FIELD WORK

-Scientific study of geography using the environment as a laboratory or source

of information.
Types of Field Work
1. Field Excursion
-Visiting an area near or far from the school to see geographical phenomena then note down
and discuss later in class.
Aim
a) Reinforce what has been learnt in class
b) Gain more geographical knowledge
c) Identify and appreciate geographical features
 d) Identify problems of geographical interest
2. Field Research
-Systematic problem solving done by experts in which scientific methods of collecting,
recording and analysing data are used.
3. Field Study
-Study conducted within a neighbourhood in which one theme is pursued e.g. ‘A study of a
local farm’.
Importance of Field Work
1. Reinforces what has been learnt in class.
2. Enables one to gain more geographical knowledge.
3. It breaks the monotony of classroom work.
4. It provides learner with practical skills of collecting, recording and analysing data
and report writing.
5. Gives students an opportunity to go out and practise what they have learnt in class.
6. Enables students to familiarise themselves with the environment and develop a
positive attitude towards it.
7. Enables students to develop a positive attitude towards manual work.
8. Promotes development of virtues like cooperation by working in groups.
Field Work Procedure (Steps Followed)
1. Identification of Topic/Theme
-Reason why you want to carry out field study e.g. ‘A study of rocks around the school’
2. Identification of the Area of Study
-Determining the area to be used for study.
-Should be chosen carefully to ensure that the field study is successful.
Conditions It Should Meet
a) Should contain sufficient information
b) Should be within a convenience distance to reduce expenses
3. Statement of Objectives
-Stating aims of carrying the field study.
-Act as guidelines to activities to be undertaken during field work.
They should be simple, brief, testable and achievable. E.g. for the topic ‘A study of a local
farm’ objectives could be stated as follows:
 To find out methods of farming in a local farm
  To identify the cattle breeds in the farm
 To investigate the problems facing the farm.
4. Formulation of Hypotheses
-Assumptions set before field work whose validity or acceptance is to be proved.
Types of Hypotheses
 Null Hypothesis (Ho)
-One stated in negative form e.g. ‘There is no relationship between rainfall and crop yield’.
 Alternative/Substantive hypothesis (H1)
-One stated positively e.g. ‘most foodstuffs sold in the neighbourhood don’t come from the
immediate neighbourhood’.
Quantitative words should be used e.g. more, most, majority. It should not be obvious.
5. Preparation of the Field Study
It involves:
a) Seek Permission from Relevant Authorities
-Seeking permission from school and authority in the area you are
visiting. It is important to:
 To avoid being denied permission to enter there
 Enables individuals to set early the suitable date and time of visit
 Helps to arrange for a guide to conduct you around
b) Conduct Reconnaissance (Pre-Visit)
-A familiarisation tour of the intended area of study.
It is important to:
 To determine appropriate routes to be taken
 Enables to get documents from officials
 Helps one to identify the appropriate methods of data collection
 Helps to identify appropriate equipment to be used
c) Hold Discussion In Class
-Looking through formulated objectives and hypotheses.
It’s important to:
 Determine their suitability
 Make adjustments
 Decide upon data recording methods
d) Preparation of a Questionnaire
-Important where the interviewer is not able to be with respondents for a long time.
e) Dividing Into Groups
 To ease congestion in the area of study
 To create order during field work
 To reduce fatigue among participants
 To help participants collect data within the time given
f) Preparation for Documents
 Topographical maps to show the routes you will follow
 Tables for filling in information
 Permission documents
g) Reading Through Relevant Books
-Reading about the topic and the area of study
Important in that it helps participants to know:
 The kind of data they need to collect
 The techniques to be employed in the field.
h) Preparation of a Work Schedule
-A timetable to be followed on the day of field study.
It is important to:
 Indicate the specific time when each activity should take place
 Reduce time wastage by ensuring proper time management
 Ensure all important areas are covered and none is forgotten
 Provide an estimate of total time required for study
i) Selection of Important Tools and Equipment
-Tape measure and rulers for measuring, pencils for drawing sketch maps, notebooks for
writing notes, polythene bag for sorting and carrying samples, cameras for taking
photographs, geological hammer getting rock samples and hoe for digging to get soil
samples, etc.
6. Carrying Out the Field Study
-Setting off to go to the area of study to look for data where techniques of collecting
and recording data are applied.
Follow Up Activities
-After data is collected and recorded it’s summarised in the following ways:
 Discussing the findings in class giving reports through group leaders
  Writing reports in essay form
 Calculation of percentages, means, medians and modes
 Laboratory testing of samples
 Presentation of data using methods such as graphs, pie charts, etc.
Problems Encountered in Field work
1. Language Barrier
-Inability to communicate due to the interviewer and the respondent not sharing the same
language or respondents may be illiterate and thus unable to fill questionnaire. The
problems are:
 Data may not be collected
 Illiterate people may give wrong answers while attempting questionnaires
 An interpreter may have to be engages who would be paid which would raise
costs.
 Answers may be distorted by the interpreter
2. Hostility
Those being approached to give answers may become harsh due to feeling that their
time is being wasted which would cause the field study to be unsuccessful.
3. Dishonest Respondents
-Respondents giving wrong information due to suspicion fear of shame or superstition.
4. Bad Weather
-Raining heavily making it impossible to proceed with data collection and difficulty
in movement.
-Becoming very hot making participants uncomfortable and thus unable to proceed with data
collection smoothly.
-Becoming misty or foggy causing invisibility problems.
5. Accidents in the Field
One may fall and get injured when walking on rugged areas.
Injuries may result when using tools to get samples by cutting using pangas or knives
and digging using hoes.
6. Attacks by Wild Animals
-Participants may encounter wild animals when carrying out the study in bushy areas
e.g. snakes which may bite them, rhinos which may charge at them, etc.
7. Inaccessibility
-physical barriers such as swamps, rivers without bridges, steep slopes and thick vegetation may hinder
participants from reaching areas with vital information.

