Chapter 8 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal 8.1 General The process of collection, transmission, treatment, and disposal of wastewater is called sewerage, which is required in order to maintain hygienic conditions in the environmental and infra-structural systems of cities. Health safety of the public is therefore directly related to the availability and effectiveness of infrastructural systems, such as wastewater collection, removal, and treatment facilities. Being one of the measures of civilization, these systems must be designed to meet the universally accepted standards. Since leakage of wastewater from the networks would impose a potential hazard for public safety, the physical conditions of sewerage systems need to be monitored throughout their economic lives. Figure 8.1 shows the availability of wastewater collection and treatment systems as percent of the population in European countries. As can be seen from this figure, 70% and 50% of Turkey’s population are served for sewerage systems and wastewater treatment facilities, respectively, as of 2004, Priority of the provincial investments should be given to implementation and rehabilitation of these systems. Wastewater can be disposed into a water recipient body, such as a stream, lake or sea. The quality of wastewater should be analyzed before disposal in order to check if it conforms to the requirements of universal standards. Wastewater treatment may be needed if the quality is sufficiently lower than the tolerable limits. 8.1.1 Characteristics of Sewerage Systems The main hydraulic difference between sewerage and municipal water supply systems is that the discharge, and hence the pipe size in sewer systems increase in the direction of flow contrary to the water supply systems. On the other hand, the flow in water supply systems is pressurized, whereas a gravity system is desired for sewer systems. Sewage, which is the wastewater to be removed, may be of a sanitary origin from residential units or public and industrial establishments, such as liquid discharges from manufacturing and food processes. Storm runoff also needs to be removed by the wastewater or storm water collection system.402 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Percent of population with sewerage system [Percent of population with wastewater treatment plant, % population j a ‘Netherlands ‘Sweden England Switzerland Turkey Figure 8.1 Percent of population having sewerage facilities in different countries (http:/epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu) Sewage is transmitted in a closed conduit called as a sewer, which normally flows partially filled. In conventional practice, the domestic and public sewage, industrial wastes, and the storm runoff are all collected and transmitted in a common system known as a combined system. Since the capacity of the combined system is not enough to carry a heavy storm runoff having a considerable return period together with the other wastewater components, it is recommended to construct a separate system in which two different systems carry the sanitary sewage and the storm runoff separately (see Figure 8.2). This makes sanitary sewage treatment more effective. As urbanization increases, the storm runoff increases due to higher imperviousness that characterizes urban areas. Therefore, the wastewater collection systems of large cities are desired to be of a separate system. Basic information on sewer hydraulics will be given in the following section. 8.2 Flow in Sewers The flow in sewers is intended to be gravitational. However, pumping facilities may also be provided if topographic conditions are not favorable for a gravity system. Sewers are designed as open channels, flowing partly full or at most just full. Because of hydraulic requirements, sewers are generally designed with circular cross-sections.Applied Water Resources Engineering 403 [A p Rainwater ws 2 sy “uch 9 wa Manhole hi Combined Electricity a a) Combined system RH —— Rainwater Sy D. inlet S— VL bad oP , stom | O Water PIT Sanitary Electricity sewer b) Seperate system Figure 8.2 Definition sketch for combined and separate systems (Balci, 1980).404 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Geometric elements of a circular sewer are shown in Figure 8.3. In the hydraulic computations, the percent fullness of a sewer is defined by the depth ratio, d/D (see Figure 8.3). Figure 8.3 Geometric elements of a circular sewer. Referring to Figure 8.3, the geometric elements can be derived as: where @ is the central angle as shown in Figure 8.3, d is the depth of flow, D is the diameter of sewer, a is the flow area, p is the wetted perimeter, and r is the hydraulic radius (a/p). In the hydraulic computations, capital letters are used to characterize full flow, whereas small-case letters are used for partially filled flow conditions. The average cross-sectional velocity, u, in terms of m/s can be determined from Manning’s equation: alpen ye an 0 where n is the Manning roughness coefficient, which can be obtained from Table 9.2, and srs the friction slope in case of partially filled sewers, which is equal to the slope of the pipe, S, in uniform flow. For a given pipe slope, S, under uniform flow conditions s=S for all depths. For convenience, hydraulic and geometric variables of partially filled flows can be expressed as a fraction of the corresponding values in the full sewer. The ratios q/Q, WU, a/A, r/R, and n/N are called the hydraulic elements of the sewer. The hydraulic elements of a circular sewer are expressed as functions of the percent fullness, d/D, using the geometric elements and dimensionless hydraulic variables. Using Manning’s equation, the dimensionless velocity, w/U, and discharge, 4/Q, are obtained as follows:Applied Water Resources Engineering 405 213 NYx =(y= 8.2) (=) e aia 9_(syNV arate) a where A, N, and R are the flow area, Manning’s roughness coefficient and the hydraulic radius for full flow case, respectively. The chart showing the variation of dimensionless hydraulic elements of circular sewers is given in Figure 8.4. 