Physics data booklet

For use during the course and in the examinations

First assessment 2025

Version 1.1
Annotated by YPhysics (Version 1.0)
Contents
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Mathematical equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fundamental constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Metric (SI) multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Unit conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Electrical circuit symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Electromagnetic spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. Space, time and motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
B. The particulate nature of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
C. Wave behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
D. Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
E. Nuclear and quantum physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Physics data booklet

Mathematical equations
Area of a triangle 1
A (bh ) where b is the base, h is the height
2
Area of a circle A = πr 2 where r is the radius

Circumference of a circle C = 2πr

Volume of a cuboid V lwh where l is the length, w is the width, h is the

height
Volume of a cylinder V r 2h

Volume of a prism V Ah where A is the area of cross-section

4 3
Volume of a sphere V= πr
3

Area of the curved surface A 2 rh

of a cylinder
Vectors A
AV

θ
AH

AH A cos

AV A sin

sin θ
Trigonometric relationships tan θ =
cos θ

sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1

2 Physics data booklet

Uncertainties
Δy: absolute/raw uncertainty in y
If: y = a ± b then: ∆y = ∆a + ∆b y: value of y

Δa: absolute/raw uncertainty in a

ab ∆y ∆a ∆b ∆c a: value of a
If: y then: = + +
c y a b c
Δb: absolute/raw uncertainty in b
b: value of b
∆y ∆a
If: y an then: = n
y a Δc: absolute/raw uncertainty in c
c: value of c

Fundamental constants
Quantity Symbol Approximate value

Acceleration of free fall g 9 .8 m s 2

(Earth’s surface)

Gravitational constant G 6.67 × 10−11 Nm2 kg−2

Avogadro constant NA 6.02 × 1023 mol−1

Gas constant R 8.31JK 1 mol 1

Boltzmann constant kB 1.38 × 10−23 JK −1

Stefan–Boltzmann constant 5.67 × 10−8 W m−2 K −4

Coulomb constant k 8.99 × 109 Nm2 C−2

Permittivity of free space 0 8.85 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2

Permeability of free space 4π × 10−7 T mA −1

Speed of light in vacuum c 3.00 × 108 m s−1

Planck constant h 6.63 × 10−34 Js

Elementary charge e 1.60 × 10−19 C

Electron rest mass me 9.110 × 10−31 kg = 0.000549 u = 0.511MeV c −2

Proton rest mass mp 1.673 × 10−27 kg = 1.007276 u = 938 MeV c −2

Neutron rest mass mn 1.675 × 10−27 kg = 1.008665 u = 940 MeV c −2

(Unified) atomic mass unit u 1.661× 10−27 kg = 931.5 MeV c −2

Solar constant S 1.36 × 103 W m−2

Fermi radius R0 1.20 × 10−15 m

Physics data booklet 3

Metric (SI) multipliers
Prefix Abbreviation Value

peta P 1015

tera T 1012

giga G 109
mega M 106

kilo k 103

hecto h 102

deca da 101
1
deci d 10
2
centi c 10

milli m 10 3

micro μ 10 6

nano n 10 9

pico p 10 12

15
femto f 10

Unit conversions

180°
1 radian (rad) ≡
π
Temperature (K ) = temperature ( °C ) + 273

1 light year ( ly ) = 9.46 × 1015 m

1 parsec (pc ) = 3.26 ly

1 astronomical unit ( AU) = 1.50 × 1011 m

1 kilowatt-hour ( kWh ) = 3.60 × 106 J

h c = 1.99 × 10−25 Jm = 1.24 × 10 −6 eV m

4 Physics data booklet

Electrical circuit symbols

Cell Battery Switch

Voltmeter Ammeter Resistor

Light-dependent resistor
Variable resistor Thermistor
(LDR)

Potentiometer Lamp Light emitting diode (LED)

Heating element Motor Earth (ground)

