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Casting2 (Gating System)

The document discusses the key elements of a gating system for metal casting including the pouring basin, sprue, runner, gates, and risers. A well-designed gating system aims to fill the mould cavity smoothly and completely with clean molten metal, while avoiding turbulence and entrapment of impurities. The sprue, runner, and gates guide the flow of metal into the mould, and risers are used to compensate for solidification shrinkage of the casting. Proper design of the gating system elements can help produce castings with fewer defects.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
438 views99 pages

Casting2 (Gating System)

The document discusses the key elements of a gating system for metal casting including the pouring basin, sprue, runner, gates, and risers. A well-designed gating system aims to fill the mould cavity smoothly and completely with clean molten metal, while avoiding turbulence and entrapment of impurities. The sprue, runner, and gates guide the flow of metal into the mould, and risers are used to compensate for solidification shrinkage of the casting. Proper design of the gating system elements can help produce castings with fewer defects.

Uploaded by

monu61316
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Elements of Gating System

Gating System
The term gating system refers to all passageways
through which the molten metal passes to enter the
mould cavity.
The gating system is composed of
✓Pouring basin
✓Sprue
✓Sprue base well
✓Runner
✓Runner extension
✓Gate or ingate
✓Risers
Riser

Elements of Gating System


Any gating system designed should aim at providing a defect
free casting. This can be achieved by considering following
requirements.

✓ A gating system should avoid sudden or right angle changes in


direction.

✓ A gating system should fill the mould cavity before freezing.

✓ The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any
turbulence. A turbulence metal flow tends to form dross in the
mould.

✓ Unwanted materials such as slag, dross and other mould


materials should not be allowed to enter the mould cavity.

✓ The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly


controlled in such a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air
is prevented.
✓ A proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that the
casting is cooled without any shrinkage cavities or distortions.

✓ Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating


or mould erosion takes place.

✓ The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal


reaches the mould cavity.

✓ It should be economical and easy to implement and remove


after casting solidification.
For proper functioning of the gating system, the following
factors need to be controlled.
✓ Type of pouring equipment, such as ladles, pouring
basin etc.
✓ Temperature/ Fluidity of molten metal.
✓ Rate of liquid metal pouring.
✓ Type and size of sprue.
✓ Type and size of runner.
✓ Size, number and location of gates connecting runner
and casting.
✓ Position of mould during pouring and solidification.
Objective of The Gating System
The four main points, which enables a proper gating system, are:
1. Clean molten metal
2. Smooth filling of the casting cavity
3. Uniform filling of the casting cavity
4. Complete filling of the casting cavity
• The mould cavity must be filled with clean metal so that it
prevents the entry of slag and inclusions into the mold cavity,
which in turn minimizes the surface instability.
• If the mold has smooth filling then it helps to reduce the bulk
temperature. If it has a uniform filling it means that casting fill
is in a controlled manner.
• Complete filling of the cavity makes the metal thin with
minimum resistance at the end sections.
Pouring basins
• A pouring basin makes it easier for the ladle or
crucible operator to direct the flow of metal from
crucible to sprue.

• Helps maintaining the required rate of liquid metal


flow.

• Reduces turbulence at the sprue entrance.

• Helps separating dross, slag etc., from metal before it


enters the sprue.
If the pouring basins are made large,
✓Dross and slag formation will tend to float on the surface
of the metal and may be stopped from entering the sprue and
hence the mould.
✓They may be filled quickly without overflowing and may
act as a reservoir of liquid metal to compensate metal
shrinkage or contraction.

Typical shapes of pouring basins


Sprue
• A sprue feeds metal to runner which in turn reaches the casting
through gates.
• The molten metal when moving from top of the cope to the parting
plane gains in velocity and as a consequence requires a smaller area
of cross section for the same amount of metal flow to flow at top.
• If the sprue is straight cylindrical then the metal flow would not full
at the bottom, but some low-pressure area would be created around
the metal in the sprue.
Sprue
• Since the mould is permeable, atmospheric air would be breathed
into this low-pressure area, this is called air aspiration.
• To avoid this a sprue is tapered with its bigger end at top to receive
the liquid metal. The smaller end is connected to runner.