1.0 09 08 07 0.6 Sos 04 VQ(Nin=1.0) 03 02 O14 0.0 00 0.1 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 14 12 13 a/A, r/R, WU, n/N, q/Q, Nin Figure 8.4 Dimensionless hydraulic elements of circular sewers (Fair et al.,1971) Experiments have shown that the value of Manning’s roughness coefficient for concrete and vitrified clay pipes flowing partly full can be as much as 29% higher than for the same pipe flowing full (see Figure 8.4). However, similar variations have not been found for PVC sewers (Chin, 2000). It can be shown that the maximum discharge and velocity occur when the values of the percent fullness are approximately d/D=0.94 and 0.81, respectively, for N=n case. In practice, to inhibit the flow instabilities, sanitary sewers are designed for d/D<0.75. It can406 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal also be observed that the velocity is the same whether the sewer flows half full or completely full for the case of N=n. Domestic sewage contains some solid wastes from bathrooms, toilets, laundries, and kitchens, whereas storm water contains some sand, gravel, and debris of many origins. When the flow velocity in sewers is low, the suspended material may settle down, which decreases the hydraulic efficiency. Therefore, a minimum allowable velocity or minimum tractive force should be maintained in order to climinate the accumulation of the material. Equal self-cleansing properties at all depths can be achieved if the tractive forces are the same in case of full and partially filled sewers. For flow depths less than approximately 50% fullness, greater pipe slopes are required for partially filled flows to ensure the same self cleansing effect as the sewer flowing full. For example, for d/D=0.20, the required slope is almost 2 times greater than the slope required for self cleansing When the sewer is full. This result can be obtained from the equality of the tractive forces for partially filled and just filled sewers. Selection of the sewer slope for low flow depths may dictate large values of the slope, which increases the cost due to excavation. For such cases somewhat smaller slopes can be selected and effective flushing systems can be considered for the possibility of flows with relatively low depths to increase the system safety against self- cleansing. The criterion for the selection of the slope will be further discussed in Section 8.3.2. 8.3 Design of Separate Systems 8.3.1. Design of Storm Sewer Systems Urbanization leads to increase in surface runoff, which may reach to very large values during storms and the capacity of a combined system is usually insufficient to carry the runoff. Hence, storm runoff is to be collected and removed by means of a separate storm sewer system as shown in Figure 8.5. Grate inlets receive storm water and transmit it to the lateral sewer. Screens of inlets are normally placed parallel to the flow direction. They must have sufficient size to drain the street effectively. The size of an inlet is dictated by the amount and depth of storm runoff as well as the thickness of bars. The design discharge of a storm sewer system is determined from the surface runoff having a high return period. The amount of storm sewage depends on the duration and intensity of the rain as well as the size and surface characteristics of the drainage area, In the determination of the storm runoff, rainfall-runoff relations of the area are required. In case of lack of relevant hydrologic information, synthetic unit hydrographs or simply the rational method (Mulvaney, 1851) can be used.Applied Water Resources Engineering 407 Figure 8.5 A typical storm water collection system (Unver, 1981). Rainfall-runoff relations are discussed in detail in Chapter 13. The rational method is used satisfactorily for small drainage areas having sizes up to 8 km*: _CiA P36 (8.4) where Q is the peak surface runoff in m’/s, C is the runoff coefficient, which can be obtained from Table 8.1, i is the rainfall intensity in mny/hr, and A is the area of the section of city contributing to the sewer in km’. Runoff coefficients are tabulated in certain ranges in Table 8.1, which reflects the characteristics of surface and return period. They are applicable for 5- to 10-year return periods. Storms of longer return periods will require larger coefficients because infiltration and other losses are less under such cases. The least precise variable in the408. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal rational formula is the runoff coefficient, which requires engineering judgment and experience. Table 8.1 Runoff coefficients (Mc Ghee, 1991). ‘Type of surface c Description of area c ‘Watertight roofs 0.70-0.95 | Business Asphaltic cement streets 0.85-0.90 | Downtown area 0.70-0.95 Portland cement streets 0.80-0.95 | Neighborhood area 0.50-0.70 Paved driveways and walks | 0.75-0.85 | Residential (urban) Gravel driveways and walks | 0.15-0.30 | Single-family area 0.30-0.50 Lawns, sandy soil Multi-units, detached | 0.40-0.60 2% slope 0.05-0.10 | Multi-units, attached | 0.60-0.75 2-1% slope 0.10-0.15 | Residential (Suburban) | 0.25-0.40 > 7% slope 0.15-0.20 | Apartment areas 0.50-0.70 Lawns, heavy soil Industrial 2% slope 0.13-0.17 | Light 0.50-0.80 2.1% slope 0.18-0.22 | Heavy 0.60-0.90 > 1% slope 0.25-0,35 | Parks, cemeteries 0.10-0.25 Playgrounds 0.20-0.35 Railroad yards 0.20-0.40 The design rainfall intensity for the selected return period is determined from the rainfall intensity-duration-frequency curve of city as a function of time of concentration, t., which is the time traveled by a single runoff particle from the most remote point in the drainage area to the point of interest. The maximum rate of storm runoff, Q,, is obtained at the time of concentration. Therefore, the duration of rainfall to be considered in storm sewer design is taken as time of concentration or longer. Various equations have been proposed for the time of concentration. Some of these equations, which are of practical use, are given in Table 8.2. In this table, L is the flow length, n is Manning’s roughness coefficient for the surface, i. is the excess rainfall intensity, Sp is the average bed slope along the flow path, P. is the two-year 24-hour rainfall, and c and r are retardance coefficients proposed by Izzard and Kerby (see Mc Ghee, 1991 and Chin, 2000), respectively. Values of ¢ and r are given in Tables 8.3 and 8.4, respectively. For the design of a specified storm sewer, the upstream manhole is considered and all the possible paths contributing to this manhole from different routes are taken into account, The most critical path, which yields the maximum peak discharge, is considered (see Example 8.2).Applied Water Resources Engineering 409 Table 8.2 Time of concentration equations (Chin, 2000). ‘Approach Equation No Remarks Kinematic (at)" 1. (min), i (mnvhn), wave 1, =6.9 aS 8.5 | Lim) is'Sy ou te (hr), Pa (em), NRCS method 0288 ogo 8.6 | L(m) Kirpich te (min), L (m) equation 87 Izzard (1946) L?128*10i, +e %. (min), i, Grim, equation t,=5305|——*e** 1 | gg | rim . ie So? 13.9 m?