GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

What is Geotechnical Engineering?

Geotechnical Engineering is the subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves
natural materials found close to the surface of the earth. It includes the application of
the principles of soil mechanics and rock mechanics to the design of foundations,
retaining structures, and earth structures.
Geotechnical engineering is multi-disciplinary. You'll be expected to have a
working knowledge of a number of engineering fields - including ocean engineering,
structural engineering, petroleum engineering and material science. The information
and research data which you'll be expected to deal with can be varied, complex and
demanding - in addition to their engineering duties, geotechnical engineers are
mathematicians, technicians and scientists.
Geotechnical engineering is the story of the engineering relationship between
humans and Earth. It is the science that explains the mechanics of soils & rocks and
its is engineering applications to the development of humankind. In early time, the
practice of geotechnical engineering was applied by trial and error, observational
experience, and empirical experimentations. Problems such as the notorious Leaning
Tower of Pisa prompted engineers to begin taking a more scientifically based approach
to geotechnical engineering. From the early 1700s to the early 1900s, scientists such as
Coulomb, Darcy, Rankine, Boussinesq, Mohr, and Atterberg published fundamental
theories on soil mechanics and waterflow through soil. Several prominent organizations
and societies were formed in the early 1900s to advance this field of civil engineering.
Particular recognition is given to Karl Terzaghi who considered to be the Father of
Geotechnics with his classic book on soil mechanics published in 1925.

What is the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical

Engineering?
In 1936, along with fellow colleagues from 20 different countries. Tataki founded the
International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering (ISSMGE). He
became their first president. Today, the International Society has more than 89 country
members involving over 19,000 individuals in the geotechnical engineering profession.
(Jean-Louis Briaud, president of ISSMGE (2009-2013) and founded the ISMGE in 1936)

What Geotechnical Engineers do?

Most of what Geotechnical engineers do is hidden below the ground surface yet
it is a very important discipline with a vast scope as all constructions has to rest on or
in the ground. Soil is a complex material which is very variable in grain size,
cementation, strength, and behavior. This renders the task of geotechnical engineer
among the most challenging task in civil engineering. Geotechnical engineers use
fundamental principles of soil and rock mechanics to investigate subsurface conditions.
This allows them to evaluate and design activities such as the stability of natural slopes
and man-made soil deposits. Earthworks with cuts and fills, shallow and deep
foundations, dams, retaining walls, tunnels, and many other works directly interacting
with the subsoil and water. In order to meet the diversity of challenges the profession
faces, the Internaional Society has created 30 technical committees over the last 50
years. Each representing a particular aspect of geotechnical engineering.
Foundation engineering is one important area of geotechnical engineering. The
foundation of any structure should be design to withstand man-made and natural loads,
vertical and lateral pressures created by earthquakes, and high winds as well as the
weight of the structure itself. Buildings, skyscrapers, bridges, and other super
structures have to bear on shallow footings, mats, or pile foundations. Shoring systems
include bracing of deep excavations, nailing of landslides ad the support of tunnels to
name a few.
Any geotechnical engineering project is different. Indeed, the soil at a site is likely
different from any other site. As a result, the most common first step of any geotechnical
project is the site investigation. It starts by drilling into the soil and rock layers, testing
them in the field, or collecting samples which can then be analyzed in a laboratory. Once
soil and rock properties as determined, the geotechnical engineer can design the project
including its environmental impact. Investigations include the assessment of risk to
human property and environment from natural hazards such as earthquakes,
landslides, sinkholes, soil liquefaction, debris flow, and rock falls. Geotechnical
engineering can significantly influence the sustainability of infrastructure development
because its early position in the constructions process.
Given the intensive research carried out in the field, impressive geotechnical
advancements are made on a regular basis. Most these innovations are often hidden
from the public eye because the work is underground. These innovations are however a
crucial part of a success story. They can be temporary in nature such as deep excavation
and support to construct a high-rise tower like the Borg Halifa or permanently
embedded foundation system of the Rianna and Tyrion bridge. The built environment
where we live serves as a dynamic interface through which humans and the ecosystem
interact and influence each other. Understanding this interdependence is key to
fathoming the impact of geotechnical engineering on society. Throughout history,
geotechnical engineering has made changes in the way we live or even think. Projects
like building the Aswan Dam, laying the foundation of the Golden Gate Bridge, digging
the Panama Canal, stabilizing the cliffs at Point New York, or giving new life to Tower of
Pisa have affected past and present generations. Such projects, large and small, will
continue to impact and shape our future. It has been a cycle of sharing knowledge and
gaining knowledge of accomplishments and lessons learned. The International Society
for soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering is proud to be at the center of this field
emblematic of human achievements.
 FUNCTIONS OF GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
▪ Evaluation of geotechnical hazards including potential of landslides, soil erosion
and, in some extreme conditions, earthquakes.
▪ Determination of bearing capacity, deformations of foundations, and likely
interactions between soil, foundation and the structure.
▪ Assessment of earth pressure and the performance of retaining walls.
▪ Analysis of embankment behavior.
▪ Strength of excavations, caves, tunnels.
▪ Conducting of response analysis for a site.
What does a Geotechnical Engineer do?
Subsurface investigation
The job of the geotechnical engineer essentially starts with a collection of soil samples
from the project's intended site, using bores and test pits. Amongst other factors, the
analysis will determine the ground's stress bearing capability and stability.
Field test
After research into soil quality and stress-bearing factors through field test, geotechnical
engineers must determine whether issues like erosion, settlement and slope will pose a
safety risk to the proposed project.
Computer analysis
You will be required to analyze the results of subsurface investigations and field tests
with dedicated software. Your ability to understand data and model future conditions
will be crucial to the development of the construction project. After analysis,
geotechnical engineers may be required to assist in the development of earthworks and
foundations suitable to the conditions of the site.
Client meetings
A regular duty of the geotechnical engineer is to meet with clients for evaluations of
project progress. Budget and time constraints will be important factors in any
discussion and geotechnical engineers will be expected to know and provide a variety of
important information.

