Credits: 3 + 0

PG 2019
Spring 2020 Semester

Performance-based Seismic Design of Structures

Fawad A. Najam
Department of Structural Engineering
NUST Institute of Civil Engineering (NICE)
National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST)
H-12 Islamabad, Pakistan
Cell: 92-334-5192533, Email: fawad@nice.nust.edu.pk
 Inelastic Behaviour of Structural Components

Source:
Dr. Pramin Norachan
AIT Solutions
Thailand

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2018 (Fawad A. Najam) 2

 Failure Modes of RC Moment-resisting Frame Elements

• Flexural softening due to longitudinal bar yielding

• Spalling of concrete cover
• Crushing of the concrete core
• Shear failure either prior or subsequent to flexural softening
• Loss of confinement from fracture of transverse reinforcement
• Longitudinal bar buckling and fracture
• Lap splice failure
• Bond failure across longitudinal bars
• Instability due to slenderness effects or excessive loss of strength

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 Longitudinal Rebar Failure

PEER Report 2013/16

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 Column Shear and Axial Failures

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 Rebar Buckling and Lap Splice Failure

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 Severe spalling of column cover concrete exposing Column with inadequate ties
longitudinal steel. Source: FEMA P-58/BD-3.8.6 Source: FEMA 451

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 Anchorage Failure

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 Reinforced Concrete Moment Frames

• Seismically detailed moment frames

• Ensure ductile flexure yielding
• Prevent less desirable failure modes (shear, anchorage failures)
• Initiate loss of lateral strength at relatively large deformations
• Non-seismically detailed frames
• Any failure mode can be expected whether ductile or not
• Premature failures cause significant strength losses and structural instability
• Anchorage failures of longitudinal bars, lap-splice failures, shear failures, interface shear failures,
premature buckling of longitudinal bars, and crushing of the concrete core due to inadequate
confinement.

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 Failure Modes of Columns

• Nonstructural components can shift the location of hinging, as well as increase shear and local
deformation demands on columns significantly.
• Those effects should be eliminated by altering the details of nonstructural components, if such effects are
anticipated, their effects on member behavior should be accounted for in simulation.

• Shear failure can occur prior or subsequent to flexural yielding in frame members.
• If the estimated shear strength of a member is lower than its probable flexural strength, shear failure is expected
prior to flexural yielding at relatively low deformation levels. However, if shear strength is slightly larger than
flexural strength (less than 30% larger), then shear failure could occur after inelastic deformations in the hinge
regions where the strength of shear transfer mechanisms degrade with inelastic deformations.

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 Joint Failures

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 Joint Failures

• If beam and column are adequately reinforced to resist the seismic forces then joint may become a
weak link. Thus, unconfined joint may fail in pure shear with no yielding of beam or column
reinforcement.

• Joints may also fail after yielding of top and bottom reinforcements of beams, the joint experiences severe
shear cracking and subsequently joint shear failure. Compared to pure joint failure, this failure is more
ductile since it involves beam yielding.

• To prevent joint failures it is important to make sure that joint strength should be greater than the strength
of them elements framing into it.

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 Factors Effecting Joint Strength

• Joint aspect ratio has significant impact on shear strength of joints, the shear strength reduces if we have
high aspect ratio.
• Confinement of the joint either through transverse frame members or reinforcement increases the joint
shear strength.
• High axial load ratios reduce the ductility of the joints and more rapid strength degradation after initiation
of failure.
• Beam Reinforcement ratios effect the joint shear strength and determine what type of failure occurs in
joints.

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 Failure Modes of RC Shear Wall Elements

Shear failures in vertical

and horizontal wall
segments

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 Sources:
1) AIT Solutions
Behavior of Slender Structural Walls 2) “Seismic Design of Reinforced
Concrete Buildings” by Jack Moehle

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 Load-displacement relationship of shear walls

Source: “Seismic Design of Reinforced

Concrete Buildings” by Jack Moehle

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 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response of Shear Walls

Source: “Seismic Design of Reinforced Flexure / Web crushing

Concrete Buildings” by Jack Moehle

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 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response of Shear Walls

Flexure / Sliding shear

Source: FEMA 307

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 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response of Shear Walls

Flexure / Out-of-plane wall buckling

Source: FEMA 307

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 Damage Patterns and Hysteretic Response of Shear Walls

Flexure / Boundary compression

Source: FEMA 307

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 Seismic Performance of RC Buildings

Lap-Splice Failure in Columns Infill-Failure Induced Soft/Weak Story Soil Bearing Capacity Failure

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 Seismic Resistance of RC Buildings

Base Shear, Vb

Δ
Seismic Resistant Building
(Higher Lateral Strength + Ductile Failure)

Structural model for seismic

GLD Building resistant designed buildings
(Lower Lateral Strength + Brittle Failure)

Vb

Lateral Drift, Δ

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 Introduction to Nonlinear Analysis

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 Why Nonlinear Analysis?

