Biology Notes

@Ruzivo
RUZIVO BIOLOGY NOTES
1.0 Cell Structure and Function
1.1 Microscopy 6
1.2 Plant and Animal Cells 16
1.3 Organelles and their functions 22
1.4 Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic cells 32
1.5 Movement of substances into and out of cells 36

2.0 Biological Molecules and Water

2.1 Carbohydrates 54
2.2 Lipids 68
2.3 Proteins 76
2.4 Water 107

3.0 Cell and Nuclear Division

3.1 The Cell cycle and Mitosis 113
3.2 Meiosis 126

4.0 Gene Control

4.1 Nucleic Acids 141
4.2 Structure and replication of DNA 146
4.3 Protein synthesis 155

5.0 Gene Technology

5.1 Insulin Production 163
 5.2 Genetic Screening and Finger Printing 170
5.3 Gene Therapy 187
5.4 Ethical Implications, Benefits and Hazards of Gene
Technology 192

6.0 Inherited Change and Evolution

6.1 Nature of Gene and Monohybrid and Dihybrid Crosses 204
6.2 Natural and Artificial selection 248

7.0 Energetics
7.1 ATP Structure and Synthesis 284
7.2 Photosynthesis 292
7.3 Respiration 318

8.0 Transport Systems

8.1 Structure and Mechanisms of transport
systems in plants 348
8.2 Mammalian circulatory system 364

9.0 Nervous Control

9.1 Need for communication and Action potential 380
9.2 Cholinergic synapse 399

10.0 Sexual Reproduction

10.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants 406
10.2 Sexual Reproduction in Humans (Gametogenesis) 415
10.3 Sexual Reproduction in Humans (Fertilisation) 435
11.0 Ecology
11.1 Levels of ecological organization 457
11.2 Nitrogen cycle 482
11.3 Conservation 490
11.4 Anthropogenic impact on ecosystems 523

12.0 Biodiversity
12.1 Classification 557
12.2 Importance of Biodiversity 582

13.0 Human Health and Disease

13.1 Drug and substance abuse 599
13.2 Global distribution of Diseases 610
13.3 Immunity 627

1.0 Cell Structure and Function

1.1 Microscopy
Introduction
 Microscopy is the use of microscopes to view objects that cannot
be seen with the naked eye.
  There are three branches of microscopy namely optical or light,
electron and scanning probe microscopy.

Light microscope
 The diagram below shows the light microscope.

Fig.1.1.1:

The light microscope

 The eyepiece lens magnifies and focuses the image from the
objective lens onto the eye.

 The objective lens collects light passing through the specimen

and produces a magnified image.

 Condenser lenses focus light onto the specimen that is on the

stage, held between the cover slip and the slide.

 The lenses are particularly helpful when coupled with the highest
objective lens.
  The light source produces the light that is focused onto the
specimen.

 Usually, there are varying numbers of objective lenses on a

microscope.

 It may consist of 4x, 10x, 40x and 100x magnification powers.

 To obtain the total magnification of an image, one needs to

multiply the eyepiece lens power by the objective lens power.

 If one couples a 10x eyepiece lens with a 40x objective lens, the
total magnification would be 10 x 40 = 400 times.

 The stage is a flat platform that supports the slide being

analysed.

 The diaphragm controls the intensity and size of the cone light
projected on the specimen.

 The more transparent the specimen, the less the light required.

 Coarse adjustment knobs move the stage up or down, in order to

roughly focus.

 Fine adjustment knobs are used to bring the specimen into sharp
focus under low power and is used for all adjustments when
using high power lenses.

The electron microscope

 There are two types of electron microscopes which are the

scanning electron microscope (SEM) and the transmission

electron microscope (TEM).

 An electron microscope uses electrons to create an image of the

specimen being examined.
  A scanning electron microscope creates an image by scanning a
focused electron beam over a surface.

 The electrons in the beam interact with the sample, producing

various signals that can be used to obtain information about the
surface topography and composition.

 The diagram below shows an electron microscope.

Fig.1.1.2:

The scanning electron microscope

 The Scanning Electron Microscope can produce three-
dimensional images.

 Thus, great detail of many tissue or cellular arrangements can

be shown, unlike on a light microscope.

 The resolution is 0.2nm, which is 1000x more than a light

microscope.
  Because of this resolution, electron microscopes can produce
very detailed images of organelles inside the cells, which could
otherwise not be seen by a naked eye or other types of
microscopes.