S.4 FIELD WORK NOTES

GEOGRAPHY 273/1

What is Fieldwork?
It is a study that involves students using the local environment as a laboratory to verify what
is studied in classroom and read in text books.

It involves observation, recording, analysis and interpretation of the relationship between

man and physical environment (geographical data).

Field work studies are a form of social enquiry into real - life situations. Field research
therefore takes place in the "field" that is in natural setting, a setting that is not established
for the purpose of conducting research.

Identifying the topic of study:

The topic must have the following characteristics:
Short and precise.
Emphasize "what" is studied and "where" i.e. the name of the area of the study.

Researchable and clear.

Have a geographical relationship.
Not ambiguous.
Examples include:
i) Factors that influence the growth and development of "Kasenyi Fish Landing site,
Northern shores of Lake Victoria" (Wakiso District).

ii) "The growth and development of Kibuli Market and its influence on the
surrounding areas".

Formulating the objectives of the study:

The objectives should have the following characteristics:
They should be specific (they should be clearly stated).
They should be measurable i.e. (can be evaluated).
The objectives should be focused and narrow in scope.
They should be realistic, therefore achievable.
They should be logical i.e. do not start with future prospects, start with location,
historical background and end with future prospects.

They should be related to the topic of the study BUT they should not repeat the
topic.

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What should a student avoid when stating the objectives?
The students should avoid using words that are nor measurable, for example:
To assess.

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 To know.
To understand.
To see.
To examine etc.

Therefore, the student should use active verbs in order for the objectives to be measurable
and correct. For instance:
To find out.
To identify.
To investigate.
To establish etc.

Each objective should also bear the name of the area of the study because each objective is
independent of the other, for instance:
To find out the location of Kasenyi Fishing Landing site.
To find out the historical background of Kasenyi Fishing Landing site.
To find out the conditions favouring fishing activities at Kasenyi Fishing Landing
site.

To investigate the influence of fishing at Kasenyi Landing site on the surrounding

areas.

To identify the problems faced at Kasenyi and the possible solutions.

To find out the future prospects of fishing at Kasenyi Fishing Landing site.

CHOOSING METHODS OF DATA COLLETION:

The selection of the methods of the study depends on the information to be collected and
basically the nature of the area of the study. Therefore, any method can be selected if it
meets the criteria mentioned above:
They include the following:
Observation
Interviewing
Questionnaire method
Recording
Sampling
Map orientation
Measurement

1. OBSERVATION METHOD:

How to present the observation method while answering

questions? Definition:
Observation is a method or a procedure where the researcher uses his eyes to study the
different geographical phenomena in the field of the study.
Geography Department 2018
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During the study we moved through the market stalls observing the different types of
commodities sold in the market. Such commodities included tomatoes, dried fish and many
others. We also moved to the raised land north of the market to observe the general nature
of landscape and human activities. It was found out that south of the area is gently sloping,
while the north has flat raised landscape. The southern part was generally used for trading
activities as a number of shops were sited.

Advantages of observation method:

Observation provides information when other methods are not effective for
instance in areas where there are no people to ask.

It employs a less time consuming procedure of subject selection compared e.g.

sampling.

Observation offers first hand information without relying on reports made by

other people.

It approaches reality in its natural structure and studies events as they evolve.

It is relatively cheap and does involve the use of unique tools.

Limitations of observation:
Observation cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are to be
studied.

Observation cannot provide information about the past and future, or instance
observation cannot explain the historical background of the area neither can it
explain the future prospects of the area of the study.

It is exposed to the observers' bias, selective perception and selection of memory

i.e. it is subjective depending on the value judgment of the observer.

Observation is also affected by obstructions for instance tall buildings or

vegetation, hills, fog, dust and many others.

How do you present the limitations to the observation made?

Explain your answer by mentioning how you were limited, what limited you and what
you wanted to observe.
For instance:
Observation was limited by obstruction by the tall buildings on the eastern side of the
market. For instance Kibuli Mosque, we could not clearly observe other economic activities
taking place in the surrounding areas.

2. INTERVIEWING METHOD:

How to present interviewing method while answering questions:

Definition:
Interviewing is a procedure where the researcher asks questions about a given topic of the
study and the respondent answers.

Geography Department 2018

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While in Kibuli Market or at Kasaku Tea Plantation (use the appropriate name where your
field work was carried out) we interviewed a number of market vendors or workers at the
plantation using a list of guiding questions e.g:

Interviewer:
Briefly explain how the market was started?

Interviewee (Mr. Kimansulo): the market was started by Buganda Board and the land was
donated by Miss Nakabugo who managed the market during its initial years of development.

Note:
You can use any questions as long as they are relevant to the topic and objectives of the
study.

Advantages of interview method:

Flexibility; interviews can be adjusted to meet many diverse situations.

High response rate is got; the presence of the interviewer gives the opportunity to
the interviewee to discuss the participation in the study.

Gives the chance to the researcher or student to correct misunderstood

questions by respondents while still in the field.

Less patience and motivation are needed to complete than required by the
questionnaire method.

The interview method helps the students to interact with people.

Disadvantages of the interview method:

Interviews are more costly and time consuming than other methods.
Interviews are affected by possible bias associated with the interviewer.
It is less effective than other methods especially where sensitive issues are
discussed.

Hostility from the respondents.

Language barrier i.e. in most cases the students cannot easily communicate in
local languages and the local people cannot understand English.

How to present limitations of interview method during the study:

Interviewing was limited by hostility from the workers of Kasaku Tea Estate who insulted
the students who could ask questions such as: how are you going to help us? We are tired of
students.

Interviewing was limited by language barrier. Most of the workers at Kasenyi Landing site
could not communicate in any other language apart from Luganda that could not be
understood by some students.

3. RECORDING METHOD:

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Recording is a procedure where the researcher writes down information using stationery
such as a pen and paper. However, other devices can be used to record down information
especially where writing down of information is not effective.