/hr Kerby 03 past 8.9 | & (min), L (m) equation ales) ten Table 8.3 Izzard’s retardance coefficient (Mc Ghee, 1991). Surface € Very smooth asphalt pavement | 0.0070 Tar and sand pavement 0.0075 Conerete pavement 0.012 Tar and gravel pavement 0.017 Closely clipped sod 0.046 Dense bluegrass sod 0.060 Table 8.4 Kerby’s retardance coefficient (Chin, 2000). Surface T ‘Smooth pavements 0.02) Smooth bare packed soil, free of stones | 0.10 Poor grass, bare sod 0.30 Average grass 0.40 Decidious timberland 0.60 Conifer timberland, dense grass 0.80 The total time of concentration, t., to any point in a storm sewer system is the sum of the inlet time, to (the time it takes for flow from the remotest point to reach the sewer inlet), and the flow time, t, in the upstream sewers connected to the outer point (Chow et al., 1988): te ty tty (8.10) where the flow time is computed from410 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal (8.11) in which L; and uj are the length and flow velocity of the ith sewer along the flow path, respectively. Storm sewage carries some suspended sediment. If the velocities are not kept high enough, they are accumulated in the pipe. Suggested minimum velocities are 0.75-0.90 m/s (Fair et al., 1971). The minimum and maximum velocities proposed by the Turkish Bank of Provinces (STBP, 1991) are 0.5 m/s and 4-5 m/s, respectively. Slope of the storm sewer can be selected as the street slope and minimum and maximum velocities under this slope are checked. However, in case of steep-sloped streets, the velocities may exceed the maximum allowable values. In this case, the slope giving maximum allowable velocity may be provided with sets of drops (see Example 8.6). Because of economic concerns, storm sewers are only used in locations where surface flooding is critical. 8.3.2 Design of Sanitary Sewer Systems Sanitary sewage and industrial wastes are collected and removed by sanitary sewer systems (see Figure 8.6). Industrial establishments may have their own water sources like well systems, but they usually discharge their wastes to the sanitary sewer system. Rate of industrial wastes of a medium scale establishment is about 1.0 It/s/ha. It is also clear that not all of the municipal supply returns to the sewer system. Some is lost in the network and some is wasted in lawn sprinkling, street washing, car washing, etc. Therefore, the amount of sanitary sewage, Qu, may vary from approximately 70 to 130% of the average daily water consumption. Since sanitary sewers transport suspended materials, proper design based on the elimination of the accumulation of these materials is of importance. The design wastewater discharge is estimated on the basis of the per capita use corresponding to the end of the lifetime of the system. Since the amount of sewage is a function of daily water consumption, it shows fluctuations throughout a day. However, these variations are not as pronounced as those in water supply systems because partially filled sewers provide a degree of equalization, which dampens the fluctuations in wastewater flow. Collecting wastewater in an equalization chamber and delivering it to the treatment plant at almost constant rate would optimize the operation of the system. By examining the wastewater flows of Ankara province, curves are proposed in Figure 8.7, which show the maximum possible variation of the wastewater flow over the design period and maximum daily variation of dry weather flows in sewage flow as a fraction of the average wastewater discharge, PFnax and PPig, respectively (Figure 8.7). The minimum full flow velocity required for self-cleansing may be taken as 0.6 m/s. The slopes, Sas, necessary for the minimum full flow velocity of 0.6 m/s underApplied Water Resources Engineering 411 N=0.016 are given in Figure 8.8. The maximum allowable velocity proposed by the Turkish Bank of Provinces (STBP, 1991) is 2.5-3.0 m/s. Groundwater Infiltration Figure 8.6 A typical wastewater collection system (Unver, 1981). High groundwater table elevations above sanitary sewers may cause leakage of water to the system, which increases the capacity, Infiltration into the sewer system depends on the quality of sewer installation, elevation of the ground water table relative to that of the sewer, and the properties of the soil. Special care must be taken to improve the water intake due to infiltration by choosing high quality sewers, and by renewing the cracked elements and appurtenances periodically. Storm water may also leak from manholes and improper connections of the storm water collection system. Since storm sewer systems are placed at higher elevations than sanitary sewers, possible rainfall contribution to the sanitary sewer systems should be estimated. For a conservative approach, the design flow, Ques, must be determined from: Mav PFmax + Groundwater infiltration + Rainfall where PF is the ratio of the maximum flow to the average flow over the design period (see Figure 8.7). If the percent fullness under design flow conditions exceeds 0.75 or the design velocity exceeds the maximum allowable value, then the sewer diameter is increased to the next commercial size. The system412 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal performance is also checked for detecting whether solid wastes deposit at a smaller discharge or not. This discharge, also called dry weather flow, Qioy, may be taken as the summation of the maximum daily dry weather wastewater discharge and groundwater infiltration: Qiow=Qav*PFary + Groundwater infiltration in which PPay is the ratio of the maximum daily dry weather flow to the average flow over the design period (see Figure 8.7). 