 Electron microscopes are very expensive to purchase and use.

 Preparation of the samples to be viewed is also very costly.

 One must be expertly trained and able to work with a high

degree of skill.

 Electron beams are deflected by molecules in the air, requiring

the sample to be placed in a vacuum.

 Images produced are always in black and white.

Resolution and magnification

 Resolution is the ability to distinguish between two separate

points.

 Inability to resolve means the two points are seen as one.

 Resolution refers to the amount of detail that can be seen, that

is, the greater the resolution, the greater the detail that can be
seen.

 For a light microscope, the maximum resolution is 200nm,

meaning that any two objects with a distance of less than 200nm
between them cannot be distinguished as separate.

 For an electron microscope, the resolution is about 0.2nm, which

is 1000 times that of the light microscope.

 Magnification is the enlargement of an object. It is the number of

times that an image is greater than the actual object.

 Magnification can be calculated using the formula:

  The magnification of a light microscope is formed by adjusting
the powers of the eyepiece and the objective lens.

 The eyepiece produces a power of 10x and the objective lens

can produce various different powers, so if it were to produce a
power of 100x, the final magnification would be 1000x (10 x
100).

 The image would appear 1000 times larger than its actual size.

 Light microscopes generally have three different objective lenses

to allow the slide to be viewed in three separate manners.

 Such microscopes are known as compound light microscopes.

Measuring specimens
 Measurement of length is based on a comparison of the object

under scrutiny with another of known dimensions, or with a

standardized, calibrated scale, for example, a ruler.

 When measuring the specimen, a transparent scale called an

eyepiece graticule can be used.

 The diagram below shows an eyepiece gratitude.

 The eyepiece scale is divided into 100 small divisions.

Fig.1.1.3:

An eyepiece graticule

 It is placed in the microscope eyepiece so that it can be seen at

the same time as the object to be measured.

 To know the actual size of the eyepiece units, the eyepiece

graticule scale should be calibrated.

 This is done by using a transparent ruler, called a stage

micrometre scale.

 It is placed on the microscope stage and brought into focus.

 The stage micrometre scale is 1 mm divided into 100 divisions so

each division is equivalent to 10µm.

 The images of the two scales are superimposed as shown on the

diagram below.
Fig. 1.1.4:

The eyepiece and the stage micrometre superimposed

 Count the number of divisions on the eyepiece graticule that

corresponds to the total length of the stage micrometre (Z).

 Calculate the actual length (A) represented by one division of the

eyepiece graticule.

 To find the actual length represented by the whole length of the

eyepiece graticule (W):

 Fig.1.1.5 below shows how to calibrate the eyepiece graticule.

Fig.1.1.5:

How to calibrate the eyepiece graticule

 This can now be used to measure the length of any specimen

that is viewed under the microscope.

Preparing microscope slides

 The specimen is placed on a slide, in a drop of water.

 A cover slip is carefully lowered onto the slide to cover the

specimen at an angle of 45 degrees.

 This can be done using a mounted needle.

 To improve visibility, the specimen can be stained by irrigating

with, for example, iodine solution or potassium iodide solution
when observing cells.

 Staining improves the contrast between different structures.

 This stains the contents of the cell yellow with the nucleus
strongly stained than the cytoplasm.
  The vacuole and the cell wall are not stained.

 Different types of stains can be used to stain the cell contents

differently for easy visibility.

 If there are any air bubbles, they are removed by gently pressing
on top of cover slip to move them to the edge.

 Excess water is dabbed off using paper towels or filter paper.

 Fig 1.1.6 shows the stages of preparing a slide.

Fig.1.1.6:

Preparing a microscope slide

 In light microscopy, the oil immersion technique is used to
increase the resolving power of a microscope.

 This is achieved by immersing both the objective lens and the

specimen in a transparent oil of high refractive index, thereby
increasing the numerical aperture of the objective lens.

 Many condensers also give optimal resolution when the

condenser lens is immersed in oil.

 Oil immersion objectives are used only at very large

magnifications that require high resolving power.

 Samples for electron microscope need to be sectioned into thin

slices to allow electrons to pass through them.

 The first step in the preparation process is fixation.

 During fixation, living tissue is chemically treated to stabilise it.

 This also kills the tissue sample at the same time.