Advantages of recording method:

Students are in position to keep permanent records of information.

Information is more organized when recorded than in other methods of data

collection.

Where drawings and tabulations are involved, it helps students to acquire skills
that are to be used at later stages of academic hierarchy.

It is used in other methods of data collection (it acts as a link between the
different methods).

Limitations to the method of recording:

It is affected by climatic conditions for instance recording on white paper during
sunny days.

The stationery may be lost either having been destroyed by fore or stolen.

Stationery is expensive for students.

How do we present recording method while answering questions?

E.g:
Describe how you used the following method to collect data while in the field of the study.

a) Recording:
- Approach.
- Define what recording is.
- Explain how you recorded the information.
- Give examples of the recorded information.

For instance a student may answer as follows:

Recording is where the researcher writes down information as got from the
field of the study. During recording, pens, pencils and papers were used to record down
information as observed or interviewed from the field of the study. We recorded down the
problems faced by the fish mongers at Kasenyi Landing site, which included; lack of modern
equipments to preserve fish, lack of capital to buy equipments etc. We also used tables to
record data, for instance the types of fish species caught and major methods by which it is
caught.

A table showing fish and the main methods of catching fish at Kasenyi Fish Landing site:
Fish species Methods of fishing
Tilapia Gill netting
Nile perch Trawling

Geography
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4. MEASUREMENT METHOD:

It is a method used to determine the quantity or size using special equipments or instruments.
In other words, it is a method by which distance, areas, heights, weights and quantity are got
or determined.

Short distances over a good teaming can be measured with a tape measure; longer distances
can be measured by pacing.

Advantages of measurement:
The method gives first hand information to the students.

Students also learn skills and the using of some tools as they physically carry out
the measurements of distance and other objects in the field.

Limitations of the measurement method:

Measurement is affected by inadequate tools in most cases the tools are nor
enough in order for each student to have her of his own.

Measurement is affected by lack of skills by students to use the tools especially

where obsolete tools are used.

Measurement is affected by physical obstructions for instance sudden rain,

steep slope, buildings and many others.

5. SAMPLING METHOD:

Is a process where a portion or part of a whole is selected or used to represent a whole in

the study.

Advantages of sampling:
Sampling saves both resources and time. In many cases a complete coverage of
the whole population is not possible because of the limited time and resources.

Sampling provides first hand information and in detail. Since the researcher has
enough time to give to a few people, he/she can be ask for other information
related to the topic and objectives of the study.

Field work studies based on sampling are less demanding in terms of labour
requirements because they require a small portion of the population in the areas
of the study.

Problems of sampling:
Lack of complete representation of the target population. For instance when a
fish landing site is visited, many of the interviewed people may not be fish
mongers and this may result into giving of wrong information.

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 Geography Department 2018

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 Bias in selection is common since in most cases students only interview people
in the field who are interested in their study.

There is a tendency of missing on important sub-groups especially in cases where

simple random or incidental sampling is used; where students just go to the field
and ask anyone who comes their way.

Inadequate tools e.g. chemicals especially where testing of substances is required

for example testing soil pH or water salinity.

6. SKETCH MAP DRAWING:

A sketch map is a layout of features as seen from above. It represents the location of the area
as well as the relationship between different geographical phenomena.

Like any other map, a sketch map should have the following:
A well elaborated title.
Frame.
A key/labels printed/written on the map.
Compass direction.
Physical features must be shown by names.
Land use types or man made features must be given.
If field work has been carried out around the school, the name of the school must
appear on the sketch map e.g. A sketch map showing physical features and human
features around Kibuli Secondary School.

Steps followed while describing or explaining a given method:

Identify the method (if it was not given).
Define it.
Explain how it was used (be brief here).
Give examples from the field (information gained while using a given method).

Geographical significance of the field work study:

In explaining geographical significance of the field work study a student is expected to state
the findings of the study. The significance of the findings should be related to the topic and
objectives of the study; however students shouldn't repeat objectives in these findings.

The findings should be weighed against the existing geographical facts on the ground/area
of the study. These may be relationships between:
i) Physical and physical.
ii) Physical and human.
iii) Human and human.

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For example: (Physical to physical)
Through observation we established that the gentle slopes north of Kibuli Secondary School
favoured the accumulation of deep fertile soils. Such soils are deposited there by surface
run-off during the rain season.

Through observation we established that lateritic rocks were found on Kibuli flat topped hill
because its an area of maximum leaching and soil erosion exposed most of these lateritic
rocks.

Through observation we found out that Mataba Swamp South East of Kibuli Secondary
School is located in Nsambya Valley.

Human and human activities:

Through observation we established that the Kibuli - Mukwano Road to the west of Kibuli
Secondary School influenced the location of Mukwano Factory. This enables transportation
of raw materials, manufactured goods and labour cheaply.

Through observation we established that the Kibuli - Mbogo road East of Kibuli Secondary
School influenced the location of Kibuli Market that offers goods and services to nearby
settlements.

Physical and human activities:

Through observation we established that the gentle slopes and valley south west of Kibuli
Secondary School favoured settlement activities e.g. teachers' quarters and neighbouring
communities are located in the gentle slopes and valley area.

Problems encountered during the field work study:

Students may give these problems depending on the methods used during the field work
study while giving practical examples from the field and should be related to the topic and
objectives of the study.
For instance if the topic is:
"A study of the influence of soils to the growth of tea at Kasaku Tea Estate in Mukono
district".

PROBLEMS:

Questionnaire:

All questionnaires which were posted by Kaanyi Joseph got lost on the way.
Therefore we were not able to find out the problems facing tea farming at
Kasaku.

Mr. Zansanze and Ms. Njoroge deliberately refused to inform us the influence of
Kasaku Tea Estate to the surrounding environment.

Observation:
This refers to the art of obtaining information from the field by way of identifying
geographical phenomenon using the eyes. The problems we established with it are; we
failed to collect the other types of crops grown on the estate. This is because a hill
obstructed us from seeing those crops.

