had not been explored.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of using particle diagrams (also called
particulate diagrams) on AIMS high school students’ conceptual understanding of stoichiometry,
specifically on the concepts of representative particles, mole ratio, limiting reagent, and theoretical
yield. In this study, a companion booklet entitled “Thinking the Particulate Way!” was designed and
used as complementary material in lessons related to concepts of stoichiometry. At the end of the
series of lessons, its effects on students’ conceptual understanding of stoichiometry and their
attitudes towards its use in learning stoichiometry were examined.

1
Author’s email address: ida@aims.ac.th
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

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Literature Review
Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is a branch of chemistry that deals with calculations of the quantities of
substances involved in chemical changes or chemical reactions (Wilbraham, Staley, Matta, &
Waterman 2017). The word stoichiometry is derived from the Greek words: stoicheion (meaning
“element”) and metron (meaning “to measure”) (Goldberg, 2015). Though the translation from Greek
to English seems to imply that only chemical elements are involved and measured, very often chemical
compounds are involved and measured in chemical reactions.
Stoichiometry calculations deal with the quantities of chemical elements, or compounds
present, before undergoing a chemical change (reactants), and the chemical elements or compounds
produced after the chemical change (products). These quantities are measured in terms of mass,
volume, number of moles, and number of representative particles.
Both students and teachers find stoichiometry to be one of the most challenging topics in
chemistry. Evaluation of senior secondary school chemistry syllabi indicates that students and teachers
find the module on stoichiometry problematic (Seetso & Taiwo, 2005; Shadreck & Enunuwe, 2018).
Even after alternative approaches for teaching stoichiometry are developed, students and teachers
may still regard the topic as being complicated and unmotivating (Fach, Boer, & Parchmann, 2007).
Interviews with high school chemistry instructors revealed responses that were overwhelmingly
similar, in that they found teaching stoichiometry challenging. Students' reactions toward learning
about the concepts of stoichiometry were ones of fear and apprehension (Bridges, 2015) and
discouragment (Schmidt & Jignéus, 2003).
Dahsah and Coll (2007) reported that even after major national curriculum reforms, Thai
Grade 10 and 11 students who participated in a survey demonstrated less than the acceptable level
of understanding concepts related to stoichiometry. The Thai students’ responses also suggested that
they resorted to the use of algorithms with little knowledge of the underlying concepts. Findings from
a study involving 867 twelfth-grade Indonesian students showed that, in general, Indonesian students
were more successful in answering questions that were algorithmically based, and found no strong
positive correlations between student performance on conceptual questions and algorithmic
questions (Agung & Schwartz, 2007). These studies suggest that students who do not grasp the
chemistry concepts behind a problem sufficiently tend to use algorithmic methods. They merely use
a memorized formula, manipulate the equation, and plug numbers in it until they fit.
What makes stoichiometry so challenging to learn and understand is that the macroscopic
features of chemical reactions, on which stoichiometry is primarily based, are emergent properties
resulting from actions at the atomic or molecular levels (Cheng & Gilbert, 2014). These submicroscopic
actions operate on a non-human scale and are unable to be directly manipulated or experienced.
Therefore, developing an intuition for connecting these macroscopic features with submicroscopic
interactions is difficult (Rahayu & Kita, 2009). Still another learning challenge is mastery of the
representational system of symbols, formulas, equations, and mathematical manipulations used to
describe and explain these unseen submicroscopic interactions that give rise to macroscopic features.
Expert chemists move freely among these three levels as they pursue their work, including that of
instruction (Johnstone, 2000). However, students, whose knowledge framework is rudimentary at
best, have great difficulty understanding their teachers when explanations move away from the
macroscopic level with which they have everyday experience. Effective stoichiometric instruction
should promote student development of cognitive connections among macroscopic, submicroscopic,
and representational aspects of stoichiometry.
Bridges (2015, p. 9) suggested that teachers need to be “knowledgeable, creative, and
resourceful” in helping their students to learn stoichiometry. In recent years a number of alternative
approaches for teaching this unit of chemistry have been developed. In Germany, a set of stepped
supporting tools was implemented to help grade 9 students working on stoichiometric problems
(Fach, Boer, & Parchmann, 2007). A study of 96 Indonesian students reported that macro–submicro–
symbolic teaching, which employed multiple representations, could enhance student mental models

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and understanding of chemical reactions effectively, which is the basis for solving stoichiometric
problems (Sunyono, Yuanita, & Ibrahim, 2015). Inquiry-based lessons, using particulate level models,
may produce statistically significant improvement in grade 11 and 12 students’ conceptual
understanding of stoichiometry, even though there are variations in the intervention delivery
(Kimberlin & Yezierski, 2016). An instructional model that incorporates definitions, computer-
generated visuals at the submicroscopic level, and physical samples of various substances at the
macroscopic level seems to improve students’ conceptions of pure substances and mixtures (Sanger,
2000). These studies suggest that an understanding of the submicroscopic composition of chemical
elements and/or compounds that make up the reacting and resulting substances in chemical reactions
is an essential prerequisite to interpreting and solving stoichiometric problems.
The studies cited above indicate that a more visual pedagogical approach to teaching
stoichiometry effectively could advance student conceptual understanding. Consequently, the
Advanced Placement Chemistry curriculum was redesigned to include learning objectives that contain
references to particulate representations of chemical phenomena (College Board, 2014). However,
the shift in emphasis toward conceptual understanding using particulate images presents a real
challenge for many chemistry teachers, because most of them have had limited exposure to
particulate ideas before teaching chemistry, including during their high school years. Therefore,
translating the recommendations for using particulate representations into teaching practices can be
a daunting task. The scarcity of classroom-ready lessons or supplementary materials based primarily
on particulate descriptions further compounds the challenge. From my own experience as a chemistry
teacher, I observed that in high school chemistry textbooks, particle diagrams were used sparingly and
sporadically as concept illustrations and as summative assessment items. Very few chemistry
textbooks make extensive use of particle representations, and they are not accessible by all teachers.
In their action research, Kimberlin and Yezierski (2016) designed and provided evidence for the
effectiveness of two particulate level inquiry-based lessons. Unfortunately, these lessons could not be
accessed online. Without classroom-ready and easily accessible materials, recommendations to
incorporate particulate ideas in stoichiometry lessons create gaps in the literature.

Particle Diagrams
A particle diagram is a model that usually describes the arrangement and movement of
particles in a substance. The particles are represented as circles that are either drawn individually or
in groups of two or more, depending on what substance they constitute. In most science lessons, the
diagram is used to explain the physical properties of solids, liquids, and gases. However, in
stoichiometry, it is used to show the composition of substances involved in chemical reactions. It
shows the number and types of particles that make up the reactants and products in chemical
reactions. Examples of particle diagrams representing an element, a compound, and a mixture are
shown below.

(a) Element (b) Compound (c) Mixture

Figure 1. Examples of Particle Diagrams

70
Methodology
Research Questions
The following questions were used as guides in the study.
Research Question 1: To what extent does the use of particle diagrams affect students’
conceptual understanding of representative particles, mole ratio, limiting reagent, and
theoretical yield?
Research Question 2. What are the students’ attitudes towards the use of particle diagrams?

Research Design
The study employed a one-group pre-test post-test design (or paired-sample design). This
design involved measuring conceptual understanding of stoichiometry in one group of students (grade
10) once before the treatment was implemented (pre-test), and once after it was implemented (post-
test). Conclusions about the treatment’s effects were formulated based on the difference between the
pre-test and post-test data.
This design was adopted for several important reasons. First, this design allowed the study to
be done in a real classroom setting, within a single class without having to separate students, and
during school hours without disrupting the smooth running of any classes or school programs. Second,
the treatment itself could be easily incorporated into the chemistry lessons without compromising real
learning time for the students. A third reason was that the researcher had no control over the number
of students who enrolled in General Chemistry class, and since the number was small (13 students), it
was more feasible to adopt a one-group design.

Treatment Conditions
The treatment engaged students in simple, non-intrusive activities compiled in a booklet
entitled Thinking the Particulate Way. The booklet contains 54 particle diagrams (also called
particulate diagrams, or submicroscopic diagrams) related to topics and concepts of stoichiometry. The
method of instruction for the stoichiometry unit traditionally included the interactive lecture method,
modeling problem-solving, peer coaching, laboratory activities, and a very minimal use of particulate
diagrams drawn on the whiteboard and shown on PowerPoint slides. In this treatment-added
approach, the same strategies were used, but with the integration of information and exercises
contained in the Thinking the Particulate Way booklet wherever and whenever they were relevant in
the lessons. This booklet provided supplementary materials that allowed students ample
opportunities to examine the submicroscopic basis of concepts related to stoichiometry, specifically
the concepts of representative particles, mole ratio, limiting reagent, and theoretical yield.
The booklet was divided into four sections. Each section included a topic and one
stoichiometry concept that was related to the study.

Population and Sample

The sample for this study was thirteen 10th grade students who enrolled in the General
Chemistry class for the academic year 2018–19 at AIMS. The sample was selected using a non-random,
convenience sampling technique. The researcher sampled 13 tenth-grade chemistry students who
were conveniently available and happened to be her students at the time of the study. With this
sampling technique, it was not possible to specify the target population from which this sample was
drawn. However, generalizability was not a concern because the interest was only in discovering the
effects of a pedagogical approach on a specific group of individuals at AIMS to whom the results were
relevant.

Instrumentation: Conceptual Stoichiometry Test (CST) Pre-test and Post-test

To determine the effects of the use of particle diagrams on students’ conceptual
understanding of stoichiometry, an improved version of a published instrument, called the Conceptual

71
Stoichiometry Test (CST), was used. It was designed by Wood and Breyfogle (2006) and improved by
Kimberly and Yezierski (2016). Stoichiometric concepts addressed and measured by the 10-item test
were: a) Representative Particles, b) Mole Ratio, c) Limiting Reagent, and d) Theoretical Yield.
The CST test was piloted with nine Grade 10 students enrolled in Physical Science class at
AIMS. Apart from question reorganization, there was no need to change other aspects of the test after
the pilot test.

Attitudes Towards the Use of Particle Diagrams Questionaire

A 10-item Attitude towards Use of Particle Diagrams (ATPD) questionnaire was administered
to students at the end of the stoichiometry unit to determine their attitudes to the use of particle
diagrams, and whether or not these diagrams helped them understand stochiometric concepts. The
researcher developed the 12-item questionnaire. Each item was rated on a Likert scale using five
response categories: Strongly Agree, Agree, Not Sure, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree.
A pilot study was carried out for the questionnaire in which 10 twelfth-grade students were
the respondents. The results suggested that no changes were necessary in the questionnaire.

Data Collection and Analysis

The researcher applied two data collection techniques—pre-test/post-test, and a survey
questionnaire. The pre-test was administered to participants in one class period before their lessons
on the Mole, chemical reactions, and stoichiometry. During the treatment period, chemistry classes
continued as scheduled, and the Thinking the Particulate Way companion booklet was used in all of
the chemistry lessons as a source of content knowledge and illustrations, for explanation and
reinforcement of concepts, as well as for assessments. After the approximately five-week duration,
the participants took the post-test and completed the questionnaire.
Data collected from the Conceptual Stoichiometry Test (CST) were analyzed using a paired-
sample (correlated) t-test. Data collected from the Attitude towards the Use of Particle Diagrams
(ATPD) questionnaire were analyzed using descriptive statistics in the forms of means, standard
deviations, and percentages.

Results
Results of Paired-samples t-test
Analysis of the participants’ pre- and post-test mean scores on the four stoichiometry
concepts was carried out using SPSS. Table 1 displays the descriptive statistics for the pre- and post-
test conditions. While it appears that the participants performed differently under the pre-test and
post-test conditions, further information in the form of inferential statistics is needed to determine
whether there is any significant difference between participants’ pre-test and post-test means on all
four concepts.

Table 1. Paired Samples Statistics of Pre-/Post-test Mean Scores on Four Concepts of Stoichiometry
Concepts Assessed Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Pair 1 Representative Particle Pre-test 7.46 13 2.73 0.76
Representative Particle Post-test 11.00 13 2.38 0.66
Pair 2 Mole Ratio Pre-test 16.31 13 3.68 1.02
Mole Ratio Post-test 18.62 13 2.36 0.66
Pair 3 Limiting Reagent Pre-test 5.77 13 1.42 0.39
Limiting Reagent Post-test 7.31 13 2.06 0.57
Pair 4 Theoretical Yield Pre-test 5.77 13 1.42 0.39
Theoretical Yield Post-test 7.31 13 2.06 0.57

A paired-samples t-test was conducted to determine whether there was a statistically

significant difference in the pre-test and post-test mean scores of each of the four concepts of

72
 stoichiometry listed in research question 1. Table 2 (following page) displays the results of the paired
sample t-test.
Table 2 shows that for all the concepts (pairs 1–4), the p (probability) value is substantially
smaller than the specified value of .05, which means there is a highly significant difference between
the pre-test and post-test scores. Combining the information from Table 1 and Table 2, the results of
the analysis were as follows.

