CLASS 12

SECTION A- Major experiments

1. Aim: Prepare a temporary mount to observe pollen germination.

Principle: In nature, pollen grains germinate on the compatible stigmas of the carpel. Pollen
grains can also be induced to germinate in a synthetic medium. During germination, intine
(inner wall) of pollen grain emerges out as pollen tube through one of the germ pores in exine
(outer wall).

Requirement: Magnesium sulphate, potassium nitrate, boric acid, calcium nitrate, sucrose,
distilled water, petri dish, slides, coverslips, brush, needle, microscope, and fresh mature anther
of seasonal plants.

Procedure:
1. Prepare the pollen germination medium by dissolving 10g sucrose, 30mg magnesium
sulphate, 20mg potassium nitrate, 30mg calcium nitrate and 10mg boric acid in 100ml of
distilled water. Alternatively 10% sucrose solution can also be used.
2. Take a drop of medium or 10% sucrose solution on a cover slip and sprinkle mature pollen
grains on the drop.
3. Invert the cover glass on to a slide
4. After10minutes,observetheslideundermicroscope.
5. Count- (a) total number of pollen grains seen in the microscope field, and (b) the number
of pollen grains that have germinated.

Observation:

1. Observe many pollen grains germinating over stigma. The growth of the pollen tube is
stimulated by sugary substances secreted by the stigma.
2. Pollen tube carrying with it tube nucleus and the generative nucleus.
3. The generative nucleus divides forming two male gametes.
4. Count the number of germinated pollen grains.

Conclusions: The pollen grains will germinate when submerged in the nutrient-rich medium.
The pollen grain is uninucleate (has one nucleus) in the beginning. At the time of liberation, it
becomes 2 celled, with a small generative cell and a vegetative cell. Germination is
characterized by the enlargement of the vegetative/tube cell. It emerges through one of the
germ pores, eventually forming a pollen tube. The generative cell nucleus grows into the pollen
tube and makes two male gametes (sperm nuclei). The male gamete is either spherical or
lenticular in outline.

Precautions:
1. Ensure that the flowers are freshly picked.
2. The observation slide should be a cavity slide, meaning that it has a depression in the
centre.
3. Mounting should be free from air bubbles.
2. Aim: To study plant population density by quadrat method

Materials required: Meter scale, string, nails, hammer, measuring, tape, paper.

Principle: Density represents the numerical strength of a certain plant species in the
community per unit area. The number of individuals of the species in any unit area is its density.
Or Average number of particular plant species present per unit area is called as population
density. Density which gives an idea of degree of competition is calculated as follows:

The value thus obtained is then expressed as number of individuals per unit area. When
the measured unit area is divided by the number of individuals the average area occupied by
each individual is obtained.

Procedure:
1. In the selected site of study, make a 1m X 1m quadrat with the help of nails and thread.
Hammer the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is not damaged while laying the
quadrat.
2. List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these
as species A or B etc., and the same species if seen in other quadrats assign the same
alphabet).
3. Count the number of individuals of each species present in the quadrat and record the data
as shown in the table.
4. Similarly make nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names and
number of individuals of each species.

Observation table:

Plants Quadrats employed in study and no. of individuals in Total no. Total no. Density
species each quadrat of of D=S/Q
individuals quadrates
(S) studied
(Q)
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Result:

1. No. of species studied in a quadrate are-

2. Plant species with high density in the quadrate are …… and species with less density are
……

Discussion: Plants growing together exhibit mutual relationships among themselves and also
with the environment. Such a group of plants in an area represent a community. The number
of individuals of a species varies from place to place, making it necessary to take many random
sample areas for reliable results. Density values are significant because they show relative
importance of each species. With increasing density the competition stress increases and the
same is reflected in poor growth and lower reproductive capacity of the species. Data on
population density are often very essential in measuring the effects of reseeding, burning,
spraying and successional changes.

The study area showed mixed vegetation composition and the dominant species was ……..

Precautions:
1. Square field should be taken from one place only.
2. Measurement should be done carefully.
3. One quadrate should not be overlapped with another quadrate.
4. Only the individuals of one plant species should be considered at one time.
3. Aim: To determine the population frequency of any field by quadrate method.