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 Geography Department 2018

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 Recording:
This involves the use of pens and pencils to write down information and draw sketch maps and
diagrams from the field. We failed to record down the influence of soil to the growth of tea at
Kasaku because it began raining soaking our papers so we could not record.

N.B:
The problems stated should be geographical and not personal for example hunger, got tired, too
expensive, boring etc.

FOLLOW UP ACTIVITIES/STAGES:

This is the activity done by the researcher when he or she comes from the field. The following
steps are taken:

Analyzing interpreting and sorting out data i.e. sorting out the relevant data from
irrelevant data.

Polishing up the field sketches such as completion of sketch maps, panoramas, line
transects and filling up the tables.

Comparing information from different groups and come up with one accurate
information.

Final report writing showing what was included in the report e.g. the topic,
objectives of the study etc.

Distribution of copies of the report to stakeholders i.e. people with authority in the
area of the study e.g. L.C.I chairman of the area of the

Aerial Photography: Meaning and

Interpretation | Geography
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In this article we will discuss about:- 1. Introduction to Aerial

Photography 2. Characteristics of Aerial Photography 3. Interpretation.

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Introduction to Aerial Photography:

Aerial photography means photography from the air. Aerial

photography is one of the most common, versatile and economic forms
of remote sensing. It is a means of fixing time within the framework of
space. Aerial photography was the first method of remote sensing and
even used today in the era of satellite and electronic scanners. Aerial
photographs will still remain the most widely used type of remote
sensing data.

Aerial photographs were taken from balloons and kites as early as in

mid 1800s. In 1858, Gasper Felix Tournachon took the first aerial
photograph from a captive balloon from an altitude of 1,200 feet over
Paris. Aerial photographs can be made with any type of camera. Many
successful applications have employed aerial photography made from
light aircraft with handheld 35mm cameras.

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For the study of large areas, high geometric and radiometric accuracy
are required and these can only be obtained by using cameras that are
purpose built. An object looks smaller on a smaller scale photograph
than on a larger scale photo. Larger scale aerial photograph will provide
a detailed and high resolution view of a small area. Applications of aerial
photography include land-use planning and mapping, geologic
mapping, archaeology, species habitat mapping and integration of aerial
photography into GIS.

Characteristics of Aerial Photography:

i. Synoptic Viewpoint:

Aerial photographs give a bird’s eye view of large areas enabling us to

see surface features in their spatial context. They enable the detection of

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small scale features and spatial relationships that would not be found on
the ground.

ii. Time Freezing Ability:

They are virtually permanent records of the existing conditions on the

Earth’s surface at one point of time, and used as an historical document.

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iii. Capability to Stop Action:

They provide a stop action view of dynamic conditions and are useful in
studying dynamic phenomena such as flooding, moving wildlife, traffic,
oil spills and forest fires.

iv. Three Dimensional Perspective:

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It provides a stereoscopic view of the Earth’s surface and make it

possible to take measurements horizontally and vertically – a
characteristic that is lacking for the majority of remotely sensed data.

v. Spectral and Spatial Resolution:

Aerial photographs are sensitive to radiation in wavelengths that are

outside of the spectral sensitivity of the human eye. They are sensitive to
objects outside the spatial resolving power of human eye.

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vi. Availability:

Aerial photographs are readily available at a range of scales for much of

the world.

vii. Economy:

They are much cheaper than field surveys and are often cheaper and
more accurate than maps.

Aerial Photo Interpretation:

Aerial photographic interpretation is defined as the act of examining

photographic images for the purpose of identifying objects and judging
their significance.

During the process of interpretation, the aerial photo

interpreters usually make use of seven tasks:

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i. Detection,

ii. Recognition and identification,

iii. Analysis,

iv. Detection,

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v. Classification

vi. Idealization and

vii. Accuracy determination.

One of the advantages of all aerial photographs is that when taken as

overlapping pairs (called stereopairs) they can provide a 3D view or
perspective view of the terrain. The most common instruments used are
pocket stereoscope, mirror stereoscope, scanning stereoscope and
interpreterscope.

An interpreter uses the following basic characteristics of

photograph:

i. Tone (also called Hue or Colour):

Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of elements on a

photograph.

ii. Size:

The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a

photograph. The scale will help to determine the object.

iii. Shape:

It refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are

usually indicators of human presence and use. Some objects can be
identified almost solely on the basis of their shapes.

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iv. Texture:

The impression of smoothness or roughness of image features is caused

by the frequency of change of tone in photographs.

v. Pattern (Spatial Arrangement):

The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic e.g. random

pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees and the evenly spaced
rows formed by an orchard.

vi. Shadow:

Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial

photographs. However, they also obscure objects lying within them.

vii. Site:

It refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of

photographs is especially important in identifying vegetation types and
landforms.

viii. Association:

It refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to others.

Photogrammetry:

It is the science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements and

other geometrically derived products from aerial photographs.

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Photogrammetric analysis procedures range from obtaining distances,
area, elevations using hardcopy (analog) photographic products,
equipment’s and simple geometric concepts to generating precise digital
elevation models, use of digital images and analytical techniques. One of
the most widespread uses of photogrammetry is in preparation of
topographic maps.

Types of Aerial Photography and

Its Applications
Aerial photography is a fascinating niche that the pros use for many different purposes,
and there are many different types of aerial photography. The term
aerial photography refers to taking photographs from an elevated position, often using an
airborne craft, including such equipment as rockets, airplanes, hot air balloons, and more
recently, drones.
To be considered an aerial photograph, you have to take the image with equipment that is
not based on the ground. And, it is not the same as air-to-air photography where
photographers are capturing images of other planes or airborne craft.
There are different kinds of aerial photography which experts categorize according to the
camera axis (angle of the photo), the scale of the image (proximity and width of the area
in the photograph), and the type of film. This photographic niche has a number of uses,
but first let’s look at the various categories.

