Approaches to Human

Cognition
Mastery ⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️⭐️
CHAPTER OUTLINE

Cognitive Psychology Defined

Philosophical Antecedents of Psychology: Rationalism

versus Empiricism

Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology

Structuralism

Functionalism

Associationism and Behaviorism

Gestalt Psychology

Psychobiology

Engineering. Computation, and Applied Psychology

Cognítíon and Intelligence

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

Triangular theory of Aaron Beck

Cognitive Psychology Defined

Cognitive Psychology << study of how people perceive,
learn, remember, and think about information.
[diagram]

Approaches to Human Cognition 1

 Why do objects look farther away on foggy days than they
really are?

Why do many people remember a particular experience

(e.g.. a very happy moment or an embarrassment during
childhood), yet they forget the names of people whom
they have known for many years?

Why are many people more afraid of travelling in planes

than in automobiles? After all, the chances of injury or
death are much higher in an automobile than in a plane.

Why do you often remember people you met in your

childhood but not people you met a week ago?

Why do marketing executives in large companies spend so

much company money on advertisements?

A dialectic << is a developmental process where ídeas

evolve over time through a pattern of transformation.

Thesis – A statement of belief.

Antithesis – A statement that counters a previous

statement of belief.

Synthesis – Integrates the viewpoints

Philosophy Antecendents of Psychology: Rationalism
versus Empiricism
Philosophy << Seeks to understand the general nature of
many aspects of the world, in part through introspection,
the examination of inner ideas and experiences.

Physiology << Seeks a scientific study of life-sustaining

functions in living matter, primarily through empirical
(observation-based) methods.

RATIONALISM

Believes that the route to knowledge is through thinking

and logical analysis.

Approaches to Human Cognition 2

 Basis for theory development

Plato (ca., 428-348 B.C.)

Rene Descartes (1596-1650)

"I think, therefore l am"

EMPIRICISM

Believes that we acquire knowledge via empirical

evidence—that is, we obtain evidence through experience
and observation.

Basis for gathering data

Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) 1st information-processing

theorist

John Locke (1632-1704) Tabula rasa (blank slate)

(a) According to the rationalist, the only route to truth is

reasoned contemplation;

(b) According to the empiricist, the only route to truth is

meticulous observation. Cognitive psychology, like other
sciences, depends on the work of both rationalists and
empiricists.
Psychological Antecedents of Cognitive Psychology
Structuralism << Seeks to understand the structure
(configuration of elements) of the mind and its perceptions
by analysing those perceptions into their constituent
components (affection, attention, memory, sensation, etc.).

Wilhelm Wundt (832-1920)

German psychologist

Founder of structuralism

Used Introspection as an experimental method of

research

Approaches to Human Cognition 3

 Introspection is a deliberate looking inward at
pieces of

information passing through consciousness.

The aim of introspection is to look at the elementary

components of an object or process.

*psychoeducation

He was no great success in school, failing time and

again and frequently finding himself subject to the
ridicule of others. However, Wundt later showed that
school performance does not always predict career
success because he is considered to be among the most
influential psychologists of all time.

Edward Titchener (1867-1927)

American student of Wundt

Sometimes viewed as the first full-pledged

structuralist

Brought structuralism to the United States

His experiments relied solely on the use of

introspection, exploring psychology from the vantage
point of the experiencing individual.

Functionalism << seeks to understand what people do and why

they do it.

Focuses on the processes of thought rather than on its

contents.

Particularly interested in the practical applications of

research.

Pragmatists believe that knowledge is validated by its

Usefulness: What can you do with it?

William James (1842-1910)

A leader in guiding functionalism toward pragmatism.

Approaches to Human Cognition 4

 A physician, philosopher, and brother of author Henry
James, as among the greatest psychologists ever,
although James himself seems to have rejected
psychology later in his life.

His chief functional contribution to the field of

psychology was a single book: his landmark Principles
of Psychology (1890/1970).

John Dewey (1859-1952)

Early pragmatist who profoundly influenced

contemporary thinking in cognitive psychology.

Remembered primarily for his pragmatic approach to

thinking and schooling.

Associationism

Examines how elements of the mind, like events or ideas,

can become associated with one another in the mind to
result in a form of learning.

For example, associations may result from:

Contiguity (associating things that tend to occur

together at about the same time):

Similarity (associating things with similar features

or properties); or

Contrast (associating things that show polarities,

such as hot/cold, light/dark, day/night).

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)

Was the first experimenter to apply associanist

principles systematically.

He studied his own mental processes.

