Abstract

Hydroponic systems for crop production are nowadays essential to maximize

yields. Sometimes, the benefits of hydroponics have been questioned by the
researchers as compared to growing of crops in other soilless culture. The
growers raised the crops through hydroponics system get yields more compared
to conventional practices as hydroponically grown plants dip their roots directly
into nutrient-rich solutions. Therefore, the aim of the current chapter is to
provide accurate and updated information about their different nutrients and
their composition used hydroponically compared to conventional production
mode. This chapter will be divided as the following sections: (1) rationale, (2)
nutrient solution technique, and (3) work done on fruit crops. With this chapter,
we hope to present an updated information, comparing hydroponic versus
conventional technique.

Keywords
 soilless culture
 hydroponics
 conventional production
 nutrients
 recycling

Author Information
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1. Rationale
Hydroponics is the emerging sector of horticulture that deals with growing of
plants in a soilless nutrient solution. This term refers to the use of nutrient and
water solution for growing plants without soil. Since the ancient time, this
technique is being used from thousands of years that traced from the hanging
gardens of Babylon and the floating gardens of China. With the decline in arable
land, there is a need of alternative to meet the demand of increasing population,
and in this regard, hydroponics serves as an additional channel for crop
production. In this technique, the crop plant growth is influenced by certain
substances in the water. The German botanists, Julius Von Sachs and Wilhelm
Knop developed the first standard formula for the nutrient solutions in 1860–61
where the nutrient solutions contained macronutrients the especially nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, magnesium, and calcium varied concentration
depending upon crop. Since 100 years back, William Frederick Gericke
popularized the idea that plants could be grown in a solution of nutrients and
water. He contributed toward hydroponic culture by producing an effective
nutrient solution. In the early 1930s, he did an experiment on production of
agricultural crops through nutrient culture and termed it as aquaculture. The
term so used was dropped due to culturing of aquatic organisms as aquaculture.
During 1930s refinement work on hydroponics was expanded toward Europe,
Japan, and North America worked England, Africa, Britain, France, Italy, Spain,
and Sweden. In 1937, W.A. Setchell introduced the term “hydroponics.” The
hydroponic nutrient solution includes minerals in the raw water and nutrients
added with fertilizers. The right fertilizer, right dose, and right concentration in
the hydroponic nutrient solution greatly depend on the quality of the raw water
to be used. This technique has advantages over other methods such as high water
use efficiency, improved growth rate, and disease control and also offers more
controlled environmental conditions for plants growth and development.
A DVERTISEMENT

2. Nutrient solution technique

Hydroponics is a technology in which nutrient uptake occurs through plant roots
dipped in the nutrient culture. Prior to use of hydroponic culturing, the crop
physiological functioning system must be clear. For optimum crop growth and
functioning, mixture of sunlight, carbon dioxide, water, and nutrient elements
for photosynthetic efficiency is needed. Besides, the minerals are either found
naturally in the soil or supplied through the fertilizers to the soil. Thus, it is
evident that plant needs mineral derived from the soil for its growth, not the soil
which becomes a basic idea behind the development of hydroponics. Moreover,
the roots also need an optimum supply of oxygen for uptake and transport of
metabolites to the whole plant. In hydroponic system, the roots of plants are in
direct contact with the nutrient solution only vis-a-vis the absorption of nutrients
occurs more easily than soil grown plants. This system also performed the crop
plants with faster growth and higher yields and in turn saves energy for
extensive root system development and thus, more of energy can be diverted
toward leaf and stem growth. Besides, it also offers significant advantages over
traditional farming, producing greater yields, faster growth, and possibly year-
round crop production. This system further allows recycling of nutrient solution
without wastage of water. The amount and composition of the nutrients to which
plants have access can be monitored precisely by the grower. It also allows the
grower to control the pH level of the solution and protects plants from pests and
diseases. However, the literature is still scanty with respect to production of
hydroponic fruits [1, 2]. Seedlings of fruit crops can also be grown
hydroponically in earlier stages of growth and then transplanted to the field.
Different fruit crops namely, grapes, raspberry, blackberry, blueberry, and
strawberry can be grown hydroponically. Strawberries and blueberries perform
best under hydroponics system because of acidic soil requirement are best suited
to blueberries and be grown under hydroponic system as pH level and nutrient
content are easily controlled and maintained in hydroponics.