Categories of Aerial Photography

There are several different kinds of aerial images in each of the three main categories. The
choice of a particular kind of aerial photography is typically based on the subject and
purpose of the imagery.
Camera Axis
There are three types of aerial images based on the orientation of the camera axis:
 Vertical photographs–the axis of the camera is in a vertical position. This results in
little to no relief visible in the image and a smaller amount of area covered. Experts
most often use vertical photographs like a map.

Vertical aerial photographs have no tilt in the camera axis.

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  Low oblique photographs–unlike with vertical photographs, to take low oblique
photographs you tilt the camera axis more than 3 degrees in a manner that the
horizon–the area where the earth and sky meet–is not visible in the image.

Low oblique aerial photographs don’t show the horizon.

 High oblique photographs–the camera axis has a higher degree of tilt–
approximately 60 degrees–which covers a larger area, and the horizon is visible in
the photograph. In contrast with vertical photographs, this level of tilt produces a
great deal of relief. That allows you to better identify natural or manmade features.

High oblique aerial photographs show the horizon.

The decision to use vertical versus oblique photographs is partially dependent on the
flying conditions. It is difficult for you to take vertical aerial photographs in turbulent,
unstable conditions, and therefore, many photographers opt to take aerial photographs
with a tilted camera axis.
You label an image oblique if the camera axis is tilted more than 3 degrees. Those tilted
less than 3 degrees are still considered to be vertical photographs as opposed to oblique
photographs. Oblique photographs are helpful to reveal the topography in relief, which is
useful for identifying geological or archaeological features. Vertical photographs are
better for mapping.
What’s the difference between high and low oblique aerial shots?
The difference is in the degree of tilt of the camera axis. With vertical photographs, the tilt
is 3 degrees or less. If the tilt is sufficient to capture the horizon in the aerial photograph
(60 degrees from vertical or more), then it is a high oblique aerial photograph. If not
(approximately 30 degrees from vertical), it means the tilt is less, and that makes it low
oblique.
Image Scale
There are two kinds of aerial photographs based on scale.
 Large scale aerial photographs–when the airborne aircraft is flying at a lower
elevation, the camera captures images of less area, but the objects are seen in a
bigger dimension. That means that the ratio of photo distance to the ground–or
representative fraction–is of higher value. That’s why the experts call low elevation
photographs large scale photographs. Large scale photographs are more useful for
mapping land features and measuring objects.

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Large scale aerial photographs show less area covered on the ground, but it is in greater
detail.
 Small scale aerial photographs–When the aircraft is flying at a higher elevation,
there is a larger area that can be covered in a single image, but the ratio of size of
objects in the photograph relative to the ground dimension is actually smaller.
That’s why the pros call these types of aerial photographs small scale photographs.
Small scale photographs are helpful for studying large areas with features that
don’t need to be mapped or measured in detail.

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 Small scale aerial photographs cover a larger area.
Once again, the selection of large or small scale photographs depends on the reason for
the photography and the subject.
What’s the difference between large and small scale aerial photography?
Larger scale aerial photographs (e.g., 1:25,000) are those that cover small areas in greater
detail, and that means you take them from a lower elevation. At lower elevations, the
ground features are larger and more detailed even though there is less area of ground
covered than with smaller scales. Small scale photographs (e.g., 1:50,000) cover larger
areas from a higher elevation, but the areas covered reveal less detail. There is more area
of ground covered than in large scale photographs.

Film and Filter Aerial Photography

You can use these film categories to produce photographs that vary in properties and can
be used in different types of applications.
 Panchromatic Images–this refers to the type of film used, which captures all visible
wavelengths of energy. The image is in grayscale, and often used for
reconnaissance or map study.
 Color Photographs–color film can capture various visible bands separately. This
type of aerial photography can be used to interpret objects within a study area.
 Infrared Imagery–this refers to the use of infrared film, which records only infrared
energy. This type of photography is used to study vegetation and bodies of water,
for example.
 Color-Infrared Imagery–this combines color and infrared film for vegetation studies,
water body mapping, and a variety of urban applications.
 Thermal infrared imagery–this captures not only infrared images, but temperature
variations as well. Experts use this type of imagery for temperature studies.

Thermal infrared images combine infrared with temperature variations.

 Radar imagery–this film captures radar waves or microwaves, which typically
contain a lot of noise and require correction. Experts use these images for weather
applications and tecto-morphic studies.

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  Spectra-zonal images–these images capture portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum and you can use them for mapping applications.

Modern aerial photography commonly involves the use of drones.

How to Take Aerial Photographs?

You take these photographs by fixing the camera to a platform on an airborne craft, such
as an airplane, helicopter, hot air balloon, or drone. Photographers have even attached
cameras to kites and used them to photograph archaeological sites. You can then trigger
the mounted camera automatically or remotely. It is also possible for a photographer in an
airplane or hot air balloon to hold the camera and take the image.
Uses of Aerial Photography
Aerial photography is one of the earliest forms of remote sensing. Even today, it is still one
of the more widely used and cost effective methods for this purpose. Before the advent of
modern photographic methods, traditional photographers used in this method for remote
sensing as well as for a variety of other uses.
Modern equipment has improved the quality, resolution, and platforms making this niche
cheaper and more accessible than ever before. This kind of photography has a broad
range of uses. Additionally, the fact that it has been used for a long time means it can
provide us with a historical perspective of landscape changes through time.

Aerial photography can be used to document changes in landscapes.