Sprue well
• This is a reservoir for metal at the bottom of the sprue to reduce the
momentum of the molten metal.
• The molten metal as it moves down the sprue gains in velocity, some
of which is lost in the sprue base well by which the mould erosion is
reduced.
• It changes the direction of flow of the molten metal to right angle
and passes it to the runner.
Runner
The runner takes the molten metal from sprue to the casting. This
is the final stage where the molten metal moves from the runner
to the mold cavity.
• It is normally trapezoidal in cross section
• Normally for ferrous materials runners are cut in cope and ingates in
the drag.
• It is done to trap slag and dross which are lighter in the upper part of
runners.
• For effective trapping of slag the runners should flow full.
• In order to get a fully filled casting the cross section area of runner
must be larger than cross section area of gate
Runner

Slag will not be move in cavity at fully condition of runner


instead of partially fill runner cause the slag enters in mould
cavity.
Slag trap system or runner extension

It filters the slag when the molten metal moves form the
runner and ingate. It is also placed in the runner.
Gates
Gates
A gate is a channel which connects runner with the mould cavity and
through which molten metal flows to fill the mould cavity.
A small gate is used for a casting which solidifies slowly and vice
versa.
A gate should not have sharp edges as they may break during pouring
and sand pieces thus may be carried with the molten metal in the mould
cavity.
Types
➢ Top gate, Bottom gate, Parting line side gate
Top gate
• A top gate is sometimes also called as Drop gate because the molten
metal just drops on the sand in the bottom of the mould.
• Since the first metal entering the gate reaches the bottom and the
hotter metal is at the top, a favourable temperature gradient towards
the gate is achieve.
• Generation of favourable temperature gradients to enable directional
solidification from the casting towards the gate which serves as a
riser too.
Disadvantages

•The dropping liquid metal stream erodes the mould surface.


•There is a lot of turbulence.
•Not used for non ferrous material.
Bottom gates
• A bottom gate is made in the drag portion of the mould.

• In a bottom gate the liquid metal fills rapidly the bottom


portion of the mould cavity and rises steadily and gently up the
mould walls.

• As comparison to top gate, bottom gate involves little


turbulence and sand erosion.

• Bottom gate produces good casting surfaces.


Disadvantages
• In bottom gates, liquid metal enters the mould cavity
at the bottom. If freezing takes place at the bottom, it
could choke off the metal flow before the mould is
full.

• A bottom gate creates an unfavourable temperature


gradient and makes it difficult to achieve directional
solidification.
Parting line side gate
• Middle or side or parting gating systems combine the characteristics
of top and bottom gating systems.
• In this technique gate is provided along the parting line such that
some portion of the mould cavity will be below the parting line and
some portion will be above the parting line.
• The cavity below the parting line will be filled by assuming top
gating and the cavity above the parting line will be filled by
assuming bottom gating.
Riser

Shrinkage Cavity Formation


Concept for Riser……
• During solidification metal experience shrinkage which results in
void formation.
• This can be avoided by feeding hot spot (since they remain hot till
the end) during solidification.
• Risers are used to feed casting during solidification.
What are Risers ?
• Risers are added reservoirs designed to feed liquid metal to
the solidifying casting as a means for compensating for
solidification shrinkage.

• Riser must solidify after casting.

• The riser volume should be sufficient for compensating the


shrinkage in the casting.
Why Risers ?
The shrinkage occurs in three stages,
1. When temperature of liquid metal drops from
pouring to freezing temperature.
2. When the metal changes from liquid to solid
state, and
3. When the temperature of solid phase drops
from freezing to room temperature.
The shrinkage for stage 3 is compensated by
providing shrinkage allowance on pattern, while
the shrinkage during stages 1 and 2 are
compensated by providing risers.
Riser compensate Pattern allowance
Riser Location & Types
➢ Top Riser: - Riser located on
the casting
➢ Side riser: - Riser located next
to the casting
✓ Blind riser
✓ Open riser
Defects occurring due to improper
design of gating system
• Oxidation of metal
• Cold shuts
• Mould erosion
• Shrinkages
• Porosity
• Misruns
• Penetration of liquid metal into mould walls.
Design of Gating System
• To fill the mould cavity without breaking the flow of
liquid metal and without using very high pouring
temperatures.
• To avoid erosion of mould cavity.
• To minimize turbulence and dross formation.
• To prevent aspiration of air or mould gases in the
liquid metal stream.
• To obtain favourable temperature gradients to
promote directional solidification.
Casting Yield