Stuced memory and forgetting by using nonsense

syllables (e.g. Zax) through rehearsal (the conscious
repetition of material to be learned).

Approaches to Human Cognition 5

 He found that frequent repetition can fix mental
associations more firmly in memory. Thus, repetition
aids in learning.

Donald Hebb (1949)

proposed the concept of cell assemblies as the basis

for learning in the brain

cell assemblies are coordinated neural structures

that develop through frequent stimulation

Noam Chomsky (1959)

stressed both the biological basis and the creative

potential language

he pointed out the infinite numbers of sentences we

can produce with ease

he thereby defied behaviourist notions that we learn

by reinforcement

ADD A DASH OF TECHNOLOGY: ENGINEERING, COMPUTATION, AND

APPLIED COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY

Turing (1950) suggested that soon it would be hard to

distinguish the communication of machines from that of
humans.

“Turing test” by which a computer program would be

judged as successful to the extent that its output
was indistinguishable, by humans, from the output of
humans.

Artificial Intelligence (AI)

attempt of humans to construct systems that show

intelligence and, particularly, the intelligent
processing of information (Merriam Webster’s
Collegiate Dictionary, 2003)

solving practical problems of aviation

Approaches to Human Cognition 6

 Advertising has directly used principles from
cognitive psychology to attract customers to products

Miller’s Magic Number (7+2)

George Miller (1956) noted that the number seven

appeared in many different places in cognitive
psychology (perception and memory)

he found out that most people can remember seven

items of information

Albert Bandura (1977)

noted that learning appears to result not merely from

direct rewards for behavior, but it also can be
social, resulting from observations of the rewards or
punishments given to others

this view emphasizes how we observe and model our own

behavior after the behavior of others

we learn by example

Gestalt Psychology

states that we best understand psychological

phenomena when we view them as organized, structured
wholes

according to this view, we cannot fully understand

behavior when we only break phenomena down into
smaller parts

the maxim—“the whole is more than the sum of its

parts” aptly sums up the Gestalt perspective

Cognitivism << is the belief that much of human behavior

can be understood in terms of how people think.

In the early 1950s, a movement called the cognitive

revolution” took place in response to behaviorism.

EARLY ROLE OF PSYCHOBIOLOGY

Approaches to Human Cognition 7

 Karl Spencer Lashley (1890–1958)

considered the brain to be an active, dynamic organizer

of behavior

he sought to understand how the macro-organization of

the human brain made possible such complex, planned
activities as musical performance, game playing, and
using language

MEMORY TASK: RECALL

Paired Associates (Ebbinghaus, (1885/1913)

WOM CEG

GOR NIF
XAR MUP
JEK BAC

HOK MIB

The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve shows that the first few

repetitions result in a steep learning curve. Later
repetitions result in a slower increase of remembered
words.

Edward Lee Thorndike (1874- 1949)

He held that the role of "satisfaction" is the key to

forming associations.

He termed this principle the law of effect

(1905): A stimulus will tend to produce a certain

response over time if an organism is rewarded for that
response.

Thus, a child given treats for solving arithmetic

problems learns to solve them accurately because the
child forms associations between valid solutions and
treats.

[puzzle diagram]

Approaches to Human Cognition 8

 Behaviorism << Focuses only on the relation between
observable behavior and environmental events or stimuli.

lvan Pavlov (1349-1936)

Russian Nobel Prize-winning physiologist

Classical Conditioning

[diagram]

John B. Watson (1878-1958)

Father of radical behaviorism

He believed that psychologists should concentrate only

on the study of observable behavior.

B. F. Skinner (1904-1990)

Believed that virtually all forms of human behavior, not

just learning, could be explained by behavior emitted in
reaction to the environment.

He rejected mental mechanisms.

He believed instead that operant conditioning—involving

the strengthening or weakening of behavior, contingent
on the presence or absence of reinforcement rewards) or
punishments—could explain all forms of human behavior.

Criticisms of Behaviorism

Did not account as well for complex mental activities

such as language learning ond problem solving.

More than understanding people's behavior, some

psychologists wanted to know what went on inside the
head.

lf often proved easier to use the techniques of

behaviorism in studying nonhuman animals than in
studying human ones.