Table 2. Paired Samples t-test Analysis of Pre/Post-test Mean Scores on Four Concepts of Stoichiometry
Paired Differences
Std. 90% Confidence
Std. Error Interval of Difference Sig.
Mean Deviation Mean Lower Upper t df (2-tailed)
Pair 1 RepPart
-3.54 2.30 .64 -4.93 -2.15 -5.56 12 .000
Pre - Post
Pair 2 MolRatio
-2.31 2.39 .66 -3.75 -.86 -3.48 12 .005
Pre - Post
Pair 3 LimAgent
-1.54 1.71 .48 -2.57 -.50 -3.24 12 .007
Pre - Post
Pair 1 TheoYield
-1.54 1.71 .48 -2.57 -.50 -3.24 12 .007
Pre - Post

For the concept of Representative Particles (Pair 1), there was a statistically significant
increase in pre-test scores prior to intervention (M = 7.46, SD = 2.73) to post-test scores after
intervention (M = 11.00, SD = 2.38), t (12) = -5.56, p < .000 (two-tailed). The mean increase in post-
test scores was 2.31, with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -4.93 to -2.15.
For the concept of Mole Ratio (Pair 2), there was a statistically significant increase in pre-test
scores prior to intervention (M = 16.31, SD = 3.68) to post-test scores after intervention (M = 18.62,
SD = 2.36), t (12) = -3.48, p < .005 (two-tailed). The mean increase in post-test scores was 3.54, with a
95% confidence interval ranging from -3.75 to -0.86.
For each of the concepts of Limiting Reagent and Theoretical Yield, there was a statistically
significant increase in pre-test scores prior to intervention (M = 5.77, SD = 1.42) to post-test scores
after intervention (M = 7.31, SD = 2.06), t (12) = -3.237, p < .007 (two-tailed). The mean increase in
post-test scores was 1.54 with a 95% confidence interval ranging from -2.57 to -0.50. Although the
results presented above tell us that the difference obtained in each concept pair was significant, it
does not tell us about the magnitude of the intervention’s effect.
Table 3 shows that the treatment had the following size effects on these respective concepts:
1.54 on Representative Particles, .96 on Mole Ratio, .90 on Limiting Reagent, and .90 on Theoretical
Yield. The effect size was calculated using Cohen’s d, which shows standardized differences between
two means. An effect size of d ≤ .20 is considered “Small”, a d between .20 and .79 is considered
“Medium”, and d ≥ .80 is considered “Large” (Warner, 2013). Thus, we can conclude that the
treatment had a large effect on the differences in CST scores for each concept obtained before and
after the intervention.

Table 3. Cohen’s d Results for Size Effect

Number Concept Size Effect Interpretation
1 Representative Particles 1.54 Large
2 Mole Ratio 0.96 Large
3 Limiting Reagent 0.90 Large
4 Theoretical Yield 0.90 Large

73
 In short, the use of particle diagrams in the instruction of stochiometry significantly improved
AIMS students’ understanding of the concepts of representative particles, mole ratio, limiting reagent,
and theoretical yield.

Analysis and Interpretation of ATPD Survey Results

A total of 13 survey forms were distributed, and all were completed and used for
computations. Results show that the responses most frequently selected by the participants were
Strongly Agree (41.0%), followed by Agree (37.2%) and Not Sure (16.7%). The responses least
frequently selected were Disagree (3.8%) and Strongly Disagree (1.3%).
The results of the questionnaire were further analyzed by concept (Table 4). More than 80%
of the participants responded with Agree and Strongly Agree, and scored between 4 and 5 on a 5-
point Likert scale on the concept of Representative Particles. The results suggest that the majority of
the participants agreed that the use of particle diagrams helped develop an understanding of this
concept. By contrast, the lowest participant scores were for the concept of Theoretical Yield, but the
remainder were high, which suggested that the majority of the participants agreed that the use of
particle diagrams helped develop an understanding of these concepts.

Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Concepts of Representative Particles, Mole Ratio, Limiting Reagent,
and Theoretical Yield
Statement M SD %
Representative Particles
1. Particle diagrams help me visualize the particles that make up compounds, 4.62 0.51 100
mixtures, and elements
2. Particle diagrams help me differentiate among atoms, molecules, ions, and 4.46 0.78 84.6
combinations of these
3. Particle diagrams help me understand what happens to the particles of 4.38 0.65 92.3
reactants during chemical reactions
Mole Ratio
4. Particle diagrams help me understand what the coefficients in balanced 4.23 1.01 76.9
chemical equations represent
5. Particle diagrams help me determine how many of each kind of atom takes part 4.15 0.69 84.6
in a chemical reaction in the lowest whole number ratio
6. Particle diagrams help me relate coefficients to mole ratio 3.69 0.86 61.6
7. Particle diagrams help me determine the amounts of substances needed or 4.54 0.52 100
produced in a chemical reaction
Limiting Agent
8. Particle diagrams show that in some chemical reactions, reactants are not 4.62 0.65 92.3
necessarily all used up
9. Particle diagrams help me identify the reactants that is all used up first (limiting 4.46 0.66 92.3
reagent)
10. Particle diagrams help me identify the reactant that is NOT all used up (excess 4.31 0.75 85.6
reagent)
Theoretical Yield
11. Particle diagrams help me to understand the difference between theoretical and 3.15 0.99 46.2
actual yield
12. Particle diagrams help me identify which reactant determines the theoretical 3.08 1.04 30.8
yield

From 85.6% to 92.3% of the participants responded with Agree and Strongly Agree on the
concept of Limiting Reagent, which suggested that the majority of participants agreed that use of
particle diagrams helped develop an understanding of this concept. Finally, only 30.8% to 46.2% of the
participants responded with Agree and Strongly Agree on the concept of Theoretical Yield. These
results indicate that less than half of the participants agreed that use of particle diagrams helped
develop an understanding of this concept.

74
 The results of the ATPD questionnaire indicate that generally the participants demonstrated
a favorable attitude towards use of particle diagrams in the instruction of stoichiometry. The majority
of participating AIMS students agreed that use of particle diagrams helped them develop an
understanding of the concepts of representative particles, mole ratio, and limiting reagent.
Reliability analysis was carried out on the ATPD scale. Cronbach’s alpha shows the ATPD
questionnaire possessed an acceptable internal consistency, α = .80. This result indicates that the 12
items in the questionnaire are highly interrelated and reliably measure the underlying construct
(Pallant, 2011).

Discussion
Studies have revealed that most high school chemistry students lack the conceptual
understanding of stoichiometry necessary to answer questions correctly (Dahsah & Coll, 2007; Saltan
& Tzougraki, 2011; Kimberlin & Yezierski, 2016; Shadreck & Enunuwe, 2018). Studies have also found
that an understanding of the submicroscopic composition of chemical elements and/or compounds
that make up the reacting and resulting substances in chemical reactions is an essential prerequisite
to interpreting and solving all stoichiometric problems, especially conceptual ones (Davidowitz &
Chittleborough, 2009; Jaber & Boujaoude, 2012; Sujak & Daniel, 2017. In this study, the
submicroscopic composition of matter substances was represented by particle diagrams. Students’
responses to the use of particle diagrams matched with what was already described in the literature,
and confirmed the positive effects of using particulate models to enhance understanding of chemistry
concepts.
Findings from this study can contribute to the local learning community in the following ways.
The findings should encourage science educators to explore and adapt research-based pedagogical
recommendations, and to verify their effectiveness on the learning of their students in their school
settings.
The results of the study will help AIMS science teachers evaluate the impact of using particle
diagrams in developing students’ conceptual understanding of stoichiometry. They also will help
teachers establish the extent to which particulate ideas should be incorporated into instruction to
maximize concept attainment while avoiding cognitive overloading. Therefore, this study can help
teachers develop new and specific strategies for enhancing conceptual learning in chemistry.
This study also encouraged students to approach stoichiometric problems from a particulate
perspective. Training students to think “in a particulate way” will build a conceptual foundation not
only for stoichiometry, but also for other high school chemistry topics, and will be beneficial for more
advanced studies of the subject. This study can also help students rectify their misconceptions about
some concepts of stoichiometry. This study could also help students develop appreciation and
preference for more in-depth, conceptual understanding, rather than superficial learning.
The findings of this study add modestly to the body of literature on intervention strategies in
the teaching of chemistry, specifically stoichiometry. Visual-based conceptual approaches to teaching
chemistry have been the primary trend, and they are likely to keep being used. Simple interventions
such as the incorporation of particle diagrams in chemistry instruction can be the basis or beginning
for more assertive, sophisticated, or elaborate pedagogies that support or enforce progressive
conceptual understanding. Using particle diagrams could be an effective way to help students build
conceptual understanding in a more elaborate way than this study has been able to demonstrate.

Limitations
They are a few limitations to the study. The first is that the research focused on a small
population sample of only 13 high school students enrolled in chemistry class at one international
school. The second limitation is that it involved only one chemistry teacher. Hence, the results of the
study will have limited generalizability across students, teachers, and schools.
On account of the sample size, there was a reduced ability to detect the actual statistical
differences between students’ conceptual understanding before and after use of particle diagrams.

75
Moreover, the use of only one group in the study’s pre-test/post-test design could have compromised
its internal validity.
Despite these limitations, the data collected can be useful for designing more extensive
confirmatory studies or similar studies at other high schools in Thailand in the future.

Conclusion
From the results of the inferential analysis, the use of particle diagrams was found useful in
the instruction of stoichiometry. It leads to a better understanding of the concepts of representative
particles, mole ratio, limiting reagent, and theoretical yield. The attitudes of the students towards the
use of particle diagrams in stoichiometry instruction indicated that all students in the cohort assessed
found the diagrams helpful in enhancing their understanding of the concepts of representative
particles, mole ratio, and limiting reagent, but not helpful in improving their understanding of the
concept of theoretical yield.

References
Agung, S., & Schwartz, M. (2007). Students’ understanding of conservation of matter, stoichiometry and
balancing equations in Indonesia. International Journal of Science Education, 29(13), 1679–1702.
doi:10.1080/09500690601089927
Bridges, C. (2015). Experiences teaching stoichiometry to students in grades 10 and 11 (Doctoral dissertation,
Walden University, United States). Retrieved from http://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/
cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1290&context=dissertations
Cheng, M., & Gilbert, J. (2014). Teaching stoichiometry with particulate diagrams – Linking macro phenomena
and chemical equations. In B. Eilam, & J. Gilbert (Eds.), Science teachers’ use of visual representations
(pp. 123–143). doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-06526-7_6
College Board. (2014). AP chemistry course and exam description (revised ed.). New York, NY: The College
Board. Retrieved from https://secure-media.collegeboard.org/digitalServices/pdf/ap/ap-chemistry-
course-and-exam-description.pdf
Dahsah, C., & Coll, R. (2007). Thai grade 10 and 11 students’ conceptual understanding and ability to solve
stoichiometry problems. Research in Science & Technological Education, 25(2), 227–241.
doi:10.1080/02635140701250808
Davidowitz, B. & Chittleborough, G. (2009). Linking the macroscopic and sub-microscopic levels: diagrams. In J.
Gilbert & D. Treagust (Eds.), Multiple representations in chemical education (pp. 169–191). Dordrecht,
Netherlands, Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8872-8_9
Fach, M., Boer, T., & Parchmann, I. (2007). Results of an interview study as basis for the development of
stepped supporting tools for stoichiometric problems. Chemistry Education Research and Practice,
8(1), 13–31. doi:10.1039/b6rp90017h
Goldberg, D. (2015). Fundamentals of Chemistry (5th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.
Jaber, L., & Boujaoude, S. (2012). A macro–micro–symbolic teaching to promote relational understanding of
chemical reactions. International Journal of Science Education, 34(7), 973–998. doi: 10.1080/
09500693.2011.569959
Johnstone, A. (2000). Teaching of chemistry – Logical or psychological? Chemistry Education Research and
Practice 1(1), 9–15. doi: 10.1039/a9rp90001b
Kimberlin, S., & Yezierski, E. (2016). Effectiveness of inquiry-based lessons using particulate level models to
develop high school students' understanding of conceptual stoichiometry. Journal of Chemical
Education, 93(6), 1002–1009. doi:10.1021/acs.jchemed.5b01010
Pallant, J. (2011). SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using the SPSS program (4th ed.).
Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Rahayu, S., & Kita, M. (2009). An analysis of Indonesian and Japanese students’ understandings of macroscopic
and submicroscopic levels of representing matter and its changes. International Journal of Science and
Mathematics Education, 8(4), 667–688. doi: 10.1007/s10763-009-9180-0
Salta, K., & Tzougraki, C. (2011). Conceptual versus algorithmic problem-solving: Focusing on problems dealing
with conservation of matter in chemistry. Research in Science Education, 41(4), 587–609. doi:
10.1007/s11165-010-9181-6
Sanger, M. (2000). Using particulate drawings to determine and improve students' conceptions of pure
substances and mixtures. Journal of Chemical Education, 77(6), 762. doi:10.1021/ed077p762

