Assignment

(Submitted by)

Muhammad Nabeel Akbar

EE-161027

(Submitted to)

Dr. Abubakar Kalyar

Q#01:

Grounding

Grounding:

Grounding can be defined as a connection, whether intentional or accidental, between an electrical circuit
or equipment and earth or to some conducting body that serves in place of earth. Hence, one can conclude
that grounding is nothing but connection to earth or to a conductor that serves as earth. Going by this
definition, a connection between a circuit and its 0V reference can also be considered as grounding, while
earthing can be considered as a case of grounding where the ground is essentially planet Earth.

Grounding system discharges hazardous fault current and lightning strokes to the earth. It also keeps step
and touch voltages within permissible limits. Consequently properly designed and installed grounding
system guarantees reliable performance of substations thereby improving integrity of overall power
system. A well designed grounding system ensures following.
1. It provides means of dissipating electrical current into earth without exceeding operating limits of
equipment.
2. It provides safe environment to protect personnel in the vicinity of the grounded facilities from the
dangers of electric shock under fault conditions.

Purpose of grounding or earthing:

The primary aim of grounding is to prevent shock hazard that exists in a high-voltage distribution
system. Other functions include power fault clear-out, protection against lightning and electrostatic
discharge (ESD) hazards and protection against electromagnetic interference (EMI).

Types of grounding:

Single point grounding. Here, each subsystem/module has its own ground. These individual grounds
are connected by the shortest route to a single system ground point by simple wires. Such a system is
advantageous for low-frequency and analog circuits because no common impedances exist.

At high frequencies (above 1MHz), however, grounding wires start to exhibit high inductance and,
consequently, start offering high impedance to ground currents. At the same time, capacitive reactance of
stray capacitance between the modules starts reducing. Ground currents no longer follow the high-
impedance path offered by ground wires to ground, but are rather invited to follow the low impedance
offered by the parasitic capacitance to other modules. This causes common-mode coupling, which can be
reduced by reducing the inductive reactance of the ground wires. This is achieved by multi-point
grounding.

Multi-point grounding. In multi-point grounding (Fig. 19), each subsystem/module is bonded as

directly as possible to a common low-impedance equi-potential ground plane (essentially a continuous
sheet of metal). A metal sheet offers far less impedance at high frequencies (above 1MHz) compared to
wires. This is because sheets have more surface area, which reduces resistance to high-frequency currents
that tend to flow on the surface due to skin effect.

The sheet also provides multiple parallel paths for ground currents, which reduce inductance. In such a
scenario (when modules are mounted on a ground plane), ground currents are invited to follow the low
impedance of the ground plane to ground, rather than going to another module.

Hybrid grounding. Hybrid grounding is used in situations where systems involve both high-frequency
(digital) circuits and low-frequency (analogue) circuits.

Q#02:

Design of Earthing System for a Substation: A Case Study

Abstract:
This paper presents the design of earthing system for 132 KV substation and simulation for calculation of
required parameters. This paper is to provide information pertinent to safe earthing practices in ac
substation design and to establish the safe limits of potential difference under normal and fault conditions.
The grounding grid system of a practical 220 kV substation is calculated by MATLAB program. The
supporting data has been obtained from actual field tested at the substation. Standard equations are used
in the design of earthing system to get desired parameters such as touch and step voltage criteria for
safety, earth resistance, grid resistance, maximum grid current, minimum conductor size and electrode
size, maximum fault current level and resistivity of soil. By selection the proper horizontal conductor
size, vertical electrode size and soil resistivity, the best choice of the project for safety is performed. This
paper mentions the calculation of the desired parameters which are simulated by MATLAB program.
Some simulated results are evaluated.

Keywords:

Component; Safe earthing system, Grounding, resistivity , AC substation, MATLAB program.