Materials required: Meter scale, string, nails, hammer, measuring, tape, paper.

Principle: Total no. of quadrate having species in them among the total no. of quadrate gives
the percentile of population frequency. Or Frequency is concerned with the degree of
uniformity of the occurrence of individuals of a species within a plant community. It is
measured by noting the presence of a species in random sample areas (quadrats) which are
distributed as widely as possible throughout the area of study. Frequency is the number of
sampling units (as %) in which a particular species (A) occurs. The frequency of each species
(sps. A or sps. B or sps. X etc) is expressed in percentage and is calculated as follows.

Procedure:
1. In the selected site of study, make a 1 m X 1 m quadrat with the help of nails and thread.
Hammer the nails firmly and make sure that the vegetation is not damaged while laying the
quadrat.
2. List the names of the plant species seen in the quadrat (if the name is not known mark these
as species A or B etc. and if the same species is seen in other quadrats assign the same
alphabet)
3. Similarly lay nine more quadrats randomly in the site of study and record the names of
individuals of each species.
4. Calculate the percentage frequency of occurrence using the formula given.

Observation table:

Plants Number of quadrats employed in the study (Q) No. of quadrats Percentage of
species in which the Frequency
species is
present (N) F = N/Q X 100
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

Discussion: Variation in distribution of a species is caused by factors like soil conditions,

quantity and dispersal of gemmules, vegetative propagation, grazing, predation, diseases and
other biotic activities. Also frequency values differ in different communities. They are
influenced by micro-habitat conditions, topography, soil and many other environmental
characteristics. Thus unless frequency is not correlated with other characters such as density,
frequency alone does not give correct idea of the distribution of a species.
 Frequency determinations by means of sample areas are often needed in order to check general
impressions about the relative values of species. Many species having low cover or population
density also rate low in frequency, but some may have high frequency because of their uniform
distribution. Usually if the cover and population density are high, the frequency will be high.
The plants with high frequency are wide in distribution.

Precautions:
1. Square field should be taken from one place only.
2. Measurement should be done carefully.
3. One quadrate should not be overlapped with another quadrate.
4. Aim: To make a temporary mount of the onion root tip to study various stages of mitosis.

Principle: Somatic growth in plants and animals takes place by the increase in the number of
cells. A cell divides mitotically to form two daughter cells wherein the number of chromosomes
remains the same (i.e., unchanged) as in the mother cell. In plants, such divisions rapidly take
place in meristematic tissues of root and shoot apices, where the stages of mitosis can be easily
observed.

Requirement: Materials required: Onion root tips, needles, brush, slide, coverslip, burner,
microscope, acetocarmine stain.

Procedure:
1. Take a root tip on clean slide and put a drop of acetocarmine stain on it.
2. This makes the stain specific for nuclear materials. Gently warm it a little over a burner. On
warming the stain evaporates. Before it is dried add more stain on it.
3. Squash the root tip with the help of a needle or a force put the coverslip. Tap it a bit more
from above.
4. Now take the slide in the folds of a blotting paper and apply gentle pressure with hands.
5. Observe the slide under the microscope first in the low power and then after locating a
specific area in the high power. Examine and identify various stages of mitosis.

Observation: Various stages of mitosis could be seen –

(1) Interphase:
(i) Chromatin fibres appear in the form of a network within the nucleus.
(ii) Nuclear envelope and nucleolus are distinct.

(2) Prophase:

(i) Chromatin material shortens and condenses into thread like structures called chromosomes.
(ii) Each chromosome consists of two chromatids that are joined at a point called centromere.
(iii) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.

(3) Metaphase:
(i) Chromosomes become arranged at the equator of the spindle.
(ii) Each chromosome get attached to the spindle fibres at its centromere.

(4) Anaphase:
(i) The two sister chromatids of each chromosome separate from the centromere and move
towards the opposite poles.
(ii) The daughter chromosomes appear V,J,L and I shaped depending upon the position of
centromere.

(5) Telophase:
(i) Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears and two daughter nuclei appear at opposite
poles.
(ii) Cytokinesis is occurs by cell plate formation between the two daughter nuclei.

Precautions:
(1) The slide should be warmed gently much above the flame of the spirit lamp.
(2) The acetocarmine stain should be filtered before use.
(3) There should be no air bubble in the slide.
5. Aim: To isolate DNA from available plant material.

