INTRO TO CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY HOW TO BE A CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST IN

EVOLUTION DURING THE WORLD WARS THE PH

How do we assess if an individual already needs
professional help? 🌻Clinical psychology became more 🌻Therefore, a person can only be called a
 Psychologists often classify behavior as established during the period of World War I certified Psychologist after going through
abnormal using 4 D's: as practitioners demonstrated the these steps.
usefulness of psychological assessments. • Get a Degree in Psychology
deviance, distress, dysfunction, and danger. 1917 • Fieldwork Experience
The American Association of Clinical • Psychology is more practical
What is CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY? Psychology was established, although it was than theoretical.
 Branch of psychology concerned with the replaced just two years later with the • Get a PRC License (Professional
assessment and treatment of mental establishment of the American Psychological Regulation Commission (PRC)
illness, abnormal behavior, and Association (APA). A graduate of an MA or MS in Psychology
psychiatric disorders. During World War II, clinical psychologists must pass the Licensure Examination for
were called upon to help treat what was then Psychologist to become a licensed
 This field integrates science, theory, and known as shell shock, now referred to as Psychologist in the Philippines.
practice to understand, predict, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). THE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST
alleviate maladjustment, disability, and CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN THE PHILIPPINES 🌻A member of a profession devoted to
discomfort as well as to promote human 🌻At present, resources are scarce: only 3 to 5 understanding and treating individuals
adaptation, adjustment, and personal percent of the total health budget is affected by a variety of emotional,
development. allocated to mental health, behavioral, and/ or cognitive difficulties.
and there are only around 1,400 🌻Clinical psychologists may be involved in
DEPECT: Describe, Understand, Predict, psychologists and 500 psychiatrists in the numerous activities, including psychotherapy,
Control country. assessment and diagnosis, teaching,
This gives an approximate ratio of supervision, research, consultation, and
 It focuses on the intellectual, emotional, 1 psychologist to 80,000 Filipinos. administration.
biological, psychological, social, and 🌻A report by the World Health Organization Activities of Clinical Psychologists
behavioral aspects of human showed there are only around 1,200 • Therapy/Intervention.
functioning across the life span, in practicing psychiatrists, psychologists, and • Diagnosis/Assessment.
varying cultures, and at all psychiatric nurses in the Philippines in 2020. • Teaching.
socioeconomic levels. (APA, 2012) • Clinical Supervision.
CHANGE IN FOCUS • Research.
clinical psychology professionals • Consultation.
 In these organizations (mental health 🌻The early focus in clinical psychology had • Administration.
clinic, hospitals), they often work as part been largely on science and research, CLOSELY RELATED MENTAL HEALTH
of a collaborative team that may include graduate programs began adding additional PROFESSIONS
physicians, psychiatrists, and other emphasis on psychotherapy. 🌻It is extraordinarily difficult to list
mental health professionals. 🌻In clinical psychology Ph.D. programs, this comprehensively all of the issues and
approach is today referred to as the scientist- symptoms
HISTORY OF CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY practitioner or Boulder Model. that are relevant to the field of clinical
🌻Later, the Doctor of Psychology (Psy.D.) psychology.
🌻Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. professional practice rather than research Mental health workers must :
• Early influences on the field of clinical (practitioner-scholar or Vail Model) • (1)document that they have
psychology. obtained appropriate professional
• focus on the idea that mental illness was THE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY APPROACHES training;
something that could be treated by talking • (2) pass a licensing exam
with the patient 🌻Clinical psychologists who work as indicating familiarity with current
• talk therapy approach that is the earliest psychotherapists often utilize different practice parameters, ethical
scientific use of clinical psychology. treatment approaches when working with regulations, and state laws;
clients. • (3) and maintain their current
🌻American psychologist Lightner Witmer 🌻While some clinicians focus on a very knowledge of the field through ongoing
specific treatment outlook, many usewhat is educational requirements (i.e.,
1896 referred to as an "eclectic approach." continuing professional education).