• Buildings do not respond as linearly elastic systems during strong ground shaking

• Improve Understanding of Building Behavior

• More accurate prediction of global displacement
• More realistic prediction of earthquake demand on individual components and elements
• More reliable identification of “bad actors”

• Reduce Impact and Cost of Seismic Retrofit

• Less conservative acceptance criteria
• Less extensive construction

• Advance the State of the Practice

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 Why Use Nonlinear Analysis?

• In some cases, the moments predicted by an elastic analysis may be reasonably accurate, but the
deflections predicted by an elastic analysis may probably be too small.

• On the other hand, in some cases, the elastic analysis may overestimate the moments, e.g. if the central
support of the structure settles by 4 in (100mm) for instance, a traditional elastic analysis of this case
would overestimate the moments caused by the support settlement.

• …Hence, the decision to use nonlinear analysis should be based from a need that cannot be satisfied
by merely linear approximation.

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 Conditions of Linearity

• Stress-strain relationship must be linear and elastic. Most materials exhibit a change in stiffness or
modulus before inelastic or plastic behavior starts.

• Displacements and rotations must be small such that the assumption “plane remain plane after
deformation” is still valid. Mathematically, it is being approximated as sin(θ) = θ.

• The magnitude, orientation or direction and distribution of loads must not change.

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 Symptoms of Nonlinear Behavior

• Stress levels approach the yield point.

• Most materials exhibit a significant range of nonlinear elastic behavior long before the yield stress is
reached.
• When a material is strained beyond its proportional limit, the stress-strain relationship is no longer
linear.

• However, maximum stress approaching and/or exceeding yield point may be highly localized, which can
be redistributed and dissipated to less stressed geometry around it, thus nonlinear analysis may not be
necessary. It needs engineering judgment and expertise.

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 Symptoms of Nonlinear Behavior

• Large displacement.
• Excessive displacement is usually considered a failure condition, regardless of the stress levels.

• Coupled displacements are restrained.

• The degree of nonlinearity due to displacements will be small in a lightly constrained case and larger as the
constraints restrict the natural movement of the material.

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 Linear vs. Nonlinear Problems

Feature Linear problems Nonlinear problems

Load displacement Displacements are linearly dependent on The load-displacement relationships are
relationship the applied loads. usually nonlinear.

Stress-strain A linear relationship is assumed between In problems involving material

relationship stress and strain. nonlinearity, the stress-strain relationship
is often a nonlinear function of stress,
strain and/or time.

Magnitude of Changes in geometry due to displacement Displacements may not be small, hence
displacement are assumed to be small and hence an updated reference state may be
ignored, and the original (undeformed) needed.
state is always used as the reference
state.

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 Linear vs. Nonlinear Problems

Nonlinear material properties may be difficult to

Linear elastic material properties are
Material properties obtain and may require additional experimental
usually easy to obtain.
testing.
The behaviour of the structure is
Upon removal of the external loads, the final
Reversibility completely reversible upon removal of
state may be different from the initial state.
the external loads.

Boundary Boundary conditions remain Boundary conditions may change, e.g. a change
Conditions unchanged throughout the analysis. in the contact area.

Loading sequence is not important,

The behaviour of the structure may depend on
Loading Sequence and the final state is unaffected by the
the load history.
load history.

The load is often divided into small increment

Iterations and The load is applied in one load step
with iterations performed to ensure that
increments with no iterations.
equilibrium is satisfied at every load increment.

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 Linear vs. Nonlinear

Due to the many solution steps required for

Computation time is relatively small in load increments and iterations, computation
Computation time
comparison to nonlinear problems. time is high, particularly if a high degree of
accuracy is sought.

In difficult nonlinear problems, the FE code

Robustness of A solution can easily be obtained with
may fail to converge without some
solutions no interaction from the user.
interaction from the user.

Superposition and scaling allow results

Factoring and combining of results is not
Use of results to be factored and combined as
possible.
required.
The initial state of stress and/or strain is
Initial state of The initial state of stress and/or strain is
usually required for material nonlinearity
stress/strain unimportant.
problems.