 This should be done as quickly as possible because, as soon as

tissue is removed from its natural environment, it starts to
change.

 The samples are first fixed and dehydrated and then embedded
in hard resin so that they can be easily cut.

 To be visualised by an electron microscope, biological samples

need to be:

 fixed so the electron beam does not destroy them.

 dried thoroughly so the vacuum does not affect them.

1.2 Plant and Animal Cells
Introduction
 All organisms are made up of cells and this statement sums up
the cell theory which states that:

 All organisms are made of one or more cells

 The cell is the basic unit of all living things and

 All cells come from existing cells

 A cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently.

 Inside the cell is where all metabolic processes take place.

 The cells also contain the hereditary material of an organism and

the material is passed on from parent to daughter cells.

 Organisms can be made of one cell only and these are said to be
unicellular, for example amoeba, euglena and paramecium.

 Those made up of many cells are multicellular, for example

human beings.

 Other multicellular organisms include plants and animals.

 Both types of cells (plant cell and the animal cell) have a nucleus,
cytoplasm and cell membrane but they exhibit some differences.

Animal cells
 Animal cells have a membrane-bound nucleus.

 Cells that have membrane-bound nuclei are known as eukaryotic

cells.

 DNA, the genetic material, is housed within the nucleus.

  Animal cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles
(tiny cellular structures), that carry out specific functions
necessary for normal cellular operation.

 The functions include everything from producing hormones and

enzymes to providing energy for animal cells.

 Fig 1.2.1 below shows a typical animal cell.

Fig.1.2.1:

A typical animal cell

Experiment 1.2.1: Observation of animal cells

Materials And Apparatus

 Microscope

 Microscope slide

 Cover slip

 Dropper
  Methylene blue solution

 Hot water

 Tooth pick

Procedure
1. Rinse the mouth with hot water.

2. Scrap off a thin layer of cells from the inside of the cheek using
the tooth pick.

3. Add a drop of methylene blue solution to the scrapings on a slide

and gently lower the cover slip on top.

4. Examine the specimen under low power and high power.

5. Make a drawing of and label what you see.

Expected Observations
 The observations should show a labelled diagram with the
magnification clearly shown.

Plant cells
 Plant cells are eukaryotic cells.

 The DNA in a plant cell is housed within a nucleus that is

enveloped by a membrane.

 Plant cells also contain other membrane-bound organelles.

 Plant cells have a cell wall outside the cell membrane

which forms the outer lining of the cell.

 The cell wall mostly constitutes of cellulose.

 Plants cells also contain many membrane-bound cellular

structures.

 Fig 1.2.2 shows the diagram of a typical plant cell.

Fig 1.2.2:

A plant cell

Experiment 1.2.2: Examination of plant cells

Materials and Apparatus

 Onion

 Blade

 Iodine solution

 Microscope

 Microscope slide

 Cover slip

 Forceps

 Dropper
Procedure
1. Peel off the epidermal layer of the onion scale using the forceps.

2. Cut off a small piece of the epidermal layer and mount it on the
slide in a drop of iodine solution.

3. Cover it with the cover slip.

4. Observe the specimen under low power followed by high power.

5. Make a drawing of what you see and label it.

Expected Observation
 The observations should show a labelled diagram with the
magnification clearly shown.

Differences between plant and animal cells

 The plant has the following features that are not found in animal

cells:

o Cell wall

o Large central vacuole

o chloroplasts

 The table below summarises the major differences between plant

and animal cells.

Table 1.2.1: Differences between plant and animal cells

Plant cells Animal cells

Tough, elastic cell wall Cell wall absent

Mature cells have large Vacuoles present are small and

central vacuoles filled with scattered throughout the cell,
cell sap. for example, contractile vacuole

Tonoplast present around the Tonoplast absent

vacuole

Cytoplasm normally confined Cytoplasm present throughout

to a thin layer at the edge of the cell
the cell.

Nucleus at the edge of the Nucleus anywhere in the cell but

cell sometimes central

No centrioles Centrioles present

Cilia and flagella absent Cilia and flagella present

Contains chloroplasts for No chloroplasts

photosynthesis

1.3 Organelles and their Functions

Introduction
Cell surface membrane
 It is a very thin structure of less than 10nm in thickness.

 It comprises a lipid bilayer in which proteins are embedded.

 One of its functions is to retain the fluid cytosol, that is, the
aqueous component of the cytoplasm of a cell within which
various organelles and particles are suspended.