Lightner Witmer opened the first This involves drawing on different
psychological clinic in 1896 with a specific theoretical methods to develop the best Psychiatrist
focus on helping children who had learning treatment plan for each individual client. 🌻A physician equipped with intensive
disabilities. Some of the major theoretical perspectives training in the diagnosis and treatment of a
1907 within clinical psychology include: variety of mental disorders.Because of their
It was also Witmer who first introduced the medical backgrounds, psychiatrists may
term "clinical psychology" in a 1907 paper. • Psychodynamic approach prescribe medications for the alleviation of
He defined clinical psychology as: • Cognitive behavioral perspective problematic behavior or psychological
the study of individuals, by observation or • Humanistic perspective distress.
experimentation, Counseling psychologists
with the intention of promoting change. How do the two mentioned professions 🌻Psychologists whose interests and activities
1914 collaborate with each other? overlap significantly with those of clinical
By 1914, 26 other clinics devoted to the psychologists. Traditionally, counseling
practice of clinical psychology had been 🌻PH.D. focuses on science and research while psychologists have provided individual and
established in the United States. Psy.D. applies different theoretical group psychotherapy for
Today, clinical psychology is one of the most approaches in working directly with the
popular subfields and the single largest client.
employment area in within psychology.
normal or moderately maladjusted Clinical social workers group psychotherapy. Compared to
individualsand have offered educational and 🌻Mental health professionals trained in psychologists and psychiatrists, psychiatric
occupational counseling. psychiatric diagnosis and in individual and social workerstraining is relatively brief,
 limited to a 2-year masters degree. Social 3. Ethics doesn't give right answers. just a set respect for people's rights and dignity, according to
workers are intensely involved in the day-to- of principles that can be applied to cases to the four general principles of the American
day lives of their patients and focus more on give those involved same clear choices. Psychological Association's (APA) Code of Conduct.
the social and environmental factors
contributing to their patientsdifficulties.
4. Ethics can give several answers. Many Responsibility: This involves acknowledging that
School psychologists
🌻Psychologists who work with educators to people want there to be a single right answer practitioners' actions have consequences, and thus
promote the intellectual, social, and to ethical questions but THERE ISN'T ONE they are to act most respectfully and responsibly.
emotional growth of school-age children. RIGHT ANSWER.
Activities of school psychologists may include Integrity: The practitioner must not commit any
evaluating children with special needs, ETHICS IN PSYCHOTHERAPY professional misconduct or fraud. In case of
developing interventions or programs to necessary deception used during special
address these needs, and consulting with 🌻Ethics is an important aspect of any discipline and circumstances, it has to be used with utmost care.
teachers and administrators about issues of
provides a backdrop for decision-making,
school policy.
especially when there is a dilemma. Justice: The practitioner must observe social
Rehabilitation psychologists
🌻Psychologists whose practice focuses upon equality and treat the clients in a just and fair
individuals with physical or cognitive 🌻Professional organizations provide ethical codes manner.
disabilities. Rehabilitation psychologists most to issue broad guidelines to the practitioners, and
often work in general or rehabilitation organizations may somewhat differ in their Respect: The practitioner must respect the dient's
hospitals, and they help individuals with guidelines. autonomy, privacy, and confidentiality.
disabilities deal with the psychological, social,
and environmental ramifications of their 🌻Ethics in psychology can be divided into two 🌻A therapist can be thought of as providing a
conditions.
topics. There are ethical guidelines in psychological service or practice, however the therapeutical
Psychiatric Nurses
🌻They spend many hours in close contact research, and then there is ethics in psychotherapy relationship that is established is an important and
with patients, they are not only in a position and counseling practices. In both cases, the code healing one that goes far beyond just being a
to provide information about of ethics helps an individual whenever they are service.
patientshospital adjustment but also can play stuck, and it helps them make a conscious
a crucial and sensitive role in fostering an decisions backed by well-researched and A productive therapy relationship will allow the
appropriate therapeutic environment. thoughtful guidelines. client to feel safe and understood in order to
Paraprofessionals.
progress towards a satisfactory resolution,
🌻Individuals (e.g., crisis hotline workers) who
Beneficence and nonmaleficence: completely on the client's own terms. When a
have been trained to assist professional
mental health workers. client feels safe, they will feel more comfortable
This refers to the principle of making sure that the and willing to open up in order to express deep-
practitioners thrive on helping their clients while rooted feelings and issues.
WHAT IS ETHICS? ensuring that no or least harm is caused to them in
🌻Ethics is a branch of Philosophy that deals case of unavoidable obligations. CLIENT-THERAPIST RELATIONSHIP
with the questions and standards of what is
right and what is wrong.At its simplest, ethics Right of confidentiality: 🌻CARL ROGERS' UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE
is a system of moral principles. They affect
REGARD
how people make decisions and lead their
This ethical principle provides anonymity to the
lives.
Ethics also covers the following dilemmas: clients, and this helps them to fight the stigma they 🌻accepting and respecting their client as they are
how to live a good life have been fearing. without judgment or assessment. As part of this
our rights and responsibilities unconditional regard, a therapist's compassion and
the language of right and wrong Right to withdraw from therapy: understanding of a client's personal challenges and
moral decisions - what is good and bad? problems, no matter what their actions, strengths
The participants must have the right to take a step or weaknesses, is paramount.