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Schmidt, H., & Jignéus, C. (2003). Students´ strategies in solving algorithmic stoichiometry problems. Chemistry
Education Research and Practice, 4(3), 305–317. doi: 10.1039/b3rp90018e
Seetso, I., & Taiwo, A. (2005). An evaluation of Bostswana senior secondary school chemistry syllabus. Journal
of Baltic Science Education, 2(8), 5–14. Retrieved from http://oaji.net/articles/2016/987-
1481284752.pdf
Shadreck, M., & Enunuwe, O. (2018). Recurrent difficulties: Stoichiometry problem-solving. African Journal of
Educational Studies in Mathematics and Sciences, 14, 25–31. Retrieved from https://www.ajol.info/
index.php/ajesms/article/viewFile/173393/162796
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form four students in solving stoichiometric problems. Malaysian Online Journal of Educational
Sciences, 5(3), 83–96. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1150426.pdf
Sunyono, Yuanita, L., & Ibrahim, M. (2015). Mental models of students on stoichiometry concept in learning by
method based on multiple representation. The Online Jouranl of New Horizons in Education, 5(2), 30–
45. Retrieved from http://www.tojned.net/journals/tojned/articles/v05i02/ v05i02-05.pdf
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Chemical Education 83(5), 741−746. doi.org/10.1021/ed083p741

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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Factor Analysis of Students’ Satisfaction with Academic Courses

Reymand Hutabarat and Francis Hutabarat, Universitas Advent Indonesia

Franklin Hutabarat1, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Date Received: 9 November 2018 Revised: 14 February 2020 Accepted: 26 February 2020

Abstract
This research aimed to distinguish the factors affecting student satisfaction at selected
Seventh-day Adventist higher educational institutions in Southeast Asia. Knowing these factors could
help educational leaders to thoroughly plan their strategies and better understand the determinants
of student satisfaction. A questionnaire was distributed to student respondents at two higher
educational institutions in the Southern Asia-Pacific region, namely Asia-Pacific International
University (AIU) in Thailand and Universitas Advent Indonesia (UNAI) in Indonesia. Exploratory factor
analysis was used to distinguish the underlying dimensions that drive student satisfaction and to
analyze dimensions of academic courses. A sampling adequacy test yielded a value of 0.590, which
was > 0.50; hence, the sample size was adequate for the analysis. The commonalities of all variables
surpassed .40, and consequently, were helpful in the model. The results showed that several factors
affected student satisfaction with academic courses at AIU and UNAI. The courses that helped them
were those which developed problem-solving skills, ability to work together in teams, communication
skills, the ability to plan, and those that were organized in a systematic way.

Keywords: Satisfaction, factor analysis, higher educational institutions

Introduction
Higher educational institutions are essential pillars in the development of society because
they are actually producers of educated and well-grounded people. Likewise, higher educational
institutions need to take the satisfaction of their students seriously. In this sense, young people are
striving to achieve their purposes and realize their dreams in life. Their ambitions are usually in line
with their talents and the knowledge they are striving to gain in their chosen fields. We can see that it
is necessary for institutions to create and support particular factors that lead to student satisfaction.
Young people make every effort to achieve their goals, and so satisfaction–and dissatisfaction–can
lead to many things. At a certain point in their lives ahead, how will this affect students and their
decisions? Will they have resentment, and will they have broken characters if they are not satisfied
with the course of their academic lives? On the other hand, we see that society looks at the
development of institutions, and may have a different view that is unfavorable for the university.
Customer satisfaction is indeed important, and students as customers need to be satisfied for many
reasons and not only for students but for customers in any kind of service institution.
Customer satisfaction is studied by many types of service institutions; for instance, Direkvand-
Moghadam, Hashemian, Delpisheh, Sohili, and Sayehmiri (2014) studied patient satisfaction in
emergency care units, while Yusoff, McIeay, and Woodruffe-Burton (2015) examined various
dimensions driving business students in higher educational institutions. Moreover, customer
satisfaction affects their decision-making. The identification of customer decision-making goes back
to early economists such as decision-making Bernoulli, von Neumann, and Morgenstern, who started
to identify and point out the basis of consumer around 300 years ago (Richarme, 2005).
Previous studies conducted by Shirazi (2017), Parahoo, Harvey, and Tamim (2013), Tahar,
Mokhtar, Jaafar, Zamani, Sukiman, and Ismail (2013), and Khosravi, Poushaneh, Roozegar, and

1
Corresponding author email address: fhutabarat@apiu.edu
This paper was presented at the 6th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 29–30, 2018
at Adventist University of the Philippines, and selected for publication in HBDS.

78
Sohrabifard (2013) looked at student satisfaction and the factors affecting it. They concluded that
satisfaction is important in one’s life. Research conducted by Deshields, Kara, and Kaynak (2005), along
with Helgesen and Nesset (2007), suggested that continued investigation of student satisfaction helps
them in their academic achievement and moreover, contributes to the preservation and existence of
higher educational institutions. Thus, they suggest, a higher educational institution should strive for a
desirable image that will help to attract more young people. It should also serve them and provide
them with academic satisfaction in pursuit of their educational goals.

Theoretical Foundation
The literature presents many views regarding criteria to measure satisfaction. According to
Kuo (2010), students look at their education experiences in terms of their satisfaction. Therefore, this
research suggests that students with satisfactory experiences will continue their studies. On the other
hand, according to Chua (2004), satisfaction is a key element in business continuity and growth in the
midst of competition. Moreover, Athanassopoulos, Gounaris, and Stathakopoulos (2001) see that
satisfied students are also loyal students, which leads them to pursue a higher degree at the same
university. In his research, Shirazi (2017) found three key indicators of academic satisfaction, namely:
experienced staff, mutual respect between professors and students, and nurture of self-esteem in
students by instructors and administrators. This assertion was supported by studies conducted by
James (2001), as well as by Umbach and Porter’s (2002). These studies claimed that higher educational
satisfaction is found in students who conduct research and have good communication with their
professors.

Methodology
A modified questionnaire based on an instrument developed by Seng and Ling (2013) was
distributed to student respondents at two higher educational institutions in the Southern Asia-Pacific
Division, namely Asia-Pacific International University (AIU) and Universitas Advent Indonesia (UNAI).
There are approximately 3,000 students studying at both higher educational institutions. A sample
size of 25 students was used for the study, and the results were tested and cleared using the Kaiser-
Meyer-Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy and Bartlett’s test of sphericity. Factor analysis
was used to analyze various dimensions of student satisfaction with academic courses.
The following relevant outputs of the study were as follows: descriptive statistics were used
to look at the characteristics of the variables used in the study (Priyatno, 2014), and a correlation
matrix was used to look at the relationship between variables used in the study (Riduwan, 2014). For
factor analysis, Verma (2013) stated that the KMO and Bartlett’s test may be utilized to see if the data
is satisfactory for the study, as well as variance that may be shared among variables. Other relevant
output includes a scree plot, component loadings, and a varimax-rotated solution. According to Verma
(2013), when applying factor analysis, a test battery may be generated that shows the number of
factors to be retained, and the total variance explained by these factors. In this manner, the variables
in each factor which remain in the solution can be discovered, along with their relative importance.
These factors can then be named according to their nature, and tests can be proposed and utilized to
survey student satisfaction with the academic courses at any higher educational institution.

Results and Discussion

The results of the study provided solutions to numerous concerns related to the topic. The
study used statistical software to process relevant outputs that were specifically chosen for discussion.
By using the factor analysis statistical method, the various methods can determine the test battery for
assessing student academic satisfaction.

Descriptive Statistics
The study used the Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) to descriptively describe the study’s
variables. Table 1 displays characteristics of study variables, reporting the mean and SD scores for all

79
variables. The results show that respondents agree and strongly agree that they are satisfied with
academic courses offered in their universities.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics (n = 25)

No Variables Mean Std. Dev.
C 1 Courses and problem-solving skills 4.00 0.71
C 2 Courses and confidence to tackle unfamiliar problems 4.16 0.55
C 3 Courses and sharpened analytic skills 4.24 0.66
C 4 Courses and ability to work as a team member 4.40 0.65
C 5 Courses and written communication skills 4.28 0.61
C 6 Courses and ability to plan one’s own work 4.24 0.52
C 7 The course content was organized in a systematic way 4.20 0.58
C 8 Flexibility in the course to suit needs 3.92 0.70
C 9 Course content is valuable 4.04 0.74

Correlation Matrix
Table 2 shows relationships between study variables. The value of “r” required for significance
at the .05 level is .396, with N – 2 = 23 degrees of freedom. The value of “r” required for significance
at the .01 level is .505.

Table 2. Correlation Matrix

Component C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
C1 1.00 .43* .18 .27 .77** .56** .00 .59** .64**

C2 .43* 1.00 .46* .75** .48* .58** .16 .14 .09

C3 .18 .46* 1.00 .64** .24 .55** .52** .31 -.02

C4 .27 .75** .64* 1.00 .55** .69** .45 .26 .05

C5 .77** .48* .24 .55** 1.00 .82** .07 .34 .44*

C6 .56** .58** .55** .69** .82** 1.00 .39 .28 .19

C7 .00 .16 .52** .45* .07 .39 1.00 .56** .08

C8 .59** .14 .31 .26 .34 .28 .56** 1.00 .73**

C9 .64** .09 -.02 .05 .44* .19 .08 .73** 1.00

** Correlation is significant at the .01 level.

* Correlation is significant at the .05 level.

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure (KMO) of Sampling Adequacy & Bartlett’s Test

Table 3 displays KMO test results, which express whether the study’s sample size was
adequate or not for factor analysis. Based on Table 3, the value was .59, which was greater than .50;
therefore, the sample size was adequate for analysis. Further, Bartlett’s test of sphericity was used to
see if the correlation matrix was indeed an identity matrix (Verma, 2013), as postulated in the null
hypothesis. Since the correlation matrix p-value was .000, which is less than .01 and a significant score,
it was determined that the correlation matrix was not an identity matrix, and so use of the factor
model was suitable.

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Table 3. KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .59
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Sq. 168.44
df 36
Sig. .000

Communalities Test
In this statistical test, higher levels of shared variance among variables indicated that most of
the variability was explained by factors singled out in the analysis. The communality threshold for
variables is .40; results below .40 are considered to be useless, and are usually removed from a model
(Verma, 2013). Results from Table 4 show that the shared commonalities of all variables were more
than .40; therefore, all variables were useful for the model.

Table 4. Communalities Test

Variables Initial Extraction
C 1 Courses and problem-solving skills 1.00 .88
C 2 Courses and confidence to tackle unfamiliar problems 1.00 .71
C 3 Courses and sharpened analytic skills 1.00 .73
C 4 Courses and ability to work as a team member 1.00 .84
C 5 Courses and written communication skills 1.00 .87
C 6 Courses and ability to plan one’s own work 1.00 .82
C 7 The course content was organized in a systematic way 1.00 .87
C 8 Flexibility in the course to suit needs 1.00 .95
C 9 Course content is valuable 1.00 .86

Eigenvalues
After rotation, the first, second, and third factors explained about 35.4%, 27.5%, and 20.8%
respectively (please see Table 5) of the total variance. Thus, in combination, these factors accounted
for 83.7% of the data’s total variance. The values of factors in the table below displays that the only
factors retained in the study were those with Eigenvalues of 1 or higher (Verma, 2013). Since only the
first three factors had Eigenvalues that met this requirement, they were the only ones that were
retained in this study.

Table 5. Total Variance Explained

Extraction Sums of Squared Rotation Sums of Squared
Comp. Initial Eigenvalues Loadings Loadings
Total Variance % Cumul. % Total Variance % Cumul. % Total Variance % Cumul. %
1 4.27 47.5 47.5 4.27 47.5 47.5 3.18 35.4 35.4
2 1.87 20.8 68.3 1.87 20.8 68.3 2.47 27.5 62.9
3 1.39 15.4 83.7 1.39 15.4 83.7 1.88 20.8 83.7
4 0.56 6.2 89.8
5 0.40 4.5 94.3
6 0.26 2.9 97.1
7 0.16 1.8 98.9
8 0.05 .6 99.5
9 0.05 .5 100.0
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis

81
Scree Plot
Figure 1 presents a scree plot that was constructed by plotting each factor along the X-axis
toward its Eigenvalue, which is displayed along the Y-axis. This plot reveals that only three factors had
Eigenvalues higher than the bend in the diagram’s “elbow”. Therefore, only these factors were
subjected to further analysis.