1. Introduction:

In substation earthing system is essential not only to provide the protection of people working in the
vicinity of earthed facilities and equipments against danger of electric shock but to maintain proper
function of electrical system. Reliability and security are to be taken in considerations as well as
adherence to statutory obligations (IEEE and Indian standards on electrical safety [1-2] and
environmental aspects). Earthing system thus design must be easily maintained and future expansion must
be taken into account while designing the dimensions of earth mat.
This paper is concerned with earthing practices and design for outdoor AC substation for power
frequency in the range of 50 Hz. DC substation GIS and lightening effects are not covered in this paper.
With proper caution, the method
 described here is also applicable to indoor portion of such substation. By using proper conductor and
electrode size, earthing system may be able to overcome lightening effects.

2. Earthing system for a substation:

A. Components of earthing system

An effective substation earthing system typically consists of earth rods, connecting cables from buried
earthing grid to metallic parts of structures and equipments, connections to earthed system neutrals, and
the earth surface insulating covering material briefly discussed in [1,3]. Current flowing into the earthing
grid from lightening arrester operation impulse or switching surge flashover of insulators and line to
ground fault current from the bus or connected transmission lines all cause potential differences between
earthed points in the substation. Without a properly designed earthing system, large potential differences
can exist between different points within the substation itself. Under normal circumstances, it is the
current constitutes the main threat to personal.

B. Data needed for design of earthing

 Substation grid area

 Soil resistivity at the site
 Fault clearing time
 Maximum grid current
 Resistivity of soil at surface

C. Factors on which design of earthmat depends

 Materials used for earth electrodes and conductors must be chosen carefully taking into account
physical, chemical and economical constraints. Ground conductor must be adequate for fault
current (considering corrosion). Basic requirements are thoroughly studied in paper [4].
 Conductor sizing depends on fault current and conductivity as well as mechanical strength of
material used.
 Resistivity of soil and surface layer determines the STEP and TOUCH potentials, which
determine safe values of operation as described in reference [1, 5-9]. Also the multilayer
resistivity has been a subject of continuous attention by the researchers [10-13].
 A good grounding system provides a low resistance in order to minimize GPR (ground potential
rise)[14].
 Grid geometry is a major factor in determining the step, touch and mesh potential contours and
current distribution in grid. The limitations on the physical parameters of a ground grid are based
on economics and the physical limitations of the installation of the grid.

D. Fault Clearing Time

The faults clearing time is governed by system stability consideration and depend on protection and
switchgear equipment. Generally a value of 0.5 seconds is assumed.
The size of the conductor is based on a time of 1 second.
E. Determination of Maximum Grid Current

A single line to ground fault is more common and causes more fault current as compared to a double line
to ground fault. Therefore, the design is based on single line to ground fault current. For calculation of
this current grid resistance and fault resistance are assumed to be zero. Then
Ig= SfIf

Where
Ig= symmetrical grid current , Amp
If= rms value of symmetrical ground fault current, Amp
Sf= current division factor relating the magnitude of fault current to that of its portion flowing in the
earthing grid.

Only a part of the total fault current flows through the grid. The remaining current flows through the
overhead ground wires and other ground return paths. The factor Sf gives this current division and can be
calculated, if the system data is known, from the value of Ig the design value of grid current is found as
I=GfDfIg
Where
I= maximum grid current
Gf= A factor to account for increase in fault current due to system growth during life span of grid.
Df= Decrement factor to account for asymmetry of the fault current wave.
Typical values of Gf assumed in design, lie in the range of 1.2 to 1.5 depending on the rate of growth of
the system.

F. Selection of Electrode material

The material for grounding grid should have good conductivity, be mechanically rugged and resist fusing
and deterioration of joints. Copper was very commonly used in the past. It has high conductivity and is
resistant to underground corrosion. However, a grid of copper forms a galvanic cell with other buried
structure and pipes and is likely to hasten the corrosion of the latter. Aluminium is not used because of
corrosion problem.