🌻Ethics came from the Latin word ethos back from the therapy, testing, or its result. It
which means "character or moral helps to lift the pressure from the clients. 🌻 Qualities of a god therapeutic relationship
nature".Ethics? Why do we need it?
Right to informed consent: - Mutual trust, respect, and caring
🌻If ethical theories are to be useful in
practice, they need to affect the way human Informed consent helps the client realize what - General agreement on the goals and tasks of the
beings behave. Human beings often behave they are signing up for. therapy
irrationally - they follow their 'gut instinct'
even when their head suggests a different Deception in therapy: -Shared decision-making
course of action.
Hiding information or misleading clients is a -Mutual engagement in "the work" of the
Ethics does provide good tools for thinking violation of ethical principles. However, deception treatment
about moral issues: is a necessary evil in some cases. Deception is a
tricky guideline in psychology, which has to be -The ability to talk about the "here-and- now"
1. Ethics can provide a moral map. think of used only when necessary. The utmost care and aspects of the relationship with each other
abortion and euthanasia for starters peer review are advisable while using deception in
a therapy room. -The freedom to share any negative emotional
2. Ethics can pinpoint a disagreement. can responses with each other
take a lot of heat out of the argument, and 🌻All psychologists must make an effort to behave
sometimes even hint at a way for them to themselves with beneficence and nonmaleficence, -The ability to correct any problems or difficulties
resolve their problem. fidelity and accountability, integrity, justice, and that may arise in the relationship
HOW TO BUILD RAPPORT CAN YOU BE FRIENDS WITH YOUR THERAPIST? Psychologists have a primary obligation and take
reasonable precautions to protect confidential
🌻Body language: Provide supportive nonverbal 🌻YES, NO RULES FROM APA HOWEVER, IF YOU Information obtained through or stored in any
cues, including eve tart and nodding agent BECAME FRIENDS WITH YOUR THERAPIST YOU medium, recognizing that the extent and limits of
WON'T BE THEIR CLIENT AGAIN. confidentiality may be regulated by law or
🌻Client feedback A therapist will offer feedback in established by institutional rules or professional or
the moment rather just than in a later session APA'S SOME NOTEWORTHY ETHICAL STANDARDS scientific relationship.

🌻 Collaboration: A therapist will encourage you to 🌻Misuse of Psychologists' Work. CLINICAL INTERVENTION
be active and feel impowered in regant to your
Iteatraut plant Veu will woch together a mutual If psychologists learn of misuse or 🌻Psychological intervention is defined as a
partners in your treatment. misrepresentation of their work, they take relationship aimed at promoting a better
reasonable steps to correct or minimize the misuse adaptation of the individual to a given situation
🌻Flexibility and responsiveness: Rewarchs has also or misrepresentation. and thereby optimizing his or her personal
found that it is important for a therapist to be resources in relation to autonomy, self- knowledge
flexible and responsive to your needs. Therapistic 🌻Providing Services in Emergencies and self-help.
rapport is stronger when your therapist customizes
your treatment to your needs, which may be In emergencies, when psychologists provide WHAT ARE WE TRYING TO CHANGE?
influenced by factors such as your cultural services to individuals for whom other mental
background, gender identity, therapy preferences, health services are not available and for which 🌻Psychological interventions differ in the aspects
and attachment style psychologists have not obtained the necessary of human functioning that they are designed to
training, psychologists may provide such services change. Just as psychologists can choose to assess
🌻Genuineness: When your therapist is genuine, it in order to ensure that services are not denied. and measure thoughts, feelings, behavior, biology,
allows you to see thim as a human being, not just a or the environment, so too can psychologists help
mental health professional. If you see your 🌻Boundaries of Competence & Maintaining people change in one or more of these various
therapist as being genuine, you are more likely to Competence levels of functioning (Kanfer & Goldstein, 1991).
positively receive critical feedback about your Some interventions are intended to change what
progress. Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop
people do, to change problem behaviors.
and maintain their competence.
WHY YOU CAN'T BE FRIENDS WITH YOUR Therapeutic Intervention in Psychology: What Is
THERAPIST? 🌻Conflict of Interest
the Goal?

🌻Dual Relationships occur when people are in two Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional
🌻The goal of therapeutic intervention is to initiate
very different types of relationships at the same role when personal, scientific, professional, legal,
improvement in how the client feels, thinks, and
time for example, it is unethical for a therapist to financial, or other interests or relationships could
behaves.
eat a dose friend or relation. It is also unethical for reasonably be expected to impair their objectivity,
a therapist to have a sual relationship with a client. competence, or effectiveness in performing their 🌻Modification of self-destructive behavior patterns
functions as psychologists or expose the person or will often be a focus.