7 S PF ns Peak Factors 3 Fay 1 10 100 1000 Average wastewater discharge (t/s) Figure 8.7 Peaking factor curves for domestic wastewater flows (Mutlu, 1979). The slope which brings the downstream end of the sewer to the required minimum soil cover, which is approximately 2.0 m, is the most desired sewer slope since it minimizes the excavation cost of the sewer concerned. In practice, the value of sewer slope can be taken as the steeper of the street slope and the slope, which yields the required self-cleansing at the dry weather flow. If the dry weather flow fills the sewer more than 50%, the slope, which provides required self-cleansing at full flow under a velocity of 0.6 m/s can be used (see Figure 8.8). In case of steep-sloped streets, the velocities may exceed the maximum allowable values. Therefore, series of drops may be provided between successive sewers having slopes giving the maximum allowable velocity. When the street slope is nearly zero, the sewer is laid at the minimum allowable depth at the upstream and the minimum allowable slope giving a self cleansing velocity of 0.6 m/s is provided. A sewage pump is placed at the end of the sewer where the invert elevation corresponds to the maximum permissible depth of cover, and the sewage level is increased until the minimum allowable depth of cover from whichApplied Water Resources Engineering 413 sewage flows again under gravity. Another possibility is to place the sewage pump at the beginning of the pipe and transmitting the sewage under pressurized flow conditions. At the downstream reaches of combined sewers, the capacity is relatively high during heavy rainfalls. Operation of the treatment plant for increased capacity is not feasible since the storm runoff comprises the majority of the total sewage. In such cases, a side weir is utilized, which directs the dry weather flow to the treatment plant and storm runoff spills over the weir and is given directly to the wastewater recipient body. During the early years of the system, the flows are substantially lower than design flows with relatively small velocities. To compensate this deficiency, either a greater slope is chosen or a well-planned cleaning maintenance program is to be established. 1000 800 - 600 Q (vs) 400 200 0.0 02 04 0.6 08 Figure 8.8 Slopes, Sos, necessary for velocities of 0.6 m/s. 8.4 Computational Scheme for Separate Sewer Systems Design computations of separate systems may be presented in the formats given in Tables 8.5 and 8.6 for storm and sanitary sewer systems, respectively.414 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Table 8.5 Computation table for the design of a storm sewer system. Detailed explanations for the columns of Table 8.5 are as follows: Column 1: Name of the street to be drained. Route Manhole No Length | Contributing Area From | To (m) No. Size (km’) a) (2) GB) (4) (5) (6) Inlet time | Flow time t i Weighted C ies (min) (min) (min) (mm/h) (m/s) @ (8) (9) 0) (iy (12) s D eat Ut Wes (%) (mm) (m’/s) (mis) (m/s) (a3) (14) (a5) (16) a7 Ground Elevation (m) Invert Elevation (m) Upper Lower ‘Top Bottom Upper Lower Upper Lower (18) (19) (20) Qi) (22) (23) Depth of Cover (m) Notes Upper Lower (24) (25) (26) Columns 2,3: Manhole numbers at the beginning and end of sewers. Column 4: Length of each sewer. Column 5: Area numbers contributing to the upstream manhole. Column 6: Sizes of the areas. Column 7: Inlet time for each area, Column 8: Flow time of storm water between two manholes. Column 9: Total time of concentration (columns 7+8) Column 10: Rainfall intensity corresponding to the selected return period for the total time of concentrations from the regional intensity- duration-frequency curve. The weighted runoff coefficient for each area. Slope between two successive manholes. Different paths coming to the manhole under interest are checked and the one, which gives the greatest discharge, is assumed to be the design discharge (see Example 8.2). Pipe diameter is determined with the known design discharge and slope. The one next size available in the market is chosen. Column 15: Full flow discharge is computed from Manning’s equation for the selected pipe size. Column 16: Full flow velocity. Column 17: — Design velocity and check with maximum allowable velocity.Applied Water Resources Engineering 415 Column 18,19: Topographic elevations of manholes at the beginning and end of sewers (Figure 8.9). Columns 20,21: Elevations of the top surface of sewer at the beginning and end of sewer (Figure 8.9). Columns 22,23: Elevations of the lower surface of sewer at the beginning and end of manholes (Figure 8.9). Columns 24,25: Depth of soil cover on top of the upper surface of sewer is computed as the difference of ground elevations and invert top elevations: Column (18) - (20) for upper manhole; and Column (19) - (21) for lower manhole. Column 26: Special notes are given. M, Ground surface Mz 1) (22) (23) Figure 8.9 Definition sketch. Computational steps of sanitary sewer systems are presented in Table 8.6. Table 8.6 Computation table for the design of a sanitary sewer system. Route Manhole No Length Infiltration | Rainfall From | To. (m) (itis) (it’s) ) 2) GB) (4) (5) (6) Qu PFinex Pay Industrial Ques Quow (vs) wastes (It’s) 3) (lus) M (8) (9) (10) (i) (12) Soo Design S| D Up Woes Gioy/D (a) (%) (mm) (m/s) (avis) (13) 7) as) (16) tH) ) Ground Elevation (m) Tnvert_ Elevation (m) Upper Lower Top Bottom ‘Upper Lower Upper Lower 9) (20) (21) (22) (23) (24) Depth of — Cover (m) Notes Upper Lower (25) (26) @416 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Detailed explanations for the columns of Table 8.6 are as follows: Column 1: Name of the street to be drained. Columns 2,3: Upper and lower-manhole numbers on the specified alignment . Column 4: Length of sewer between two successive manholes. Column 5: Groundwater leakage, which contributes to upper manhole. Column 6: Leakage of precipitation, which contributes to upper manhole. Column 7; Sewage coming from contributing area as a certain percentage of average daily water consumption in that district. Column 8: Maximum peak factor over the design period (Figure 8.7). Column 9: Maximum dry weather peak factor (Figure 8.7). Column 10: Industrial wastes (if any). Column 11: Design discharge, Ques = Column (8)*(7) + (5) + (6) + (10) Column 12: Dry weather discharge, Qy = Column (9)*(7) + (5) + (10) Column 13: Slopes, So, necessary for the minimum full flow self cleansing velocity of 0.6 m/s from Figure 8.8. Column 14: — Ground slope between two successive manholes is computed and compared with the slope obtained in column (13). The greater one is selected as the design slope. Column 15: Pipe diameter is determined from Manning's equation and the one next size available in the market is chosen. Column 16: Full flow velocity for the selected pipe diameter. Column 17; Design velocity and check with maximum allowable value. Column 18: Percent fullness under dry weather flow conditions is determined and checked if it is greater than 0.50. Column 19,20: Topographic elevations of manholes at the beginning and end of sewers (Figure 8.9) Columns 21,22: Elevations of the top surface of sewer at the beginning and end of sewer (Figure 8.9). Columns 23,24: Elevations of the lower surface of sewer at the beginning and end of manholes (Figure 8.9). Columns 25,26: Depth of soil cover on top of the upper surface of sewer is computed as the difference of ground elevations and invert top elevations: Column (19) - (21) for upper manhole; and Column (20) - (22) for lower manhole. Column 27: Special notes are given. 8.5 Constructional Details of Sewer Systems The first step in the design of sewer systems is the decision for the layout of the system. Underground surveys are required to detect the location of existing sewers, water and gas mains, electrical and telephone cables, etc. Construction is initiated with the excavation of trenches. Sewers are laid deep enough to protect them against breakage, traffic load, freezing, and to permit them to drain the lowest basements of the buildings in the vicinity. Common values for sewer depthApplied Water Resources Engineering 417 may be taken as 1.0 m below basement floor or about 3.0 m below the top of building foundations. Placement of a sewer in a trench is shown in Figure 8.10. uot Ps Concrete cover Figure 8.10 Laying of a sewer in a trench. To diminish the effect of load on the sewer, the contact area of the sewer with the soil should be maximized. To this end, it is recommended to bury the sewer in the bed of the trench. In case of weak foundations, the sewer is to be protected by a concrete cover (see Figure 8.10). It is preferable that water pipes and sanitary sewers be separated by placing them on both sides of the street. However, if they are placed in a common trench because of local restrictions, there must be enough spacing between them. When a trench is excavated its sides should be protected by proper bracing. When the excavation of the trench extends below the groundwater table, seepage takes place into the opening, which may cause erosion of the sides of the trench, Dewatering is then required. If the problem is severe, a set of wells parallel (o the trench may be driven and accumulated water in the wells is pumped out. In the case that water pipe and sewer are placed in the common trench, a minimum depth of 30 em should be provided between the lower end of water supply pipe and the uppermost part of the sewer. The horizontal distance between parallel running water supply and wastewater pipes should not be less than 40 cm. If a water supply pipe and a sewer meet at a junction, the water pipe should be tightly covered by concrete in two directions at least by 2 m. When a sewer is to cross a depression, an inverted siphon, which is subject to pressurized flow, may be used. Typical layout of a wastewater collection system is shown in Figure 8.11. The following sewers are used in the wastewater collection systems in a consecutive order; building and house sewers give the domestic sewage to the lateral sewer at an approximately 2% grade. Lateral (branch) sewers are located below the streets and combine the building sewers to main sewers, which convey wastewater from one or more lateral sewers to trunk sewers, Possible alternatives for the location of lateral sewers are illustrated in Figure 8.12. For wide streets, lateral sewers may be placed on both sides to reduce the length of household sewers. Through an economical analysis, one of the alternatives shown in Figure 8.12, which has the maximum net benefit, is selected. Trunk sewers are large418. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal sewers used to transport wastewater from main sewers to treatment facilities or large intercepting sewers, which intercept and convey the flow from several trunk sewers to treatment. Building Building sewer ced f+ Lateral sewer ‘Trunk sewer +t + we ne Junetion chamber Intercepting sewer Figure 8.11 Lay-out of a wastewater collection system (Linsley et al., 1992). The collected wastewater is disposed into a water recipient body. The disposing pipe must be extended to the deeper sections of the water body where the sewage is discharged as shown in Figure 8.13. Installation of ports at the exit pipe (iffusor) may increase the dilution so that decaying of pollutant concentration can be accelerated. Manholes are the enlarged compartments used for inspection and cleaning purposes. They should be located in places where there is a change in diameter and slope, and at the street junctions (see Figures 8.5, 8.6, and 8.11). A typical manhole is shown in Figure 8.14, The codes of the Turkish Bank of Provinces (STBP, 1991) propose spacing of 50 m between two successive manholes for 200-0550 sewers, and 70 m for sewers having sizes ranging from $600 to 6800. The maximum spacing between two successive manholes should not be greater than 150 m.Applied Water Resources Engineering 419 Lateral Lateral sewer-1 sewer-2 Se aoe Oo Lateral sewer 6200 Figure 8.12 Alternative locations of lateral sewers (Kigisel et al. 1979). Pumping station Ports Figure 8.13 Sewage disposal into a water body. Cleaning the sewer systems having low slopes can be accomplished by flushing them with water which can be taken from fire hydrants and applied from the manholes. Mechanical instruments, which are driven by electric motors, can also be used for brushing the accumulated material e.g. grease deposits. Toxic gas, such as hydrogen sulfide and methane, may be produced in sanitary sewers by biological activity in sewers. This occurrence leads to corrosion and health hazard to maintenance crew. The gas content of manholes should be tested before performing any repair work or cleaning. The toxic gases may be removed by forced ventilation using blowers.420. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Figure 8.14 Typical manhole (Chin, 2000). Wastewater systems are intended to be operated by gravity. However, pumping may also be required in case of very low basement elevations with respect to the level of street sewers, highly rolling terrains, and the transmission of wastewater from one treatment plant to another. Centrifugal pumps are mainly used in pressurized systems. Grinders must be provided in order to break the solid wastes into smaller pieces before pumping stations. Vacuum sewage transport systems are also used in case of negative pressures developed in rolling terrains. However, the details of sewage pumping facilities are not covered in this book. Sewers are usually made of plain concrete, reinforced concrete, asbestos cement, cast iron, or corrugated steel. The selection of a specific type of sewer material is governed by the quantity of sewage and the stresses applied. However, it is a common practice to use less expensive materials since sewers are rarely subject to pressurized flow. Characteristics of some sewer materials are outlined in Table 8.7. Minimum proposed pipe diameters are 6200 for sanitary sewers, 6300 for storm sewers, and $150 for house connections. Wastewater treatment is essential to maintain hygienic conditions in cities and wastewater receiving bodies. Physical treatment is required to eliminate the entrainment of large solid wastes into the treatment plant by means of grinders and screens. Finer particles are captured in sedimentation basins. Through biological treatment, the effect of pathogenic bacteria is diminished. Additional hygienic safety is achieved in the chemical treatment process.Applied Water Resources Engineering 421 Table 8.7 Sewer materials (Chin, 2000). Material ‘Advantages Disadvantages Manning n | Availabl eD(mm) Concrete | -Wide range of “High weight 0.011-0.015 | 300-3600 *struetural and -Subject to corrosion pressure strengths | when acids are present *nominal diameters laying lengths Vitrified | -High resistance to -Limited range of 0.010-0.015 | 100-1070 clay *chemical corrosion | sizes *abrasion -High weight -Wide range of Subject to shear and fittings available beam breakage when improperly bedded Cast iron | -Long laying lengths | -Subject to corrosion | 0.011-0.015 | 50-1220 -High pressure and —_| when acids are present load-bearing capacity | -Subject to chemical attack in corrosive soils Subject to shear and beam breakage when improperly bedded -High weight Ductile | -Long laying lengths | -Subject to corrosion | 0.011-0.015 | 50-1220 iron -High pressure and | when acids are present load-bearing capacity | -Subject to chemical -High impact strength | attack in corrosive soil -High beam strength __| -High weight PVC “Light weight “Subject to attack by | 0.010-0.015 | 100-375 -Long laying lengths | certain organic -High impact strength | chemicals -Ease in field cutting | -Subject to excessive and tapping deflection when improperly bedded and haunched -Limited range of sizes “Subject to surface changes affected by Jong term UVexposure 8.6 Examples Example 8.1: A small urbanized area having smooth pavements is to be drained by means of a storm sewer system. The distance from the most remote point on the boundary to the upstream manhole is 150 m, For a 40-minute storm with an422. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal effective rainfall intensity of 60 mm/hr, determine the time of concentration using the equations given in Table 8.2. Take Sp=0.006 and n=0.011. Solution: a) Kinematic wave equation: (nL)** (0.011*150)°* fl {e699 Grea 6.99 ray ggg eS mi b) NRSC method: 08 #150)" 1, =0.0zee OL 0.0288 (0.011150) =0.17 hr= 10.2 min, 2°Sp 0. isto tls 0 = *60*10 *0.006' (5 J c) Kirpich equation: 150°” 0.006°38 =6.7 min. It is suggested, however, that the result of Kirpich’s equation should be multiplied by 0.4 for smooth pavement. Therefore, t.=0.4*6.7=2.7 min. 4) Izzard equation: i,*L=0.06*150=9 m?/hr>3.9. Therefore, this equation is not applicable to this problem. ©) Kerby equation: L<365 m, O.K. t, =1.da(Lrs,05)"” =1.44(150* 0.02* 0.006-°5 )” =7.9 min. Example 8.2: Layout of a storm sewer system is shown in Figure 8.15. The sewer BE will be designed for a storm having a return period of T,=10 years. Inlet times for all areas are accepted to be 10 minutes. The maximum allowable velocity in sewers is 4 m/s. The flow time between two successive manholes can be taken as 2 minutes. Take variable Manning’s roughness coefficient with N=0.016. Street slope of BE is 4%. Commercial pipes are available at every 25 mm increments of diameters. Rainfall intensity for the project area can be determined from the following relation, i=90(Ty/.)”°, where T, is the return period in years, t, is the total time of concentration in minutes and i is the rainfall intensity in mm/hr.Applied Water Resources Engineering 423 0.0015 km? @) C=0.55, D Figure 8.15 Layout for Example 8.2. Solution: Different paths contributing to the manhole B should be considered. a) The direct path from areas 3 and 8: The inlet times are 10 minutes. Therefore, the rainfall intensity becomes: 90, f° — 90 mm/hr andthe storm runofis Q= loss *0.02 + 0.7*0.02)=0.625 m/s. b) Other paths (Areas 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9): Total t=10+2=12 minutes. So, the rainfall intensity becomes i = 82.16 mm/hr. SF 05s * 0.02 + 0.7 * 0.02 + 0.4 * 0.0015 + 0.35 * 0.014 0.4* 0.002 + 0.4* 0,001 + 0.3* 0.01) =0.760 m/s. Hence, the design discharge is Q = 0.760 m’/s. Let us determine the required pipe size to carry this discharge using Manning’s equation:424. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Anos mD?(D)* 0.312 19/3 =— iS =——_] — =——D' Ss Qa RS ania) Sy vs (D)*° Y0.04 or D=0.542 m, Let us choose $550. Pull flow discharge and velocity: 0312 Qa = = (0.550)° 0.04 = 0.792 m/s 0.016 * Uy = AR = 470.792 5 33 mis <4 mis OK. nD? (0.55) Qass 0-760 0.96. From Figure 8.4, “=1.04 Qe 0.792 Yen Uses = 3.46 m/s <4 m/s, O.K. Therefore, the design is acceptable. Example 8.3; A storm sewer system will be designed in a certain district of a city. The layout of the system, respective runoff coefficients, sizes of areas, contour lines, and lengths of sewers between two successive manholes are given in Figure 8.16. Inlet times of the contributing areas from 1 to 13 are, 10, 12, 13, 14, 11, 13, 10, 13, 12, 14, 10, 10, 10 minutes, respectively. Consider Nin is variable with N=0.016. Design storm sewers between the manholes M2 to M6 for 5 years of return period and M9 to M10 for 10 years of return period, Commercial pipes are available for every 50 mm increment of pipe diameter. The flow time between ‘two successive manholes is 2 minutes. The maximum allowable velocity is 4 m/s. Note that the rainfall intensities are the inputs as used in the followings. Solution: Design of sewer, M2-M6: 3 possible paths are considered. ‘Area A to t te no C_| (km’) | (min) | (min) | (min) 1 | 03 | 002 | 10 2 12 2 | 032 | 004 | 12 0 12 3 | 055 | 0.02 | 13 0 13 4 031] 0.01 | 14 2 16 51025} oo | 2 13,Applied Water Resources Engineering 425 257m 258m 256m coe el s I » |e-032 | Mm iy Vv c-030 | | A-o.04 C055 C031 Aor | | \ A-0.02 A001 M3 \ 150m 150m y M1 { peel Vil \fowir] Sax c-0.2 c=0.5 c-0.2 Azo.o2. |'50™ A=0.03 A=0.02 256m 255m M8 . “254m 253m — Qo 953 Figure 8.16 Layout of the system (areas in km’). Path 1: t.=12 minutes (i=70 mm/hr) Area A to tr Q no_|_C_| (km’) | (min) | (min) | (m’/s) 1 03 | 0.02 | 10 2 [0.117 2 [032 [004 | 12 o | 0.249 0.366426 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Path 2: t=13 minutes (i=68 mm/hr) ‘Area A tt Q no. C__| (km?) | (min) | (min) | (ms) 1 | 03 [002 | 10 | 2 | 0113 2 [032 | 004 [12 [0 | 0242 3 [055 | 002 [13 | 0 [0208 5 [025 |"oo1 [1 | 2. [:0047 0.610 Path 3: t.=16 minutes (i=60 mm/hr) Area A te Q no. C_| (km?) | (min) | (min) | (mss) 1 03 [002 | 10 | 2 | 0.100 2 | 032 | o04 [12 | 0 | 0213 3 [055 | 002 | 13 | 0 | 0.183 s_ [025] oor | i | 2 | 0.042 4 [031 | 001 [14 [2 [0052 0.590 The maximum discharge occurs for path 2, i.e. Q=0.610 m'/s. Variation of discharge for various paths is shown in Figure 8.17. .007, N=0.016. Therefore, D=0.691 m. Then select D=0.7 m. Qiat=0.630 m/s, una 1.64 m/s, Qies/QYut=0.96, Udes/tian=1.04 (From Figure 8.4) ‘Udes=1.705 m/s<4 m/s. Design is acceptable. Design of sewer M9-M10: 6 possible paths are considered.Applied Water Resources Engineering 427 ‘Area A to t no. C_| (km?) | min) | (min) | (min) 1 03 | 0.02 | 10 6 [ie 2 | 032 | 0.04 | 12 4 | 16 3 | 055 | 002 | 13 ae | ed7, 4 | 031 | oor | 14 6 | 20 5 | 025} 001 | 1 Ce 6 | 03 | 002 | 13 4 |17 7 | 02 | 002 | 10 23] 12 8 | 05 | 003 | 13 4 ]17 9 | 02 | 002 | 12 6 | 18 10 | 0.25 | 0.03 | 14 o | 14 11_{ 03 | 002 | 10 at Path 1: t.=12 minutes (i=85 mm/hr) Area A to t no C_| (km) | (min) | (min) | (m’/s) 7 [02 {002 [ 10 | 2 | 0.094 Vises] e092] 220,028) #10;8) te22 4 |tOAT 0.235 Path 2: .=14 minutes (i=75 mm/hr) Area A to tr Q no. C_| (km) | (min) | (min) | (mss) 7 [02 | 002 [10 2 | 0.083 u_| 03 | 0.02 [10 2 [0.125 100.25 | 0.03 [14 0 [0.156 0.365 Path 3: t=16 minutes (i=70 mm/hr) ‘Area A te no_| C_| (km?) | (min) | (min) | (m’s) 7 | 02 | 0.02 | 10 2 | 0.078 i [03 | 002 | 10 2 (017 10 [0.25 | 0.03 | 14 0 [0.146 i_ [03 [002 | 10 6 | 0.117 2 [032] 004 | 12 4 | 0.249 0.706428. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Path 4: =17 minutes (i=67 mm/hr) ‘Area A te Q no C_| ¢km’) | (min) | (min) | (m'/s) 7 {02 {002 | 10 2__| 0.074 i | 03 | 0.02 [10 2 [50012 10 [0.25 | 0.03 | 14 0 | 0.140 1 | 03 | 002 | 10 6 | 0112 2 [032 [004 | 12 4 | 0.238 8 [05 {003 | 13 4 [0.279 G21 /0.94) 2000/2013 4 | 0112 5 {0.25 {0.01 | 1 6 | 0.047 3 [055 [0.02 [13 4 | 0.205 1.318 Path 5: t,=18 minutes (i=65 mm/hr) ‘Area A to tr Q no_| C_| (km*) | (min) | (min) | (mss) 7 {02 | 002 | 10 2 | 0.072 i | 03 | 0.02 | 10 2 | 0.108 1o [0.25 | 0.03 [14 0 | 0.135 Eat] 0.338] 80.021| 20110 6 | 0.108 2 [032 | 0.04 [12 4 | 0.231 8 [05 | 003 [13 4 | 0271 6 [03 | 002 [13 4 {0.108 5 [025 {0.01 [1 6 | 0.045 355) £0552] 10.02 ]5013 4 | 0.199 9 {02 | 002 [12 6 | 0.072 1.351 Path 6: t,=20 minutes (i=60 mm/hr) Area A te t no ic! (km?) | (min) | (min) | (min) | (m'ys) Tei) se 0.2 | 90.0255 | a1 015] ana 12_| 0.067 Ge) 0-9: | A0102EE | ea10 eae 12_| 0.100 10 [025 | 003 | 14 | 0 14 | 0.125 1 | 03 [002 | 10 [ 6 16 | 0.100 2 |'032 [004 [12 | 4 16 | 0.213 et POLS iat |Ea10,03 18 | etuagieg seed 17_| 0.250 Cl Ee Ee 17 | 0.100 Sia |ie025-2 0.0L | ees | a6 17 [0.042Applied Water Resources Engineering 429 Path 6: Continued ‘Area A ty te te Q no Cc (km?) | (min) | (min) | (min) | (m/s) 3 [055 [002 | 13 | 4 17 | 0.183 9 | 02 | 002 | 12 | 6 18 | 0.067 423] 03 1) 0,01: [e146 20 | 0.052 1.298 The maximum discharge occurs for t.=18 minutes, i.e. Ques=1.351 m*/s Ques = 1.351 -SE 8, where S,=0.007, N=0.016 Therefore, D=0.939 m. Select D as 0.950 m. Quur=1.42 m°/s, usu=2 M/S, Qees/ QGun=0.951, Uded/tipui=1.03 (From Figure 8.4.) Ujes=2.06 m/s < 4 m/s O.K. Design is acceptable. 