Figure 1. Scree Plot

Extracted Factors
Based on the statistical analysis, three factors were selected, and factor loadings for each
variable are displayed in Table 6. This factor solution has not been rotated, and so some variables may
contribute to more than one factor. To prevent this, the factors were rotated in the manner prescribed
by Verma (2013), which consisted of a varimax rotation that is favored because of its efficiency.
Variables are normally included in a factor if their loading is .70 or more (Verma, 2013). This
warrants that a factor obtains an adequate variance from that variable. However, this target may be
lowered if an insufficient number of variables are detected for the factor. For this study, variables with
factor loadings equal to or more than .60 were retained. For this reason, variables were grouped for
each of three factors; a test battery for factors related to student satisfaction with academic courses
is shown in Table 6.

Table 6. Component Matrix

Component
Variables
1 2 3
Courses and problem-solving skills .74 .54 -.24
Courses and confidence to tackle unfamiliar problems .69 -.33 -.34
Courses and sharpened analytic skills .63 -.51 .28
Courses and ability to work as a team member .78 -.48 -.07
Courses and written communication skills .81 .22 -.41
Courses and ability to plan one’s own work .86 -.19 -.21
The course content was organized in a systematic way .48 -.31 .74
Flexibility in course to suit needs .63 .46 .58
Course content is valuable .48 .77 .19

Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis, 3 components extracted.

82
 Our rotated component matrix shows that the first component was measured by:
• Courses and problem-solving skills.
• Courses and ability to work as a team member
• Courses and written communication skills
• Courses and ability to plan own work

Thus, the three components were accepted as variable labels after adding the factor scores
from the data. Note that these variables all related to respondents receiving soft skills. Therefore, we
interpret Component 1 as “satisfaction with soft skills in an academic course”. After interpreting all
components in a similar fashion, we arrived at the following descriptions:
• Component 1 - “satisfaction with soft skills in academic courses”
• Component 2 - “satisfaction with content in academic courses”
• Component 3 - “satisfaction with the organization and systematic content of academic
courses”

Table 7. Test Battery

Variables Loadings Factors
C1 .74 Courses and problem-solving skills
C4 .78 Courses and ability to work as a team member
C5 .81 Courses and written communication skills
C6 .86 Courses and ability to plan one’s own work
C7 .74 The course content was organized in a systematic way
C9 .77 Course content is valuable

Test Battery
The results in Table 7 show important factors in the analysis of student satisfaction with
academic courses at Asia-Pacific International University and Universitas Advent Indonesia. The
following factors regarding the courses were helpful to students: problem-solving skills, working
together as a team, communication skills, developing the ability to plan, course content was organized
in a systematic way, and a course was valuable. These factors from the study were divided into three
components, consisting of (1) satisfaction with soft skills given in the academic course, (2) satisfaction
with content in the academic course, and (3) satisfaction with the organization and systematic content
of the academic course.

Conclusions and Recommendations

Students as customers and recipients of academic services hold an important key to higher
educational institutions. Therefore, continuous monitoring of their academic satisfaction is deemed
important, as this supports their academic achievement. This is one reason that higher educational
institutions should be aware of essential facts and real measures of academic satisfaction. In order to
generate a battery of tests to incorporate student satisfaction with academic courses, respondents
may prefer different variables among the distinctive factors. When each factor’s percentage of the
total variability is about the same, then one variable that includes the distinctive factor may be
selected to generate a test to estimate student satisfaction with academic courses. Thus, the features
shown in the results section above such as problem-solving skills, working with team members,
communication skills, planning work, systematic organization, and valuable content can help
administrators to maintain and enhance student satisfaction. These factors were divided into three
components, namely Component 1: satisfaction with soft skills given in the academic course;
Component 2: satisfaction with content of the academic course; and Component 3: satisfaction with
organized and systematic content in academic courses. Administrators need to ensure that these

83
components are fully understood by teachers and academic staff members. School management may
also identify more than one variable from some factors, depending on their plausibility.
University administrators should explain the importance of soft skills to teachers; these are
comprised of problem-solving skills, ability to work as a team member, written communication skills,
and ability to plan one’s own work. Program managers must also ensure that course content is
regularly updated and kept valuable for students, and that this content is organized in a systematic
way.
The researchers recommend using confirmatory factor analysis with further data sets to
investigate these questions before this tool is used to estimate student satisfaction with academic
courses because this was a simulated study.

References
Athanassopoulos, A., Gounaris, S., & Stathakopoulos, V. (2001). Behavioral responses to customer satisfaction:
An empirical study. European Journal of Marketing, 35(5/6), 687–707.
Chua, C. (2004, July). Perception of quality in higher education. Paper presented at the Australian Universities
Quality Forum on Quality in a Time of Change; Adelaide, Australia (pp. 181–188). Retrieved from
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.125.3578& rep=rep1&type=pdf
Direkvand-Moghadam, A., Hashemian, A., Delpisheh, A., Sohili, F., & Sayehmiri, K. (2014). Effective factors on
patients’ satisfaction with emergency care services using factor analysis: A cross-sectional study.
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Deshields, O., Kara, A., & Kaynak, E. (2005). Determinants of business student satisfaction and retention in higher
education: Applying Herzberg’s two–factor theory. International Journal of Educational Management,
19(2), 128–139.
Helgesen, Q., & Nesset, E. (2007). What accounts for students’ loyalty? Some field study evidence. International
Journal of Educational Management, 21(2), 126–143.
James, R. (2001). Students’ changing expectations of higher education and the consequences of mismatches
with reality. In P. Coaldrake (Ed.), Responding to student expectations (pp. 71–83). Retrieved from
http://www. edra.gr/pdf/8902041E-OECD.pdf
Khosravi, A., Poushaneh, K., Roozegar, A., & Sohrabifard, N. (2013). Determinant of factors affecting student
satisfaction of Islamic Azad University. Procedia–Social and Behavioral Sciences, 84, 579–583. Retrieved
from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.06.607
Kuo, Y. (2010). Interaction, internet self-efficacy and self–regulated learning as predictors of student satisfaction
in distance education courses (Doctoral dissertation, Utah State University, Logan). Retrieved from
https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1737&context=etd
Parahoo, S., Harvey, H., & Tamim R. (2013). Factors influencing student satisfaction in universities in the Gulf
region: Does gender of students matter? Journal of Marketing for Higher Education, 23(2), 135–154.
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Decision Analyst website: https://www.decisionanalyst.com/downloads/ConsumerDecisionMaking.pdf
Seng, E., & Ling, T. (2013). A statistical analysis of education service quality dimensions on business school
students’ satisfaction. International Education Studies, 6(8), 136–146. doi:10.5539/ies.v6n8p136
Shirazi, M. (2017). Student satisfaction analysis and its factors (2014 to 2016), Education, 7(4), 71–81. doi:
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Tahar, N., Mokhtar, R., Jaafar, N., Zamani, N., Sukiman, S., & Ismail, Z. (2013, December). Students' satisfaction
on blended learning: The use of factor analysis. Paper presented at the 2013 IEEE Conference on e-
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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

A Comparative Study of Ellen G. White’s Interpretation of

Selected Synoptic Gospels’ Parables with those of Modern Biblical Scholars

Alfredo G. Agustin, Jr.1, Asia-Pacific International University, Thailand

Date Received: 6 November 2019 Revised: 24 February 2020 Accepted: 27 February 2020

Abstract
Seventh-day Adventist biblical scholars and theologians assert that Ellen G. White accepts and
applies principles of biblical interpretation when she interprets Scripture. However, there seems to be
a lack of academic research to support such a presupposition. One area that seems to be lacking is a
comparison between White’s interpretations of gospel parables with those of modern biblical scholars.
The interpretations of four scholars of selected synoptic gospel parables are compared and contrasted
with those provided by White. It is shown that White interpreted selected parables in context using
sound principles of biblical interpretation. She agrees with the interpretations of some non-Adventist
scholars, and also provides additional insights.

Keywords: Synoptic gospels, parable interpretation, Ellen White’s principles

Introduction
Pfandl (2005) pointed out that Ellen G. White (EGW) espoused hermeneutical principles that
are rooted in those used by Protestant reformers of the sixteenth century (pp. 309–326).
a
Furthermore, he asserted that EGW rejected the methods of Historical-Critical scholars, while at the
same time she also rejected extreme literal interpretations of the Word of God. In fact, White explicitly
expressed agreement with what were considered as foundational principles of biblical interpretation.
One of these was “sola scriptura.” She stated, “In our time there is a wide departure from their
doctrines and precepts, and there is need of a return to the great Protestant principle–the Bible, and
the Bible only, as the rule of faith and duty” (White, 1911, pp. 204–205). This foundational principle
implies the primacy and sufficiency of the scripture. She also supported such principles as “tota
scriptura,” “analogia scriptura,” and “spiritual things are spiritually discerned” (White, 1911; White,
2002a).
Aside from EGW’s support of these foundational principles of biblical hermeneutics employed
by Protestant reformers, which modern evangelical conservative scholars accept, she also seems to
agree with the principles of interpreting parables as accepted and applied by modern biblical scholars.
This means that a parable is not the truth in itself, but is just a vehicle used by Jesus to illustrate the
truth. She remarked that
So wide was Christ’s view of truth, so extended His teaching, that every phase of nature was
employed in illustrating truth. The scenes upon which the eye daily rests were all connected
with some spiritual truth, so that nature is clothed with the parables of the Master (White,
2002b, p. 20).

Modern biblical scholars have presented many studies on the interpretation of parables.
However, there seems to be lack of studies comparing EGW’s interpretations of gospel parables with
those of such scholars. This study compares and contrasts EGW and four modern scholars’
interpretations of selected synoptic gospel parables. Four scholars were selected because they
represent major Protestant theological “veins” such as: Lutheran theology, Reformed theology, and

1
Author’s email address: dean.religion@apiu.edu
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

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Evangelicalism. Furthermore, these are well-known scholars in the field of gospel parable
interpretation—i.e., Craig Blomberg (2012), Arland J. Hultgren (2000), Simon J. Kistemaker (1987), and
Klyne R. Snodgrass (2008).
The selected parables were:
(1) The ten virgins,
(2) The prodigal son, and
(3) The rich man and Lazarus.
This study will not deal with the issue of whether or not a parable has one or more points.
Debate on this issue has occurred since the time of Adolf Julicher, who asserted that a parable has
only one main point. However, other scholars have argued otherwise.

Biblical Scholars and EGW on the Interpretation of Ten Virgins (Matt 25:1–13)
Blomberg (2012) asserted that the entire parable of the ten virgins “was an allegory from its
inception” (p. 241). But he also insisted that the “allegorical elements are limited to three main
characters: the bridegroom as a natural symbol of God . . . and the wise and foolish virgins as those
who, spiritually, are either prepared or unprepared for Judgment Day” (p. 241). Blomberg suggested
that the main points of the parable were as follows:
(1) Like the bridegroom, God may delay his coming longer than people expect;
(2) Like the wise bridesmaids, His followers must be prepared for such a delay—
discipleship may be more arduous than the novice suspects; and
(3) Like the foolish bridesmaids, those who do not prepare adequately may discover a
point beyond which there is no return—when the end comes, it will be too late to
undo the damage.
Furthermore, he also emphasized that the injunction “keep watch, because you do not know
the day or the hour” (Matt 25:13) was simply a concluding command that epitomized the necessary
response true disciples must make in light of all three points of the passage (Blomberg, 2012).
Snodgrass (2008) insisted that the parable is not an allegory. He pointed out that allegorical
interpretations of the parable “are not demonstrable from the text, and do not further the analogy,
which is concerned to promote preparedness” (p. 515). He also suggested that “in the analogy there
is correspondence between the coming kingdom (and by implication the King) and the coming of the
bridegroom and between those prepared or not prepared and the two groups of young women” (p.
515). Snodgrass pointed out that many other associations are not valid such as:
(1) The virgins are not the bride or the church;
(2) The two classes of virgins do not represent the Gentiles and Jews;
(3) The number ten has no particular significance;
(4) Sleep does not suggest lack of vigilance;
(5) Sleep and rising from sleep do not mean death and resurrection; and
(6) Oil does not refer to good works or the Holy Spirit.
Snodgrass concluded that this parable taught about the “wisdom needed in view of the
eschaton” (Snodgrass, 2008, p. 517).
Hultgren (2000) also suggested that the parable
Signifies that the disciples of Jesus are to be wise, as the five maidens were, in some respect.
That is that Jesus as the bridegroom may be delayed, even though his coming is certain. . . .
the disciples of Jesus should be ready for the long haul (pp. 175–176).