 It also forms a barrier across which all substances entering and

leaving the cell must pass.

 It is also where the cell is identified by surrounding cells.

 The detailed structure and functions of the cell membrane will be

dealt with in section 1.5.

 The cell surface membrane is visible on the light microscope.

Endoplasmic Reticula
 This consists of a network of membranes that are folded to form
sheets, tubes or sacs that are extensively interconnected.

 The endoplasmic reticulum is attached to the outer membrane of

the nuclear envelope.

 Metabolically active cells have got cytoplasm packed with

endoplasmic reticulum.

 There are two types of endoplasmic reticula, namely the rough

endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and the smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER).

 The endoplasmic reticula are too small to be viewed under a light

microscope, therefore require high resolution.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
 It has ribosomes attached to the outer surface.

 Fig.1.3.1 below shows the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

 As can be seen, ribosomes are attached to the external surface of

the folded membranes which bud off from the nuclear envelope.

Fig.1.3.1:

The rough endoplasmic reticulum

 Vesicles are formed at the margins of the rough endoplasmic

reticulum and these are used to store and transport substances
around the cell.

 The rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site of proteins

synthesis.

 The proteins are packaged in small vesicles which fuse with Golgi
apparatus and get discharged from the cell.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

 This has no ribosomes.
  Fig.1.3.2 shows the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

Fig.1.3.2:

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

 It is the site of synthesis of substances needed by the cell.

 Examples of substances synthesised are lipids and steroids, and

the reproductive hormones namely, oestrogen and testosterone.

Ribosomes
 These are very small structures that are about 25nm in diameter.

 They are made up of two subunits, the smaller subunit, and the
larger subunit, and they do not have membranes.
  Fig.1.3.3 shows the structure of a ribosome.

Fig.1.3.3:

The ribosome showing the subunits.

 They are made up of a protein and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

 They can be found free in the cytosol or bound to endoplasmic

reticulum.

 They are only visible under an electron microscope.

 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis which also includes

enzymes.

Golgi Apparatus
 Also known as the Golgi body, it consists of a stack-like
collection of flattened membranous sacs.

 Animal cells have fewer and larger Golgi apparatus.

 Plant cells can contain as many as several hundred smaller

versions.

 The diagram below shows the Golgi apparatus.

 The Golgi apparatus is too small to be viewed by a light

microscope.
Fig 1.3.4:

The Golgi apparatus

 The Golgi apparatus receives proteins and lipids (fats) from the
rough endoplasmic reticulum.

 It modifies them and sorts, concentrates and packs them into

vesicles.

 In animal cells, the vesicles form lysosomes.

Lysosomes
 These are membrane-bound organelles found in nearly all animal
cells.

 A lysosome is a type of vesicle with specific composition, of both

its membrane proteins, and proteins of its lumen.

 It has a lumen pH of about 4.5 – 5.0 which is optimal for the

enzymes involved in hydrolysis, analogous to the activity of the
stomach.
  The lysosome is also involved in various cell processes, including
secretion, plasma membrane repair, cell signalling, and energy
metabolism.

 Lysosomes also act as the waste disposal system of the cell.

 They digest unwanted materials in the cytoplasm, both from

outside the cell and obsolete components inside the cell.

 Material from outside the cell is taken-up through endocytosis

(see section 1.5), while material from the inside of the cell is
digested through autophagy.

 Autophagy is an intracellular degradation system that delivers

cytoplasmic constituents to the lysosome.

 Their sizes can be very different—the biggest ones can be more

than 10 times bigger than the smallest ones.

Nucleus, Nuclear Envelope and The Nucleolus

 The nucleus is the largest organelle in eukaryotic cells.

 It is about 10-20µm in diameter.

 Two membranes known as the nuclear envelope surround the

nucleus, with the outer membrane continuous with the
endoplasmic reticulum.

 The nuclear envelope has got some numerous pores which

enable speedy movement of molecules between the nucleus and
the cytoplasm, and also between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

 The diagram below shows the nucleus, nucleolus and the nuclear
membrane.
Fig.1.3.5:

The nucleus, nucleolus and the nuclear envelope

 The nucleus contains the chromosomes, which are thread-like

structures that contain DNA and proteins.

 The nucleus also contains the nucleolus where ribosomes are

synthesised.

 The nucleus functions to control the activities of the cell

although there are some cells like the red blood cells, which have
no nuclei.