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 Three Types of Nonlinearity

• Material Nonlinearity
• Due to inelastic behavior of constituent materials such as concrete and steel when strained beyond proportional
limit resulting to cracking, crushing, sliding, yielding, fracture, etc.
• Geometric Nonlinearity
• Due to Due to change in shape of the structure.
• Includes P-Δ and large displacement/rotation effects.
• Nonlinear boundary conditions
• Due to contact such as constraints and restraints
• In many cases, if material nonlinearity is encountered, one or both of the other types will be required as
well.

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 Material Nonlinearity

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 Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity

• There are two causes of geometric nonlinearity, the first based on equilibrium and the second on
compatibility (continuity).
• Geometric nonlinearity occurs when the displacements of a structure are large enough to affect one
or both of the following.
• (1) The equilibrium relationships. Equilibrium in the deformed position of the structure may be
significantly different from that in the undeformed position.
• (2) The compatibility relationships. The relationships between element deformations and
element end displacements may be significantly nonlinear.

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 Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity: Equilibrium

• Strictly speaking, equilibrium between

external loads and internal forces must be
satisfied in the deformed position of the
structure.
• However, if the displacements are small, it
can be a reasonable approximation to
consider equilibrium in the initial,
undeformed position.
• Since this position is fixed, the equilibrium
relationships are linear. For example,
doubling the external loads exactly doubles
the internal forces (assuming no material
nonlinearity).

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 Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity: Equilibrium
• Figure (a) shows the undeformed position. The bending
moment at the pinned base must be zero, so by simple
equilibrium the force in the spring is equal to the
horizontal load.
• Figure (b) shows the deformed position, assuming that
the spring compresses and the top of the bar moves
horizontally by an amount ∆. Again, the bending moment
at the base is zero, so to satisfy equilibrium the force in
the spring must be larger than the applied load. Also, the
spring force is not proportional to the load. For example,
if P and H are doubled, the force in the spring more than
doubles.

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 Causes of Geometric Nonlinearity: Compatibility (Continuity)

• There is a geometrical relationship between the displacements of a

structure and the deformations of its components. Figure shows such a Imposed
Displacement ∆
relationship.
• In Figure, the top of the bar moves horizontally. Hence, the bar must
extend to maintain continuity. Figure (b) shows the relationship between
displacement and bar extension. The bar extension is the deformed
length minus the undeformed length, h.
• For a very small horizontal displacement the bar extension is close to
zero (in the limit, for a vanishingly small displacement, the bar extension
Compatibility
is exactly zero). For larger displacements the bar extends, with a Relationship

nonlinear relationship between displacement and extension.

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 Analysis Types to Account for Geometric Nonlinearity

• For analysis, the effects of large displacements on the equilibrium and compatibility relationships can be
treated separately.
• Consequently, there are three different types of analysis that can be carried out, as follows.
• (1) Small displacements analysis. This is one extreme. Equilibrium is considered in the undeformed position,
and for compatibility the displacements are assumed to be vanishingly small.
• (2) True large displacements analysis. This is the other extreme. Equilibrium is considered in the deformed
position, and for compatibility the displacements are assumed to be finite. The compatibility relationships are
nonlinear. In this case, geometric nonlinearity is considered with no approximations.
• (3) P-∆ analysis. This is in the middle. Equilibrium is considered in the deformed position (with some minor
approximations), and the compatibility relationships are assumed to be linear. In this case, geometric
nonlinearity is considered approximately.
• There is a fourth type (deformed position for equilibrium, small displacements for compatibility), but this is
never used.

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 Analysis Types to Account for Geometric Nonlinearity

Assume that the bar is stiff axially, so that it has negligible axial deformation.

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 Geometric Nonlinearity

Performance-based Seismic Design of Buildings – Semester: Spring 2020 (Fawad A. Najam)

Source: Pramin Norachan (AIT Solutions)
40
 Analysis Types to Account for Geometric Nonlinearity

• The differences among the three methods depend on the relative values of the loads 𝑃 and 𝐻, and on the
displacement ∆. Consider two example cases as follows.
• (1) 𝑃 = 0, and ∆/ℎ = 0.1 (i.e., 10% drift ratio, which is a very large drift for most structures). For all three methods
the force in the spring is 𝐻 and the force in the bar is zero. The only difference is that the vertical displacement is
negligible for small displacements and 𝑃-∆. analysis, and equal to a small value (0.005h) for large displacements
analysis.
• 2) 𝑃/𝐻 = 5, ∆/ℎ = 0.10. For the small displacements case the forces in the spring and bar are respectively 𝐻 and
𝑃. For the 𝑃-∆ case the forces are 1.5𝐻 and 0.995𝑃. For the large displacements case the forces are 1.503𝐻 and
0.995𝑃. The vertical displacements are essentially the same as for 𝑃 = 0.
• These examples show that small displacements analysis can be in error when there are substantial gravity loads and
large drifts, but only in the force in the spring (in the second example above there is an error of 50% in the spring
force).