He also asserted that the parable “contains a number of allegorical features” (p. 176). He
showed that the allegorical features which are apparent, at the Matthean level, are as follows (pp.
176–77):

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 (1) The marriage feast represents the gathering of the Messiah and His people;
(2) The bridegroom represents Christ;
(3) His delay and eventual coming represent the delay and yet the certainty of the
parousia;
(4) In the light of all that, the closing of the door represents the final judgment; and
(5) The wise and the foolish women symbolize those who are prepared at the final
judgment (true Christians), and those who are not.
He concluded that Jesus “sets forth the need for his disciples to be prepared, and therefore
wise, at the coming of the kingdom in its fullness, a time that is associated with judgment, exclusion
of some, and feasting by those who are admitted” (Hultgren, 2000, p. 177).
Kistemaker (1987) posited that the parable of the ten virgins is “intended to teach the pointed
lesson of being prepared” (p. 129). He also suggested that Jesus is the bridegroom (see Matt 9:15) in
the parable. He also noted that watchfulness “is not the outstanding characteristic that is taught.
Rather, it is the quality of preparedness that is predominant” (p. 133). Kistemaker also pointed out
that this parable was interpreted allegorically from the time of the early church up to the present. He
insisted that such “interpretation leads to confusion and frequently ends in nonsense” (p. 134). For
Kistemaker, the parable has a central message to convey, that is, the parable “clearly teaches his
followers to be prepared for his (Jesus) return” (p. 135). The parable is directed at the followers of
Jesus. The wise are constantly seeking to do the will of God, and the foolish ones seem to pay no
attention to the imminent return of their Lord (p. 135).
White (2002b) seems also to suggest that the parable is an allegorical parable. She gave
meanings to the features of the parable, as noted below in Table 1.

Table 1. The Meanings of the Features of the Parable

Features of the Parable Meaning
1. Two classes of watchers 1. Two classes of professed followers waiting for their Lord
2. Virgins 2. They profess a pure faith
3. Lamps 3. The word of God (cf. Ps 119:105)
4. Oil 4. The Holy Spirit (cf. Zech 4:1–14)
5. 10 virgins 5. The church
6. Bridegroom 6. Jesus
7.The coming of the Bridegroom 7. The second coming of Jesus
8.The wise did not give oil to the 8. In spiritual things, no man can make up for another’s deficiency
foolish
9. Midnight 9. The coming of Christ will be at the darkest part of earth’s
history

In the parable of ten virgins, White (2002b) seemed to emphasize the idea that the wise,
having oil in their vessels with their lamps, were to shed light into the darkness of the world. The Holy
Spirit develops in men the attributes of God through the implanted word of God. As a result, they can
shine forth the light of His glory—His character. She continued “the children of God are to manifest
His glory. In their own life and character they are to reveal what the grace of God done for them” (p.
415). She also emphasized that the “class represented by the foolish virgins are not hypocrites. They
have a regard for truth, they have the truth; but they have not yielded themselves to the Holy Spirit’s
working” (p. 411). She also highlighted the fact that “both parties were taken unawares; but one was
prepared for the emergency, and the other was found without preparation” (White, 2002b, p. 411).

Biblical Scholars and EGW in the Interpretation of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–32)
At the outset of his essay on the interpretation of the prodigal son, Blomberg (2012) pointed
out that the parable “poses special problems for the theory that parables can make only one main
point” (p. 199). Furthermore, he insisted that the parable contained three episodes rather than two.

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Consequently, the parable teaches three main points, one per character, and one per episode. These
main points are as follows:
(1) Even as the prodigal always had the option of repenting and returning home, so
also all sinners, however wicked, may confess their sins and turn to God in
contrition;
(2) Even as the father went to elaborate lengths to offer reconciliation to the prodigal,
so also God offers all people, however undeserving, lavish forgiveness of sins if
they are willing to accept it; and
(3) Even as the older brother should not have begrudged his brother’s reinstatement
but rather rejoiced in it, so those who claim to be God’s people should be glad
and not mad that He extends His grace to the most undeserving.
Blomberg (2012) also stressed that “the three main points of the parable also illustrate the
impossibility of avoiding an allegorical interpretation. Each character stands for someone other than
himself” (p. 201). Evidently, as Blomberg pointed out, every commentator has noticed the close
correlation between the prodigal and the “tax collector and sinners,” and the older brother as the
“Pharisees and teachers of the law” (p. 201). The father in the parable represents God. The story,
Blomberg concluded, was used by Jesus “to illustrate God’s amazing patience and love for His
ungrateful children” (p. 204).
Snodgrass (2008) also concurred with Blomberg’s “three-point parable” by calling this parable
a “triangle parable” “in which an authority figure relates to two subordinate and contrasted persons
or group” (p. 124). However, he disagreed with Blomberg’s “three-episode idea” by saying “that this
was always a two-part parable as most scholars acknowledged” (p. 128). Like Blomberg, Snodgrass
said that “nearly all admit or assume the straightforward associations of the parable with God, sinners,
and the righteous. It is hard to avoid such connections” (p. 136). Furthermore, Snodgrass accepted
that “parables to one degree or another are allegorical.” But he does not see all the details of the
parable with allegorical representations. He is quick to mention that
The specifics of the prodigal’s plight do not stand for theological realities; they paint
a picture of degradation and need, especially for Jewish hearers. The father’s
extravagant action in receiving the prodigal paints a picture of eager reception, but
individual actions do not stand for theological ideas. Similarly, the description of the
restoration of the prodigal with robe, ring, shoes, and fattened calf for celebration
paints a picture of joy and full acceptance, but these items do not have individual
referents (Snodgrass, 2008, p. 136).

He further warned about reading too much theology into the parable such as the Messianic banquet,
atonement, mediator, and repentance. For him, the parable simply presented the powerful saving
grace of God. Furthermore, Snodgrass stressed that the parable had several purposes, namely:
(1) To emphasize compassion—the unquestioning love of the father mirrors the attitude of
God. It is a demonstration of grace with which God reaches out to embrace sinful people;
(2) To highlight God’s invitation to celebrate and rejoice;
(3) To defend Jesus’ action of associating with sinners; and
(4) It functions as an invitation for hearers to take the same attitude toward sinners.
Hultgren (2002) agreed with Blomberg’s three-episode notion asserting that the parable had
three main parts:
(1) The departure of the younger son (15:11–19);
(2) Home-coming of the son and his welcome by the father (15:20–24); and
(3) The episode between the father and the older son (15:25–32) (p. 73).

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 He pointed out that the father in the parable represents God, the prodigal represents those
who were despised with whom Jesus associated, and the elder brother represents the Pharisees
(Hultgren, 2002, p. 84). He also suggested that the parable had three points:
(1) Jesus sought to illustrate the loving character of God;
(2) Jesus sought to vindicate His message and activities (fellowship with the outcasts) in reply to
His critics; and
(3) He sought to teach His opponents that the time had come for celebrating the ingathering of
those repentant and who were responding to His message.
Kistemaker (1987) also asserted that the parable should be better described as “to speak of
the two sons and their father” (p. 216). He insisted that “by means of these characters, Jesus reflected
the composition of his audience. . . . The prodigal son portrayed the moral and social outcast, his
brother the self-righteous Jew, and the father was a reflection of God” (p. 216). He further pointed
out that the “parable vividly depicts God’s love toward His children, the wayward and the obedient”
(p. 216). Kistemaker concluded that “It was Jesus’ intention to describe the attitude of the Pharisees
and the teachers of the Law toward tax collectors and prostitutes” (p. 225). He added “the father’s
attitude in the parable is representative of God’s forgiving love toward a sinner who repents. As the
father said to his servants, ‘let’s celebrate,’ so God with his angels rejoices over one sinner who
repents” (p. 225).
It is interesting to note that White (2002b) also, as the scholars cited above, saw that the
father in the parable represented God, the prodigal son represented the publicans and sinners, and
the elder son represented the Pharisees and unrepentant Jews of Jesus’ day. Furthermore, White
(2002b) stressed the love, mercy and compassion of God as represented by the father’s action of
running and embracing his son when he was still “a great way off” (pp. 202–205). She also emphasized
the rejoicing of heaven for the return of a wayward sinner (p. 207). At the same time, she took note
that the elder brother’s attitude toward his brother, which represented the unrepentant Jews’
attitude of “contempt upon those whom they regard as publicans and sinners (p. 209). White
concluded that “in the parable the father’s remonstrance with the elder son was Heaven’s tender
appeal to the Pharisees. ‘All that I have is thine’—not as wages, but as a gift. Like the prodigal son, you
can receive it only as the unmerited bestowal of the Father’s love” (p. 209).

Biblical Scholars and EGW Interpret the Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19–31)
As for the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Blomberg (2012) asserted that it can be labeled
as “example story” rather than a proper parable. He also suggested that the characters in the story
“do not seem to symbolize ‘spiritual counterparts’ but simply represent other people in identical
situations—certain rich men, certain poor men and those who dwell in the presence of God” (p. 257).
Blomberg also ruled out the suggestion of some scholarsb that this story represented a real event that
happened to real people in an intermediate state. On the other hand, he concurred that the “parable
should most likely be seen as reflecting the final state of both individuals” (p. 260). Furthermore, he
pointed out that the parable contains three main lessons (p. 261):
(1) Like Lazarus, those whom God helps will be born after their death into God’s presence;
(2) Like the rich man, the unrepentant, disclosed especially by their miserliness, will
experience irreversible punishment; and
(3) Through Abraham, Moses, and the prophets (and now through Jesus), God reveals
himself and His will so that none who neglect it can legitimately protest their
subsequent fate. He also argued that “it is impossible for a Christian to read this verse
(Luke 16:31) without thinking of the resurrection of Christ”
For Snodgrass (2008), the parable is inappropriately labeled as an “example story,” because,
as he pointed out, “we are not told enough about the actions of either the rich man or Lazarus for

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either actually to be an example” (p. 419). He insisted that this was not a true story, as some preachers
in the past asserted, but a parable. He also suggested (p. 426) that
The identification of the persons addressed with this parable is not crucial as elsewhere . . .
we should probably think of a double audience of both disciples and Pharisees, but the
absence of any indication of the audience may be intentional to make the parable universal in
application.

Furthermore, he emphasized that the parable had two themes or foci: first, judgment for the wrong
use of wealth. He stressed that the parable is
Specifically a warning to the wealthy for their neglect of the poor. As the reference to Moses
and the prophecies indicates, the message of the parable was not limited to the time of the
in-breaking of the kingdom. . . . Repentance in view of the kingdom means the right use of
wealth and the repudiation of exploitation and injustice (Snodgrass, 2008, p. 433).

Second, the sufficiency of Scripture. He also highlighted the view of some scholars that the parable
does not intend to give a description of life after death. However, he asserted that “the parable’s
eschatological relevance cannot be wiped away” (p. 432). He added,
The parable is a warning to the rich and emphasizes the importance of what humans do with
the present, and it still teaches that humans will be judged for the way they lived and that the
consequences will be serious (Snodgrass, 2008, p. 432).

Hultgren (2000), like the other scholars cited above, also insisted that it was not the purpose
of the parable to reveal the condition of life after death. He asserted that the situation in the parable
“appears to be permanent abode and a place of torment referring to eschatological punishment
comparable to ‘hell’” (p. 113). It seems that Hultgren (2000), like other scholars, also agrees with the
idea that the “main point of the parable is to be found in the second part (16:27–31). That is to say,
the parable is primarily a warning to persons who, like the five brothers of the Rich Man, still have
time to repent and do the will of God” (p. 115). He added, “The will of God has been clearly revealed
in the law and the prophets” (p. 115). He concluded that the
Teaching of the parable would then be not simply that there is a reversal of conditions at death
for the rich and the poor, but rather that the teachings of God concerning care for the poor
are clear in the law and the prophets (Hultgren, 2000, p. 115).

Kistemaker (1987) suggested that, based on the immediate context, “the content of the
parable relates to the comments addressed to the Pharisees on such vices as love of money and self-
righteousness” (p. 243). He stressed that “the Pharisees were able to recognize themselves in the Rich
Man” (p. 243). Furthermore, he asserted that the Pharisees “were the ones depicted by the Rich Man
in hell, and the outcasts were represented by Lazarus” (p. 244). Thus, he concluded that “the parable
was addressed to them” due to this reason:
The Pharisees on more than one occasion had asked him to give them a sign from heaven. . . .
Now these Pharisees heard the Rich Man in the parable ask Abraham for a sign from heaven. . . .
In the Rich Man’s request the Pharisees heard the echo of their own words (Kistemaker, 1987,
p. 244).

Kistemaker pointed out (p. 245) that the parable teaches lessons that
(1) man should listen to God’s word wisely and obediently; (2) It calls him to repentance and
faith; (3) it tells him that he is living in a period of grace; (4) it instructs him to put aside self-
righteousness; (5) it reminds him that man’s destiny is irrevocably sealed at the time of death.

According to White (2002b), Lazarus represented the suffering poor who believed in Christ. It
seems that the Rich Man in the parable represented the many rich men in the Jewish nation who used
the Lord’s goods for self-gratification. Christ also presented this picture before priests and rulers,
scribes and Pharisees. Furthermore, White (2002b) pointed out that the story was a prevalent

90
preconceived opinion about the condition of man after death during the time of Jesus. He met people
on their own ground. He used this as a parable to emphasize the truth that
No man is valued for his possessions; for all he has belongs to him only as lent by the Lord. A
misuse of these gifts will place him below the poorest and most afflicted man who loves God
and trusts in Him (White, 2002b, p. 263).