• All the metal that is used while pouring is not finally ending
up as a casting.
• There maybe some losses in the melting, rejection of casting
due to defects, removal of gating system from casting.
• So, casting yield is the proportion of the actual casting mass,
W, to the mass of metal poured into the mould, w, expressed as
a percentage as follows.

𝑾
Casting yield = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒘

The higher the casting yield, the higher is the economics of the
foundry practice.
Utilization of the metal in the foundry
Types of Gating System
Main types of gates are following:
1. Vertical Gating System
2. Bottom Gating System
3. Horizontal Gating System
Types of Gating System
Types of Gating System
Metal flow rate and velocity calculations

Studies of gating system have been based upon two


laws of fluid dynamics.
1. Law of continuity
Q = A1V1 = A2V2
Q = volume rate of flow
A = cross sectional area of flow passage
V = linear velocity of flow
2. Bernoulli’s Equation :- Used to calculate flow
velocities

Assumptions: steady state, incompressible, inviscid


Flow

P1/g + V12/ 2g + h1 = P2/g + V22/ 2g + h2

P = pressure
ρ = density
V = velocity
h = height above the datum plane
Analysis of Vertical Gating
Analysis of Bottom Gating
Example
CriticalReynold’s number
• Re < 2,000
– viscosity dominated, laminar flow

• Re > 4,000
– inertia dominated, turbulent flow

• Controlled through gate and runner design


Design criteria for pouring basin
The pouring basin should be designed such that the
proper uniform flow system is rapidly established.
This can be achieved by-

✓ Use of strainer core


✓ Use of DAM to make steady flow

It should be easy and convenient to fill pouring basin.


Design of sprue
• As the liquid metal passes down the sprue it loses its
pressure head but gains velocity.

To reduce turbulence and promote Laminar Flow,


from the Pouring Basin, the flow begins a near
vertical incline that is acted upon by gravity and with
an accelerative gravity force
1 pouring basin
hc
2 sprue
ht

1 = free surface of metal


2 = sprue top
3 3 = sprue bottom
• Assuming
– entire mould is at atmospheric pressure (no
point below atmospheric)
– metal in the pouring basin is at zero velocity
(reservoir assumption)
Design of sprue: Vertical Gating
• Actual shape of sprue is Parabola
• But in order to avoid manufacturing difficulty we
use tapered cylinder shape.
• Tapered sprue reduces the rate of flow at which the
liquid metal enters the mould cavity and hence
mould erosion is reduced.
The area at the sprue exit controls-
✓Flow rate of liquid metal into mould cavity
✓Velocity of liquid metal
✓Pouring time
Aspiration Effect
Pouring time
• High pouring rates leads to mould erosion, rough
surface, excessive shrinkages etc.
• Low pouring rate may not permit the complete filling
of the mould cavity in time if the molten metal
freezes fast and thus defects like cold shuts may
develop.
• It is very necessary to know optimum pouring rate or
pouring time for metals to be cast. Optimum pouring
rate a function of casting shape and size.
• Pouring time is calculated by empirical formulas
obtained by experiments which differ from one
material to another and one casting to other.
Pouring time for brass or bronze
• Varies from 15 seconds to 45 seconds may be used
for casting weighing less than 150 kg.
Pouring time for steel casting
• Steel has a high freezing range as compared to other
cast alloys, it is poured rapidly to avoid early
freezing.
Pouring time = 𝐾 𝑊 seconds

• W is weight of casting in kg
• K is fluidity factor, calculated by
K = (2.4335 – 0.3953 log W)
Pouring time for gray cast iron casting
➢ Casting weighing less than 450 kg.
𝑇
𝐾 1.41 + 𝑊 seconds
14.59

➢ Casting weighing more than 450 kg.