Electromagnetic spectrum
energy

16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 100 102 10 4 106 108 wavelength / m

rays X-rays UV IR microwaves radio waves

V I B G Y O R
400 700
wavelength / nm

Physics data booklet 5

A. Space, time and motion
Standard level and higher level

A.1 Kinematics u +v
s= t
s: displacement 2
u: initial velocity
v: final velocity v = u + at
a: acceleration
t: time 1 2
s = ut + at
2
(Use + or - to include direction)
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
Ff: frictional force (friction)
A.2 Forces and momentum Ff ≤ µsFN μs: coefficient of static friction
FH: elastic force from helical spring (Hooke’s Law) μd: coefficient of dynamic friction
Ff = µdFN FN: normal contact force
k: spring’s constant
x: extension or compression of spring
FH = −k x Fd: drag force (resistive force from fluids)
η: coefficient of viscosity
Fb: buoyant force (upthrust) Fd = 6πη rv r: radius
ρ: density of fluid
v: speed
V: volume submerged in fluid Fb = ρVg
g: acceleration of free fall
Fg mg Fg: gravitational force (weight close to Earth’s surface)
m: mass
p: momentum
g:acceleration of free fall
m: mass p mv
v: velocity
J = F ∆t J: impulse
F: force
F: resultant/net force
∆p Δt: time taken
m: mass F = ma =
a: acceleration ∆t
Δp: change in momentum (Δp=mv-mu)
a: centripetal acceleration
Δt: time taken v2 4π 2 r
a= = ω 2r = 2 v: linear speed
r T r: radius
T: period
2π r ω: angular speed
v= = ωr
T
A.3 Work, energy and power W: work done by force F
W = Fs cos θ F: force
Ek: kinetic energy s: displacement of point of action of force F
m: mass 1 p2 θ: angle between direction of F and direction of s
v: speed Ek ! mv 2 !
p: momentum
2 2m
ΔΕp: change in gravitational potential energy
∆Ep = mg ∆h m: mass
EH: elastic potential energy stored in helical spring
k: spring’s constant g: acceleration of free fall
1 Δh: change in height
Δx : extension or compression of the spring EH = k ∆x 2
2
P: Power
∆W
ΔW: work done / energy transferred P= = Fv
Δt: time taken ∆t
F: average force
v: average speed useful work out useful power out
η= =
total work in total power in
η: efficiency

6 Physics data booklet

 τ: torque
Additional higher level F: force
r: distance from axis to point of action of F
A.4 Rigid body mechanics τ = Fr sin θ θ: angle between direction of F and direction of r

ωf + ωi
∆θ = t
Δθ: angular displacement 2
ωf: final angular velocity
ωi: initial angular velocity
ωf = ωi + α t
a: angular acceleration
t: time 1
∆θ = ωit + α t 2
(use + and - to include direction ) 2

I: moment of inertia ωf2 = ωi2 + 2α∆θ

m: mass τ: resultant/net torque
r: distance from point or axis of rotation
2
I = Σmr 2 I: moment of inertia
(Note: Σ means sum i.e Σmr 2= m1r12 + m2r2 + m3r32 + …) a: angular acceleration
τ = Iα
L: angular momentum
L = Iω ΔL: change in angular momentum
I: moment of inertia τ: resultant/net torque
ω: angular velocity ∆L = τ∆t Δt: time taken