Edward Tolman (1886–1959)

Approaches to Human Cognition 9

 sometimes views as the forefather of modern cognitive
psychology

he thought that understanding behavior required taking

into account the purpose of, and the plan for, the
behavior

he believed that all behavior is directed toward a goal

Ulric Neisser

his book Cognitive Psychology (1967) was especially

critical in bringing cognitivism to prominence by
informing undergraduates, graduate students, and
academics about the newly developing field

he defined cognitive psychology as the study of how

people learn, structure, store, and use knowledge

Allen Newell and Herbert Simon (1972)

proposed detailed models of human thinking and problem

solving from the most basic levels to the most complex

Jerry Fodor (1973)

popularized the concept of the modularity of the mind

modularity implies that the processes that are used in

one domain of processing, such as the linguistic or the
perceptual domain, operate independently of processes in
other domains
Cognition and Intelligence
Intelligence << is the capacity to learn from experience,
using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the
ability to adapt to the surrounding environment.

Three Cognitive Models of Intelligence

1. Carroll: Three-Stratum Model of Intelligence

2. Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Approaches to Human Cognition 10

 3. Sternberg; The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Caroll: THREE-STRATUM MODEL OF INTELLIGENCE

intelligence comprises a hierarchy of cognitive

abilities comprising three strata

1. Stratum I: includes many narrow, specific abilities

e.g., spelling ability, speed of reasoning

2. Stratum II: includes various broad abilities

e.g., fluid intelligence, crystallized

intelligence, short-term memory, long-term
storage and retrieval, information-processing
speed

3. Stratum III: just a single general intelligence

sometimes called g

probably the most widely accepted of the measurement-

based models of intelligence

middle stratum:

fluid ability << is speed and accuracy of abstract

reasoning, especially for novel problems

crystallized ability << is accumulated knowledge and

vocabulary

learning and memory processes

visual perception

auditory perception

facile production of ideas (similar to verbal

fluency)

speed (sheer speed of response and accurate

responding)

Gardner: THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

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 intelligence comprises multiple independent constructs,
not just a single, unitary construct

each is a separate system of functioning, although these

systems can interact to produce what we see as
intelligent performance

view of mind is modular

Gardner’s Eight Intelligences (1993)

Linguistic Intelligence << used in reading a book:

writing a paper, a novel, or a poem: and
understanding spoken words

Logical-mathematical intelligence << used in solving

math problem, in balancing a checkbook, in solving a
mathematical proof, and in logical reasoning

Spatial intelligence << used in getting from one

place to another, in reading a map, and in packing
suitcases in the trunk of a car so that they all fit
into a compact space

Musical intelligence << used in singing a song,

composing a sonata, playing a trumpet, or even
appreciating the structure of a piece of music

Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence << used in dancing,

playing a basketball, running a mile, or throwing a
javelin

Interpersonal intelligence << used in relating to

other people, such as when we try to understand
another person’s behavior, motives, or emotions

Intrapersonal intelligence << used in understanding

ourselves–the basis for understanding who we are,
what makes us tick, and how we can change ourselves,
give our existing constraints on our abilities and
our interests

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 Naturalist intelligence << used in understanding
patterns in nature

Sternberg: THE TRIARCHIC THEORY OF INTELLIGENCE

tends to emphasize the extent to which the various

aspects of intelligence work together

creative abilities are used to generate novel ideas

analytical abilities ascertain whether your ideas (and

those of others) are good ones

practical abilities are used to implement the ideas and

persuade others of their value
Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology
Theory << an organized body of general explanatory
principles regarding a phenomenon, usually based on
observations

—“If our theory is correct, then whenever x occurs,

outcome y should result.”

Hypotheses << tentative proposal regarding expected

empirical consequences of the theory, such as the outcomes
of research

Statistical Significance << indicates the livelihood that a

given set of results would be obtained if only chance
factors were in operation

—retain or reject hypothesis

RESEARCH METHODS

CONTROLLED LABORATORY EXPERIMENTS

Description of Method — obtain samples of performance at

a particular time and place

Random Assignments of Subject —usually

Experimental Control of Independent Variables — usually

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 Sample Size — may be any size

Sample Representativeness — may be representative

Ecological Validity — Not unlikely; depends on the task

and the context to which it is being applied

Information about Individual Differences — usually de-

emphasized

Strengths

Easy to administer, score, and do statistical

analysis

High probability of drawing valid causal

interferences

Weaknesses

Difficulty in generalizing results beyond a specific

place, time, and task setting

Discrepancies between behavior in real life and in

the laboratory

Example:

Karpicke (2009) developed a laboratory task in which

participants had to learn and recall Swahili-English
word pairs. After subjects first recalled the meaning
of a word, that pair was either dropped, presented
twice more in a study period, or presented twice more
in test periods. Subjects took a final recall test
one week later.

PSYCHOBIOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Description of Method — study animal brains and human

brains, using postmodern studies and various
psychobiological measures or imaging techniques

Random Assignments of Subject — not usually

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 Experimental Control of Independent Variables — varies
widely, depending on the particular technique

Sample Size — often small

Sample Representativeness — often not representative

Ecological Validity — unlikely under some circumstances

Information about Individual Differences — yes

Strengths

”hard” evidence of cognitive functions through

physiological activity

alternative view of cognitive processes

possibility to develop treatments for cognitive

deficits

Weaknesses

limited accessibility for most researchers (need

appropriate subjects and expensive equipment

small samples

decreased generalizability when abnormal brains or

animal brains are investigated

Example:

New and colleagues (New et. Al., 2009) have found

that Borderline patients with Intermittent Explosive
Disorder responded more aggressively to a provocation
than did normal control subjects. The patients
particularly showed an increase in glucose
consumption in brain areas associated with emotion
like the amygdala and less activity in dorsal brain
regions that serve to control aggression.

SELF-REPORTS SUCH AS VERBAL PROTOCOLS, SELF-RATING

Approaches to Human Cognition 15

 Description of Method — obtain participants’ reports of
own cognition in progress or as recollected

Random Assignments of Subject — not applicable

Experimental Control of Independent Variables — probably

not

Sample Size — probably small

Sample Representativeness — may be representative

Ecological Validity — maybe; see strengths and

weaknesses

Information about Individual Differences — yes

Strengths

access to introspective insights from participants’

point of view

Weaknesses

inability to report on processes occurring outside

conscious awareness

verbal protocols & self-ratings: may influence

cognitive process being reported

recollections: discrepancies between actual cognition

and recollected cognitive processes and products

Example:

In a study about the relation between cortisol levels

(which are stress-dependent) and sleep, self-rated
health and stress, participants kept diaries and
collected saliva samples over four weeks.

CASE STUDIES

Description of Method — engage in intensive study of

single individuals, drawing general conclusions about
behavior

Approaches to Human Cognition 16

 Random Assignments of Subject — highly unlikely

Experimental Control of Independent Variables — highly

unlikely

Sample Size — almost certain to be small

Sample Representativeness — not likely to be

representative

Ecological Validity — high ecological validity for

individual cases; lower generalizability to others

Information about Individual Differences — yes; richly

detailed information regarding individuals

Strengths

access to detailed information about individuals,

including historical and current contexts

may lead to specialized applications for special

groups (e.g., prodigies; persons with brain damage)

Weaknesses

applicability to other persons

limited generalizability due to small sample size and

nonrepresentativeness of sample

Example:

A case study with breast cancer patient showed that a

new technique (problem-solving therapy) can reduce
anxiety and depression in cancer patients (Carvalha &
Hopka, 2009)

NATURALISTIC OBSERVATIONS

Description of Method — observe real-life situations, as

in classrooms, work settings, or homes

Random Assignments of Subject — not applicable

Experimental Control of Independent Variables — no

Approaches to Human Cognition 17

 Sample Size — probably small

Sample Representativeness — may be representative

Ecological Validity — yes

Information about Individual Differences — possible, but

emphasis is on environmental distinctions, not on
individual differences

Strengths

access to rich contextual information

Weaknesses

lack of experimental control

possible influence on behavior due to presence of

observer

Example:

A study using questionnaires and observation found

that Mexicans on average consider themselves less
sociable than US Americans consider themselves;
however, Mexicans behave much more sociable than US
Americans in their everyday lives (Ramirez-Esparza et
al., 2009)

COMPUTER SIMULATIONS AND ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Description of Method —

Simulations: attempt to make computers simulate human

cognitive performance on various tasks.

AI: attempt to make computers demonstrate intelligent

cognitive performance, regardless of whether the
process resembles human cognitive processing

Random Assignments of Subject — not applicable

Experimental Control of Independent Variables — full

control of variables of interest

Approaches to Human Cognition 18

 Sample Size — not applicable

Sample Representativeness — not applicable

Ecological Validity — not applicable

Information about Individual Differences — not

applicable

Strengths

exploration of possibilities for modeling cognitive

processes

allows clear hypothesis testing

wide range of practical applications (e.g., robotics

for performing dangerous tasks)

Weaknesses

limitations imposed by the hardware (i.e., the

computer circuitry) and the software (i.e., the
programs written by the researcher)

simulations may imperfectly model the way that the

human brain thinks

Examples:

Simulations — through detailed computations, David

Marr (1982) attempted to simulate human visual
perception and proposed a theory based on his
computer models

AI — various AI programs have been written that can

demonstrate expertise (e.g., playing chess) but they
probably do so via different processes than those
used by human experts

Approaches to Human Cognition 19