𝑇 3
𝐾 1.41 + 𝑊 seconds
16.65

• W is weight of casting in kg
• T is average section thickness in inches
• K is fluidity factor
Pouring time of light metal alloys
• Unlike steel, Al and Mg alloys are poured at a
slow rate, this is necessary to avoid turbulence,
aspiration and drossing.
Choke Area
Having calculated the optimum pouring time, it is now
required to establish the main control area which meters the
metal flow into the mould cavity so that the mould is
completely filled within the calculated pouring time. This
controlling area is called choke area.

➢ In a top gating system sprue serves as choke.


This reduces mould erosion and turbulence because velocity
of liquid metal is less.

➢ In a bottom gating system, gate serves as the choke.


• This creates a pressurized system.
• Due to high metal velocity and turbulence, this system
experiences oxidation and erosion in mould cavity.
The area at the sprue exit which if is the least is known as
choke area and can be calculated from the following
relation-

W
CA =
c.dt 2 gH
where
CA , is choke area
W, is the weight of casting
c, is nozzle coefficient
d, is density of liquid metal
t, is pouring time
H, effective liquid metal head (Sprue height)
Effective Sprue Height
Design of Runner and Gates

In a good runner and gate design-


✓ Abrupt changes in section and sharp corners which
create turbulence and gas entrapment should be
avoided.

✓ A suitable relationship must exist between the cross-


sectional area of sprue, runner and in gates.
Gating Ratio
Gating ratio= a:b:c where,
• a= cross-sectional area of sprue
• b= cross-sectional area of runner
• c= total cross-sectional area of ingates.
Gating ratio reveals-
• whether the total cross- section decreases towards the
mould cavity. This provides a choke effect which
pressurizes the liquid metal in the system.
• Whether the total cross-sectional area increases so
that the passages remain incompletely filled. It is an
non pressurized system.
S.N. Pressurized gating systems Unpressurized gating systems

Gating ratio may be of the order Gating ratio may be of the order of
1.
of 3: 2: 1 1: 3: 2
2. Air aspiration effect is minimum Air aspiration effect is more
Volume flow of liquid from Volume flow of liquid from every
3.
every ingate is almost equal. ingate is different.

They are smaller in volume for a They are larger in volume because
given flow rate of metal. they involve large runners and gates
4.
Therefore the casting yield is as compared to pressurized system
higher. and thus the cast yield is reduced.

Velocity is high, severe Velocity is low and turbulence is


5.
turbulence may occur at corners. reduced.
Ideally, in a system, pressure should be just enough to
avoid aspiration and keep to all feeding channels full of
liquid metal.
Gating ratio and positions of ingates should be such that
the liquid metal fills the mould cavity just rapidly to-

✓ Avoid misruns and coldshuts in thin sectioned


castings.
✓ Reduce turbulence and mould erosion in casting of
thicker casting.
• The maximum liquid metal tends to flow through the
farthest ingate.
• For a gating ratio 1:2:4, 66% of liquid metal enters through
gate no. 2 and only 34% does so through gate no. 1.
• Total ingate area is reduced by making gates farthest from
sprue of smaller cross-section so that less volume of metal
flows through them and makes a uniform distribution of
metal at all ingates.
• Besides with reduced total ingate area, still more
satisfactory result may be obtained if runner beyond each
ingate is reduced in cross section to balance the flow in all
parts of the system and to equalise further velocity and
pressure.
Streamlining the gating system

Streamlining includes-
• Removing sharp corners or junction by giving a
generous radius.
• Tapering the sprue.
• Providing radius at sprue entrance and exit.
Advantages of streamlining

• Metal turbulence is reduced.