Materials required: Spinach leaves/Pea seeds/Papaya,test tube, 50 ml beakers, Cheesecloth,

Mortar and pestle, 10 ml graduated cylinder, 95% Ethanol solution (keep ice cold in plastic
bottle in freezer), 12% Salt solution, 29.2 g deionized salt, 250 ml distilled water, 50%
Detergent solution, 50 ml Wisk Free, 50 ml distilled water, Contact Lens Cleaning Solution,
Use 1 tablet per 3ml of distilled water.

Principal: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) are the two nucleic
acids found in living beings. DNA is the genetic material that is found in most organisms. It
is a common cell component and transfers instructions in order to produce proteins, certain
important molecules required for the growth and development of the organisms. The process
of extracting Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) from various samples is known as DNA Isolation.
For genetic analysis, which is utilized for scientific, medicinal, or forensic objectives, DNA
isolation is required. The methods which are used to isolate DNA differ depending on the
sample’s source, age, and size.

Isolation of DNA requires three steps-

(i) Hominization- During homogenization, the cell walls and membranes are damaged, and
the resultant substance disperses in the buffer solution.
(ii) Deproteinization- It involves adding of protease enzyme pepsin.
(iii) Spooling- precipitation of DNA can be done by adding ethanol.

Procedure:
1. Choose 2-3 spinach leaves. Remove any stems if present.
2. Place 1 ml of distilled water in a mortar and pestle along with leaves. Add a small pinch of
sand and grind until spinach looks like creamed spinach.
3. Add the contents of the mortar and pestle to a 50 ml beaker.
4. Add 1 ml of 50% detergent solution and 9 ml salt solution to spinach. Mix well with a glass
stir rod.
5. Place on a hot plate and heat until boiling. Remove from heat and let sit for minutes. Put on
ice for 5 minutes so that it cools down.
6. Pour spinach mixture (supernatant) through cheesecloth into a clean beaker.
7. Pour the supernatant into a test tube then add 1 ml of freshly prepared contact lens cleaning
solution.
8. Carefully layer 6 ml chilled 95% ethanol solution onto the green supernatant using a 10 ml
graduated cylinder. Slowly pour ethanol down the side of the test tube. Try not to let the two
layers mix together.
9. Using the wire loop, spool the DNA by gently swirling the loop at the interface between the
green supernatant and the clear ethanol. The DNA will congeal at the point where the two
layers meet.

Observation: The addition of ethanol to the solution causes DNA to precipitation. The DNA
fibres appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the glass spool.

Result: DNA appears as white precipitate of very fine threads on the spool.

Precautions:
1. All the glassware must be thoroughly cleaned and dried.
2. Wash the plant material well with distilled water, pat it dry, and weigh it to get rid of any
dust particles.
3. The chemicals used for the experiments must be of standard quality.
4. If ordinary ethanol is used, the time duration for obtaining precipitated DNA may extend
further.
 Section- B
Spotting

1. Aim: To study the flowers adapted to pollination by different agencies (wind, insects, birds).

OBSERVATION

a). Maize flowers (Anemophilous or wind pollinated flowers)

i. The maize plant is monoecious and bears unisexual flowers. The male flowers are born in
terminal inflorescence while the female flowers are born in axillary inflorescence.
ii. The flowers are colourless, odourless and nectar less.
iii. Flowers are small and inconspicuous.
iv. Both the stigmas and anthers are exerted.
v. Anthers are versatile, and pollen grains are light, small and dusty.
vi. Stigma is hairy, feathery or branched to catch wind born pollen grains.
vii. The pollen grains are produced in very large numbers.