2.1 Hydroponics technique

There are different types of hydroponics technique being employed for growing
of plants. There are mainly three types of hydroponic systems.

2.1.1 Nutrient film technique

It is a system in which the nutrient solution is passed through the roots of plants
placed in a channel. The plants are placed on channels made up of wood, rigid to
flexible tubes or plastic and the nutrient rich solution is either pumped through it
or passed under gravitation reaching the root system effectively. This technique
is effective only for the plants with large root system. The nutrient film
technique (NFT) was developed during the late 1960s by Dr. Allan Cooper at
the Glasshouse Crops Research Institute in the U.K. NFT is the growing of
plants, bare-rooted in long, waterproof channels, down which flows a very
shallow stream of re-circulating water, into which are dissolved all the minerals
required to grow healthy plants. NFT is a hydroponic technique wherein a very
shallow stream of water containing all the dissolved nutrients required for plant
growth is re-circulated past the roots of plants in a watertight gully, also known
as channels. According to the pre-requisite to achieve a nutrient film situation
more effectively is described as (i) ensuring the gradient down where water
flows is uniform and not subject to localized depressions, (ii) rapid inlet flow
rate that a considerable depth of water flows down to the gradient, (iii) adequate
width of the channels to avoid any damming up of the nutrients, and (iv) flat
channel base but not curved due to which otherwise will be a considerable depth
of liquid along the center of a channel with a curved base. N.F.T. system is
fairly a simple design. However, this is not best suited for smaller quick growing
plants.
2.1.2 Deep film technique
It is a technique in which the plants are grown with roots submerged in floating
nutrient solutions (10–20 cm deep) on a flat table. This method is effective for
growing plants with short root system and is relatively cheaper.

2.1.3 Substrate method

In this method, the plant growth is supported by using materials such as stones,
vermiculite, perlite, etc. in structures such as tubes and pots. This system results
in affective utilization of nutrients and reusing of the nutrient solution as the
drained solution is re-circulated in the system. This system is commonly utilized
in Asia, Europe, and Israel for strawberry cultivation by using several trough
systems.
Among the three systems, NFT and DFT are the most commonly used methods.
The basic idea behind the working of NFT is the recycling of the nutrient
solution. This technique offers major advantages over other systems like low
cost of installment, easy operation and management as well as conservation of
nutrients and water. In this system, nutrient solution enriched with material like
sand, vermiculite or rock wool is passed and re-circulated through a slope
consisting of plants placed in a plastic trough. It provides the optimum amount
of nutrients to the plant through its root system. It is best suited for short period
crops like lettuce, strawberry, and raspberries. Nutrient film technique has been
termed as a promising tool in the areas with limited land resources.
Various materials that can be used for hydroponics in fruit crops include that of
mineral origin and organic origin. Vermiculite is one of the mineral substances
utilized in pears, peach, and tangerine seedlings as it is free of pathogens attack
and have high water retention capacity. In case of grapevine, sand because of its
easy acquisition is used as it results in the increased absorption of
macronutrients. Rice hulls have been found to be effective organic source in
growing strawberry plants under hydroponics. For strawberry, perlite or
vermiculite is the best growing medium. Materials like coconut coir or peat
moss should be avoided as they absorb too much of nutrient solution and cause
condition of suffocation to the plants.
For growing strawberries through hydroponics, two systems viz., “closed” and
“open” are employed. Among these two, recirculation of nutrient solution occurs
in the closed system with plants grown in channels or pipes. The closed system
can have continuous nutrient supply or the supply can be at irregular intervals
when the plants are grown in pots. In case of pot grown plants, different
substrates having high water retention power help in supplying nutrients to the
plant system. Whereas in case of open system, there is no recirculation of
nutrient solution and is applied to the plants with the help of drippers.
In strawberries, NFT is the most commercially practiced method. In this method,
the runners of strawberry are placed in net pots in which the roots are covered
with clay medium in the root zone, which help in increasing the strength of
plant. They can also be placed with plugs into the net pots which are framed in
the NFT channels. It must be placed such that there is continuous contact with
the flow of nutrient solution in the initial weeks of root development. The
optimum amount of oxygen must also be maintained during the operation of
system with 14–16 hours of daylight. The nutrient discharge should be 1–2
liters/minute with circulation pump running all the time. In NFT, it must be
grown in low humidity conditions and care should be taken as it is susceptible to
root rot.
A DVERTISEMENT