• Air aspiration is avoided.
• Mould erosion and dross are minimized.
• Sound and clean casting are obtained.
Riser Design
Solidification Time for Casting
• Solidifcation of casting occurs by loosing heat from the surfaces
and amount of heat is given by volume of casting.
• Cooling characteristics of a casting is the ratio of surface area to
volume.
• Higher the value of cooling characteristics faster is the cooling of
casting.
• Chvorinov rule state that solidification time is inversely
proportional to cooling characteristics.
• Solidification time
𝑉 2
𝑇𝑠 = 𝐾
𝑆𝐴
Where TS is the solidification time
V volume of casting
SA is surface area
K is mould constant
Problem:- A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting mold. The
casting itself is a steel rectangular plate with 7.5 cm * 12.5 cm * 2.0 cm.
Previous observations have indicated that the solidification time for this
casting is 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a diameter-to-height
ratio as 1.0. Determine the dimensions of the riser so that its solidification
time is 2.0 min.
Solution:-
V/A ratio = (7.5*12.5*2)/(2(7.5*12.5+12.5*2+7.5*2) = 0.7
So, mould constant K = 3.26 min/cm2
Given for riser: D/H = 1 so D = H.
and Ts = 2 min;
V = πD2H and A = πDH + 2πD2/4
So, V/A= D/6.
Now by Chvorinov’s rule, 2.0 = 3.26 (D/6)2
D = 4.7 cm. and H = 4.7 cm (riser dimensions)
Note that the volume of the riser in this problem is V = 81.5 cm3, which is
just 44% of the volume of the cast plate, though its solidification time is
25% longer.
Methods of Riser design

Following are the methods for riser design


➢Caine’s Method
➢Modulus Method
➢NRL Method
Caine’s Method
Values of constants for Caine’s Method
Example
Modulus Method
Modulus is the inverse of the cooling
characteristic (surface area/volume) and is
defined as
Modulus = Volume/Surface area
In steel casting, riser with height to diameter ratio
of 1 is generally used.
For sound casting modulus of riser should be
greater than the modulus of casting by a factor of
1.2. Therefore,
Mr = 1.2*Mc
Moduli of simple shapes
Moduli of simple shapes
Naval Research Lab Method
• NRL method is essentially a simplification of Caine’s method.
• In this method shape factor is used in place of freezing ratio.
Shape factor = (Length + width)/ Thickness
• Riser of riser volume to casting volume can be obtain
from graph shown below.
• After obtaining riser volume, riser diameter and
height can be obtained.
Used H/D = 1 side riser and H/D = 0.5 for top riser.
Riser consideration
• Without riser/feeding, the final casting will be
subject to shrinkage defects in the form of major
internal cavities, centre line or filamentary voids.
• Liquid shrinkage: The liquid metal loses volume as it
gives up superheat and cools to its solidification
temperature.
• Solidification shrinkage: The metal freezes, changing
from a liquid to a higher-density solid. For pure
metals, this contraction will occur at a single
temperature, but for alloys it will take place over
some temperature range or freezing interval.
• Solid shrinkage: The solid casting cools from its
solidification temperature to room temperature.
Sequence of solidification shrinkage in an
iron cube

(a) Initial liquid metal, (b) Solid skin and formation of


shrinkage void, (c) Internal shrinkage, (d) Internal shrinkage
plus dishing, (e) Surface puncture
Methods of controlling shrinkage in an iron cube
to reduce riser size

(a) Open-top riser, (b) Open-top riser plus chill, (c) Small
open-top riser plus chill, (d)Insulated riser, (e) Insulated riser
plus chill
Optimum Riser Design
The role of the methods engineer in designing riser can be stated
simply as making sure that risers will provide the feed metal:
➢ In the right amount
➢ At the right place
➢ At the right time

To this list can be added several other considerations:


• The riser/casting junction should be designed to minimize riser
removal costs.
• The number and size of risers should be minimized to increase
mold yield and to reduce production costs.
• Riser placement must be chosen so as not to exaggerate potential
problems in a particular casting design (for example, tendencies
toward hot tearing or distortion).
Riser location
To determine the correct riser location, the methods
engineer must make use of the concept of directional
solidification.
The ability to achieve such directional solidification
will depend on