One of the main uses of vertical aerial photographs is for mapping. Aerial photographers
use both vertical and oblique photographs for planning land-use projects, movie
production, environmental studies, archaeology, power line inspection, oil and gas
surveying, surveillance, commercial advertising, and even artistic projects.
You can use different types of oblique and vertical photographs are to identify water
features, find ruptures in oil and gas lines, and locate archaeological features. In wartime,
photographers use aerial photographs to locate targets. And, given advances in drone
technology, the applications for this niche are growing.
Lens System for Aerial Photographs
Aerial photography normally involves a minimum of two camera lenses attached together,
which is known as a 2-lens system, but you can also use more lenses. For example, you
can use a 3-lens systems to capture areas from horizon to horizon. As an example,
photographers used this type of system, also called a trimetrogen system, in World War II
to map enemy territory.
Best Time of the Day for Aerial Photography
Of course, the answer to this question depends on what you’re hoping to photograph. If
you’re aerial mapping, and you don’t want shadows, the best time of day will be close to
noon. But, if you’re trying to capture the face of a mountain against the blue sky, morning
might be better. The golden hour is also good if you’re hoping to capture stunning
images full of color.

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Aerial photography is clearly an important photographic niche. It is one that is growing in
popularity and use. With a solid understanding in the various types of
aerial photography as well as their uses, aspiring aerial photographers can build an
interesting, rewarding, and lucrative career.
Disadvantages of Aerial Photography
Some of the disadvantages include the fact that weather conditions can cancel a shoot.
Additionally, it can be difficult to identify land features which can be obscured by
environmental features, such as trees. Moreover, detailed variations in terrain features can
be difficult to see without overlapping photographs and/or stereoscopic viewing
instruments. Also, in poor light, a lack of contrasting colors and tone can render an aerial
photograph useless
Aerial Photogrammetry vs. Terrestrial Photogrammetry
Photogrammetry combines photography and geography. The difference relates to how
you take aerial photographs. With aerial photogrammetry, you take the images from an
airborne craft whereas with terrestrial photogrammetry, you take the photos from a
camera at a fixed, elevated terrestrial position. There is also, of course, a difference in the
equipment and support required for each. Aerial photogrammetry requires much more
support and investment than terrestrial photogrammetry.

Aerial Photograph: A Comprehensive Guide

with Definition, Basic Concepts, Platforms, and
Classification
Aerial photographs are those which are taken from airborne platform. The camera
for aerial photography generally locates onboard in an aircraft and captures
multiple overlapping images while passing through its flying path. In remote
sensing, this is called the Aerial Photogrammetry. The camera is focused
towards the Earth surface, and captures the images of surface features,
topography, atmosphere, and others.

Photogrammetry is highly related with this aerial photography. One of the

major kind of photogrammetry is Aerial Photogrammetry, in which the
overlapping imagery of earth surface, taken from an airborne platform, are
processed through traditional stereo-plotter or modern computerized systems, to
study the Earth.

It is important to mention that aerial photograph was first captured in 1858 by

French photographer and balloonist Gaspard-Félix Tournachon, famous known
as Nadar.

Basic Concepts of Aerial Photography

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Focal Length : Focal length is the distance between the center of the camera
lens and the center of the photo-plate or focal plane, as it is generally
called. Distortion of image decreases along with the increase of the focal
length.

Scale : A scale of photograph denotes the ratio of a certain distance between

two points on the photograph, as compared to the proper distance between that
two points on the ground or earth surface. For instance, if a 2 kilometres long
road covers 2 centimetres in an aerial photograph, then the scale of the
photograph will be calculated as following.

Distance on the photograph/Actual distance on the ground

= 2 cm./2 km.
= 2 cm./2,00,000 cm.
= 1/1,00,000
So, the scale is 1:100000

This scale can be expressed in three ways, e.g., statement scale (1 cm.=1
km.), representative fraction (1/100000), and ratio scale (1:100000).

Film : Film is a sensitive substrate that is used in the camera to capture

photographs. Various films are used in aerial photographs, such as
panchromatic, infrared, etc.

Overlapping : Overlapping refers the percentage of extend to which one

photograph covers a certain amount of area of another photograph. This includes
60% forward overlapping which is along the flight line, and 40% lateral
overlapping that is area between adjoining flight lines.

Diagrammatic presentation of the overlapping of aerial photographs

Platforms of Aerial Photography

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 As the camera for aerial photography is located onboard an aircraft, hence the
aircraft acts as a platform for aerial photography. Similarly there are many
other platforms for aerial photography, such as UAV or Unmanned Aerial
Vehicles or commonly known as Drone(s), blimps, balloons, and many others.

Classification of Aerial Photograph

Aerial photograph can be classified on various basis, such as the position of
camera axis, R.F. scale, coverage angle, combination of film and filter, lens
system, etc.

1. According to camera axis position

On the basis of the camera axis position, it is classified into three groups.
A camera axis denotes the imaginary line joining the centre of the photo-plane
and the focus point on the ground through the centre of the camera lens. These
three types are as follows.

Diagrammatic presentation of aerial photographs base on the position of camera axis

 Vertical Aerial Photograph : When the camera axis generates a perfect 90° angle with the ground or the
earth surface, then the obtained photograph is called the vertical photograph. But it is quite hard to obtain a
perfect vertical aerial photograph because of the curvature of the earth surface. Thenceforth a deviation of
∓3° is considered.
 Low-Oblique Aerial Photograph : Similarly, when the camera axis are inclined between 15° and 30°, then
the aerial photograph so obtained is called the low-oblique aerial photograph.
 High-Oblique Aerial Photograph : When the camera axis are inclined to 60° or more, then the aerial
photograph so obtained is called the high-oblique aerial photograph.
The high-oblique and low-oblique aerial photographs have a special significance
in the fields of reconnaissance survey.

2. Based on the scale of photograph

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 If the R.F. or Representative Fraction scale of the imagery are considered,
then aerial photograph is classified into another three types. The fact is that
a small scale represents a larger geographic area at a relative size of the
photograph. Whereas a large scale covers relatively small geographic area at
the considered size of the photograph, and provides a better details than that
of the small scale photograph. Thus on this basis, the three types of aerial
photographs are as follows.
 Small Scale Aerial Photograph : When a scale of 1:30,000 or smaller is taken into account to capture an
aerial photograph, then that is called small scale aerial photograph. These photographs cover a large area in
less detail.
 Medium Scale Aerial Photograph : If the scale of areal photograph ranges between 1:15,000 and
1:30,000, then the obtained photograph is referred as a medium scale photograph.
 Large Scale Aerial Photograph : The areal photographs with a scale of 1:15,000 or larger are considered
as a large scale aerial photograph. It covers a small area with great detail than that of the small scale
photographs.