b). Salvia flowers ( Entomophilous or Insect pollinated flowers)

i. The flowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating Insects.
ii. Flowers secrete nectar to feed visiting insects. Nectar glands are placed in such a position
that an insect must touch both the anthers and stigmas.
iii. The flowers have landing platform for the insects.
iv. The flowers are protandrous with bilipped corolla and have turn pipe or lever
mechanism.
v. Each stamen has long connective which bears a fertile anther lobe at the upper end and
sterile plate like anther lobe at the lower end.
c). Sunflowers ( Entomophilous or Insect pollinated flowers)

i. The inflorescence is racemose type (capitulum), with landing platform (disc floret bud) for
the insects. The flowers are showy or brightly coloured for attracting pollinating Insects.
ii. Flowers secrete nectar and large number of pollen grains to feed visiting insects.
iii. Nectar glands are placed in such a position that an insect must touch both the anthers and
stigmas.
iv. Pollen grains are sticky and pale yellow in colour.
v. The flowers are protandrous with bilipped stigma hidden within syngenesious tube of
anther.
2. Aim: To study the pollen germination on stigma through a permanent slide or scanning
electron micrograph.

Observation:
i. Pollen grain or microspore is the first cell of male gametophyte
ii. Each pollen grain of a flowering plant (angiosperm) possesses two cells- Vegetative
cell and Generative cell
iii. On the stigma, the pollen grain absorbs water and nutrients from the stigmatic secretion
through its germ pores.
iv. The tube cell gives rise to a pollen tube, the generative cell also descends into the pollen
tube and divides in to two male gametes.
v. There is only one pollen tube from one pollen.
vi. Certain pollen grain do not germinate and are referred as sterile pollens.
3. Aim: Identification of stages of gamete development, i.e., T.S. of testis and T.S. of ovary
through permanent slides (from grasshopper/mice).

T.S. of Testis-
Comments:
i. The mammalian testis is covered by a thick fibrous tissue called tunica albuginea.
ii. The testis consists of numerous seminiferous tubules embedded in the interstitial tissue.
iii. Various types of germinal cells are present from outside towards lumen in the following
sequence. Spermatogonia Spermatocytes Spermatids Spermatozoa Sperms.
iv. Between the germinal cells, pyramid shaped cells called sertoli cells are present.
v. The interstitial cells or leydig cells are present in between the tubules they secrete the male
sex hormone, testosterone.

T.S. of Ovary-
Comments:
i. A mammalian ovary is a solid structure bounded by germinal epithelium followed by a
thick layer of fibrous tissue, the tunica albuginia.
ii. The ovary consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.
iii. In the stroma, graffian follicles in various stages of development like primary oocytes and
secondary oocytes are found.
iv. A graffian follicle consists of an ovum, surrounded by a group of follicular cells.
v. A Mature follicle ruptures and releases the ovum out of the ovary. At the point of rupture
corpus luteum is formed which secretes the hormone progesterone.
vi. The cortex may also contain a large mass of yellow cells termed corpus luteum, formed in
an empty graffian follicle after the release of its ovum.
4. Aim: Study of stages of meiosis using permanent slides.

Observation:

Stages of Meiosis I
Prophase 1
• In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move towards the centre of the cell. It
consists of five different sub-phases.
• It is the longest phase of meiosis I. In this stage, the chromosomes condense and move
toward the center of the cell. It consists of five different sub-phases.
1. Leptotene
2. Zygotene
3. Pachytene
4. Diplotene
5. Diakinesis
Leptotene
• Leptotene is the first substage of prophase I.
• At leptotene the homologous chromosomes replicates.
• In this phase, the chromatin threads get condensed and appear shortened and thick.
Zygotene
• The homologous chromosomes form a pair called as synapsis.
• After the pairing of the homologous chromosomes, they can be seen as paired
chromatin threads which are called tetrad or bivalent.
Pachytene
• In pachytene the bivalents, exchange the gene segments between the non-sister
chromatids of the homologous chromosomes and this process is called the crossing
over.
• The place where the exchange of chromosomes or crossing over takes place is called
chiasma.
Diplotene
• In diplotene, the bivalent chromosomes unlock themselves resulting in the separation
of the two homologous chromosomes.
• The two homologous chromosomes migrate apart and disintegrate between the
chromosomal arms.
Diakinesis
• The homologous chromosomes separate from each other and regain their individual
identity.
• Also, the nuclear membrane and the nucleolus completely disappear at this stage and
the centrosome moves to the equator.
Metaphase I
• In this stage, the homologous pairs align on the equator of the cell with a random
orientation.
• This arrangement forms a metaphase plate and is a result of independent assortment.
Anaphase I
 • The homologous pairs separate from each other and move toward the opposite poles
and the separated chromosomes are pulled toward the centrioles on either side of the
cell.
• Microtubules begin to shorten, this pulling of one chromosome of each homologous
pair to opposite poles in a process known as disjunction.
• The sister chromatids of each chromosome stay connected. The cell begins to elongate
in preparation for cytokinesis.
Telophase I
• Meiosis I end when the chromosomes of each homologous pair arrive at opposing poles
of the cell. In telophase 1 the microtubules start to disintegrate, and the chromosomes
are completely pulled apart and a new nuclear envelope forms around each haploid set
of chromosomes.
• The chromosomes get uncoiled, forming the chromatin again, and the cytokinesis
occurs, which results in the forming of two non-identical daughter cells.
• These daughter cells are haploid and are formed from the diploid parent cells. However,
Chromosomes are still attached to the sister chromatids. So, in order to separate the
sister chromatids from each other. Each haploid cell undergoes another round of
division.
• Before moving ahead the haploid cells enter a small resting phase called the interkinesis
or interphase II. It’s a short phase with no activities involved.