🌻Multiple Relationship occurs when a psychologist organization with whom the professional
is in a professional role with a person and: relationship exists to harm or exploitation. LIST OF INTERVENTION

1. At the same time is in another role with the 🌻Exploitative Relationships Interpersonal therapy (IPT)
same person,
Psychologists do not exploit persons over whom Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)
2. At the same time is in a relationship with a they have supervisory, evaluative, or other
person closely associated with or related to the authority such as clients/patients, students, Family therapy or family systems therapy
person with whom the psychologist has the supervisees, research participants, and employees.
professional relationship, or Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
🌻Informed Consent
3. Promises to enter into another relationship in Movement, art and music therapy
the future with the person or a person closely For persons who are legally incapable of giving
associated with or related to the person. informed consent, psychologists must: Group therapy

HOW TO HANDLE FEELINGS FOR YOUR Provide an appropriate explanation, Seek the Mindfulness-based therapy (MBCT) Medical
THERAPIST? individual's assent, Consider such persons' interventions
preferences and best interests, and Obtain
🌻Transference where feelings that a person has appropriate permission from a legally authorized CLINICAL JUDGMENT
about other people in their life, such as their person, if such substitute consent is permitted or
required by law. When consent by a legally 🌻is an interpretation or conclusion about a client's
parents or partner, are unconsciously applied to
authorized person is not permitted or required by needs, concerns, or health problems, and/or the
the current situation.
law, psychologists take reasonable steps to protect decision to act (or not), use or modify standard
🌻Counter-transference therapist projects their the respondent/client. approaches, or improvise new ones as deemed
own unresolved conflicts onto the client. This appropriate by the client's response (Tanner, 2006)
could be in response to something the client has 🌻Maintaining Confidentiality
🌻clinical judgment is more comprehensive, action-
unearthed.
oriented, and guided by the philosophy of client
safety. Thus, it is important to learn when to act to 🌻Recognizing cues involves identifying findings characteristic at a time beginning with whatever
prevent clinical deterioration, a worsening clinical that require action because they are aboormal. feature you believe is the most important.
state related to physiological decompensation This in- volves what Tanner (2006) call noticing (ie,
(Padilla & Mayo, 2017). re- ognizing when something is abnormal) You 🌻 Heuristic (Herbert Simon, 1950)
should be asking yourself what matters most?
🌻To facilitate clinical judgment, you must When making a decision in such a situation, people
determine if the collected data represent normal 🌻Analyzing cues evolves interpreting/making sense tend to employ two different decision- making
findings or abnormal findings. When findings are of the collected data, what it means, and how it strategies: the availability heuristic and the
abnormal, you must act on these cues as they may relate to possible pathophysiological representativeness heuristic. Remember, a
signal a potential concern and require action. processes. This involves what Tamer (2006) calls heuristic is a rule-of-thumb mental short-cut that
"interpreting" or making sense of the data allows people to make decisions and judgments
🌻 Failing to recognize abnormal findings and act on gathered. quickly.
these cues can lead to negative consequences
including sub-optimal health and wellness and 🌻Prioritizing hypotheses involves figuring out Here are a few different theories from
more importantly, clinical deterioration. where to start and how to prioritize care. This step psychologists about why we rely on heuristics.
in valves what Tanner (2001) refers to as
The process leading to clinical judgment is "responding to the collected data
described as clinical reasoning. This process
involves 🌻Generating solutions involves identifying the vari Attribute substitution. People substitute simpler
ous nptions (eg, actions/interventions) to address but related questions in place of more complex
• Thoughtfully considering all client data as a the problem or the abnormal findings/curs. This and difficult questions.
whole, whether each piece of in formation is may involve identifying which solution are indicat
relevant or irrelevant, and how each piece of ed/effective. nonessential, unrelated, Effort reduction: People use heuristics as a type of
information is related or not related. contraindicated. cognitive laziness to reduce the mental effort
required to make choices and decisions.
• Recognizing and analyzing cues is the 🌻Taking actions involves identifying the action that
information collected a normal, abnormal or should be taken. Examples of actions are specific Fast and frugal: People use heuristics because they
critical finding? Can the information be clustered but could be related to notdying the physician or can be fast and correct in certain contexts. Some
to inform your clinical judgement? nurse practitioner, calling for help, monitoring the theories argue that heuristics are actually more
client, collecting further data. accurate than they are biased.