DIFFERENT PROFESSIONAL CAREERS AND OPPORTUNITIES OF A

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEER
Geotechnical or Geological Engineers (General) provide analysis and mapping of
technical results obtained from seismic surveys, and investigate subsurface conditions
and materials to determine their properties and risks
Geotechnical or Geological Engineer (Oil Sands Projects) design open pit walls, mine
waste dumps and dam structures used in oil sands mining, and analyze slope stability,
seepage and hydraulic separation on dam structures.
Hydrogeological Engineer provide design and analysis of ponds containing discarded oil
sands materials, water extraction from soil and sand, and steam injection into wells;
and evaluate underground water layers trapped in rocks (aquifers). They also provide
advice on environmental restoration.
Reservoir Geomechanics Engineer (Oil & Gas Operations) analyze the strength of soils,
drill hole stability, stress constraint, permeability of rock formations and the degree of
trapped hydrocarbons in underground reservoirs
Geomechanics Engineers (Marine Operations) analyze the relationship between physical
structures and marine geology, anchoring systems, sediment erosion, slope stability,
and foundations for offshore and coastal structures

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERS CAN BE EMPLOYED BY THE FOLLOWING TYPES OF

ORGANIZATIONS:

• Colleges and universities

• Construction contractors
• Electrical utility companies
• Engineering consulting firms
• Mining companies
• Municipal, regional and federal governments
• Oil and gas exploration, production and transportation companies
• Petroleum services companies
• Public and private research organizations
• Real estate development companies