Stages of Meiosis II: Meiosis II may begin with interkinesis or interphase II. This differs from
interphase I in that no S phase occurs, as the DNA has already been replicated. Thus, only a G
phase occurs. Meiosis II is known as equational division, as the cells begin as haploid cells and
end as haploid cells. There are again four phases in meiosis II: these differ slightly from those
in meiosis I.
Prophase II
• In this stage, the chromosomes start condensing and become short and compact.
Whereas, The nuclear envelope and nucleolus disintegrate.
• The Centrioles and spindle fibers begin to appear.
• No crossing over occurs in this stage.
Metaphase II
• In metaphase II the chromosomes align at the equatorial plane forming the metaphase
plate.
• Spindle fibers connect to the kinetochore of each sister chromatid.
• One sister chromatid faces each pole, with the arms divergent.
Anaphase II
• In anaphase II the sister chromatids separate and are known as sister chromosomes.
• The spindle fibers connected to each sister chromatid gets shorten, pulling one sister
chromatid to each pole.
Telophase II
• The cell divides into two and a new nuclear envelope surrounds the chromosomes.
• Meiosis II ends when the sister chromosomes have reached opposing poles.
• The spindle disintegrates, and the chromosomes recoil, forming chromatin.
• This nuclear envelope forms around each haploid chromosome set,
before cytokinesis occurs, forming two daughter cells from each parent cell, or four
haploid daughter cells in total.
5. Aim: To study T.S. of blastula through permanent slides (Mammalian).

Comments:

i. It is a spherical mass of about 32 or 64 cells.

ii. It is composed of an outer envelope of cells, the trophoblast or trophoectoderm and inner
cell mass (embryoblast).
iii. Within the envelope there is a fluid filled cavity called blastocoel.
iv. The side of the blastocyst to which the inner cell mass is attached is called the embryonic
or animal pole, while the opposite side is the abembryonic pole.
v. The inner cell mass is the precursor of the embryo.
vi. In this state it forms the connection with mother's uterus wall which is called implantation.
6. Aim: To study Mendelian inheritance using seeds of different colour/sizes of any plant.
Requirements : Seeds of any plant (like pea), pencil, eraser, note book.
Observation:
(i) Collect the seeds of any plant (pea).
(ii) Now count the number of seeds which are yellow and green in colour.
(iii) The ratio were analysed on the basis of law of probability.
(iv) Monohybrid cross can be shown by following cross.

Observation : Ratio of seed colour in plant in Fl generation is ---------------

Ratio of seed colour in plant in F2 generation is -----------------

Result : Above ratio matches with Mendelian ratio.

7. Aim: Controlled pollination - emasculation, tagging and bagging.
Emasculation:
(i) In this process anthers are removed from the flowers before their maturation .
(ii) The anthers are cut with the help of sterilized forceps or scissors.
(iii) The Instrument used in this method - Include Pocket lens, forceps, needle, scissors, scalpel
etc.
(iv) Method of emasculation is employed to the crops having small flowers like paddy.