White (2002b) also stressed that “Christ desires his hearers to understand that it is impossible
for men to secure salvation of the soul after death” (p. 263). She added, “Christ represented the
hopelessness of looking for a second probation. This life is the only time given to man in which to
prepare for eternity” (p. 263). She concluded that “the lesson to be gathered from it is that every man
is given sufficient light for the discharge of the duties required of him. Man’s responsibilities are
proportionate to his opportunities and privileges” (p. 265). She further suggested “those who refuse
to be enlightened by Moses and the prophets and ask for some wonderful miracle to be performed
would not be convinced if their wish were granted” (p. 265).

Comparison and Contrast between Biblical Scholars and EGW

When comparing biblical scholars and EGW on the parable of the ten virgins, it is now evident
that these commentators are divided as to how the parable of ten virgins is to be interpreted. For
Blomberg and Hultgren, the parable has allegorical features. But Blomberg (2012) insisted that the
allegorical features were limited to three main points. This contrasts with Hultgren (2000), who went
beyond the three-point emphasis. On the other hand, Snodgrass and Kistemaker agreed that the
parable was not an allegory. When it comes to EGW, the way she interpreted the parable of ten virgins
seems to suggest that this is an allegorical parable, although she did not explicitly state it. It is noted
that all of the scholars emphasized that the main point of the parable is “preparedness.” However, as
for EGW, it seems that this is only one of her points, since she also emphasized the idea that the
believers, in view of the parousia, should shine forth into the darkened world revealing God’s glory.
In the parable of the prodigal son, it is evident that these scholars and EGW agree that the
three characters in the parable represented three personages in real life. The father represents God,
the prodigal son represents the publicans and sinners with whom Jesus was associated, and the elder
son represented self-righteous Jews or the Pharisees. Both Blomberg and Snodgrass asserted that the
parable was an allegorical parable. Furthermore, both Blomberg and Hultgren insisted that the parable
had three main points, whereas Snodgrass saw a four-fold purpose. Both Snodgrass and Hultgren
agreed that one of the points of the parable was to vindicate Jesus’ association with publicans and
sinners. These scholars and EGW did not give meanings to every detail of the parable. It should also
be highlighted that these commentators and EGW unanimously indicate that Jesus emphasized the
love, compassion and grace of God towards repentant sinners. They also stressed that the father’s
invitation to rejoice and celebrate in the parable is God’s invitation for the self-righteous Pharisees to
rejoice with Him in the repentance of publicans and sinners. Uniquely, EGW stressed a point that was
not emphasized by the scholars. She indicated that Jesus emphasized that the elder son’s inheritance
could not be received as wages, but only as a gift—it is the unmerited bestowal of the father’s love.
Analyzing the comparison between the scholars and EGW on the parable of the Rich Man and
Lazarus, they unanimously agreed that the parable does not teach about man’s condition after death,
although they believed, except for EGW, in the consciousness of souls after death. Both Blomberg and
Snodgrass agreed that this parable was not a true story. Both of them also asserted that this was an
“example story,” which means that the characters did not symbolize spiritual counterparts in the
audience of Jesus. Blomberg and Hultgren agreed with each other that the situation of both men in
the parable may have reflected the final state of the individuals—suffering in hell, and enjoying a
blissful heaven for eternity. Contrary to Blomberg, Snodgrass and Hultgren did not see spiritual
counterparts of the rich man and Lazarus in Jesus’ audience. Kistemaker and EGW asserted that
Lazarus in the parable represented the suffering poor (EGW) or the social outcasts (Kistemaker) in
Jesus’ day. Furthermore, the Rich Man represented the Pharisees (Kistemaker), or those Jews
(including the priests, rulers, scribes, and Pharisees) who used the Lord’s goods for self-gratification

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(EGW). It might also be highlighted that the scholars and EGW agreed that the parable stressed the
importance of scripture over signs and miracles in convicting men to repentance and obedience to
God’s will. It is also evident that the commentators and EGW agreed that the present is the time for
repentance and obedience to God’s word concerning the proper use of wealth—care for the poor–
because at death, man’s destiny is fixed.

Conclusion and Recommendation

In conclusion, it is clearly evident that EGW did not interpret the three parables irresponsibly
or out of context. She followed sound principles of biblical interpretation. When she viewed a parable
as allegorical, some biblical scholars have also done the same. Her view of the character of the
parables in relation to their spiritual correspondence was not off-tangent with that of other scholars.
The spiritual truths that she drew from these parables were usually similar to those of the
commentators highlighted. However, in a few instances, she had additional truths which they did not
see.
A further fruitful study might deal with the interpretation of the synoptic parables by scholars
who were contemporaries of White.

References
Blomberg, C. (2012). Interpreting the parables. Downers Grove, IL: Intervarsity Press.
Hultgren, A. (2000). The parables of Jesus. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Kistemaker, S. (1987). The parables of Jesus. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House.
Pfandl, G. (2005), Ellen G. White and Hermeneutics. In R. W. George (Ed.), Understanding scripture: an
Adventist approach. Silver Spring, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association (pp. 309–326).
Retrieved from https://epdf.pub/understanding-scripture-an-adventist-approach.html
Snodgrass, K. (2008). Stories with intent: A comprehensive guide to the parables of Jesus. Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans.
White, E. G. (1911). The great controversy between Christ and Satan. Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press
Publishing Association.
White, E. G. (2002a). Testimonies for the church (Volume 5). Nampa, ID: Pacific Press Publishing Association.
White, E. G. (2002b). Christ's object lessons. Hagerstown, MD: Review and Herald Publishing Association.

Endnotes
a
For more details of Historical-Critical methods, see Hasel, G. (1985); Biblical interpretation today, (pp. 7–99).
Washington, DC: Biblical Research Institute. For Historical Grammatical Methods (HGM), see pp. 100–113. For a
detailed discussion of HGM, see also Hasel, G. (1980); Understanding the living word of God (pp. 13–228).
Mountain View, CA: Pacific Press. For a conservative Protestant hermeneutics, see Berkof, L. (1950), Principles of
biblical interpretation (pp. 11–166). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House; Ramm, B. (1999), Protestant biblical
interpretation (pp. 1–287). Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Publishing Group; Sider, J. (1995), Interpreting the parables
(pp. 13–246). Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.
b
Alcorn, R. (2004). Heaven (p. 62). Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House; Gooding, D. (1987). According to Luke (p.
227). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans; Jeffrey, K. (1998). The reality and eternality of hell: Luke 16:19–31 as proof.
Stulos Theological Journal, 6, 67–76.

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 Human Behavior, Development and Society
ISSN 2651-1762, Vol 21 No 1, March 2020

Consumption Patterns of Dormitory Students at a Private University

Andrew Christian Aseng1, Universitas Klabat, Indonesia

Date Received: 14 November 2019 Revised: 2 February 2020 Accepted: 17 February 2020

Abstract
In this study the consumption patterns of dormitory students in a private university in
Indonesia was investigated. The study covered both food and non-food consumption patterns based
on gender, years of study, and type of dormitory. The research instrument was an adapted and
modified questionnaire administered through a convenience sampling technique to students (N = 441)
from seven dormitories. A t-test and one-way ANOVA along with Tukey’s Test were used to analyze
the data. It was found that female students generally displayed a higher consumption pattern than
males, with non-food items being higher than food consumption for both groups. Expenditure on
sports was an exception, with males spending more than females. It was concluded that female
students had a greater number of needs to satisfy. Generally, those students who lived in cheaper
dormitories tended to spend less than those in the more expensive ones. Senior students tended to
spend more on food and less on non-food items than other cohorts. Student needs were unique and
varied, especially for non-food consumption items.

Keywords: Consumption patterns, dormitory students, private university

Introduction
Consumption is a common yet crucial activity in peoples’ lives. Consumption has a broader
meaning than in reference to food and drink. It involves not only food, but also other things individuals
buy or consume to fulfill their needs and wants. What people consume can measure needs, but it also
could measure poverty better, because deprived people report their consumption patterns more
accurately (Galer, 2012). In addition, someone’s welfare can be measured from the level of
consumption. Rifqi (2015) found that people who consumed sufficient calories had a greater
possibility of thriving compared to those with poor intakes. The fulfillment of basic needs permits an
individual to fulfill other needs. This is in line with Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Robbins &
Judge, 2013).
College students, like other people, show various consumption activities, not only for food
and drink, but also for other commercial items (Mulyani, 2015). In studies of young men students, it
has been found that they are more aware of branded products (Jeevitha & Priya, 2019) and are
exposed to lifestyles that could tempt them to spend excessive money on such things (Tyagi & Ranga,
2017). Student consumption patterns vary covering both their needs and wants. However, because
most of them focus on their study and have no obligation to work to earn money, their main source
of money comes from their parents (Wurangian, Engka, & Sumual, 2015), which could make some of
them less responsible in managing the money given. This could lead to shortness of cash and possibly
to financial problems (Bona, 2017). Therefore, it is a good thing when they spend their money wisely
to meet their needs and wants.
Studies have been conducted to monitor college students’ consumption patterns, and to
determine whether there are general consumption patterns among students (Maxey, Fenske, & Boyd,
1979; Tama, 2014; Wurangian, Engka, & Sumual, 2015; Bona, 2017; Jeevitha & Priya, 2019). Some of
the studies focused solely on non-food consumption patterns (Mulyani, 2015; Julian, 2016). Studies
mainly have focused on students who lived off campus, except for a study completed by Maxey,

1
Author’s email address: andrew.aseng@unklab.ac.id
This paper was presented at the 7th International Scholar’s Conference held on October 28–29, 2019
at Universitas Advent Indonesia, and selected for publication in HBDS.

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Fenske, and Boyd (1979). Meanwhile, studies specifically for dormitory students and their
consumption patterns are rare and focused on dietary habits and nutrition (Kim & Kim, 2005), not on
their general consumption or spending patterns.
It is expected that this study might contribute valuable information to students, parents, and
university administrators. For students, they can gain insights into their consumption patterns so that
they will know how their money is spent. On the other hand, parents may learn about their children’s
consumption so that they can give good advice on managing money and providing guidance on
priorities when buying. As for administrators, they will gain valuable information of what students
need and how they can provide for these needs on campus. In addition, this study can give additional
knowledge about consumer behavior and preferences regarding dormitory students’ consumption
patterns.

Literature Review
The patterns of students’ consumption have been investigated in a number of configurations.
Maxey, Fenske, and Boyd (1979) investigated spending patterns of scholarship holders in three
categories: those living with family, those owning their own home or apartment, and those living on
campus. They found that students living with families spent most on tuition, followed by
transportation, clothing, books and stationery, entertainment, and personal expenses. Meanwhile,
the group of students who had their own houses or apartments spent their money on rooms or rent,
tuition fees, transportation, books, clothing, and so on. The third group, students who live on campus,
had the most expensive consumption pattern, namely dormitory and tuition fees, books and
stationery, clothing, entertainment, and so on. In addition, it was also found that students living on
campus (dormitories) had higher personal expenses than the other two groups. This is because they
lived alone and received an allowance from parents, so they managed their own expenses. A recent
study by Bona (2017) found that most college students in Cantilan, the Philippines, spent a larger
proportion of their money for school assignments and supplies, while they spent less for fashion and
transportation. This was considered due to the higher cost of supply materials and cheaper public
transportation in the study area. Meanwhile, a recent study by Jeevitha and Priya (2019) found that
beauty care accounted for the highest spending of college students in Coimbatore, India. These studies
showed different patterns, ostensibly because of country differences. Yet, both suggested that college
students should plan wisely on their spending and plan to save some of their money for future use.
In Yogyakarta, studies were carried out by Tama (2014) and Mulyani (2015), who examined
the consumption of students at one of the state universities. The difference between these two
studies was that while the first one examined student consumption in general, the subsequent study
focused on students’ non-food consumption patterns. Tama’s (2014) study found that while there
were no differences in food and non-food consumption between male and female students, males
actually consumed more food than females. In addition, there were differences in consumption
patterns for students who lived in boarding houses and those who lived with their parents. Those who
lived in boarding houses rarely ate breakfast and used their allowances for communication and
transportation. In contrast, the study by Mulyani (2015) found–interestingly enough– that their
biggest consumption items were fashion products, followed by entertainment, transportation,
communication, and tuition support costs. It is understandable that the development of fashion
trends and lifestyles makes students strive to stay updated with the latest looks. This trend was
supported by Cosmas (1982) who found that there was a relationship between lifestyle and the
decision to buy a desired product. It was also found that while there were no differences in
consumption patterns by gender, the allocation for fashion was greater for women, while for men it
was for transportation. Further, this study found that non-food consumption was higher than food-
consumption in all years of the study, with fashion and transportation topping the list.
Consumption patterns of students were also examined in Lampung, Indonesia, by Julian in
2016. The results showed that monthly allowances had a positive effect on the consumption of
students living in boarding houses. The greater the allowance, the higher the consumption. Another

94
finding was that male students consumed fewer goods and services than female students. In addition,
those who had savings demonstrated less consumption than those who did not. Finally, students living
in boarding houses spent on various things besides for college supplies, as they needed to take care
of themselves.