ΔL: change in angular momentum ∆L = ∆( I ω ) Ek: rotational kinetic energy

I: moment of inertia I: moment of inertia
ω: angular velocity 1 2 L2 ω: angular speed
Ek = Iω = L: angular momentum
2 2I
A.5 Galilean and special relativity x ' = x − vt
x’:position of an event in an inertial frame of reference moving t' t
with relative speed v to the original frame of reference
u' = u −v
x:position of the same event in the original frame of reference
1
v: relative speed between the two inertial frames of reference x ' = γ ( x − vt ) where γ =
v2
t’: time of an event in an inertial frame of reference moving with
1−
c2
relative speed v to the original frame of reference
 vx 
t ' = γ t − 2 
t: time of the same event in the original frame of reference  c 
u’: velocity of body in n inertial frame of reference moving with u −v
relative speed v to the original frame of reference u' =
uv
1− 2
u: velocity of the same body in the original frame of reference c
γ: the Lorrentz factor ( ∆s )2 = (c ∆t )2 − ∆x 2 Δs: space-time interval between two
events
c: speed of light in vacuum (constant) ∆t = γ∆t0 c: speed of ligh
Δt: time interval
Δx: distance between the events
L0
Δt: time interval between two observed events (2 L=
different clocks) γ
L: observed length
v
γ: the Lorrentz factor tan θ = Lo: proper length
c γ: the Lorrentz factor
Δto: proper time (time interval measured by same clock)

θ: angle of worldline from the vertical axis in a space-time diagram

v: speed of the body

Physics data booklet 7

 B. The particulate nature of matter
Standard level and higher level
B.1 Thermal energy transfers m ρ: density
ρ=
Ek: average random kinetic energy of
V m: mass
V: volume
particles 3
kB: Boltzmann constant Ek kBT
T: temperature 2 Q: heat (energy transferred)
m: mass
Q = mc ∆T c: specific heat capacity
ΔQ: amount of heat (energy) transfer L: specific latent heat
Δt: time taken Q mL ΔΤ: change in temperature
k: thermal conductivity of material
A: surface area of the surface that emits heat ∆Q ∆T
ΔT: temperature difference between hot and cold sides = kA
Δx: thickness (distance between hot and cold sides)
∆t ∆x L: luminosity (total power output)
σ: Steffan-Boltzmann constant
L = σ AT 4 A: surface area of body
T: temperature
b: brightness (intensity)
L: luminosity L
b=
d: distance from the source 4π d 2 λmax: peak wavelength
T: temperature
λmaxT = 2.9 × 10−3 mK

B.2 Greenhouse effect power radiated per unit area

emissivity =
σ: Steffan-Boltzmann constant σT 4
T : temperature
total scattered power
albedo
total incident power
B.3 Gas laws F P: pressure
P F: force
n: number of moles A
A: area
N: number of particles (atoms or molecules)
N
NA: Avogadro constant n
NA P: pressure
V: volume
T: temperature
PV
constant N:number of moles
T R: gas constant
N: number of particles
PV nRT NkBT KB: Boltzmann constant
U: internal energy of gas
P: pressure
1 2
ρ: density of gas P= ρv
v: root mean square speed of particles (r.m.s speed) 3
3 3
U nRT NkBT
2 2

8 Physics data booklet

 I:current
Δq: amount of charge passing through a surface
B.5 Current and circuits ∆q Δt: time taken
I=
V: potential difference ∆t
W: work done
q: charge W
V
q
V
R
I R: resistance
ρ: resistivity V: potential difference
R: resistance RA I: current
A: cross-sectional area ρ=
L: length L
V2
P: power P IV I R
2

I: current R
V: potential difference
R: resistance Series circuits Parallel circuits

I I1 I2 ... I = I1 + I 2 + ...

V = V1 + V2 + ... V V1 V2 ...

1 1 1
ε: electromotive force (emf) Rs = R1 + R2 + ... = + + ...
Rp R1 R2
I: current
R: resistance of connected circuit
r: internal resistance
ε = I(R + r )
Additional higher level
B.4 Thermodynamics Q = ∆U + W Q: amount of thermal energy (heat)
W: work done by gas ΔU: change in internal energy
P: pressure
W = P ∆V W: work done by the gas
ΔV: change in volume
3 3
∆U = nR ∆T = NkB ∆T ΔU: change in internal energy of a gas
ΔS: change in entropy 2 2 n: number of moles
ΔQ: amount of thermal energy (heat) that flows into a body R: Gas constant
∆Q ΔΤ: change in temperature
T: temperature ∆S = N: number of atoms
T
kB: Boltzmann constant
S: entropy S = kB ln Ω
kB: Boltzmann constant
Ω: number of possible micro states of the system 5 (Model for adiabatic processes)
PV 3
constant P: Pressure of monatomic ideal gas
V: Volume of monatomic ideal gas
useful work
η: efficiency η=
ηCarnot: efficiency of a Carnot cycle input energy
Tc: temperature of cold gas
Th: temperature of hot gas Tc
ηCarnot = 1 −
Th