3. Mathematical Description:

G. Safe limits and values of potentials

The safety of a person depends on preventing the critical amount of shock energy from being absorbed.
The maximum driving voltage of any accidental circuit should not exceed the limits defined as follows.
The tolerable step voltage criteria is

The tolerable touch voltage criteria is

Where
Cs = 1 for no protective surface layer
ρs= the resistivity of the surface material in A-m
ts = duration of shock circuit in seconds
The minimum conductor size formula is mentioned below-

Where
Ko = 1/ αo or 1/ αo - Tr
tc = time of current flow in sec
TCAP = thermal capacity factor
For grounding resistance, the following formula is used

Where
ρ = soil resistivity
Lt = total length of grid conductor
A = total area enclosed by earth grid
h = depth of earth grid conductor
For calculation of grid current, equation (5) is used

Where
Ig = maximum grid current
3Io = symmetrical fault current in substation for Conductor
sizing in A
Sf = current diversity factor
Equation (6) is expressed for grid potential rise (GPR)

Maximum attainable step and touch voltages are given by:

Formula for c-alculation of mesh and step voltage are
Where
ρ = soil resistivity, ohms-m
Em = mesh voltage at the center of corner mesh
Es = step voltage between point
Km = spacing factor for mesh voltage
Ks = spacing factor of step voltage
Ki = correct factor for grid geometry

Where
D = spacing between conductor of the grid
d = diameter of grid conductor
Km = spacing factor for mesh voltage
Kii = 1 for grids with rods along perimeter
Kh = Corrective weighting factor for grid depth

Where
D = spacing between conductor of the grid
h = depth of burial grid conductor
n = number of parallel conductor in one direction
The length required to keep mesh voltage within safe limits, can be calculated by

If the length of conductor in the Preliminary design is less than that given eqn. (11) a revision in design is
necessary.

H. Design procedure

Values of maximum attainable touch voltages are calculated. If the GPR of the preliminary design is
below the tolerable touch voltage, no further analysis is necessary. Only additional conductor required to
provide access to equipment grounds is necessary.

If the computed mesh voltage is below the tolerable touch voltage, the design may be complete. If the
computed mesh voltage is greater than the tolerable touch voltage, the preliminary design should be
revised. If both the computed touch and step voltages are below the tolerable voltages, the design needs
only the refinements required to provide access to equipment grounds. If not, the preliminary design must
be revised.

Further for the safe design we need to compare the length of the electrode in the preliminary design to the
length of the electrode required to keep mesh voltage within safe limits.
If either the step or touch tolerable limits are exceeded, revision of the grid design is required. These
revisions may include smaller conductor spacing, additional ground rods, and use of closer spacing of
conductor. In case the length given by eqn. (11) is too small to allow for connections to all equipments,
more conductor may be required even though it is not necessary for safety ,etc as discussed in reference
[1]. If the length of the conductor in the preliminary design is less than the length required to keep mesh
voltage within safe limits. , then the design needs to be revised by entering more number of electrodes or
by decreasing spacing between the conductors, otherwise the design is accurate.

Further, if the Ground Potential Rise (R*Ig) is less than the tolerable value of touch potential then the
design of the electrical grid is considered to be safe otherwise we need to guard personnel and other
communication equipment against transferred potential.

Checking of step Potential:-

The tolerable step potential and actual step potential can be calculated from eqn (1) and eqn (8). If actual
step potential is more than tolerable, a revision in design is necessary. The final step in design includes
provision of closer meshes in the area frequently visited by operating personnel, additional ground rods
for surge arrester leads, etc., and provision of risers for connection to equipments.

Impulse behaviour of earthing system:

The degree of protection provided by an earthing system under lightning discharge conditions depends
on its impulse impedance (i.e.,impedance under impulse conditions) and not the power frequency
resistance. The impulse impedance is different from the power frequency resistance due to effect of 1st
soil ionization 2nd electrode inductance.

When the magnitude of impulse current is high, the soil in the vicinity of electrode may break-down
causing a decrease in resistance. When the length of electrode is large, its inductance may cause only a
part of the earthing system to be effective in dissipating current and, thus result in an increase in
impedance.

The relative contributions of these two factors depend on the type of earthing system. The effect of soil
ionization is very predominant in driven rods so that the impulse resistance of a driven rod is always less
than its power frequency resistance.

4. Result:

These results are obtained by a MATLAB program.