Methods
This study used a quantitative approach, where the research instrument was a questionnaire
adopted from Mulyani (2015) and several previous studies. Slight modifications were introduced to
include questions about food expenses. Dormitory heads, monitors, and students assisted with
questionnaire distribution. After distribution, these groups received instructions on answering
strategies for the questionnaire, so as to be able to offer help to all respondents. The population of
the study was Universitas Klabat (UNKLAB) students during second semester of the 2017–2018
academic year who resided in three male dormitories, namely Genzet, Crystal, and Guest House
dormitories. It also included residents of four female dormitories, namely Bougenville, Edelweiss,
Annex, and Jasmine. These dormitories are ranked from the least to most expensive dormitories at
UNKLAB. Using a convenience sampling technique, 459 dormitory students were involved and
participated in the research, yet 18 students did not answer the questions properly. Thus, valid
samples were received from 441 students consisting of 104 students from Crystal, 25 students from
Guest House, 30 students from Genzet, 77 students from Jasmine, 147 students from Edelweiss, 43
students from Annex, and 15 students from Bougenville. To analyze the data, a descriptive analysis
technique was used. To determine whether different consumption patterns existed based on gender,
a t-test analysis was used, while regarding their years of study and type of dormitory, a one-way
ANOVA with Tukey’s Test was used.
The investigation was implemented to study both food and non-food consumption patterns
of students who resided in UNKLAB dormitories. Based on this purpose, the following hypotheses
were generated:
H0: There is no difference in the consumption patterns of dormitory students based on gender,
years of study, and type of dormitory.
H1: There are differences in consumption patterns of dormitory students based on gender,
years of study, and type of dormitory

Results and Discussion

The consumption patterns were divided into two categories: food (food, drinks, snacks), and
non-food consumption (transportation, phone credit, Internet, entertainment, college supplies,
cosmetics and toiletries, accessories, clothing, hobby, and sports). It is shown that in general,
dormitory students spend more money for non-food consumption (mean = 360,000 Rupiahs, or US$
26.32)2, compared to 221,000 Rupiahs (Rp., or about US$ 16.16) for food consumption.
The three variables that had the highest mean values were food (Rp. 124,650, or $9.12),
college supplies (67,390, or $4.93), and Internet packages (63,710, or $4.66). The average dormitory
students spent their allowance monthly as follows: Private transportation Rp. 9,430, sports equipment
Rp. 9,510 and hobbies Rp. 14,390. Overall, the average non-food consumption expenditure of
dormitory students was greater than that for food consumption. This is understandable because of
the diverse non-food needs of students, and the many things they needed to purchase. The smallest
consumption or expenditure was for private transportation, presumably because dormitory students
were not permitted to bring their private vehicles. The existence of such expenses is possibly on
account of some students’ families living near campus, and those who have vehicles which were
brought occasionally near to the campus.

2
At current exchange rates, US$ 1 is equivalent to about 13,800 Rupiahs.

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 Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics results of students’ consumption patterns based on
gender. The average non-food consumption patterns for both males and females were higher than
their food consumption patterns, even though females had higher consumption patterns for both
categories compared to males. This may be on account of the fact that they can eat in the university
cafeteria, so they spend more money on non-food consumption. However, some of them do spend a
lot on food (maximums of Rp. 1,450,000, or $106.02, and Rp. 1,210,000, or $81.97, for male and
female, respectively), especially for those who came from wealthy families.

Table 1. Overall Consumption Patterns of Male and Female Students

Gender N Mean Median SD Var. Min. Max.
Male
Food consumption 159 169.27 100.00 210.07 44,127.93 0.00 1,450.00
Non-food consumption 159 274.69 177.00 322.40 103,940.05 0.00 2,000.00
Female
Food consumption 282 250.73 200.00 213.12 45,420.91 0.00 1,210.00
Non-food consumption 282 408.11 300.00 368.14 135,530.07 0.00 1,865.00
Note: In thousand Rupiahs

Students’ consumption patterns based on year of study are shown in Table 2. Average food
consumption of freshmen was the lowest compared with sophomores, juniors, and seniors, while non-
food consumption of juniors was the highest, with the lowest being shown by senior students. There
are two possibilities to account for this pattern. First, it could be that freshmen students spend less to
buy food and instead eat at the cafeteria, while senior students spend more to buy food. Second,
freshmen students tend to buy cheaper food than others. Senior students, on the other hand, spend
more on average on food. Otherwise, non-food consumption of senior students was the lowest,
probably because they reduced their unnecessary consumption and become wiser in managing their
money, or because they needed to save money for paying graduation fees by reducing their spending.
This finding contradicts the data of Villanueva (2017), who found that senior students on average
spend more than others, except for freshmen students. This is possibly a reflection of different
cultures and mindset, where senior students in New York spent more as they looked forward to
receiving higher incomes when they graduated.

Table 2. Overall Student Consumption Patterns Based on Year of Study

Years of Study N Mean Median SD Var. Min Max
Freshmen
Food consumption 195 199.18 145 203.19 41,284.42 0 1,450
Non-food consumption 195 344.58 250 325.04 105,649.66 0 1,650
Sophomore
Food consumption 109 228.48 150 202.69 41,083.01 0 900
Non-food consumption 109 372.19 270 336.57 113,276.27 0 1,260
Junior
Food consumption 80 228.69 158 208.64 43,528.83 0 1,000
Non-food consumption 80 404.09 250 430.56 185,383.19 0 1,865
Senior
Food consumption 57 273.37 200 275.98 76,167.63 0 1,000
Non-food consumption 57 327.60 200 393.33 154,706.07 0 2,000
Note: In thousand Rupiahs
Meanwhile, students’ consumption patterns based on their dormitories showed that the
average food and non-food consumption patterns reflected the type of dormitory occupied. Those
who lived in a cheaper dormitory tended to spend less than those in expensive dormitories. The reason
was that students who lived in expensive dormitories came from medium- to upper-income families,

96
and usually received greater allowances from their parents, resulted in a higher consumption, a
conclusion supported by Julian (2016).
In the meantime, the average food and non-food consumption for females showed a different
pattern. While the average food and non-food consumption pattern increased from Bougenville, and
Edelweiss to Annex dormitories in line with increasing accommodation costs, it unexpectedly
decreased in the Jasmine dormitory (the most expensive). In general, students residing in female
dormitories spent more than their compatriots in male dormitories.
Students’ consumption patterns based on gender, years of study, and type of dormitory were
analyzed using various tests—t-test and ANOVA with Tukey’s Test. The former test was used for
gender, and the latter for years of study and type of dormitory. Table 3 shows that there were
substantial differences in consumption patterns between genders. The higher values were recorded
uniformly for females, except for expenditures on sports where males outdid the females.

Table 3. T-test for Equality of Means Results on Student Consumption Patterns Based on Gender
95% Confidence
Sig.
Mean Std. Error Interval of the
t df (2-
Difference Difference Difference
tailed)
Lower Upper
Food -2.68 439.00 .008 -36.13 13.48 -62.63 -9.64
Drinks -2.53 439.00 .012 -11.98 4.74 -21.30 -2.66
Snacks -5.58 439.00 .000 -33.35 5.97 -45.09 -21.61
Transportation-
-.06 439.00 .953 -.24 4.14 -8.39 7.90
Owned
Transportation-
-.43 439.00 .667 -2.13 4.94 -11.85 7.59
Public
Phone -2.04 439.00 .042 -6.67 3.27 -13.11 -.24
Internet -5.20 439.00 .000 -30.10 5.79 -41.47 -18.73
Entertainment -3.28 439.00 .001 -19.14 5.83 -30.61 -7.68
College supplies -2.28 439.00 .023 -19.11 8.39 -35.60 -2.62
Cosmetics and
-6.28 439.00 .000 -42.43 6.76 -55.71 -29.14
Toiletries
Accessories -2.03 439.00 .043 -12.17 5.98 -23.93 -.41
Clothing -1.22 439.00 .224 -10.29 8.46 -26.91 6.33
Hobby -.01 439.00 .996 -.03 4.67 -9.20 9.14
Sports 2.79 439.00 .005 8.89 3.18 2.63 15.14

It is found that females spent significantly more on food, drinks, snacks, phone credit, Internet,
entertainment, college supplies, cosmetics and toiletries, and accessories, while there were no
differences in consumption patterns for transportation, clothing, and hobbies. Female students spent
more money on average to buy food, drinks, and snacks monthly (Rp. 137.670, Rp. 46,130, and Rp.
66,930, respectively) compared to male students (Rp. 101.540, Rp. 34.150, and Rp. 33.580). It should
be noted that females spent two times more on snacks than male students. This finding is supported
by YouGov (2015) and Nieburg (2013). Further, it is found that female students also spend more
money monthly than males to buy phone credit (Rp. 28.320 vs. Rp. 21.640), Internet (Rp. 74.560 vs.
Rp. 44.460), entertainment (Rp. 36.030 vs. Rp. 16.890), and school supplies (Rp. 74.280 vs. Rp. 55.170).
A similar expenditure pattern was observed in a previous study completed by Mulyani (2015).
Certainly, average monthly expenditure for cosmetics and toiletries were greater for female
students (Rp. 62.020) than for males (Rp. 19.590). Female students also spent more than males for
accessories (Rp. 33.370 vs. Rp. 21.190). Conversely, male students spent more on sports than females
(Rp. 15.190 vs. Rp. 6.310), which accords with previous findings (Cerar, Kondrič, Ochiana, & Sindik,
2017). Therefore, according to the t-test, H0 was accepted and H1 was rejected.

97
 Meanwhile, ANOVA analysis of data on consumption patterns of students by year of study
showed a significant difference (p = .14) only for food consumption. The details are given in Table 4.
Senior students spend more for food than freshmen. No other differences in consumption patterns
were found. Thus, H0 was rejected and H1 was accepted.

Table 4. Student Food Consumption Patterns Based on Year of Study (Tukey’s HSD)
Subset for
Years of Study N
alpha = 0.05
Freshmen 195 106.15a
Sophomore 109 127.40ab
Junior 80 132.65ab
Senior 57 171.40b
Sig. 0.56
Note: Figures followed by the same letter are not significantly different.

Lastly, different consumption patterns were found among students based on type of
dormitory in respect to food, drinks, snacks, public transportation, phone, Internet, entertainment,
cosmetics and toiletries, hobby, sports (p < .05). On the other hand, no differences were found in
terms of self-owned transportation, college supplies, accessories, and clothing. Detailed analysis of
these differences (Table 5) clearly showed that the Genzet dormitory students differed from the Guest
House, Jasmine, and Annex students. While Annex students are different from Bougenville, Crystal
and Edelweiss, they are not different from students from the other dormitories. Overall, the
consumption of students who lived in the Annex dormitories was higher than others, while those who
live in Genzet was the lowest. Furthermore, students who lived in the Guest House, Jasmine, and
Annex dormitories spent more for food (more expensive accommodation), presumably on account of
getting larger allowances from their parents.

Table 5. Differences (Tukey’s HSD) in Food Consumption Patterns Based on Type of Dorm

Food Drinks Snacks

Dormitory
Subset for Subset for Subset for
N
alpha = 0.05 alpha = 0.05 alpha = 0.05
Genzet 30 50.67a 12.90a 9.80a
Bougenville 15 100.00ab 27.00ab 37.33ab
Crystal 104 102.55ab 36.02ab 40.17ab
Edelweiss 147 109.53ab 41.29ab 65.11bc
Jasmine 77 158.7bc 42.34ab 60.10bc
Guest House 25 158.40bc 51.88bc 34.68ab
Annex 43 209.37 76.16c 95.70c
Sig. 0.48 0.1 0.3

Drink consumption for students at the Genzet dormitory was different from Guest House and
Annex, but it was not different from students who lived in other dormitories. While Annex students
differed in drink consumption with their compatriots in Genzet, Bougenville, Crystal, Edeweiss, and
Jasmine, they were not different from students in the Guest House dormitory. Furthermore, the
snacks consumption pattern of students from Genzet dormitory was different from those who lived
in the Jasmine, Edelweiss and Annex dormitories, although there were no differences with students
from other dormitories. While students from the Annex dormitory had differences in the consumption

98
of snacks from those who lived in Crystal, Bougenville, Guest House, and Genzet dormitories, they
were statistically not different from students who lived in other dormitories.