3. On the basis of coverage angle

Now taking the coverage angle into the account, there are four types of
aerial photographs, viz.,
 Narrow angle areal photograph in which less than 60° is covered by the camera onboard.
 Standard angle aerial photograph. It provides a coverage of to the order of 60°.
 Wide angle aerial photograph covers the angle of around 90°.
 Lastly, the ultra wide angle aerial photograph is that when it covers almost 120° angle.

4. Considering the film and filter of camera

On the basis of the variation of film and filter combination of the camera ,
there can be seven types of photograph obtained. These are,
 Panchromatic : Panchromatic refers to the single band sensor, used in the camera for aerial photography.
This produces black and white or grayscale images.
 Colour : The film used in colored aerial photography captures the visible wavelengths separately and
produces colorful images. The obtained photographs are very much helpful to observe surface features and
others.
 Infrared : In this case, the film or the bands of camera sensor can detect only the infrared radiation and
yields grayscale images as usual. These imagery are mainly used to study water bodies and vegetation
cover.
 Colour-Infrared : Colour-infrared aerial photograph denotes, the camera having the capability to detect
both of the visible and infrared wavelengths.

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 Thermal Infrared : Thermal infrared aerial photographs are produced by the camera with the film to
capture thermal energy, that emits from the object under investigation in the form of heat. These
photographs are useful for studying thermal gradient maps and others related.
 Radar : These are the photographs obtained by the aerial photography cameras that can detect only radar or
microwaves. The imagery contain noise and radiometric techniques can be applied to reduce this.
 Spectra-zonal : Spectra-zonal images are obtained, when some specific portions of the electromagnetic
spectrum are captured by the camera sensor.

5. Based on Lens System

Lastly, based on the number of lens used for capturing photographs, or simply
following the lens system, aerial photographs can be classified into many
types. Such as,
 Single Lens System : It is the most common as well as general lens system for aerial photography, where,
as the name suggests, the only lens is attached with the camera.
 Multiple Lens System : This includes different lens combination. The notable one is three lens
combination, in which three camera lenses are arranged together for aerial photography. This system is also
known as the Trimetrogon Lens System. Besides this, there are two lens, four lens, nine lens systems also.

Basic Elements of Aerial Photo Interpretation

Aerial photographs are different from "regular" photos in at least three important ways:

 Objects are taken from an overhead or aerial position. Most are used to seeing
objects from the ground, and not from the air.
 Photos are taken at scales most people are not used to seeing.
 Sometimes, images obtained from satellites and high-altitude aircraft use color-
infrared photography. Color-infrared photography allows scientists to see things
that are not visible to the human eye. This provides scientists with a tool to study
landforms, environmental pollution, and other effects of human activities on the
planet's surface.

These “basic elements" can aid in identifying objects in aerial photographs:

 Tone (also called Color or Hue). Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of
elements on a photograph. Some objects appear darker and more crisp than others.

 Size. The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a
photograph. The scale will help you determine if an object is a small pond or a large
lake. Major highways can be distinguished from smaller roads. Long rivers can be
distinguished from smaller tributaries.

 Shape. Shape refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are
usually indicators of human presence and use. Agricultural areas tend to have

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 geometric shapes like rectangles and squares. Streams are linear (line) features that can
have many bends and curves. Roads frequently have fewer curves than streams. Some
objects can be identified almost solely on the basis of their shapes.
 The Pentagon Building
 Football fields
 Cloverleaf highway interchanges

 Texture. The impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features is caused by

the amount of change of tone in photographs. Grass, cement, and water generally appear
"smooth", while a forest canopy may appear "rough".

 Pattern (spatial arrangement). The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be used
to identify those objects. For example, consider the difference between (1) the
random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees and (2) the evenly spaced rows
formed by a tree orchard.

 Shadow. Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial

photographs. However, they also obscure objects lying within them.

 Site. Site refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of

photographs is especially important in identifying vegetation types and landforms. For
example, large circular depressions in the ground are readily identified as sinkholes in
central Florida, where the bedrock consists of limestone. This identification would
make little sense, however, if the site were underlain by granite.

 Association -- Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The
context of an object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a nuclear power
plant is not likely to be found in the midst of single-family housing. A vegetated area
within an urban setting may be a park or a cemetery. Wetlands may be located next to
rivers, lakes, or estuaries. Commercial centers will likely be located next to major roads,
railroads, or waterways.

What information can I find on an air photo?

Unlike a map, features on an aerial photograph are not generalized
or symbolized. Air photos record all visible features on the Earth's
surface from an overhead perspective. Although the features are
visible, they are not always easily identifiable. The process of
studying and gathering the information required to identify the
various cultural and natural features is called photo interpretation.
With careful interpretation, air photos are an excellent source of
spatial data for studying the Earth's environment.

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Factors to assess to identify a feature

Shape

The form of an object on an air photo helps to identify the object.

Regular uniform shapes often indicate a human involvement.

[Figure 1 - Text Version]

Pattern

Similar to shape, the spatial arrangement of objects (e.g. row crops

vs. pasture) is also useful to identify an object and its usage.

[Figure 2 - Text Version]

Size

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A measure of the object's surface area (e.g. single-lane vs. multi-
lane highways).

[Figure 3 - Text Version]

Tone/Colour

The colour characteristics of an object, relative to other objects in

the photo, are used to identify the feature (e.g. sand has a bright
tone, while water usually has a dark tone; tree species can be
determined by the colour of their leaves at certain times of the
year).