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 Practical Guideline to Account for Geometric Nonlinearity

• If geometric nonlinearity must be considered, it is almost always accurate enough to use

𝑷-∆ analysis.
• Only for very flexible structures, such as cable structures, is it necessary to use large
displacements analysis.
• 𝑃-∆ analysis is more efficient computationally than large displacements analysis.
• For most structures, it is a waste of computer time to account for true large displacements.

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 𝑃-∆ vs. 𝑃-𝜹

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 Geometric Nonlinearity

• The large-stress and large-displacement effects are both termed geometric (or kinematic) nonlinearity, as
distinguished from material nonlinearity. Kinematic nonlinearity may also be referred to as second-order
geometric effects.
• For each nonlinear static and nonlinear direct integration time-history analysis, you may choose to consider:
• No geometric nonlinearity
• P-delta effects only
• Large displacement and P-delta effects

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 Material Nonlinearity Geometric Nonlinearity

• Material nonlinearity has a wide range of • Geometrical nonlinearity has clear causes and is
causes, many of which are poorly understood, governed by a well-defined mathematical theory.
and it is not governed by any single theory.
• Geometrical nonlinearity has two well-defined
• Our knowledge of material nonlinearity
causes (equilibrium and compatibility), both of
depends almost entirely on what we observe in
which are governed by clear mathematical rules
experiments on actual structures and structural
• Geometrical nonlinearity is not subject to judgment
components.
and interpretation.
• Material nonlinearity is subject to judgment and
interpretation. • This does not mean, however, that geometrical
nonlinearity is easy to account for in an analysis.
Its effects can be complex and subtle, and they
can be difficult to capture in an analysis model.

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Lectures Series on Finite
Element Modeling for Linear
Elastic Analysis of Structures

Link:
https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=
PL48SKuieCUq9WzNWSgbv44KoAA
SXukGXe

46
 Boundary Nonlinearity

• Contact
• Contact conditions such as constraints and restraints which allow parts or portions of the same part to touch or lift
off each other.
• Model the interactions of certain systems.
• Forces
• Represent loads that can be defined as displacement or velocity based, such as earthquakes and soil conditions

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 Important Considerations

• Nonlinear analysis takes time and patience.

• Each nonlinear problem is different.
• Start simple and build up gradually.
• Run linear static loads and modal analysis first.
• Add hinges gradually beginning with the areas where you expect the most non-linearity.
• Perform initial analyses without geometric non-linearity. Add P-delta effects, and large deformations,
much later.

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 Structure as a Linear Spring

Static Equilibrium

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 Source of Nonlinear Force

𝐹
𝐾𝑢 = 𝐹𝐿

𝐹𝑁𝐿
𝐾𝑢 − 𝐹𝑁𝐿 = 𝐹
𝑀𝑢(𝑡) + 𝐶 𝑢(𝑡) + 𝐾𝑢(𝑡) + 𝐹𝑁𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑡)

𝑢
Non-linear Equilibrium

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 Linear vs. Non-linear Response

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Basic Analysis Types

Excitation Structure Response Basic Analysis Type

Static Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Static Analysis

Static Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Static Analysis

Static Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Static Analysis

Static Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Inelastic-Static Analysis

Dynamic Elastic Linear Linear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis

Dynamic Elastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Elastic-Dynamic Analysis

Dynamic Inelastic Linear Linear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis

Dynamic Inelastic Nonlinear Nonlinear-Inelastic-Dynamic Analysis

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The Basic Equilibrium Equations
• Linear-Static
𝑲𝒖 = 𝑭 1
𝐹
• Linear-Dynamic 𝐾𝑢 = 𝐹𝐿
𝑴𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑪𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑲𝒖(𝑡) = 𝑭(𝑡) 2
𝐹𝑁𝐿
• Nonlinear - Static

