SRI KRISH INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL (CBSE)

A PROJECT REPORT
ON

LOGIC GATES
SUBMITTED FOR SSCE PHYSICS
PRACTICAL EXAMINATION TO BE HELD
ON
- -2024
SUBMITTED BY
S.THARRINEESH

XII-SCIENCE STREAM
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I express my sincere gratitude to Mr Dr. R. KRISHNAMOORTHY Chairman Sri Krish
International School for his guidance throughout the work on this project.

I am highly thankful to Mrs Dr. S. UDAYA CHITRA for her valuable guidance and for her
constant encouragement.

I am highly thankful to Mrs NAVITHA ALVA for her valuable guidance and for her constant
encouragement.

I take this opportunity to thank all those who have helped me to complete this project in
time.

PLACE: CHENNAI DATE:

This to certify that the project titled “LOGIC GATES ” is a work done by THARRINEESH during
the year 2023-24

SUBMITTED ON:

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

In terms of the directive of the CBSE, learning of physics should be activity oriented wherein
students besides grasping the theory could easily apply the concepts and get it easily.

File covers the study of logic gates.

The project file contains an application based project which is much doer to the real world and
provides the doer a eye to visualise the world of physics.
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT………… 6
2. SYMBOLS………………………………………… 7
3. INTRODUCTION……………………………… 9
4. AIM………………………………………………… 12
5. APPARATUS REQUIRED…………………. 12
6. THEORY…………………………………………. 13
7. PROCEDURE…………………………………… 20
8. RESULT…………………………………………… 22
9. MERITS…………………………………………… 22
10.APPLICATION OF LOGIC GATES……… 23
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………. 25
 History and development

The binary number system was refined by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (published in 1705),
influenced by the ancient I Ching's binary system. Leibniz established that using the binary system
combined the principles of arithmetic and logic.

In an 1886 letter, Charles Sanders Peirce described how logical operations could be carried out by
electrical switching circuits. Early electro-mechanical computers were constructed from switches
and relay logic rather than the later innovations of vacuum tubes (thermionic valves) or transistors
(from which later electronic computers were constructed). Ludwig Wittgenstein introduced a
version of the 16-row truth table as proposition 5.101 of Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (1921).
Walther Bothe, inventor of the coincidence circuit, got part of the 1954 Nobel Prize in physics, for
the first modern electronic AND gate in 1924. Konrad Zuse designed and built electromechanical
logic gates for his computer Z1 (from 1935 to 1938).

From 1934 to 1936, NEC engineer Akira Nakashima, Claude Shannon and Victor Shestakov
introduced switching circuit theory in a series of papers showing that two-valued Boolean algebra,
which they discovered independently, can describe the operation of switching circuits. Using this
property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all
electronic digital computers. Switching circuit theory became the foundation of digital circuit
design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after World
War II, with theoretical rigor superseding the ad hoc methods that had prevailed previously.
Metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) devices in the forms of PMOS and NMOS were demonstrated
by Bell Labs engineers Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1960. Both types were later
combined and adapted into complementary MOS (CMOS) logic by Chih-Tang Sah and Frank
Wanlass at Fairchild Semiconductor in 1963.

Symbols

There are two sets of symbols for elementary logic gates in common use, both defined in
ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991. The "distinctive shape" set,
based on traditional schematics, is used for simple drawings and derives from United States
Military Standard MIL-STD-806 of the 1950s and 1960s. It is sometimes unofficially described as
"military", reflecting its origin. The "rectangular shape" set, based on ANSI Y32.14 and other early
industry standards as later refined by IEEE and IEC, has rectangular outlines for all types of gate
and allows representation of a much wider range of devices than is possible with the traditional
symbols. The IEC standard, IEC 60617-12, has been adopted by other standards, such as EN
60617-12:1999 in Europe, BS EN 60617-12:1999 in the United Kingdom, and DIN EN 60617-
12:1998 in Germany.

The mutual goal of IEEE Std 91-1984 and IEC 617-12 was to provide a uniform method of
describing the complex logic functions of digital circuits with schematic symbols. These functions
were more complex than simple AND and OR gates. They could be medium-scale circuits such as a
4-bit counter to a large-scale circuit such as a microprocessor.
IEC 617-12 and its renumbered successor IEC 60617-12 do not explicitly show the "distinctive
shape" symbols, but do not prohibit them.These are, however, shown in ANSI/IEEE Std 91 (and
91a) with this note: "The distinctive-shape symbol is, according to IEC Publication 617, Part 12, not
preferred, but is not considered to be in contradiction to that standard." IEC 60617-12
correspondingly contains the note (Section 2.1) "Although non-preferred, the use of other symbols
recognized by official national standards, that is distinctive shapes in place of symbols [list of basic
gates], shall not be considered to be in contradiction with this standard. Usage of these other
symbols in combination to form complex symbols (for example, use as embedded symbols) is
discouraged." This compromise was reached between the respective IEEE and IEC working groups
to permit the IEEE and IEC standards to be in mutual compliance with one another.

In the 1980s, schematics were the predominant method to design both circuit boards and custom
ICs known as gate arrays. Today custom ICs and the field-programmable gate array are typically
designed with Hardware Description Languages (HDL) such as Verilog or VHDL.
 Introduction

Logic gates are the heart of digital electronics. A gate is an electronic device which is
used to compute a function on a two valued signal . Logic gates are the basic building
block of digital electronics. Basically, all logic gates have one output and two inputs.
Some logic gates like NOT gate or inverter has only one input and one output. The
inputs of the logic gates are designed to receive only binary data (only low or high) by
receiving the voltage input.
A logic gate is an idealized or physical device that performs a Boolean function, a logical
operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a single binary
output.

Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has, for
instance, zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical
device(see ideal and real op-amps for comparison).
In the real world, the primary way of building logic gates uses diodes or transistors
acting as electronic switches. Today, most logic gates are made from MOSFETs (metal–
oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors).They can also be constructed using
vacuum tubes, electromagnetic relays with relay logic, fluidic logic, pneumatic logic,
optics, molecules, acoustics, or even mechanical or thermal elements.

With amplification, logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions
can be composed, allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic,
and therefore, all of the algorithms and mathematics that can be described with
Boolean logic.

Logic circuits include such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units
(ALUs), and computer memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors,
which may contain more than 100 million logic gates.
Compound logic gates AND-OR-Invert (AOI) and OR-AND-Invert (OAI) are often
employed in circuit design because their construction using MOSFETs is simpler and
more efficient than the sum of the individual gates.

We can use any number of logic gates to design a required digital circuit. Practically, we
implement the large number of logic gates in ICs, by which we can save the physical
space occupied by the large number of logic gates We can also perform complicated
operations at high speeds by using integrated circuits (IC).

A logic level is defined as a specific state or volt. Diodes can act like switches. For low and
and high impedance states a
diode will work in forward bias and reverse bias.

The diode will conduct only in one direction (forward bias) and it remains closed in reverse
bias condition. So it behaves
like a switch. We know that 0 and 1 are the two states of logic gates. The logic levels 0 and 1
are known as low and high respectively. In digital electronics, these binary logic levels play a
crucial role in data storage and data transfer.
Aim :

To design an appropriate logic gate combination for a given truth table and illustrate the
working of gates through a model.

Apparatus Required:

1. 5 switches

2. Batteries

3. 3 bulbs (LED)

4. Connecting wires
Theory :

A logic gate is an idealized or physical device implementing a Boolean function, that is, it
performs a logical operation on one or more logical inputs, and produces a single logical
output . Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has for
instance zero rise time and unlimited fan-out, or it may refer to a non-ideal physical device.

Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors acting as electronic
switches , but can also be constructed using electromagnetic relays (relay logic), fluidic
logic, pneumatic logic, optics, molecules, or even mechanical elements. With amplification,
logic gates can be cascaded in the same way that Boolean functions can be composed ,
allowing the construction of a physical model of all of Boolean logic, and therefore, all of the
algorithms and mathematics that can be described with Boolean logic. Logic circuits include
such devices as multiplexers, registers, arithmetic logic units (ALUs), and computer
memory, all the way up through complete microprocessors, which may contain more than
100 million gates. In practice, the gates are made from field-effect transistors (FETs),
particularly MOSFETs (metal – oxide –semiconductor field – effect transistors).

Compound logic gates AND - OR - Invert (AOI) and OR - AND - Invert (OAI) are often
employed in circuit design because their construction using is simpler and more efficient
than the sum.
The symbol and the truth table for OR gate are shown in the figure

OR Gate

Truth Table :
The symbol and the truth table for NOR gate are shown in the figure

NOR Gate

Truth Table :
The symbol and the truth table for AND gate is shown in the figure

AND Gate

Truth Table :
The symbol and the truth table for NAND gate is shown in the figure

NAND Gate

Truth Table :’
The symbol and the truth table for NOT gate is shown in the figure

NOT Gate

Truth Table :
Procedure :

• The AND gate , OR gate and NOT gate must be connected to the circuit (each
separately) with the help of the given circuit diagrams.

The simplified AND gate is shown which consists of 2 inputs ,

The simplified OR gate shown has two inputs. The bulb will light if
either of the switches is closed. This will allow current to flow through
the bulb, illuminating the filament.
The simplified NOT gate shown above has a single input, the
bulb will glow if the switch is off and will not glow if the switch
is on.
Result :

The working of logic gates is hence verified with the help of a working model (circuits).

Merits :
Logic gates are used to develop many IC circuits or microchips in modern world .
NAND gate and NOR gate are known as universal gates because we can construct all the three
basic gates using NAND and NOR gates.
Without logic gates , electronic world would be nearly incomplete
 Application of Logic Gates

The application of logic gate is numerous, but they are primarily defined by the mode of
operations or the truth table of the logic gate. Safe thermostats, the push-button locks,
the automatic water system and a number of other electronic gadgets all use basic logic gates.
One of the primary advantages of advanced processes is also that the basic logic gate can be used in
a number of different combinations. Furthermore, there is no limit to the number of gate that can
be used in a single device. It may, however, be reduced due to the physical restrictions of the
device. Digital integrated circuits contain logic gate area unit arrays.

In computers, logic gates are used to convert the 1s and 0s from the input wires. The digits 0 and 1
are not real numbers. They are levels of logic. Moreover, they are the fundamental components of a
digital computer. The inputs are converted using logic gates based on their states.
The logic gate is an electrical device in which the input and output voltages have a logical
relationship. OR, AND, and NOT are the three basic gates. Semiconductor devices are used to
make logic gates. Each basic logic gate has its own symbol as well as a truth table. All conceivable
input combinations and outputs are listed in the truth table.

Digital communication cannot happen without logic operations. Daily life application of EOR and
ENOR gate can be related to ladder switches used in homes or can be found in water level checker
circuits.
For example:

1.AND GATE 2.OR GATE

• www.scribd.com
• www.eletrnicshub.com
• www.brainkart
• www.learn.sparkfun.com
• NCERT physics class XII Part – II
• JETIR Research Journal
• Logic gate - Wikipedia
• Types of Logic Gate and its Applications - Electronic Clinic (electroniclinic.com)