•Interpreting problems. What is the priority
problem and what are the factors causing it? What 🌻Evaluating outcomes involves determining of the WHAT IS THE ILLUSION OF CHOICE?
else do you need to assess to validate or invalidate action taken was effecne. It may include identify-
your interpretation What other information do you The illusion of choice is a cognitive bias that causes
ing outcomes that are considered improved, un
need to collect to make an accurate clinical people to believe they have more control over
changed, or worsened.
judgment? their lives than they actually do. The illusion of
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF DECISION MAKING choice is a relatively new concept. The term was
• Determining, implementing, and then evaluating STRATEGIES first alluded to by American philosopher and
appropriate actions (Dickison et al. 2019, Tanner, psychologist William James in his lecture "The Will
2006) 🌻The Single-Feature Model to Believe" first published in 1896.

The clinical reasoning process is encompassed by This approach involves hinging your decision solely In a seminal paper published in 2000, psychologists
critical thinking. This means that when engaging in on a single feature.The single-feature approach Sheena Iyengar and Mark Lepper found that
the process of clinical reasoning, you should can be effective in situations where the decision is people are more likely to purchase products when
systematically analyze your own thinking so that relatively simple and you are pressed for time. they are given fewer choices.
the outcomes are clear, rational, creative, and However, it is generally not the best strategy when
objective with limited risk of judgment and error. dealing with more complex decisions. The illusion of choice is often used in advertising
and marketing to make people feel like they are in
CRITICAL THINKING SKILLS 🌻The Additive Feature Model control of their] purchase decisions.

#1 Observation This method involves taking into account all the Types of the Illusion of Choice
important features of the possible choices and
#2 Analysis then systematically evaluating each option. It 1. The false sense of control type: The false sense
tends to be a better method when making more of control type is when people believe they have
#3 Inference complex decisions. The additive feature model can more control over their lives than they actually do.
be a great way to determine the best option for a This can lead to suboptimal decision-making as
#4 Communication variety of choices. As you can imagine, however, it people may choose options that are not in their
can be quite time-consuming and is probably not best interests.
#5 Problem Solving
the best decision-making strategy to use if you are
2. The paradox of choice type: The paradox of
pressed for time.
STEPS IN CLINICAL JUDGEMENT choice type is when people are given too many
🌻The Elimination by Aspects Model choices and this leads to them feeling less satisfied
with their decision. This often happens when
The elimination by aspects model was first people.are bombarded with choices and cannot
proposed by psychologist Amos Tversky in 1972. In narrow down their options.
this approach, you evaluate each option one
WHAT IS THE ILLUSION OF CONTROL? which are consistent with his existing beliefs, 5. Projection:
values and needs. From all this, it is clear that
🌻The illusion of control is a tendency to selectivity tends to be biased by an individual's It is easy to judge others if we assume that they
overestimate how much control you have over the attitudes, interests and background, than by the are similar to us. When one's own personal
outcome of uncontrollable events. Research has stimulus itself. attributes are assigned to others, then projection
found that when the outcome that people desire takes place.
occurs. they tend to believe that they were the 2. Attribution:
ones who were controlling it. This occurs even 6. Perceptual Set:
when people have no actual influence over what Attribution simply refers to how people explain the
happens. cause of another's as their own behavior. It is the A perceptual set means previously held beliefs
process by which people draw conclusions about about an object's influence on individual
🌻Confirmation bias - people's tendency to process the factors that influence or make sense of one perception of similar objects.
information by looking for, or interpreting, another's behavior.
information that is consistent with their existing 7. Implicit Personality Theory:
beliefs. 3. Stereotyping:
In judging and making inferences about others, an
PERCEPTUAL DECISION MAKING Stereotyping means judging someone on the basis individual's perceptions are influenced by his belief
of one's perception of the group to which that that certain human traits are associated with one
🌻 Individual decision making is an important factor person belongs. Generally, a person is likely to another.
of behavior. The process by which sensory categories the others according to some common
information is used to guide behavior toward the group characteristics such as sex, race, religion, 8. Expectancy:
external world. nationality, occupation or organizational affiliation.
Expectancy is a tendency to perceive people,
Major Barriers to Perceptual Accuracy: 8 Barriers 4. Halo Effect/Horn Effect object events on the basis of what we expected
them to be in the First place. This aspect is also
1. Selective Perception: The halo effect refers to the tendency of judging known as "Self Fulfilling Prophecy".
people on the basis of a single trait which may be
The objects which are selected are those which are good or bad, favourable or unfavorable.
relevant and appropriate for an individual or those