3. Nutrient solution
Nutrients are the basic elements for hydroponics, and nutrient solution is the
liquid fertilizer solution prepared in definite composition to support plant
growth. The plants need is fulfilled through the ionic form of nutrients with
proper oxygen supply and temperature. Environmental factors and nutrient
solution are the two important factors to be considered for productivity in
hydroponics. Supply of nutrient elements depends upon the requirement of crop,
and the frequency of application is based upon the type and age of crop, the type
of material used in media and the prevailing environmental conditions.
The kind of nutrient solution varies according to crop species, their growth
stage, environment, and other related factors as there is no ideal nutrient solution
available to meet the needs of all the crops. Among fruit crops, a lot of research
have been done regarding the nutrient solutions. In grapevine, macronutrient
absorption based on nutrient culture of was studied. It was reported that higher
accumulation of nutrients resulted in increased vigor of rootstocks Jales,
Tropical and Campinas. Solution was also used in pineapple cv. Perola produced
through micropropagation in hydroponics system. Long Ashton nutrient solution
was used in grapevine under hydroponics [3]. The nutrient solutions for some
fruit crops such as peach and pear have not been disclosed.

3.1 Composition
The composition of various nutrients in the nutrient solution plays a major role,
as the uptake of these nutrients in optimum amounts affects the functioning of
plants, thereby affecting its growth. Testing of water must be done before using
it is in hydroponics for nutrient solution to get the accurate details about the
properties of water. In strawberry for a closed type of NFT, the nutrient solution
with the following composition can be used:

Nutrient elements Quantity (ppm)

Nitrogen (nitrate form) 160.0
Nitrogen (ammonium form) 15.0
Phosphorus (PO4) 50.0
Potassium 210.0
Calcium 190.0
Magnesium 50.0
Iron 6.0
Boron 0.50
Manganese 0.50
Copper 0.10
Zinc 0.08
Molybdenum 0.05
Empty heading

There are different nutrient solutions being standardized containing different

concentrations of nutrient elements. Hoagland and Arnon nutrient solution has
been used for the production of seedlings of guava and pineapple. Furlani et al.
nutrient solution was used in production of guava seedlings. Yamazaki solution
can be used for strawberry which includes N(NO3:5; NH4:0.5); P:1.5; K:3; Ca:2;
Mg:1; S:1; Fe:3; B:0.5; Mn:0.5; Zn:0.05; Cu:0.02; Mo:0.01 in meq/L [4].
Hoagland and Arnon (1938) Furlani et al. (1999) Hewitt [3] Cooper [5]
Nutrient elements
mg/L
N 210 202 168 200–236
P 31 31 41 60
K 234 193 156 300
Ca 160 142 160 170–185
Mg 34 39 36 50
S 64 52 48 68
Fe 2.5 0.26 2.8 12
Cu 0.02 0.04 0.064 0.1
Zn 0.05 1.8 0.065 0.1
Mn 0.5 0.37 0.54 2.0
B 0.5 0.06 0.54 0.3
Mo 0.01 0.11 0.04 0.2

3.2 Nutrient preparation

The nutrient solution for hydroponics can be either bought premixed or can be
prepared by self. Plants require same macro and micronutrients but in different
ratios. So, the nutrients supplying fertilizers must be bought based on the plants’
need as each nutrient has distinct function in different plants. For the preparation
of nutrient solution, the nutrient fertilizers are mixed with water which breaks
downs to release nutrients. The selection of fertilizers should be such that the
amount of water and nutrients present in the solution are equal to the amount of
water and nutrients taken up by the plants. The nutrient solution preparation
requires water of good quality which is contamination free for which chemical
analysis is important. The formulations must be based upon the targeted crop
and must supply all the essential nutrients. The nutrient solution preparation also
requires maintaining optimum levels of pH and EC. For the proper growth of
strawberry plants, the pH of nutrient solution used must be between 5.5 and 6
and the ideal EC range is 1.8–2.0 dS/m during growth period and 1.8–2.5 dS/m
during fruiting stage. The pH of the solution can be maintained through
potassium hydroxide used to increase pH or through phosphoric acid to lower
down the pH. At EC higher than 1.2 dS/m to prevent the damage to strawberry
plant root area of plants can be flushed with clean water for the removal of
accumulated salts.
A DVERTISEMENT