Mitochondria
 These are relatively large organelles with a length of about 3 -
10µm and a width of 0.5 -1.5µm.

 Their shape is variable but can be rod –shaped or cylindrical.

 They are normally found in large numbers, in all cells, most

notably the metabolically active cells.
  Mitochondria have double membrane, with the outer membrane
being smooth and the inner membrane being folded to form
cristae that increase the surface area.

 The diagram below shows a typical mitochondrion.

Fig.1.3.6:

The mitochondrion showing the inner structures

 The interior of the mitochondrion, called the matrix, contains an

aqueous solution of metabolites and enzymes, and small circular
lengths of DNA.

 In the mitochondrion is where aerobic stages of respiration take

place and is also where synthesis of much of the ATP takes place.

 Mitochondria also contain some ribosomes found in the cytosol

or attached to endoplasmic reticula.

Chloroplasts
 These are large organelles which are convex in shape.

 They are about 4 – 10 µm long and 2 -3 µm wide.

  They occur in green plants and in most cases, in the mesophyll
cells of the leaves.

 A chloroplast has a double membrane.

 The outer membrane is continuous, while the inner layer is

tucked-in to form thylakoids (see fig.1.3.7).

 Some regions of the thylakoids are stacked into flattened circular

piles called grana (singular- granum).

Fig.1.3.7:

Structure of the chloroplast

 Chlorophyll and other pigments are located on the grana.

 Outside the thylakoids is a fluid known as the stroma.

 The stroma contains the chloroplast, DNA and ribosomes, and

some many enzymes.

 Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis.

Centrioles
 The centrioles are cylindrically shaped cellular organelles found
in most of the eukaryotic cells.

 They are made of groups of microtubules arranged in a pattern.

 The pattern of the microtubules for a ring of 9 microtubules is

known as "triplets" and the microtubules are arranged at right
angles to one another as shown in the diagram below.

Fig.1.3.8:

Structure of the centrioles

 In animal cells, the centrioles help the organizing and assembly

of microtubules during the process of cell division.

 The replication of centrioles happens in the interphase of mitosis

and meiosis.

 The centrioles called basal bodies form cilia and flagella.

1.4 Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells

Introduction
Eukaryotic cells
 These are cells that contain a nucleus surrounded by a

membrane and whose DNA is bound together by proteins

(histones) into chromosomes.

 The DNA is found in the nucleus.

 The cells also contain an endoplasmic reticulum and numerous

specialized organelles especially mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and
lysosomes.

 Organisms that are made up of eukaryotic cells are known as

eukaryotes.

 Eukaryotes can be both plants and animals.

 Fig 1.4.1 shows a eukaryotic cell.

Fig 1.4.1:

Eukaryotic cell
  The following are examples of eukaryotes:

o Animals such as cats and dogs have eukaryotic cells.

o Plants such as apple trees have eukaryotic cells.

o Fungi such as mushrooms have eukaryotic cells.

o Protists (most of the unicellular organisms) such as amoeba

and paramecium have eukaryotic cells.

o Insects have eukaryotic cells.

o Humans are composed entirely of eukaryotic cells.

Prokaryotic cells
 A prokaryotic cell is a cell that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus,

mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle.

 All the intracellular water-soluble components like proteins, DNA

and metabolites are located in the cytoplasm.

 They are enclosed by the cell membrane, rather than in separate

cellular compartments.

 Fig 1.4.2 below shows an example of a prokaryote.

Fig 1.4.2:

A 3D view of a prokaryotic cell

  Most prokaryotes are unicellular.

 Examples of eukaryotes are bacteria like E. coli, a bacterium of

the human gut.

 It is a tiny organism (about 1-5µm in diameter), almost the size

of a mitochondrion of the eukaryote.

 Fig 1.4.3 below is an electron micrograph of E. coli.

Fig 1.4.3:

The electron micrograph of the bacterium E. Coli.

 From the diagram, it can be seen that there are no membrane-

bound organelles in the cytoplasm.

 There is a cell wall that surrounds the prokaryotic cell.

 Another example are the cyanobacteria (blue-green algae).

 The genetic information of prokaryotes is typically in nucleoid of

DNA strands, not associated with proteins, but they may have
additional DNA in a circular loop called a plasmid.
Differences between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
 The table below summarises the differences between eukaryotic

and prokaryotic cells.