𝑲𝒖 − 𝑭𝑁𝐿 = 𝑭 3 𝐾𝑢 − 𝐹𝑁𝐿 = 𝐹
• Nonlinear-Dynamic 𝑀𝑢 + 𝐶 𝑢 + 𝐾𝑢 + 𝐹𝑁𝐿 = 𝐹
𝑴𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑪𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑲𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑭(𝑡)𝑁𝐿 = 𝑭(𝑡) 4 𝑢

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 Comprehensive Equilibrium Equation

𝑴𝒖 𝑡 + 𝑪𝒖 𝑡 + 𝑲𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑭(𝑡)𝑁𝐿 = 𝑭(𝑡)

• Cover all Static, Dynamic, Elastic, Non-elastic, Damped, Un-damped, Linear, Non-Linear cases
and their combinations
• Handles response for
• Basic Dead and Live Loads
• Seismic, Wind, Vibration and Fire analysis

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 Dynamic Equilibrium

Mass-Acceleration Stiffness-Displacement External Force

𝑴𝒖 𝑡 + 𝑪𝒖 𝑡 + 𝑲𝒖(𝑡) + 𝑭(𝑡)𝑁𝐿 = 𝑭(𝑡)

Damping-Velocity Nonlinearity

The basic variable is displacement and its derivatives

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 What is Stiffness “made off”?

• The overall stiffness of the structure is derived from Material Stiffness

the overall geometry and connectivity of the
members and their stiffness. Cross-Section Geometry

• The member stiffness is derived from the cross- Section Stiffness

section stiffness, and member geometry.
Member Geometry
• The cross-section stiffness is derived from the
material stiffness and the cross-section geometry. Member Stiffness

• All of these stiffness relationships may be linear or Structure Geometry

nonlinear.
Structure Stiffness

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 What is Stiffness “made off”?

• The overall resistance of the structures to overall loads, called the Global Structure Stiffness.
• This is derived from the sum of stiffness of its members, their connectivity and the boundary or
the restraining conditions.
• The resistance of each member to local actions called the Member Stiffness is derived from the
cross-section stiffness and the geometry of the member.
• The resistance of the cross-section to overall strains (Cross-section Stiffness). This is derived from
the cross-section geometry and the stiffness of the materials from which it is made.
• The resistance of the material to strain derived from the stiffness of the material particles (Material
Stiffness).

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What is Stiffness (K) “made off”?

2 5
𝐾 = 𝑓(𝐸, 𝐴, 𝐼, 𝐿)
A 2D frame element with 3
3 degrees of freedom per node
6
1 4 Material Cross-section Member
Property Properties Property

𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 −𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 −12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿

𝐾=
−𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

−12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿

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“Actual” Stiffness Estimation Influenced by

• The state of the structure at

Material Stiffness
any given time
Cross-Section Geometry
• Damage
• Deformation Section Stiffness

• Cracking Member Geometry

• Creep/Shrinkage
Member Stiffness
• Stress-state
Structure Geometry

Structure Stiffness

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 The Structure Stiffness - K   Cu  Ku  F
Mu

Material Stiffness

Cross-Section Geometry

Linear Section Stiffness

Member Geometry
Non-Linear
Member Stiffness

Structure Geometry

Structure Stiffness

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 Nonlinear Analysis and Action-Deformation Curves

• For a structure, F = load, D = deflection.

• For a component, F depends on the component type, D is the

corresponding deformation.

• The component F-D relationships must be known (Action-

Deformation Curves).

• The Structure F-D relationship is obtained by structural analysis.

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Action-Deformation
Curves

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 Action-Deformation Curves

• Relationship between action and corresponding deformation

• These relationships can be obtained at several levels

1. The Structural Level: Load - Deflection relationship
2. The Member Level: Moment - Rotation relationship
3. The Cross-section Level: Moment - Curvature relationship
4. The Material Level : Stress-Strain relationship

• The Action-Deformation curves show the entire response of the structure, member, cross-
section or material

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General Force-Displacement Relationship

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General Force-Displacement Relationship

Point ‘A’ corresponds to the serviceability design considerations and working strength or
allowable strength design concepts.

Point ‘B’ is the point up to which the relationship between load and deformation can be
considered nearly linear and the deformations are relatively small.

Point ‘C’ roughly corresponds to the ultimate strength considerations or the design capacity
consideration.