"Rejoice always; pray without ceasing; in everything give thanks ..." 1 Thessalonians
5:16-18
 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
What is Transportation Engineering?
It is a sub-discipline of civil engineering which deals with the application of
technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of transportation (land, water, air). It is important
because it provides safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient, economical, and
environmentally sustainable movement of people and goods.
Transportation engineering is one of the largest disciplines of civil engineering.
Every highway, railroad, shipping lane, and airlines routes relies on transportation
engineers to guide the way. Suppose you we tasked with setting up a subway system in
the city. You’ll need to plan, design, and construct every last element before it can
function. Transportation systems are, by definition, heavily connected – every piece
needs to support all the others. Once the system is up and running, you’ll need
constantly monitor how it copes with demand. That will help you make decisions like
how to improve access to stations and how often to run trains. The same kind of thinking
applies to plane routes and shipping systems, although roads and highways have some
extra consideration. The physical aspects of engineering we ‘ve learned about so far play
a big part of the design part. You need to build components out of the right materials
and put in the right safety features.
The key element of transportation engineering is people. It is a way of moving
people in a way that’s safe convenient, and comfortable. That means considering social
requirements in addition to physical ones. For instance, how do you decide where to
build tracks, and which locations they should connect? Ideally, you’d build enough
infrastructures to support every journey that anyone would want to take but, like
everything else in engineering, cost is one of the biggest constraints you have to work
with. Since you probably have a fixed budget for setting up the system, you need to
prioritize what gets built and where and to do that, you have to understand what kinds
of journeys are going to be made. So in a subway, some people will want to visit their
friends or go shopping while others are just trying to get to work. The layout needs to
support those different needs, while making enough from the passenger fares to keep
the system up and running. So, the social and economic goals of your city have a big
role in design of the network.
In general, transportation engineering is often about taking a bunch of different
priorities and combining them in the best way and that applies on every scale. Your new
subway, for example, might have a point where two lines merge into one, taking
passengers from different starting locations to the same drop. It is your job as an
engineer to design a system where the odds of two trains approaching each other at the
same time which would cause a collision have a small possibility of happening. Since
we are dealing with heavy objects in high velocities, the routes need to be designed to
allow changes to those velocities well in advance. While a car traveling at highway speeds
can stop over a distance of a hundred meters by applying the brakes, a passenger train
traveling at the same rate needs over a kilometer before it comes to a halt. That’s also
why air traffic controllers have to constantly monitor and communicate with planes that
are flying at similar altitudes. Because the passenger planes can’t be maneuvered
quickly, the flights paths need to be designed to ensure that lights from different
locations overlap as little as possible.
Schedules need to keep them out of each other’s way, while avoiding turbulent
weather. You’ll need Signals to avoid collisions at your train junctions. To give each train
enough notice when it has to stop, you’ll need regular signals at intervals along the
track. Those intervals are also known as block sections. Signals give useful information
about what’s happening on the tracks several sections ahead, like whether there’s
another train or it’s safe to travel at full speed. To allow enough time for the train to
respond and stop, sections tend to be no shorter than the necessary stopping distance.
Older signaling systems rely on a set of lights above or beside the tracks that a driver
can interpret and respond to. For your brand-new subway, you’d probably build in
wireless signaling capabilities to relay information straight to the train cabin, to the
driver or an automated system. If two trains are approaching the same junction,
signaling would tell one of them to slow down several bloc sections ahead while allowing
the other to pass through and that choice can be made in a few different ways. The
details will depend on the particulars of the routes and the needs of your systems.
Railway signaling involves managing a whole network. Modern approaches are also
sophisticated enough that safety mechanisms, like electronic sensors, will automatically
stop a train if the signals indicate danger ahead. When they are working, the
combinations of signals and tracks give trains a big advantage: they go where they’re
supposed to, when they’re supposed to.
What do Transportation Engineers do?