Bagging and tagging:

(i) After emasculation, the flowers are covered with small bags to prevent pollination with
undesired pollen grains.
(ii) These bags are made up of polythene, paper, muslin cloth or parchment paper.
(iii)The flowers of male parents are also protected in bags to prevent mixing of their pollen
grain with foreign pollens. .
(iv) After dusting of the desired pollen grains on the emasculated flowers. The bags are
retagged.
(v) A label of paper is tagged on the plant which displays the date of emasculation, crossing
and brief account of the parents

8. Aim: Common disease causing organisms.

Identification: Entamoeba

Kingdom: Protista
 Phylum: Sarcomastigophora
Class- Lobosea
Orders: Euamoebida
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: histolytica

Disease: Amoebic dysentery or Amoebiasis

Comments:

i. Trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica live in the mucous and sub mucous layers of large
intestine.
ii. It is a human parasite that resides in the upper part of the large Intestine.
iii. It causes the disease called amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis.
iv. The symptoms of the diseases Include abdominal pain, repeated motions with blood
and mucus.
v. The parasite is unicellular and has a blunt pseudopodium.
vi. There is a single nucleus and a number of food vacuoles.
vii. It feeds on red blood corpuscles by damaging the wall of large intestine and reaching
the blood capillaries.
viii. It produces ulcers and can also reach other body organs.

Symptoms:

i. The mild form of amebiasis includes nausea (a feeling of sickness in the stomach), diarrhea
(loose stool/poop), weight loss, stomach tenderness, and occasional fever.
ii. Rarely, the parasite will spread the body beyond the intestines and cause a more serious
infection, such as a liver abscess (a collection of pus).
iii. The symptoms may develop a few days to a few months after exposure but usually within
two to four weeks.

Identification : Plasmodium vivex

Kingdom- Protista
Sub-kingdom Protozoa
Phylum- Apicomplexa
 Class- Aconoidasida
Order- Haemosporida
Family Plasmodiidae
Genus- Plasmodium
Species- P. vivax

Disease: Malaria

Comments:
i. It is a protozoan digenic endoparasite of man.
ii. Its primary host is man and female anopheles is its secondary host.
iii. Plasmodium enters human body in sporozoite stage by the bites of female anopheles.
iv. The sporozoite is spindle shaped and uninucleate organism capable of wriggling movement.
v. The sporozoites infect liver cell and produce metacryptomerozoites.
vi. The metacryptomerozoites enter RBCs, and passes trophozoite signet ring stage and
amoeboid stage and produce schizont and merozoites.
vii. The merozoites enter fresh RBCs and produce gametocytes.

Symptoms: Symptoms of malaria are exhibited within 7 to 18 days of being infected. Common
symptoms include:

i. Fever, fatigue, chills, vomiting, and headaches

ii. Diarrhoea, anaemia and muscle pain
iii. Profuse sweating and convulsions
iv. Bloody stools.
v. In severe cases, malaria can be devastating; it can lead to seizures, coma and eventually,
death.

Identification: Ascaris

• Kingdom: Animalia
• Phylum: Nematoda
• Class: Secernentea
• Order: Ascaridida
• Family: Ascarididae
• Genus: Ascaris
 • Species: lumbricoides (Linnaeus, 1758)

Disease- Ascariasis

Comments:
i. It is an endoparasite of the small Intestine of human beings and is more common in children.
ii. The animal shows sexual dimorphism with separate male and female individuals.
iii. The life history is simple and without any intermediate host. The infection occurs through
contaminated food and water.
iv. Ascaris causes abdominal discomfort and colic pain.
v. The patient may also suffer from impaired digestion, diarrhoea and vomiting.
vi. In children mental efficiency is affected and body growth is retarded
vii. It causes ascariasis.

Symptoms: Patients infected with ascariasis can be asymptomatic, only showing long-term
manifestations of growth retardation and malnutrition. If symptoms are present, abdominal
pain, bloating, nausea, vomiting, anorexia, intermittent diarrhea are the most common
manifestations.

Identification- Ringworm

Pathogen - Trichophyton sp.