Point ‘D’ is the point at which the load value starts to drop with increasing deformations

Point ‘E’ is the point at which the load value is reduced to just a fraction of ultimate load
(residual strength)

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 The Moment-Curvature Curve – An Example of Action-Deformation Curve

• Probably the most important action-deformation curve for beams, columns, shear walls and consequently
for building structures
• Significant information can be obtained from Moment Curvature Curve to compute:
• Yield Point
• Failure Point
• Ductility
• Stiffness
• Crack Width
• Rotation
• Deflection
• Strain

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 Ductility – Definition and Usage

• Ductility can be defined as the “ratio of

Load
deformation and a given stage to the maximum
deformation capacity” Yield/ Design
• Normally ductility is measured from the Strength

deformation at design strength to the maximum Dy Du

deformation at failure

Deformation

Ductility = Du / Dy

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 What Effects Ductility!

• The most important factor effecting ductility of reinforced concrete cross-section is the
confinement of concrete.
• Amount of confinement steel
• Shape of confinement steel
• Other factors include:
• Presence of Axial Load
• Stress-strain curve of rebars
• Amount of rebars in tension
• Amount of rebars in compression
• The shape of cross-section

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 Ductility Levels

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 Estimating Stiffness through “Cracking Factors”

• Code specified cracking factors

• Typical applied to all members
• At all locations
• For all load cases

• Not realistic, and subject to considerable variation and debate

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How to Get Action-Deformation Curves

1. By actual measurements
• Apply load, measure deflection
• Apply load, measure stress and strain

2. By computations
• Use material models, cross-section dimensions to get Moment-Curvature Curves

3. By combination of measurement and computations

• Calibrate computation models with actual measurements
• Some parameters obtained by measurement and some by computations

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Monotonic vs. Cyclic Action-Deformation Curves

Moment
Moment

𝜃
Rotation, 𝜃

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 Phenomena Associated with Cyclic Action-Deformation Curves

• Stiffness degradation occurs when the

unloading stiffness of the hysteresis loop is
smaller than the initial stiffness.
• Stiffness degradation reduces the area of the
loop which is a measure of the amount of
inelastic energy that is dissipated under cyclic
deformation
• So, stiffness degradation also leads to energy
degradation.

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 Phenomena Associated with Cyclic Action-Deformation Curves

• Strength degradation is when there is a reduction in

strength when a member is loaded cyclically.
• The strength deterioration generally depends on the
number and amplitude of cycles.
• Strength degradation can be “In-Cycle” or “Cyclic”.

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 Phenomena Associated with Cyclic Action-Deformation Curves

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 Phenomena Associated with Cyclic Action-Deformation Curves

Ductility Degradation

Source: NIST GCR 17-917-46v1

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 Nonlinear Analysis of an SDF System

Assumed Nonlinear Force-Deformation Behavior DOF

Damping 5%
𝑘 𝑐
Assumed

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 Effect of Cyclic Degradation on Structural Response

• To investigate the interaction of structural

characteristics with the effect of ground motion
duration, a bridge pier structure was employed.
• The parameters of the model were calibrated to
experimental measurements, the results of which
are compared.
• The spectrally equivalent, long and short duration
record sets were used in this study.
• The structure subjected to the long duration
ground motion experiences a larger number of
hysteretic cycles, it deteriorates more, and thus,
collapses at a lower ground motion intensity when
compared to the short duration ground motion.

Source: Pramin Norachan (AIT Solutions)

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Seismic Analysis Procedures

Linear Static Nonlinear Static Linear Dynamic Nonlinear Dynamic

Procedures Procedures Procedures Procedures
• Capacity Spectrum
• Equivalent Static • Response Spectrum • Nonlinear Response
Method
Analysis Procedure • Displacement Analysis History Analysis
Coefficient Method • Linear Response
• Various Other Pushover History Analysis
Analysis Methods (Direct Integration)
• Linear Modal
Response History
Analysis

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Results from
Nonlinear Analysis

80
Results from
Nonlinear
Analysis

81
 Nonlinear Static and Dynamic
Analysis Results

Software Demonstration
PERFORM 3D

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 Basic Approaches of Nonlinear Modeling of Structures

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 The Nonlinear Analysis

• The nonlinear analysis aims to simulate all significant modes of deformation and deterioration in the
structure from the onset of damage to complete collapse.
• Therefore, unlike a linear elastic model, the nonlinear model of an RC structure should be able to
capture all local inelastic phenomenon including concrete cracking, crushing, steel yielding,
buckling, fracture and bond slip between steel and concrete, etc.
• The nonlinear models can generally be classified based on the degree of idealization used in the model.