5. Significance and Touch Voltage :

The step and touch voltages are dangerous for human body. Human body may get electric shocks from
step and touch voltages. From the safety point of view it is necessary to calculate step and touch
voltage. When high voltage substations are designed step and touch voltages should be calculated and
must be in specified standard. The expected shock current caused by touch voltage can be effectively
limited by applying inexpensive insulating layers on the earth’s surface .The limits of step and touch
potentials varies in different seasons because the resistivity of the soil layer is affected by different
seasons .The step and touch voltage calculations are very significant while designing substation.

6. Conclusion:

This paper has a focus on designing of an AC substation.The results for earthing system design are
obtained by MATLAB program for earthing conductor and vertical earth electrode mild steel is used.
References

[1] N.M. Tabatabaei, S.R. Mortezaeei; ―Design of Grounding System in

Substation by ETAP Intelligent Softwere‖,IJTPE Journal, March 2010, Page(s):45-49
[2] Chae-Kyun Jung; Jong-kee choi; Ji-won Kang, ―A study on effect of grounding system on transient voltage in 154kV
Substation‖, IEEE Conference Publications, 2009, Page(s): 1-6
[3] Ladanyi, J. ―Survey of the equivalent Substation earth current and earth impedance for transformer Station‖, IEEE
Conference Publications, 2011, Page(s): 1-5
[4] Lee, C.H; Lin, S. D., ―Safety assesment of AC earthing system in a DC traction-supply Substation, IEEE Journals, 2005,
Page(s): 885-893
[5] IEEE Std. 80-2000, ―IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding‖, IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers, Inc., New York, 2000, Page(s) 1- 192
[6] F. Gatta, S. Lauria, G. Parise, ― Common grounding system in urban areas‖ (in italian), Conference on ―Safety in complex
system‖-Bari (Italy) 16-17 October 2003.
[7] K. M. Bhatia and B. K. Jain, ―Standardization in the Field of Electrical Safety‖.
[8] IEEE Std. 142-2007, ―IEEE Recommended Practice for Grounding of Industrial and Commercial Power System‖, IEEE:
Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc., New York, 2007. Page(s): 1-215
[9] Brian Allport, ―Practical considerations (substation earthing)‖, VA TECH Reyrolle Transmission.
[10] H.B. Dwight, "Calculations of Resistances to Ground", AIEE Transactions, December 1936, pp.1319-1328.
[11] J. Nohman and S. Skuletich, "Irregularity Correction Factors for Mesh and Step Voltages of Grounding Grids", IEEE
Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, vol. PAS-99, No. 1, 1980,pp 174-180.
[12] Thapar, B., Gerez, V., Balakrishnan, A., and Blank, D., Simplified equations for mesh and step voltages in an AC substation,
IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, 6, 601–607, 1991
[13] R. J. Heppe, ―Computation of potential at surface above an energized grid or other electrode, allowing for nonuniform
current distribution,‖ IEEE Trans. on PAS, vol. 98, no. 6, pp. 1978–1989, Nov.–Dec. 1979.
[14] Marlar Thein oo, Ei Ei Cho,Design of earthing system for new substation project , Myanmar.

[15] S. J. Schwartz, "Analytical Expression for Resistance of Grounding Systems", AIEE Transactions, vol. 73, Part 111-B, 1954,
pp. 1011-1016.
[16] F. P. Dawalibi and D. Mukhedkar, ―Optimum design of substation grounding in two-layer earth structure—Part I,
Analytical study,‖ IEEE Trans. on PAS, vol. 94, no. 2, pp. 252–261, Mar.–Apr. 1975.
[17] Xun Long; Ming Dung; Wilsun Xu ; Yun Weili, ―Omline Monitoring of Substation Grounding Grid Conditions Using
Touch and Step Voltage Sensors‖, IEEE Journals, 2012, Page(s):761-769
[18] Hernandez Martinez.G.; Venegas Rehollar, V., ―Design and Simulation of a grounding grid for GIS Substation‖ IEEE
Journals, 2008, Page(s): 137-143
[19] Dwarka Prasad, H.C. Sharma; ―Significance of Step and Touch voltages‖, (IJSCE) Volume-1, Issue-5, November 2011