Kingdom: Fungi
 Division: Ascomycota

Class: Eurotiomycetes

Order: Onygenales

Family: Arthrodermataceae

Genus: Trichophyton

Disease – Athlete’s foot, foot ringworm, Ringworm of nails, Ringworm of scalp

Symptoms:

i. It forms lesions on hairy parts of smooth skin.

ii. It also infects the nails of the hands and feet.
iii. Some species of these fungi cause ringworm of the scalp found chiefly in children.
iv. Mostly they infect the skin so this fungi and disease are called dermatomycoses.
v. Skin becomes dry and whitish in colour with keratin substances.

Name of fungus species Diseases

1. Trichophyton rubrum Athlete’s foot, foot
ringworm
2. Trichophyton rubrum Ringworm of nails
Trichophyton mentogrophytes

3. Trichophyton tonsurans Ringworm of scalp

Trichophyton violaceum
Trichophyton scholnleinii
9. Aim: To study the symbiotic association in root modules of leguminous plants, Cuscuta on
host, lichens.

Observation:

1. Rhizobium in root nodules of leguminous plant ( pea plant)

i. Rhizobium, a gram negative bacteria are present in root nodules of leguminous plant
and form a symbiotic relationship, mutualism, where both are benefited from each
other.
ii. Root nodules are commonly found in the root of leguminous plants, nodules are formed
due to association with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
iii. Root nodules contains pink colour leghaemoglobin pigment and also contains enzyme
nitrogenase which helps in the formation ammonia.
iv. Nitrogen fixing bacteria like Rhizobium fixes atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous
compounds.
v. Rhizobium can convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia that can be used by pea plant
for growth and development.
vi. Bacteria receive nutrients and suitable place to grow from plant.

2. Cuscuta with Host

i. Cuscuta commonly called dodder or amerbel and live as stem ectoparasite on other
plants.
ii. Cuscuta has no fully expanded form of leaves (scale like leaves are present) and has no
chlorophyll.
iii. Stem of Cuscuta is thin and slender shaped and winds around the stem of host plant.
iv. Stem of Cuscuta fixes itself to the stem of host plant with special structures called
Haustoria, forms direct connection to the vascular bundles of the host and withdraw
water, carbohydrates and other solutes.
v. Roots of Cuscuta are temporary and die as soon as it makes connection with host plant.
vi. Cuscuta can weaken or kill plant and reduce crop yield.
3. Lichens

i. Lichens are composite organisms representing a symbiotic association (mutualism)

between fungus and algae
ii. The algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component is known as
mycobiont.
iii. Algae prepare food for fungi and fungi provide shelter and absorb mineral, nutrients and
water for its partner.
iv. They grow on lands, rocks, tree trunks and walls of houses, like dry vegetation.
v. Based on their growth- three main types of lichen are- crustose, foliose and fruticose.

Crustose Lichens- Crustose lichens are flat, thin and without any distinct lobes. They are
usually found closely attached to stones, rocks, barks and the trunk of trees. Haematomma
puniceum and Graphic scripta are the best examples of crustose lichens.
Foliose Lichens- The foliose lichens are more attractive compared to other types of lichens.
They are flat shaped, broad, smooth and leaf-like structures, which often resemble crinkled and
twisted leaves. It holds a distinct upper and a lower surface. This type of lichens is generally
found attached to rocks and twigs with the help of the rhizoid. Cetraria, Cluiudhuria, Parmelia
and Xanthoria are a few examples of foliose lichens.

Fruticose Lichens- These are the most important types of lichens, which are thin and freely
branched. The fruticose lichens constitute larger and attractive growths standing out from the
branches of trees, foliage and rocks. Cladonia, Ramalina and Usnea are the common examples
of fruticose lichens.
10. Aim: Study of homologous and analogous organs in plants and animals.

Principle: In plants and animals there are several organs or parts thereof, apparently alike in
their function and appearance, but markedly different from each other in their origin and
anatomical structure. These organs are called analogous organs, and the seeming similarity
among them is the result of convergence, that is, adaptation to similar habitat and identical
ecological niche.

On the other hand, there are organs or parts thereof, which apparently are quite dissimilar to
each other in appearance and perform different functions, but have the same origin and
anatomy. The differences in their function and also in their appearances are the result of
divergence, due to adaptive radiation to different habit, habitat and ecological niche. These
organs are called homologous organs.