1. The alloy and its mode of solidification


2. The mold medium
3. The casting design
Directional and progressive solidification
in a casting equipped with a riser
Chill
• In a casting, metallic chills are used in order to provide
progressive solidification or to avoid the shrinkage cavities.
• Chills are essentially large heat sinks.
• It is not possible to provide riser for some casting, then a chill
is placed close to it.
Chills
• External chills are masses of high-heat-capacity, high-
thermal-conductivity material that are placed in the mould
(adjacent to the casting) to accelerate the cooling of various
regions.
• Chills can effectively promote directional solidification or
increase the effective feeding distance of a riser. They can
often be used to reduce the number of risers required for a
casting.
• Internal chills are pieces of metal that are placed
within the mould cavity to absorb heat and promote
more rapid solidification. Since some of this metal
will melt during the operation, it will absorb not
only the heat-capacity energy, but also some heat
of fusion. Since they ultimately become part of the
final casting, internal chills must be made from the
same alloy as that cast.
Effect of chill of feeding distance with and without riser
Effect of chill of feeding distance with and without riser
Solidification of Casting
• Solidifications of casting and its control for obtaining sound casting is the
most important problem for foundry men.
• Soundness of casting may be defined as the degree of true metallic
continuity.
• Casting is called sound if the volumetric shrinkage (due to change from
molten metal to solid) is compensated by liquid metal provided by risers.
• The mechanism of solidification has to be understood properly to prevent
defects due to shrinkage of metal.
• Solidification starts as soon as the molten metal is poured in the mould.
• Process of solidification affects
(i) grain size, shape and orientation
(ii) distribution of alloying element
(iii) crystal structure and its imperfections
Solidification of Casting
Volumetric shrinkage/contraction occurs in three stages. So contraction is of
three types
1. Liquid contraction/shrinkage – It occurs when the metal is in liquid state
(pouring temperature to starting of solidification)
2. Solidification contraction / shrinkage – It occurs when molten metal
changes from liquid to solid, (when metal losses its latent heat).
3. Solid contraction / shrinkage – It occurs when metal is solid.
➢ Occurs after solidification
➢ Does not affect shrinkage defect
• Solidification occurs due to nucleation of very small grains called crystals.
• Grain growth occurs when solidification continues.
• The solidification may be (i) directional or (ii) discrete which is dependent
upon nucleation and grain growth.
Nucleation

• It is the starting point of phase transformation.

• In this tiny new phase called nuclei grow in the molten metal. This
nuclei grow into solid by further deposition of atoms.

• Nucleation is of two types. They are :


(i) Homogeneous nucleation occurs in homogeneous materials as pure
metals.

(ii) Heterogeneous nucleation - occurs at surfaces, imperfections


Grain Growth

• It occurs after nucleation


• It determines the final crystallographic structure of solid.
• Grain growth may be defined as increase of nucleus in size.
• Nuclei grow by addition of atoms.
• Total free energy is reduced due to grain growth.
• Metal in molten condition has high energy.
• Energy is lost as the molten metal cools to form crystals.
• Heat loss is more rapid near mould walls than any other place. So nuclei
are formed here first.
• If no nuclei is in impurity form, then it becomes difficult to start
crystallization.
• In this condition, the melt undercools and nuclei/seed crystal forms.
Grain Growth
• The growth of crystal occurs in dendritic manner.
• Dendrites grow by forming small arms on original branches of individual
dendrites. Slow cooling produces long dendrites and fast cooling produces
short dendrites.
• Dendrites result in grains. So slow cooling produces large grain structure
and fast cooling produces small grain structure.
• When solidification proceeds, more and more arms grow on existing
dendrite and more and more dendrites form till the whole melt is
crystallized.
• Dendrites grow until they come in contact the neighboring dendrites and
produce grain boundaries. After sometimes dendrite arms become thick and
produce solid crystal or grain and there remains no indication of dendritic
growth.
Types of Solidification
Progressive and Directional

Progressive Solidification
It may be defined as the growth of practically solid and partially liquid zone
from the outside to the interior of the casting.
Directional Solidification
• When the gating system design is utilized to control this progressive
solidification is such a way that no portion of the casting is isolated from
liquid metal feeding channels during complete solidification cycle, it is
called as directional solidification.
• It may be defined as solidification which is forced to occur in a particular
direction.
Directional Solidification
• Directional solidification in castings starts and progress from the thinnest
section towards the heaviest section.
• Effective directional solidification starts from those parts of the feeder
heads (riser system). It proceeds through casting to the feeder heads. Feeder
heads are designed to solidify last so that liquid metal can be supplied
throughout freezing process.

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