Table 1.4.1: A comparison between prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

 Cell extremely small, about 1-5µm in  Cells are larger, about 50-150 µm

diameter

 No nucleus, instead there is circular DNA  Nucleus is present, with a distinct

helix not supported by histone protein envelope.

 Chromosomes of linear DNA helix

supported by histone protein.

 The cell wall is present and is made up of  Cell wall is present in plants and is made

peptidoglycan (long chains of amino acids up of cellulose.

and sugars)
 In fungi the cell wall is made up of the

polysaccharide chitin.

 Few organelles, no membranous  Many organelles bound by double

structures membrane

 Have small ribosomes (70s)  Have larger ribosomes (80s)

 Some cells have simple flagella  Some cells have cilia or flagella, 200nm in

diameter

 Some are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen  Cannot metabolise atmospheric nitrogen

gas for production of amino acids and gas but require nitrogen already

proteins combined in molecules for making

proteins
1.5 Movement of Substances into
and out of Cells

Functions of the cell surface membrane

 The cell surface membrane (also known as the plasma
membrane), is a thin semi-permeable membrane that surrounds
the cytoplasm of a cell.

 Its function is to protect the integrity of the interior of the cell by

allowing certain substances to enter the cell, while keeping other
substances out.

 It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in

some organisms and the cell wall in others.

 The cytoskeleton, made up of microtubules, actin filaments and

intermediate filaments, gives the cell its shape and helps
organise the cell's parts.

 It also provides a basis for movement and cell division.

 Thus, the cell membrane also serves to help support the cell and
help maintain its shape.

 The cell surface membrane also regulates cell growth through

the balance of endocytosis and exocytosis.

 In endocytosis, lipids and proteins are removed from the cell

membrane as substances are internalised.

 In exocytosis, vesicles containing lipids and proteins fuse with

the cell membrane increasing cell size.

Structure of the cell membrane

 The cell membrane is primarily composed of a mix

of proteins and lipids.

  The plasma membrane has two layers (a bilayer) of phospholipids
which are fluid at body temperature.

 Phospholipids are fats to which phosphorous is attached.

 Being fluid means that the lipids and the proteins move around
within their layer.

 This kind of arrangement is the fluid mosaic model.

 The word mosaic describes how the proteins are scattered in the
structure.

 Lipids help to give membranes their flexibility.

 Proteins monitor and maintain the cell's chemical climate and

assist in the transfer of molecules across the membrane.

 Fig 1.5.1 shows the structure of the cell surface membrane.

Fig 1.5.1:

The structure of the plasma membrane

Cell Membrane Lipids
 The cell membrane contains phospholipids, cholesterol and
glycolipids.

Phospholipids
 They are a major component of cell membranes.

 Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer.

 Their hydrophilic (attracted to water) head areas spontaneously

arrange to face the aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid,
while their hydrophobic (repelled by water) tail areas face away
from the cytosol and extracellular fluid.

 Fig 1.5.2 shows a phospholipid and 1.5.3 shows a phospholipid

bilayer.

Fig 1.5.2:

A phospholipid
Fig 1.5.3:

Phospholipid bilayer

 The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain

molecules to diffuse across the membrane.

Cholesterol
 Cholesterol is another lipid also found in animal cell membranes.

 Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed between

membrane phospholipids.

 This helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by

preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed
together.

 Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.

 Fig 1.5.4 shows how cholesterol is fitted in the plasma

membrane.
Fig.1.5.4:

Cholesterol in the plasma membrane.

Glycolipids
 Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and have a
carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them.

 They help the cell to recognise other cells of the body.

 The antigens which determine blood type belong to glycolipids.

 In fig 1.5.1, glycolipids can be seen on the membrane surface.

Cell Membrane Proteins

 The cell membrane contains two types of associated proteins.

 Peripheral membrane proteins are exterior to and connected to

the membrane by interactions with other proteins.

 Integral membrane proteins are inserted into the membrane and

most pass through the membrane.

 Portions of these transmembrane proteins are exposed on both

sides of the membrane.
  Structural proteins help to give the cell support and shape.

 Cell membrane receptor proteins help cells communicate with

their external environment through the use of hormones,
neurotransmitters, and other signalling molecules.

 Transport proteins such as globular proteins transport molecules

across cell membranes through facilitated diffusion.

 Glycoproteins have a carbohydrate chain attached to them.