4. Recycling of nutrient solution

To meet the requirement of plant without any loss of nutrients, the closed system
of hydroponics offers a huge benefit for recycling of nutrients reducing
economic as well as environmental costs. In a closed system, the water and
nutrient supply is equal to their quantity taken up by the plants [6]. This system
provides controlled nutrient supply with minimal leaching losses and reduced
environmental contamination. There is a continuous supply of nutrient solution
touching the roots of the plant which after passing down is recirculated and is
again available for the use of the plants. Among the added fertilizers, only 50%
is utilized by the plant and 70% of the added water is utilized by the plant for its
proper growth and transpiration [7]. Recycling of nutrients through closed
system of hydroponics and nutrient film techniques is very efficient as it uses
only 10% of the water and 25% of fertilizer to that of conventional systems. The
mineral content of the added fertilizers may be reduced due to the uptake by
plants which may be replenished from time to time. The recycling and reusing of
nutrients and water having huge advantages also poses some issues. There is
increase in EC of the nutrient solution if water uptake is greater than the
nutrients and reduced EC due to greater nutrient uptakes which as a result
disrupt the recycling mechanism of the system. There may be problem of
increased concentration of salts, toxic ions, and pathogens in the nutrient
solution where recycling of pathogens occurs along with the solution in the
system resulting in their build up. The problems being faced in the closed
system can be removed by using ultraviolet treatment, heat treatment, and slow
sand filtration. It has been proved that among the previously mentioned, slow
sand filtration is best as it is chemical free, easy to maintain, and energy efficient
with adaptability in components [8]. Bio sand filter is used in the system against
pathogens of Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp. In case of open system, the
nutrient solution is not recirculated but released into the environment after the
crop cultivation. It has been proposed that the nutrient solution released to
environment can be recycled to be used as irrigation water without by reducing
further pollution chances [9].
5. Frequency of application
For growing strawberry hydroponically, the plants must be fed with nutrient
solution daily and best time being 6:00 am–8:00 am. The application must be
such that conditions like overwatering and drying not occur. For the early stages
of plant growth when the plant is small, less amount of nutrients are required. In
actively growing period and during summers, large amount of water is
consumed by the plants due to increased transpiration rate. The water
requirement also varies depending upon the environmental conditions
maintained. The amount of nutrients to be added to the system must be based
upon the crop usage. The quantity of water and nutrients taken up by the plants
can be known by measuring the EC daily. Lower amount of EC indicates more
nutrient uptake, and higher level indicates increased water uptake. Based upon
the EC levels, the water must be added to avoid buildup of salts. The reservoir
must be filled with water once it is lower than the required volume and must be
checked for EC and pH. If the EC and pH of the solution is not stable as per the
requirement, it must be adjusted accordingly. The refilling of reservoir from
time to may result in imbalance of nutrients in the nutrient solution. So, it must
be dumped after a period of time to avoid any interruption in the growth of pant.
If the reservoir is small, the solution must be dumped after every 10–15 days
while in case of large reservoirs once a month.

6. Nutrient need through hydroponics

In soil grown plants, the fertilizers are added into the soil or applied through
foliar application, but in hydroponics, a solution of ionic compounds helps in
delivering nutrients into the plant system. Hydroponics is better in meeting
plants nutrient need as under the manipulated set of conditions nutrients are
directly supplied to the roots by coming in contact with them. Hydroponics, due
to their better control over the environmental conditions, has been proved to be
superior and sustainable for growing of different crops. Particularly in case of
berry crops like strawberry, it has turned to be a very effective method
producing fruits of superior quality with high yielding potential.
Hydroponically, grown strawberries have been found to produce fruits with
higher amount of vitamin C, vitamin E, and total polyphenols. By following
different systems in hydroponics and different substrates, the nutrient demand of
the plant can be met more efficiently. The supply of optimum amount of
nutrients and water must be ensured depending upon the crop need so that the
plant continues to grow without any lack or excess of both nutrients and water.
With several discussed advantages, hydroponics is better choice over
conventional methods to produce fruits with reduced water and fertilizer use.