16 14 | Sewer MEME 12 | —e-Sewers-mi0 10 08. Qim's) 06 04 02 0.0 0 5 10 15 20 25 1 (minutes) Figure 8.17 Variation of discharge against time of concentration for Example 8.3 Example 8.4: A sanitary sewer (intercepting sewer) is to be constructed for a town having the following population data: Pj99=15000 and P9=18500. The design lifetime of the system is 30 years after 2000. It is estimated that 70% of average daily water consumption will return to the sewer system. The following information is estimated for the design. Groundwater infiltration and rainfall leakage are 3 It/s and 1 Its, respectively. Minimum full flow velocity for sufficient self cleansing is 0.5 m/s. Maximum allowable full flow velocity is430 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal 3 mis. The sewer slope is 0.01. Take variable Manning's roughness coefficient with N=0.016. Commercial pipes are available for every 50 mm increment of pipe diameter. Since the lifetime is 30 years, then P, corresponds to year 2030. By geometric extrapolation, K, = 1018500—in15000 - 0.021 InP2o39=In18500+0.021(2030-2000) : 2000-1990 Then, P2939=34736. Using Table 7.1, Dsa= 42.92 It/s, Quy=0.70*42.92=30 It/s From Figure 8.8, PFiy= 2.2 and PFmax= 4.0. Therefore, the design discharge is, Qies= 30*4.0 +3 + 1 = 124 It/s o-( Que y (geese 318 } =0.356 m. So, select 6400. 0312s) — (0312*Jo.0r 0.312 8/3. 4 = 23% (0.400)* 0.01 = 0.169 ms Qrat 0016 ) m/s Ugg) = Cat =1.34 mvs 3 mis OX. m* (0.400)? Qe 124 0.73, Prom Figure 8.4, d/D =0.73<0.75, OK. Qn 169 Udes/ttn= 0.975, Udes= 0.975*1.34 = 1.31 m/s = 5.0 m/s Qua = 9976 079) ful "(0.55)" which is greater than 4,0 m/s. NOT O.K. Therefore, let us take u=4.0 m/s and determine the corresponding sewer size from nD? Q=uA=4*436 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal 59 m. So take 6600. _w'n? _ (4)?(0.016)? eee (O.6/4)eee .0514, an = 222 (0.6)8"3 $0054 =1.132 m/s 0.016 egg) te ge Qe 1132 Yen u=1.05*4=4.2 m/s>4.0 m/s, NOT O.K. Let us use $650 with the same slope. on = Fat? 0.650)" 0.0514 =1.40 m/s <2 1h 979, 0.97, uH3.88 m/s <4.0 mis, OK. Qan 1.40 Up Total drop along A-B is AH=200*0.0514=10.28 m. Elevation difference between A and B is 430-412=18 m. We can construct 4 drops of heights of (18-10.28)/4=1.92 m. The profile is shown in Figure 8.21. 430m 3.5m H 426.07 m palo a 421.57m Figure 8.21 The profile of the storm sewer AB for Example 8.7.Applied Water Resources Engineering 437 Sewer BC: Q+1.1+0.4=1.5 m’/s. The procedure to be followed is as follows. The velocity is assumed and the corresponding sewer size is determined from the continuity relation. The solution is summarized below. u A D s AH Notes (m/s) | (w?) (m) (m) 0.5 | 3.0 | 1.95(2000) | 0.000161 | 0.03 Large $. NOT O.K. 1.0 | 1.5 | 1.38 (1500) | 0.000947 | 0.19 Large $. NOT OK. 2.0 | 0.75 | 0.98 (1000) | 9.0065 | 1.30 Reasonable, O.K. 3.0 | 050 | oso tooo) | 9.0146 | 2.92 | Deep excavation, NOT OK. A reasonable solution is 1000 with u=2.0 m/s. en = 2512 (0)? 0.0065 =1.57 mis u=1.04*2=2.08 m/s < 4.0 m/s O.K. The sewer profile is shown in Figure 8.22. 412m 412m Beene G ete ee Figure 8.22 The profile of the storm sewer BC for Example 8. 8.7 Exercise Problems Problem 8.1: Ignoring the variation of Manning’s roughness coefficient with respect to flow depth, show that the average flow velocity in a circular sewer is the same whether the sewer is flowing half full or completely full.438 Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal Problem 8.2; Derive the geometric expressions for partially filled sewers and prove that the maximum discharge occurs at @ = 302° 30’ with N=n. Problem 8.3: Using the geometric expressions for partially filled circular sewers, plot the variation of d/D, w/U, q/Q against @ for N/n = 1.0. From this plot, verify that the maximum velocity occurs at 81% fullness. Problem 8.4: Using N=0.016, plot the variation of slope, which satisfies self cleansing in a circular sewer under the minimum full flow velocity of 0.6 m/s, against discharge (Obtain the chart in Figure 8.8). Problem 8.5: A circular sanitary sewer of @400 is laid with a slope of 4%. If the Manning roughness coefficient is N=0.016 (for full flow case, which is variable with depth), determine: a) the flow velocity for 60% fullness, b)_ the value of Manning’s roughness coefficient under 40% fullness, a) the flow velocity for which hydraulic radius is maximum throughout the depth, and b) the partially-filled flow area for 40% fullness. Answers: a) 2.37 m/s b) 0.021 c)2.74 m/s d) 0.047 m? Problem 8.6: Design the storm sewers DB and BC shown in Figure 8.23. The inlet time for all areas can be taken as 11 minutes. The street slopes are Spx-3% and Sgc=5%. Take N=0.015 (variable). The maximum allowable velocity is 4 m/s, Rainfall intensities for 11, 12, and 13 minutes of time of concentration are 70, 67, and 63 mn/hr, respectively. The flow time of sewage between ED, AB, and DB are one minute, Commercial pipes are available for every 50 mm increment of diameter. Answers: Dpp=6500, Dgc=$500 Problem 8.7: Design the sanitary sewer CD shown in Figure 8.24. The average daily water consumption is 200 Iv/cap/day. Of this amount, 85% returns to the sewer system. The groundwater infiltration and rainfall contribution are 0.4 It/s/ha and 0.9 lWs/ha, respectively. The maximum allowable velocity is 3 m/s and 0.6 m/s would be enough for self-cleansing under full flow conditions. The street slope of CD is 4%. Take N=0.016 (variable). Available pipes: 6250, 300, 350. Answer: Dep = $300 which gives dioy/D=0.44<0.5. However, flushing facilities may handle self cleansing.‘Applied Water Resources Engineering 439 Figure 8.23 Layout for Problem 8.6. A () Tha 200 p/ha Figure 8.24 Layout for Problem 8.7. Problem A storm sewer system will be designed in a certain district of a city. The lay-out of the system, respective runoff coefficients, sizes of areas in km?, contour lines, and lengths of sewers between two successive manholes are shown in Figure 8.25. Time of concentrations of all areas can be taken as 10 minutes. The flow time between two successive manholes can be taken as approximately 2 minutes. Using the Rational formula, design the storm sewer between manholes M3 and M6. The design rainfall intensities are given below. The maximum440. Wastewater and Storm Water Collection and Removal allowable velocity is 4 m/s. Take N/n variable with N=0.016. Commercial sewers are available for every 50 mm increment of diameter. eee (onin) | (om) 10 | 125 u | 120 2 | us B | ous 14 | 109 15 | 106 16 | 102 7 | 9% 245 m oe 02 A=001 a) u 1 40m 2 140m 245 m_+-7=0.40 138 A=008 = 0.02 (4) (6) q q 40m Ais 40m c=031 c=0, 244 A=001 AO a (8) q q 243 af 7 150m 242m Figure 8.25 Layout for Problem 8.8. Answer: 950 243 m 160m 142 m 6 150m M8)