Homologous Organs in Plants

(i) Tendrils of passion flower and thorns of pomegranate- Tendrils of passion fruit and
thorns of pomegranate are structurally and functionally different but they have similar origin
i.e. they arise from axillary bud

(ii) Tendrils of Vitis and thorns of Carissa- Tendrils of Vitis and thorns of Carissa originate
from the terminal bud, but they are functionally different.

(iii) Scale leaves of onion and spines of prickly pear (Opuntia)- Both the scale leaves and
spines are modifications of leaves but are structurally and functionally different. Scale leaves
of onion are thick and fleshy and store food. On the other hand spines of cactus are defensive
organs

(iv) Tendrils of balloon vine (Cardiospermum) and bulbils of Agave- Both are modifications
of floral bud, but they perform different functions. Tendrils help in climbing but bulbils are
meant for reproduction

Analogous Organs in Plants

(i) Stem tendrils and leaf tendrils- All tendrils are analogous with one another, being
structurally and functionally similar, irrespective of their origin.
Example: Tendrils of pea and tendrils of Vitis. Tendrils of pea are modification of leaf and in
Vitis it is the modification of terminal bud

(ii) Thorns and spines- Thorns and spines are analogous structures being defensive in
function. Thorns are modifications of axillary or terminal buds, and spines are modifications
of leaves. e.g: Thorns of pomegranate and spines of prickly pear.

(iii) Modified underground stems and modified roots

Modified stems (rhizome, corm, tuber) are analogous to modified roots (carrot, radish) as they
perform similar function of storage of food but their origin is different. Rhizome of ginger,
potato tuber, Colocasia are stems and beetroot, radish etc. are roots.

(iv) Phylloclade, cladode and leaves

They perform the same function i.e. they photosynthesise but phylloclade and cladode are
modifications of stem. Phylloclade of Opuntia, Parkinsonia, Asparagus and leaves of any local
plant like mango are analogous organs.

Homologous Organs in Animals

Wings of birds, and forelimb of mammals/reptiles/ frog: All have the same bony elements
(humerus radio-ulna, carpals, metacarpals and phalanges), but perform different (flying in
birds, for holding or walking etc. in other) functions.

The pelvis of dogs, cats and humans are shared by primitive snakes like pythons as a vestigial
organ. This is an example of Homologous organs as well as points towards the common
ancestry of snakes with humans and dogs.

Mouthparts of insects like the butterfly, grasshoppers, mosquitoes, honey bee etc have a similar
basic structure but perform very different functions and hence are an example of Homologous
Organs. For example, butterfly sucks nectar, grasshoppers mainly bite and chew and
mosquitoes suck the blood.

The ear ossicles of a group of vertebrates including amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals
(stapes, incus, and malleus) are homologous to the parts of fish jaws and gill arches. Tetrapods
include all the land vertebrates and the former land vertebrates that have now adopted the
aquatic life.

Analogous Organs in Animals

Wings of dragonfly/cockroach/butterfly/bat and of birds as they perform similar function

(flying). All these three organs are different in their structures. The wings of the birds are
formed from bones which are covered by their feather. The wings of the insects, however, like
a butterfly, are an extension of their integuments and the wings of the bats are mainly the folded
skin along with their elongated fingers. Hence all the three organs are different in their
structures but all are used for one common function, that is flying. Therefore called as
Analogous Organs.

Flippers of Penguin and Dolphin- Penguins and Dolphins are evolved from different origins
therefore they are an example of Convergent Evolution. Dolphins are evolved from the
mammals that walk of the land while penguins are evolved from the birds that fly. But both
these organisms emerged a common structure called flippers to swim underwater. The
function of the flippers are similar and hence these are an example of Analogous Organs.

Although morphologically, these two organs may look similar to each other, there is a notable
difference in their structures. For example, the difference in focusing light on the retina by
octopus eye and mammalian eye. The eye lens of mammals focus light by changing the shape
of the lens using ciliary muscles, octopuses, on the other hand, move the focus of the light by
moving their lenses farther and closer to their retina, similar to a camera lens. Therefore the
eyes of octopuses are also referred to as ‘Camera Eyes’. Another difference is in the cellular
structure of the octopus eye and a mammalian eye. But both the organs perform a related
function, that is focusing the light on the retina, and are therefore an example of Analogous
Organs.