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Continuum Models, Distributed Inelasticity Models and Lumped Inelasticity Models

A comparison of three idealized model types for simulating the nonlinear response of a reinforced concrete
beam-column is shown in Figure (taken from ATC 72 [4]).

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 Continuum Models

• Continuum Models explicitly model the nonlinear behavior of the materials and elements that comprise
the component.
• A continuum model might include finite elements representing the concrete, longitudinal reinforcement,
and shear reinforcement, in which associated constitutive models (e.g. the nonlinear stress-strain curves
of concrete and steel) would represent various nonlinear phenomenon.
• Continuum models generally do not enforce any predefined behavioral modes and, instead, seek to
model the underlying physics of the materials and elements.
• They do not require definitions of member stiffness, strength or deformation capacity, as these effects are
inherently captured in the model through the material properties.

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 Lumped Inelasticity Models

• At the other extreme are lumped plasticity (concentrated hinge) models in which the nonlinear action is
lumped at certain points of the structure and the nonlinear functions between various actions and
corresponding deformations are assigned at those points. In this way, these models are defined entirely
by the phenomenological description of the overall force-deformation response of the component.
• For example, a “concentrated hinge element” assigned at both ends of a beam or column might represent
a lumped nonlinear flexural behavior (cracking, yielding and post-yielding behavior) defined by a
nonlinear function between end moment and resulting curvature (or rotation) of the member. This
nonlinear function should correspond to the observed force-deformation behavior and hysteretic test data
of similar beam or column components.

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 Distributed Inelasticity Models

• In between the two extremes are distributed inelasticity (fiber) models, which can explicitly capture some
aspects of nonlinear behavior while some effects are captured implicitly.
• For example, the complete nonlinear stress-strain curves of materials can be defined to capture important
aspects of material nonlinearity. However, the integration of flexural stresses and strains through the
cross section and along the member is considered implicitly.
• These models typically enforce some behavior assumptions (e.g., plane sections remain plane) in
combination with explicit modeling of uniaxial material response.

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What is Stiffness (K) “made off”?

2 5
𝐾 = 𝑓(𝐸, 𝐴, 𝐼, 𝐿)
A 2D frame element with 3
3 degrees of freedom per node
6
1 4 Material Cross-section Member
Property Properties Property

𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 −𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 −12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿

𝐾=
−𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0 𝐸𝐴/𝐿 0 0

−12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 0 12𝐸𝐼/𝐿3 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2

0 6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 2𝐸𝐼/𝐿 0 −6𝐸𝐼/𝐿2 4𝐸𝐼/𝐿

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 What is Stiffness (K) “made off”?

• The overall stiffness of the structure is

derived from the overall geometry and The resistance of the
Material Stiffness
connectivity of the members, their material to strain
stiffnesses, and the boundary conditions.
Cross-Section Geometry

• The member stiffness is derived from the The resistance of cross-

Section Stiffness
section to overall strains
cross-section stiffness, and member
geometry. Member Geometry
The resistance of each
Member Stiffness
• The cross-section stiffness is derived from member to local actions

the material stiffness and the cross-section Structure Geometry

geometry.
The overall resistance of the
Structure Stiffness structure to overall loads
• All of these stiffness relationships may be
linear or nonlinear.

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 𝐾𝑢 = 𝐹
The Global Structure Stiffness - K or
𝑀𝑢 + 𝐶 𝑢 + 𝐾𝑢 = 𝐹

Material Stiffness Material Properties

Cross-section Properties
Linear
Cross-section Stiffness

Member Properties
Nonlinear
Member Stiffness

Structure Properties

Structure Stiffness

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 Practical Approaches for Nonlinear Modeling of Structures

Defining Inelastic
Behavior at
Nonlinear Modeling
Material Level Fiber Modeling Approach
of Materials

Nonlinear Modeling
Cross-section Level
of Cross-sections Plastic Hinge Modeling
Nonlinear Modeling Approach
Member Level
of Members

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 Plastic Hinge Modeling Approach
Moment-Curvature Plastic Hinges

Shear Hinges
Defining Inelastic Axial Hinges
Behavior at
Torsion Hinges
Nonlinear Modeling
Cross-section Level
of Cross-sections

Nonlinear Modeling Member Level

of Members
Moment-Rotation Plastic Hinges

Shear Hinges

Axial Hinges

Torsion Hinges

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 Plastic Hinge Modeling Approach

Moment-Curvature
Flexural Hinges Plastic Hinges

Plastic Hinge Shear Hinges Moment-Rotation

Elements Plastic Hinges
Axial Hinges

Torsion Hinges

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 Nonlinear Modeling Approaches – NIST, 2010

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 Nonlinear Modeling Approaches – NIST, 2010

• For beam-column elements, models for nonlinear analysis can range from uniaxial spring or hinge models, to more fundamental
fiber-type models, to detailed continuum finite element models.