• Design or prepare plans for new transportation systems or parts of systems,

such as airports, commuter trains, highways, streets, bridges, drainage
structures, or roadway lighting.
• Confer with contractors, utility companies, or government agencies to discuss
plans, specifications, or work schedules.
• Design or engineer drainage, erosion, or sedimentation control systems for
transportation projects.
• Prepare project budgets, schedules, or specifications for labor or materials.
• Plan alteration or modification of existing transportation structures to improve
safety or function.
• Investigate traffic problems and recommend methods to improve traffic flow or
safety.
• Check construction plans, design calculations, or cost estimations to ensure
completeness, accuracy, or conformity to engineering standards or practices.
SUBBRANCHES OF TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Highway Engineering. Involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and
maintenance of roads, bridges and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation
of people and goods.
 ➢ Traffic engineering involves planning for the volumes of traffic to be handled, the
methods to accommodate these flows, the lighting and signing of highways, and
general layout.
o Older techniques include signs, signals, markings, and tolling.
o Newer technologies involve intelligent transportation systems, including
advanced traveler information systems (such as variable message signs),
advanced traffic control systems (such as ramp meters), and vehicle
infrastructure integration.
➢ Pavement and roadway engineering involves setting of alignments, planning the
cuts and fills to construct the roadway, designing the base course and pavement,
and selecting the drainage system.
➢ Bridge engineering involves the design of highway bridges, retaining walls,
tunnels, and other structures.
Railway Engineering
It is a branch of transportation engineering concerned with the design,
construction, maintenance, and operation of railways. Railway engineering includes
elements of civil, mechanical, industrial, and electrical engineering. Railway engineers
handle the design, construction, and operation of railroads and mass transit systems
that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or even monorails). Typical tasks would
include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design, station location and
design, construction cost estimating, and establishment of signaling & controlling
system. Railroad engineers can also move into the specialized field of train dispatching
which focuses on train movement control.
Port and Harbor Engineering
Port and harbor engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of
ports, harbors, canals, and other maritime facilities.
A harbor (or haven) is a place for ships to enter and find shelter from storms or other
natural phenomena. The modern harbor is a place where ships are built, launched, and
repaired, as well as a terminal for incoming and outgoing ships. There are four principal
classes of harbors; commercial, naval, fishery, and refuge for small craft. Harbor may
be natural or artificial.
A port is a harbor with the necessary terminal facilities to expedite the moving of cargo
and passengers at any stage of a journey. A good harbor must have a safe anchorage
and a direct channel to open water, and must be deep enough for large ships. An efficient
port must have enough room for docks, warehouses, and loading and unloading
machinery.
Airport Engineering
It encompasses the planning, design, and construction of terminals, runways,
and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight service. Airport engineers design
and construct airports. They must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in
their design of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of predominant
wind direction to determine runway orientation, determine the size of runway border
and safety areas, different wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and must
designate the clear zones in the entire port.

"For with God nothing shall be impossible." Luke 1:37

 ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
Environmental engineering is a field of broad scope that draws on such
disciplines as chemistry, ecology, geology, hydraulics, hydrology, microbiology,
economics, and mathematics. It was traditionally a specialized field within civil
engineering and was called sanitary engineering until the mid-1960s, when the more
accurate name environmental engineering was adopted.
What is Environmental Engineering?
Environmental engineering involves the development of processes
and infrastructure for the supply of water, the disposal of waste, and the control
of pollution of all kinds. These endeavors protect public health by preventing disease
transmission, and they preserve the quality of the environment by averting the
contamination and degradation of air, water, and land resources.
PROJECTS IN ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING INVOLVE THE FOLLOWING:

• treatment and distribution of drinking water (water supply system);

• the collection, treatment, and disposal of wastewater (wastewater treatment);
• the control of air pollution and noise pollution;
• municipal solid-waste management and hazardous-waste management;
• the cleanup of hazardous-waste sites; and
• the preparation of environmental assessments, audits, and impact studies.
- Mathematical modeling and computer analysis are widely used to evaluate
and design the systems required for such tasks. Chemical and mechanical
engineers may also be involved in the process.
ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING FUNCTIONS INCLUDE:

• applied research and teaching;

• project planning and management;
• the design, construction, and operation of facilities;
• the sale and marketing of environmental-control equipment; and
• the enforcement of environmental standards and regulations.
DUTIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERS

• Prepare, review, and update environmental investigation reports

• Design projects that lead to environmental protection, such as water
reclamation facilities or air pollution control systems
• Obtain, update, and maintain plans, permits, and standard operating
procedures
• Provide technical support for environmental remediation projects and for legal
actions
• Analyze scientific data and do quality-control checks
• Monitor the progress of environmental improvement programs
 • Inspect industrial and municipal facilities and programs in order to ensure
compliance with environmental regulations
• Advise corporations and government agencies about procedures for cleaning up
contaminated sites
In the public sector, environmental engineers are employed by national and regional
environmental agencies, local health departments, and municipal engineering and public
works departments
In the private sector, environmental engineers are employed by consulting engineering
firms, construction contractors, water and sewerage utility companies,
and manufacturing industries.