[Figure 4 - Text Version]

Shadow

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A shadow provides information about the object's height, shape,
and orientation (e.g. tree species).

[Figure 5 - Text Version]

Texture

The physical characteristics of an object will change the way they

appear on a photo (e.g. calm water has a smooth texture; a forest
canopy has a rough texture).

[Figure 6 - Text Version]

Association/Site

Associating the presence of one object with another, or relating it

to its environment, can help identify the object (e.g. industrial

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buildings often have access to railway sidings; nuclear power plants
are often located beside large bodies of water).

[Figure 7 - Text Version]

Time

Temporal characteristics of a series of photographs can be helpful

in determining the historical change of an area (e.g. looking at a
series of photos of a city taken in different years can help
determine the growth of suburban neighbourhoods.

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 [Figure 8 - Text Version]

Stereo perspective

Seeing an area in stereo, or 3-D, is important for determining the

topographical relief of an area, as well as the height of objects such
as trees and building.

[Figure 9 - Text Version]

Stereoscopic imagery
Stereoscopic imagery is the result of overlap, which is the amount
by which one photograph includes an area covered by a
neighbouring photograph. Air photo coverage is generally
designed to provide about 60% forward overlap between
photographs. This allows stereoscopic, or 3D, viewing when the two
overlapping photos are used with a stereoscope. In addition, from
20 to 40% lateral (side) overlap is allowed when complete coverage
of an area is required. For mapping, inventory and vegetation
studies, for example, a survey is flown in a series of to-and-from
parallel strips with side overlaps between strips over the entire
area.
For non-stereoscopic coverage, used in crop sampling or pollution
detection, the photographer may choose a 20% forward overlap.
Find out more

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 Interpretation of Aerial Photography

Introduction to Aerial Photography:

Aerial photography means photography from the air. Aerial photography is one of the most
common, versatile and economic forms of remote sensing. It is a means of fixing time within the
framework of space. Aerial photography was the first method of remote sensing and even used
today in the era of satellite and electronic scanners. Aerial photographs will still remain the most
widely used type of remote sensing data.
Aerial photographs were taken from balloons and kites as early as in mid 1800s. In 1858, Gasper
Felix Tournachon took the first aerial photograph from a captive balloon from an altitude of
1,200 feet over Paris. Aerial photographs can be made with any type of camera. Many successful
applications have employed aerial photography made from light aircraft with handheld 35mm
cameras.

For the study of large areas, high geometric and radiometric accuracy are required and these can
only be obtained by using cameras that are purpose built. An object looks smaller on a smaller
scale photograph than on a larger scale photo. Larger scale aerial photograph will provide a
detailed and high resolution view of a small area. Applications of aerial photography include
land-use planning and mapping, geologic mapping, archaeology, species habitat mapping and
integration of aerial photography into GIS.

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 Characteristics of Aerial Photography:
i. Synoptic Viewpoint:
Aerial photographs give a bird’s eye view of large areas enabling us to see surface features in
their spatial context. They enable the detection of small scale features and spatial relationships
that would not be found on the ground.
ii. Time Freezing Ability:
They are virtually permanent records of the existing conditions on the Earth’s surface at one
point of time, and used as an historical document.

iii. Capability to Stop Action:

They provide a stop action view of dynamic conditions and are useful in studying dynamic
phenomena such as flooding, moving wildlife, traffic, oil spills and forest fires.
iv. Three Dimensional Perspective:
It provides a stereoscopic view of the Earth’s surface and make it possible to take measurements
horizontally and vertically – a characteristic that is lacking for the majority of remotely sensed
data.
v. Spectral and Spatial Resolution:
Aerial photographs are sensitive to radiation in wavelengths that are outside of the spectral
sensitivity of the human eye. They are sensitive to objects outside the spatial resolving power of
human eye.
vi. Availability:
Aerial photographs are readily available at a range of scales for much of the world.
vii. Economy:
They are much cheaper than field surveys and are often cheaper and more accurate than maps.
Aerial Photo Interpretation:
Aerial photographic interpretation is defined as the act of examining photographic images for the
purpose of identifying objects and judging their significance.

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 During the process of interpretation, the aerial photo interpreters usually make
use of seven tasks:
i. Detection,
ii. Recognition and identification,
iii. Analysis,
iv. Detection,
v. Classification
vi. Idealization and
vii. Accuracy determination.
One of the advantages of all aerial photographs is that when taken as overlapping pairs (called
stereopairs) they can provide a 3D view or perspective view of the terrain. The most common
instruments used are pocket stereoscope, mirror stereoscope, scanning stereoscope and
interpreterscope.

An interpreter uses the following basic characteristics of photograph:

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i. Tone (also called Hue or Colour)
Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of elements on a photograph.
ii. Size:
The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a photograph. The scale will
help to determine the object.
iii. Shape:
It refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are usually indicators of
human presence and use. Some objects can be identified almost solely on the basis of their
shapes.
iv. Texture:
The impression of smoothness or roughness of image features is caused by the frequency of
change of tone in photographs.
v. Pattern (Spatial Arrangement):
The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic e.g. random pattern formed by an
unmanaged area of trees and the evenly spaced rows formed by an orchard.

vi. Shadow:
Shadows aid interpreters in determining the height of objects in aerial photographs. However,
they also obscure objects lying within them.
vii. Site:
It refers to topographic or geographic location. This characteristic of photographs is especially
important in identifying vegetation types and landforms.
viii. Association:
It refers to the occurrence of certain features in relation to others.
Photogrammetry:
It is the science and technology of obtaining spatial measurements and other geometrically
derived products from aerial photographs. Photogrammetric analysis procedures range from
obtaining distances, area, elevations using hardcopy (analog) photographic products,
equipment’s and simple geometric concepts to generating precise digital elevation models, use of
digital images and analytical techniques. One of the most widespread uses of photogrammetry is
in preparation of topographic maps.

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