• In general, all models are phenomenological in that they rely on empirical calibration to observed behavior at some level of
idealization.

• The choice of model type for a given application involves a balance between reliability, practicality, and computational efficiency,
subject to the capabilities of available software and computational resources. The optimal model type depends on many factors,
including the structural system and materials, governing modes of behavior, the expected amount of nonlinearity, and the level of
detail available for the input and output data. The reliability of the model comes from its ability to capture the critical types of
deformation that are of interest to the modeler and control the response.

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 Nonlinear Modeling Approaches – NIST, 2010

• Hinge and spring models have the advantage of being computationally efficient by modeling highly nonlinear effects in localized
regions of the structure with few degrees of freedom. The models generally employ pre-defined functions to define the nonlinear
response of the component. Concentrated spring models are typically implemented to capture single degree of freedom response (e.g.,
M-θ), but they may include multiaxial response through yield surfaces (e.g., Px -My -Mz interaction) or other means. By capturing
complicated behavior with highly idealized models, concentrated hinge models are very versatile, but they are also empirical and limited
to modeling phenomena over the range of components and behavior modes for which they have been calibrated.

• For beam-columns, fiber-type models provide the capability to numerically integrate material response through the member cross
sections at a more fundamental material level. The fiber-type integration through the cross section can be used either in conjunction with
a finite length hinge zone or with model formulations that simulate distributed inelasticity along the member length. Fiber-type models for
beams and beam-columns generally invoke kinematic assumptions, such as the Euler-Bernoulli (plane sections remain plane)
assumption, to relate uniaxial stresses and strains through the member cross section to stress resultants and generalized strains for the
cross section.

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 Nonlinear Modeling Approaches – NIST, 2010

• Continuum finite element models represent the behavior at the most fundamental level and provide the ability to model the
complete interaction of three-dimensional behavior, including complex geometries and multi-axial stress and strain states.

• However, three-dimensional (3D) continuum models are the most computationally intensive, particularly where the numerical
mesh refinement is controlled by the smallest dimension of the member (e.g., where finite element meshing through the
thickness or depth of a member will dictate the mesh size required along the member length).

• For this reason, 3D continuum models are typically only used to simulate portions of overall systems. In addition, while continuum
models offer the potential for capturing response at very fundamental levels, their practical application is limited by both
computational resources and data to calibrate certain localized behavioral effects. For example, 2D shell or 3D continuum finite
element models can capture the response of isotropic steel materials fairly well, whereas many unresolved challenges remain for
simulating the detailed behavior of reinforced concrete members, considering concrete cracking/dilation and interactions between
steel reinforcing bars and concrete (e.g., bond and anchorage).

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Flowchart aid for selecting appropriate nonlinear
element and component models

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Flowchart aid for selecting appropriate nonlinear
element and component models

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 Flowchart aid for selecting appropriate nonlinear element and component models

• The first decision point outlined in Figure 2-15 is the level of detail of the model, with the primary choice being between a
continuum model and a discrete model (i.e., fiber or concentrated hinge). For discrete models (which is typical for design), the
next decision is how each component in the model is classified and modeled, either as a force- or deformation-controlled
component, as well as which components to model (i.e., decision of if the gravity framing components are included in the
model).

• After this, the model types for each component and the level of detail of the modeling can be decided. All of these modeling
decisions are centered on how simplified versus complex the structural model should be and the needed level of complexity of
the model depends on aspects such as the expected failure modes and their consequences, the anticipated locations of
damage, and the anticipated level of nonlinearity.

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 Nonlinear Models for Building Components

Beams Columns Beam-column Joints

Infill Wall Shear Walls

Foundations

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 Nonlinear Models for Building Components

• Truss – Yielding and Buckling

• 3D Beam – Major direction Flexural and Shear Hinging
• 3D Column – P-M-M Interaction and shear Hinging
• Panel Zone – Shear Yielding
• In-Fill Panel – Shear Failure
• Shear Wall – P-M-Shear Interaction
• Springs – Foundation and Soil Modeling

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Thank you