"For with God nothing shall be impossible." Luke 1:37

 CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING AND
MANAGEMENT
What is Construction Engineering and Management?
It is a combined study of basic civil engineering and construction management
courses. Graduates shall be knowledgeable on the fundamentals of structural and
construction engineering like design and analysis, material testing and quality
assurance, building systems, construction technologies, and surveying.
Graduates shall demonstrate deep understanding of management principles and
its application that are essential in construction projects such as economics, business,
accounting, law, statistics, ethics, leadership, decision making and optimization
methods, process analysis and design, safety, and cost engineering.
(Source: http://cege.mapua.edu.ph/)
Construction engineering management, or CEM, involves the application of
technical and scientific knowledge to infrastructure construction projects. While
engineering focuses on design and construction, management is concerned with
overseeing the actual construction, CEM often represents a blend of both disciplines,
bridging design and management or project execution.
Construction engineering managers may have an educational background at
both undergraduate and graduate levels as well as experience in construction
management techniques. Their skills may be applied widely to the architecture,
engineering, and construction (AEC) industry.
PROFESSIONAL SKILLS AND EXPERTISE

• Construction engineering managers must possess a thorough understanding of

laws, regulations, and building codes, especially those that have a direct impact
on the project at hand.
• They must also be able to estimate the total cost of a given project with
consideration to direct and indirect costs.
• Construction engineering managers are also responsible for managing the
workings of various other entities involved in the project.
• They are responsible for providing expert supervision from beginning to end
while also keeping the project running on or ahead of schedule and within
budget.
• The job requires strong leadership and interpersonal skills and attention to
detail. Like any other kind of engineer, construction engineering managers need
to possess strong problem-solving, analytical, and mathematical skills.
Direct Costs of Construction Project
Project The costs and expenses that are accountable directly on a facility,
function or product are called as direct costs. In construction projects, the direct costs
are the cost incurred on labor, material, equipment etc. These costs for a construction
project are developed as estimates by means of detailed analysis of the contract
activities, construction method, the site conditions, and resources. Different direct costs
in construction projects are material costs, labor costs, subcontractor costs, and
equipment costs.
Indirect Costs of Construction Project
The indirect costs, unlike direct costs, is not directly accountable for a particular
facility, product or function. Indirect costs can be either variable or fixed.
The main sections coming under indirect costs are personnel costs, security
costs, and administration costs. These costs do not have a direct connection with the
construction project.

"For with God nothing shall be impossible." Luke 1:37

 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
What is sustainability in construction and civil engineering?
Sustainability is defined as the desire to perform activities without any depletion
of resources or bringing any harmful effect on the environment. Practicing sustainable
construction methods will help avoiding harmful effect from constructions activities.
Construction involves activities like use of building material from various
sources, use of machineries, demolition of existing structure, use of green fields, cutting
down of tress etc. Which can impact environment in one or mare ways. Civil engineering
field being the major part of economy, it is very essential that sustainable construction
practice dominate the past followed conventional construction practice and methods.
The idea first emerged in the 1980s as a response to the world growing social and
environmental problems. With globalization, the inequality gap between rich and poor
countries is widening everyday and the projections of population growth are alarming.,
and estimated total of 9 billion people in 2050 The proposed solution was a new kind of
development or rather a variation of the traditional model called sustainable
development. The term was officially defined in 1987 as part of the preparations for the
Rio Earth Summit. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need.
Sustainable development means the growth accomplished with respect to nature and
humankind. Sustainability is achieved at the crossroad of economic goals, social
responsibility, and environmental protection. A company can combine respect for the
environment, social equity, and commercial success. Sustainable development creates
values by upgrading tools to use less energy and water is good for the environment and
for the pocket-book. Offering eco-design products and packaging that use just what’s
necessary saves materials and reduces shipping costs. Paying attention to employees,
improving their quality of life, helping them develop their skills, and also, to strengthen
their engagement and stronger employee engagement mean better overall performance.
Creating products that are accessible to the world’s poorest populations means opening
new markets. The ones whose populations are going to grow the fastest between now
and 2050. Monitoring the working conditions offered by suppliers and subcontractors
means minimizing risks that could damage the company’s image. Sustainable
development affects just about everything. More and more companies today understand
that they have important economic social and environmental responsibilities and are
commissioned to making a difference. The ones that seizes the opportunities to make
values will find that their success is sustainable.
The 17 Sustainable Development
193 countries agreed for the SDGs that follow the MDGs or Millennium
Development Goals (2000) in a global coordinated attempt to tackle development issues
4 Key Principles