7. Work done
Maximized growth and yield with mixture of perlite (60–80%) and peat (20–
40%) in strawberry [10]. Maximum yield was recorded in strawberry grown in
perlite mixed with coco coir or vermiculite in vertical hydroponic system [11].
Takeda [12] suggested that transplant plug plants were superior in increasing
yield to fresh plants for hydroponic production of strawberry cv. Sweet Charlie
and Camarosa. Costa et al. [13] concluded that the carbonized rice husk
substrate produced more than one crop (off-season) in soilless culture in
strawberry cv. Albion frigo. Treftz et al. [14] reported combined benefits of
environment and better sensory attributes, and it is desirable to grow strawberry
hydroponically. Treftz and Omaye [15] noted that growing strawberries in
hydroponic systems are more sustainable and superior to soil grown systems.
Ramirez-Gomez et al. [16] reported maximum yield with vertical hydroponic
pots system; the maximum number of fruits with vertical four pipes system and
inferior quality fruit were produced with vertical three pipes system in
strawberry.
Ramirez-Arias et al. [17] reported maximum yield with vertical hydroponics
system and the lowest was found in three level horizontal systems in strawberry
cv. Festival. Peralbo et al. [18] concluded that maximum yield was produced by
peat as compared to cork compost in both open and closed hydroponics system
in strawberry. Miranda et al. [19] found that closed hydroponic system of gutters
and grow bags was superior than the open system in saving water and fertilizer
in strawberry. Roosta and Afsharipoor [20] concluded that dry weight, leaf area,
number of runners, Leaf N, P, K, Fe, Mg, and yield was significantly higher in
hydroponics as compared to aquaponics except for soil perlite. Portela et al. [21]
noted higher yield through nutrient solution between EC ranges of 1.2–1.5 dS/m
in NFT hydroponics system in strawberry cv. Camarosa. Vikas et al. [22]
reported maximum plant height and maximum number of fruits with sewage
sludge and cocopeat (20:80), whereas the maximum number of leaves and yield
was observed with sewage sludge and cocopeat (30:70) in strawberry under
hydroponics. Choi et al. [23] concluded that FAI technique for coir substrate
was best in hydroponics due to sustainable use of water and fertilizers in
strawberry. Albaho et al. [24] concluded that continuous sub irrigation capillary
system is the best among hydroponics in strawberry. Jun et al. [4] reported that
nutrient solution with EC ranges between 0.8 and 1.2 dS/m during low
temperature season in hydroponically grown strawberry cv. Maehyang.
Lee et al. [25] noted that nutrient solution with EC of 1.0 dS/m is best for
hydroponically produced strawberry cv. Albion and Goha. Andriolo et al. [26]
reported maximum fruit yield with EC 0.9 dS/m under closed soilless growing
system in strawberry. El-Sayed et al. [27] noted significant improvement in
vegetative growth characters, leaf chemical content, and yield in perlite: peat
moss substrate under hydroponics in strawberry cv. Festival. Ebrahimi et al. [28]
reported maximum number of fruits and yield with cocopeat + perlite substrate
and improved quality with peat + sand + perlite substrate in strawberry cv.
Camarosa and Selva. Marinou et al. [29] concluded that sawdust was best
substrate medium under hydroponics in strawberry. Caruso et al. [30] reported
improved fruit quality through nutrient solution with EC 1.3 dS/cm in spring
season and through 2.2 mS/cm in winters under NFT in strawberry cv. Alpine.
Souza et al. [31] observed fastest transplanting stage and grafting stage at 30 and
61 days after transplanting under hydroponics system for commercial grafts
production in peach. Motosugi et al. [32] reported increase in anthocyanin level
with ammonium nitrogen nutrient solution at pH 3–3.5 under NFT in
grapevines.

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