Physics data booklet 9

C. Wave behaviour
a: acceleration
Standard level and higher level ω: angular frequency
×: displacement from equilibrium position
C.1 Simple harmonic motion a = −ω 2 x
Τ: period
1 2π
f : frequency T = =
ω: angular frequency f ω
T: period of a mass-spring system
m
T = 2π m: mass
k k: spring’s constant
T: period of simple pendulum
l: length l
T = 2π
g: acceleration of free fall (constant) g
v: wave speed
C.2 Wave model λ f : frequency
v= fλ = λ: wavelength
T
C.3 Wave phenomena n1 sin θ 2 v 2
= =
n1: refractive index of medium 1 n2 sin θ1 v1
n2: refractive index of medium 2
θ1: angle of incidence
θ2: angle of refraction
Constructive interference:
v1: speed of wave in medium 1 path difference = nλ n= 0, 1, 2, 3, …
v2: speed of wave in medium 2 λ: wavelength
Destructive interference:
1
s: distance between adjacent maxima path difference = (n + )λ
λ: wavelength 2
D: distance between slits and screen λD
d: distance between slits s=
d Δf : change/shift in frequency
f : frequency of emitted wave
C.5 Doppler effect ∆f ∆λ v
= ≈ Δλ: change/shift in wavelength
f λ c λ: wavelength of emitted wave
v: relative speed between source and observer
Additional higher level c: speed of light (constant)

C.1 Simple harmonic motion x = x0 sin(ωt + φ )

x: displacement from equilibrium position
xo: amplitude v = ω x0 cos(ωt + φ )
ω: angular frequency
t: time v = ±ω x0 2 − x 2
φ: initial phase
v: velocity
1
ET: total energy of simple harmonic oscillator ET = mω 2 x02
Ep: potential energy of simple harmonic oscillator 2
m: mass
1
Ep = mω 2 x 2
2

10 Physics data booklet

θ: angle at which first diffraction minimum appears ΄
λ: wavelength
b: slit width

C.3 Wave phenomena λ n: order (1, 2, 3, … )

θ= λ: wavelength
b d: distance between slits of diffraction grating
θ: angle at which this order minimum will appear
nλ = d sin θ
C.5 Doppler effect  v  f ΄ :observed frequency
Moving source: f ′ = f  
 v ± us  f : emitted frequency
v: wave speed
 v ± uo  uo: speed of observer
Moving observer: f ′ = f   us: speed of source
 v 