• Universal
• Sustainability
• Leave no one behind
• Participation
Needs for Sustainable Construction
Construction has a direct impact on the environment due to following reasons:

• Generation of waste materials

• Emissions from vehicles, machineries
• Noise pollution due to use of heavy vehicles and construction machineries.
• Release of wastes and pollutants into water, ground, and atmosphere.
Sustainability assessment of construction projects is essential to the fact that it
does not create any harmful effects on the living ecosystem while optimizing the cost of
construction. This ensures the availability of resources for the future generation.
How to ensure sustainable construction?
In order to support sustainability in the field of construction, the building and
the built environment have to satisfy some of the important criteria. This will include:
1. Biodiversity Enhancement
- Sustainable construction must stop threatening use of environment or
species wherever possible so that the natural habitat is not affected.
2. Support to the community
- Support and help should reach to the real need, aspiration, and real
requirements. Also involve the needed in the key decision.
3. Effective use of resources
- Overconsumption of misappropriate amount of resources like land,
money, use/disposal, construction must be stopped. Waste of resources,
material, water, poor design, is not recommended. The building
constructed have to be affordable and manageable.
- Sand and gravel are being used for thousands of years I construction. The
demand for these is increasing day by day as demand for infrastructure
development is increasing.
- Over use of construction materials such as river sand and gravels also
have negative impact on environment. Excessive sand-and-gravel mining
causes the degradation of rivers. Sand mining results in the lowering of
stream bottom, that results in bank erosion. This results in the
destruction of aquatic and riparian habitat through large changes in the
channel morphology. The harmful effect includes bed degradation, lowered
water tables and channel instability.
- There are many harmful impacts of using river sand and gravels and a
detailed study is required to list al negative impacts. The use of alternate
building materials can reduce the impact of this on environment. The
alternate river san is Manufactured Sand (M-Sand) which can be used in
construction works reduce impacts of mining river sand.
4. Pollution reduction
- Less dependency on pollution causing products and material, transports,
power, and energy are encouraged. Annually billions of tons of demolition
waste are generated worldwide for the need for new construction activities.
Improper disposal of these waste tend to be hazardous to the environment.
Below mention are some of the methods to make the construction waste
sustainable:
o Elimination of production of construction waste
o Reduction of amount of construction waste
o Reuse construction wastes in other works
o Recover (recycling, composting, energy) – recycle what you can only
after you have reused it.
o Dispose what is left in a responsible way.
- Use durable construction materials and quality control at site for
durability of structure is one step towards minimization of construction
waste generation.
5. Creating healthy environment
- Instead of endangering the health of workers, builders and occupants’
construction n must enhance leisure, living and working environments.
- Around 40% of total energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
are directly due to construction and operation of buildings. The best to
reduce this impact is the use of green buildings construction techniques.
 - The use of transparent concrete in buildings also helps to reduce the use
of energy for lighting during day time.
6. Process management
- Too many aspirations for a project will not give sustainable construction.
Hence, identification of appropriate targets, benchmarks and tools along
with their proper management will give sustainability construction.