Table 6. Differences (Tukey’s HSD) in Non-Food Consumption Patterns Based on Type of Dorm
Public Transportation Phone Internet
Dormitory N
Subset for alpha = 0.05 Subset for alpha = 0.05 Subset for alpha = 0.05
Genzet 30 5.33a 10.33a 9.43a
Bougenville 15 10.87ab 25.27ab 43.33ab
Crystal 104 22.56abc 23.40ab 52.44bc
Edelweiss 147 21.26abc 25.80ab 71.71bc
Jasmine 77 16.91ab 28.78ab 78.44bc
Guest House 25 42.24bc 27.88ab 53.28bc
Annex 43 54.14c 37.14c 88.26c
Sig. 0.74 0.20 0.15
Entertainment Cosmetics & Toiletries Hobbies
Dormitory N Subset for alpha = 0.05 Subset for alpha = 0.05 Subset for alpha = 0.05
Genzet 30 1.67a 13.17a 4.67a
Bougenville 15 5.33a 40.47ab 0.00a
Crystal 104 18.08ab 21.35ab 8.99a
Edelweiss 147 24.08ab 65.00b 12.65a
Jasmine 77 48.77bc 60.45ab 16.23ab
Guest House 25 30.20abc 20.00ab 48.40b
Annex 43 64.77c 62.14b 22.09ab
Sig. 0.34 0.05 0.39

In terms of public transportation, there were differences in consumption patterns between

Genzet, Guest House, and Annex students, but they were not different from students in other
dormitories. Students from the Annex dormitory were different from those who lived in Genzet,
Bougenville, and Jasmine.
Differences in telephone credit consumption patterns existed between Genzet and Annex
students, but no differences were found with students from other dormitories. Meanwhile, students
from the Annex dormitory had differences in telephone credit consumption from all students from
other dormitories. Varied results appeared in the consumption of Internet packages where Genzet
students differed from students from Crystal, Guest House, Edelweiss, Jasmine, and Annex
dormitories, but were not different from students from other dormitories. Students from the Annex
dormitory differed in consumption of Internet packages with students from Bougenville and Genzet.
Further, consumption for entertainment was different for students who lived in Genzet's dormitories
from Jasmine, and Annex's dormitory students, but it was not different from students in other
dormitories. Then, Annex dormitory students displayed different consumption for entertainment with
students from Edelweiss, Crystal, Bougenville, and Genzet dormitories, as well as Bougenville
dormitory students having different entertainment consumption from students from Jasmine and
Annex.
For cosmetics and toiletries, Genzet students were statistically different from students from
Annex and Edelweiss dormitories, but they were not different from students from others who lived in
other dormitories. Finally, there was a difference in consumption pattern of hobbies from Bougenville
students against those who lived in the Guest House dormitory. These Guest House dormitory
students had different consumption patterns compared with Edelweiss, Crystal, Genzet, and
Bougenville students.
While in the ANOVA test, sports consumption was found to be significant (p < .05), yet in
Tukey’s Test, no differences were found among students. To conclude, no statistical differences in
consumption were found for the categories of personal transportation, accessories, college supplies,
clothing, and sports for students who lived in the seven dormitories on campus. Thus, H0 was accepted
and H1 was rejected. However, because there were differences in the consumption patterns of

99
dormitory students in terms of food, drinks, snacks, public transportation, telephone, Internet
packages, entertainment, cosmetics and toiletries, as well as hobbies, H0 was rejected and H1 was
accepted for these categories.
Overall comparisons showed that students living in the Annex dormitory had the highest
average food and non-food expenses compared to other dormitories. In contrast, students who lived
in the Genzet dormitory had the least average expenditure on food and non-food items. For students
who lived in Genzet, this is understandable because they were mostly working students, so they ate
more often in the campus cafeteria, and their other expenses were not as much as students from the
other dormitories. However, what was surprising was the average consumption of female students
living in Annex dormitory was greater than female students who lived in Jasmine dormitory, which
was more expensive. This might have happened on account of the following: the location of the Annex
dormitory was closer to outlets for buying off-campus food. Alternatively, Jasmine female students
may have been visited more often by families bringing food from home.

Conclusions
The results of this study provide some advice or input for students, parents, and the university.
For students, especially those living in dormitories, it is important to know their monthly consumption
patterns so that they can manage their monthly allowances better. Furthermore, for parents, knowing
the consumption patterns of their children can provide an idea of how their children live in the
dormitories and their monthly consumption needs. For the university, the consumption patterns of
students who live in dormitories provides important information allowing provision for their needs on
campus so that they do not go out often to buy food and non-food items.
The results of the t-test and ANOVA–together with the Tukey’s Test–showed differences in
consumption patterns of dormitory students based on gender, years of study, and type of dormitory.
It was found that female students generally displayed a higher consumption pattern than males, with
non-food being higher than food consumption for both groups. Expenditure on sports was an
exception, with males spending more than females. It was concluded that female students had a
greater number of needs to satisfy. Generally, those students who lived in cheaper dormitories tended
to spend less than those in the more expensive ones. Senior students tended to spend more on food,
and less on non-food items than other cohorts.

Limitations
There are several limitations of this research, such as the short time span (one semester) over
which data was gathered. Gathering data for at least two semesters would have allowed student
consumption patterns to be better mapped. In addition, the sampling method used was a convenience
sampling method. Another limitation may have been the combination of several consumption items
into one variable. For further research, it may be advisable to further detail consumption items,
especially for non-food items, so that a more comprehensive understanding is gained. Future studies
might also add responses from students who lived outside of campus to gain better insights regarding
their consumption patterns, and make comparisons with dormitory students.

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reviewer.” (Elsevier, Publishing Ethics Guidelines)

DUTIES OF AUTHORS
Original Work: Human Behavior, Development and Society expects that manuscripts submitted to be
considered for publication are the author(s) own original work, are not currently under review
elsewhere, and have not been previously published in any language. Manuscripts should not “recycle”
essentially the same material that has been published elsewhere. Turnitin software is used to check
for plagiarism and/or previous publication, and Human Behavior, Development and Society rejects
articles that have substantial proportions of text that are copied from other sources.
Authorship: The names of authors appearing on manuscripts should be limited to individuals who
have made significant contributions to the article. Individuals who have provided technical assistance
or support may be thanked by mentioning their contributions in the Acknowledgements. The
corresponding author should ensure that all co-authors have seen and approved the final version of
the paper, and have agreed to its submission for publication.
Accuracy: Authors of original research papers should present an accurate account of their work along
with an objective discussion of its significance. Underlying data should be represented accurately in
the paper; adding data or removal of outlier results are unacceptable. Conclusions should be based
on evidence presented in the paper, not on personal opinions.
Errors: If significant errors/inaccuracies become apparent after an article has already been submitted,
Human Behavior, Development and Society expects authors to immediately contact the Editorial Staff
so that appropriate corrections may be made in a timely manner.
Acknowledgement of Sources: A research paper builds upon previously published work. Author(s)
should paraphrase ideas or results that have been previously published elsewhere in their own words,
along with citing these works in the paper and listing them in the references. Making statements of
facts or ideas without citing evidence to back up these statements is not good research practice.
Disclosure of Financial Support and Conflicts of Interest: Financial support received for research and
the paper writing process should be disclosed in the acknowledgments, and any potential conflicts of
interest must be disclosed to the Human Behavior, Development and Society editorial team when a
manuscript is first submitted.
Protection of Human Subjects: Human Behavior, Development and Society expects that experiments
using human subjects have been conducted in compliance with international standards and research
protocols, and that they received prior review and approval from an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
or ethics committee. Such approval and the approving entity’s name should be specified in the
Methods section.

DUTIES OF EDITORS
Confidentiality: The editors of Human Behavior, Development and Society use a “double-blind” peer
review process, where neither authors nor reviewers know each other’s identity. The editors endeavor
to protect the identity of author(s) and reviewers throughout the review process. Unpublished
materials from a submitted manuscript must not be quoted or referenced by an editor without the

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express written consent of the author. Information or ideas obtained through peer review must be
kept confidential and not used for personal advantage.
Objectivity: Decisions on publication are made objectively by the Human Behavior, Development and
Society Administrative Board after reviewing the submitted manuscript and the peer reviews. The
importance of the article’s contribution to the existing research in its field, the quality of articulation
of the argument, and the strength of evidence provided are critical factors in the decision to publish.
Conflicts of Interest: Editors are not allowed to publish or co-publish articles that appear in Human
Behavior, Development and Society, and they must recuse themselves from the review process when
they have a conflict of interest or personal stake in the publication of a research article.

DUTIES OF REVIEWERS
Confidentiality: Reviewers should respect the confidentiality of the review process. They should not
discuss aspects of the work under review with other researchers until after an article is published.
Unpublished materials disclosed in a manuscript under review must not be quoted or referenced by a
reviewer without the express written consent of the author, requested through the editor.
Information or ideas obtained through peer review must be kept confidential and not used for
personal advantage.
Objectivity: Manuscripts should be reviewed objectively in the context of the reviewer’s expertise in
the field. The importance of the article’s contribution to the existing research in its field, the quality
of articulation of the argument, and the strength of the evidence provided are critical factors in
reviewing the quality of a manuscript. Personal opinions without backing evidence should not be used
as criteria for review decisions.
Conflicts of Interest: If the reviewer realizes, after receiving a manuscript for review, that he or she
has been involved in the research described, knows the researcher(s) involved in the research, or for
any reason cannot give an objective review of the manuscript, the reviewer should inform the editors
and decline to review it. Conflicts of interest may include competitive, collaborative, or other
relationships or connections with any of the authors, companies, or institutions connected to the
paper under review.
Acknowledgment of Sources: Reviewers should point out important relevant published work that has
not been cited by the authors. A reviewer should also call to the editor’s attention any substantial
similarity or overlap between the manuscript under consideration and any other published paper of
which they have personal knowledge.

SUBMISSIONS
Unsolicited manuscripts are welcomed. Submissions must be in the form of completed articles;
partially completed articles are not considered.
Articles published elsewhere will not be considered. Full manuscripts of abstracts published in any
form will be considered, but editorial judgment will be exercised to accept or reject.
The journal’s policy is not to reconsider an article that has been rejected by its referees. Papers that
primarily feature negative results are also unlikely to be accepted, as are those which focus on
promoting a concept by selectively choosing positive results.
Papers rejected by the editorial team are not open to reconsideration. Rejection may be based on a
number of considerations including relevance, interest to readers, timeliness, adoption of a writing
style that is considered offensive or partisan political, outside the space considerations stipulated by
the journal, or failure to follow the specified guidelines.

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Human Behavior, Development and Society (HBDS) Publishing Guidelines

Here are some general guidelines for preparing and submitting articles to HBDS.

1. Manuscripts for Submissions

1.1. Manuscripts should be no less than 8 and no more than 12 pages in length.
1.2. Manuscripts should be written in correct and standard academic English.
1.3. Manuscripts should be single-spaced.
1.4. Manuscripts should use Calibri font size 11.
1.5. Manuscripts should contain minimal formatting (bold and italics commands are acceptable).
1.6. Manuscripts should not contain editorial controls of any kind.
1.7. Manuscripts should also contain a 150-200 word abstract of the article. Provide at least three
keywords, but do not exceed seven.

2. Suggested Referencing Format

2.1. In order to maintain a consistent look for Human Behavior, Development and Society, use of
the American Psychological Association (APA) publication guidelines is mandatory. For details,
please see the APA Publication Manual (7th edition).
2.2. HBDS follows the APA guidelines for endnotes (preferred), in-text citations and references.
2.3. Referencing Samples: Please refer to http://www.apastyle.org/ for questions about referencing,
and serialization in the APA format.

3. Submissions Procedure
3.1. Manuscripts submitted to HBDS must not have been previously published elsewhere or under
review for publication in other journals.
3.2. Manuscripts must adhere to the journal’s Publishing Guidelines; failure to comply with the
guidelines may result in the rejection of a submission.
3.3. Manuscripts must be submitted through the ThaiJo online submission system at
https://so01.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/hbds; look for the HBDS web page.
3.4. Manuscripts should be submitted by no later than November 30 for the March issue, February
28 for the June issue, May 31 for the September issue, and August 31 for the December issue.
Nonetheless, even if a submission is received before the stated dates, and is accepted, the
journal’s Administrative Board reserves the right to decide on the publication date.

4. Review Process
4.1. Manuscripts will be checked for originality and prescreened by the editorial staff to see if their
structure, content, and formatting complies with journal standards.
4.2. Manuscripts will undergo a double-blind review process conducted by at least 2 qualified
independent peer reviewers who are external to authors’ institutions, and knowledgeable in a
relevant academic field. This process typically takes from 4–6 weeks, depending on peer
reviewer response times.
4.3. Authors will be informed of reviewers’ comments as soon as they are available.
4.4. Authors will be given about 1 month to revise their papers (should that be necessary) and
should return the revised version by the 1st of February/May/August/November (or earlier).

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