Physics data booklet 11

 F: gravitational force
G: gravitational constant
D. Fields m1: mass of body 1
m2: mass of body 2
r: distance between the centres of the 2 bodies
Standard level and higher level
g: gravitational field strength
D.1 Gravitational fields m1m2 F: gravitational force
F G
r2 m: mass
G: gravitational constant
F M M: mass of the body that creates the gravitational field
g G r: distance from the centre of that body
m r2
D.2 Electric and magnetic fields q1q2 1
F k where k = E: electric field strength
F: electric field force between two charged particles r 2
4πε 0 F: electric field force
k: Coulomb’s constant F q: charge
E
εο: permittivity of free space (constant) q
q1: charge of particle 1 E: electric field strength of a uniform electric field
q2: charge of particle 2 V V: potential difference between two points (or metal plates)
E d: distance between the two points (or metal plates)
d
D.3 Motion in electromagnetic fields F = qvB sin θ F: magnetic force on current currying wire
B: magnetic field strength
F: magnetic force on moving charged particle
q: charge of particle F = B I L sin θ I: current
L: length of wire in the magnetic field
v: speed of particle
B: magnetic field strength F II θ: angle between magnetic field lines and current
= µ0 1 2
θ: angle between magnetic field lines and direction of speed L 2π r
F: magnetic force between current currying wire
Additional higher level L: length of wire
μο: permeability of free space (constant)
D.1 Gravitational fields m1m2 I1: current in wire 1
Ep = −G I2: current in wire 2
Ep: gravitational potential energy r
r: distance between wires
G: gravitational constant
M
m1: mass of body 1 Vg = −G Vg: gravitational potential at a point in a gravitational field
m2: mass of body 2 r
r: distance between the centres of bodies G: gravitational constant
∆Vg M: mass of the body creating the field
g=− r: distance of the point from the centre of the body.
∆r
g: gravitational field strength
ΔVg: change in the gravitational potential between two points W = m∆Vg vesc: speed needed to escape a gravitational field
Δr: distance between the two points vorbital: orbital speed
G: gravitational constant
2GM M: mass of body creating the gravitational field
W: work done to move a mass in a gravitational field v esc r: distance from the centre of that body
m: mass of body that is moving r
ΔVg: change in the gravitational potential between two points
GM
v orbital
r
q1q2 Ep: electric potential energy
D.2 Electric and magnetic fields Ep k k: Coulomb’s constant
Ve: electric potential at a point in an electric field
r q1: charge on body 1
k: Coulomb’s constant q2: charge on body 2
kQ r: distance between the centres of the bodies
Q: charge creating the field Ve
r: distance between point and centre of charge r
∆Ve
E: electric field strength E=− W: work done to move a charge in an electric field
ΔV: electric potential difference between two points in the field ∆r
q: charge moved
Δr: distance between the points
W = q ∆Ve ΔVe: electric potential difference between the points

12 Physics data booklet

 Φ: magnetic flux
B: magnetic field strength
A: area
θ: angle between magnetic field lines and the perpendicular direction to the surface

D.4 Induction ε: induced emf Φ = BA cos θ

N: number of loops on coil
∆Φ
ΔΦ: change in magnetic flux ε = −N ε: emf induced across the ends of a straight conductor
Δt: time taken ∆t moving in a magnetic field

ε = BvL B: magnetic field strength

v: speed of conductor
l: length of conductor in field

E. Nuclear and quantum physics E: energy of a photon

h: Planck’s constant
f : frequency
Standard level and higher level
E.1 Structure of the atom E hf E: energy released
m: mass ‘loss’ (change in mass)
E.3 Radioactive decay E mc 2 c: speed of light (constant)

E.5 Fusion and stars 1

d(parsec)
p(arc-second) d: distance to star
p: parallax angle
Additional higher level
E.1 Structure of the atom 1
R: radius of atom
R R0 A 3 Ro: Fermi radius (constant)
E: energy value of energy level
n: quantum number of energy level (n= 1,2,3,..) A: atomic number (number of protons)
13.6
(eV is just the unit, energy here is calculated in electrovolts) E=− eV
n2 mvr: angular momentum
nh m: mass
mvr = v: linear speed
2π r: radius of circular path
n: quantum number (n=1,2,3,4,…)
E.2 Quantum physics Emax = h f − Φ h: Planck’s constant
Emax: maximum kinetic of energy of emitted electrons
h
h: Planck’s constant λ= λ: wavelength
f: frequency of incident radiation p h: Planck’s constant
Φ: work function of metal surface h p: momentum
λf − λi = ∆λ = (1 − cos θ )
me c

E.3 Radioactive decay N = N0 e − λ t λf: final wavelength

N: number of nuclei left after time t λi: initial wavelength
No: original number of nuclei in the sample (at t=0) A = λ N = λ N0 e − λ t Δλ: change in wavelength
λ: decay constant of material h: Planck’s constant
t: time ln 2 me: mass of electron (constant)
A: activity (number of decays per second)
T1 = c: speed of light in vacuum (constant)
2
λ θ: scattering angle
T1/2: half-life

Physics data booklet 13