 They are embedded in the cell membrane and help in cell-to-cell

communications and molecule transport across the membrane.

Movement of substances across the membrane

 Movement of substances across the membrane is mainly by the
following methods:

o Diffusion, Facilitated diffusion, Osmosis, Active uptake, and

Bulk transport.

Diffusion
 The continuous random movement of atoms, molecules and ions

of liquids results in the even distribution of the components of a

gas mixture and of the atoms, molecules and ions in solution.

 Diffusion is the net movement of molecules or ions from a region

of their high concentration to a region of their low concentration.

o This results in particles getting evenly distributed.

o The particles can move in any direction by the process of

diffusion.

o For example, if a crystal of potassium permanganate is

dropped into a beaker of water, it dissolves and gradually
the purple colour uniformly through the water.

o Fig 1.5.5 demonstrates diffusion.

Fig.1.5.5:

Demonstrating diffusion using potassium permanganate crystals

 The difference in concentration between two regions is called the

concentration gradient or diffusion gradient.

 Diffusion continues until equilibrium is reached.

 Equilibrium is when there is no longer a concentration gradient,

that is, when the particles are uniformly distributed throughout
the system.

 Diffusion is a passive process (does not require the expenditure

of energy) which takes place by random motion.

 The random motion of these molecules is just because of the

energy they possess.

Diffusion through the channel pores

 Ions do not readily pass through the plasma membrane because

they are not soluble in lipid.

  Within the membrane, there are proteins which assist charged
particles to pass, in or out of the cell, through the membrane.

 These are known as channel proteins.

 Fig 1.5.5 shows some substances moving through channel

proteins.

Fig 1.5.6:

Movement through the channel proteins

 The protein molecule is arranged in such a way as to form a

water-filled pore in the membrane.

 The lining of the channel is hydrophilic, such that water-soluble

substances and water itself can pass through.

 The channels are selective, allowing some substances to pass

through but not others.

 Some of the channels can close and open and they are known as
gate channels.

 They open only when they receive an appropriate signal.

 Channel proteins speed up the rate at which ions passively

diffuse down a concentration gradient across the plasma
membrane.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion
Temperature
o As temperature increases the average kinetic energy of
particles also increases.

o Greater kinetic energies lead to increased velocities.

o This means that there is a greater chance of collisions

between particles, resulting in an increased rate of
diffusion.

o Therefore, the rate of diffusion increases with temperature.

Medium of Diffusion
o Diffusion also depends upon the medium in which it takes
place.

o The particles within the medium act as a physical barrier to

diffusion.

o Collisions between diffusing particles and the molecules of

the medium lead to a reduction in the rate of diffusion.

o Therefore, the greater the number of molecules or larger

particles within the medium, the lower the rate of diffusion.

Concentration Gradient
o Volumes of high concentration gradient have a large
difference in the concentration of molecules over a unit
length.

o A large difference in concentration leads to a greater

probability of molecular collisions over the region and
therefore increases the rate of diffusion.

o Generally, the greater the concentration gradient, the

greater the rate of diffusion.
Surface Area of Diffusion
o The greater the surface area, the faster the rate of
diffusion.

Diffusion Distance
o The greater the distance over which the substances has to
diffuse, the slower the rate of diffusion.

Facilitated diffusion
 Carrier proteins transport diffusing molecules across the

membrane and deposit them on the other side.

 The movement occurs down a concentration gradient and does

not require the expenditure of metabolic energy.

 This is the main way by which glucose and amino acids are taken
up into cells.

 Such molecules cannot diffuse through the lipid bilayer because

they are polar and are too large to pass through the channel
proteins.

 Fig 1.5.6 shows a molecule being transported by career proteins

across the membrane.

Fig.1.5.7:

Transport across the membranes by career proteins

  The relationship between the protein and the substance to be
transported is specific, just like the enzyme and substrate.

 The career proteins are susceptible to poisoning and different

molecules may compete for transport by the same career.

Osmosis
 Osmosis is a special form of diffusion which involves the

movement water molecules.

 Osmosis can be defined as the net movement of water molecules

from a region of high concentration to a region of their lower
concentration through a partially permeable membrane.

 The membrane is permeable to water but impermeable to large

molecules like sucrose.

 The solvent (water) and the solute (for example sucrose)

molecules are in random motion but only the solvent molecules
are able to pass through the partially permeable membrane.

 This takes place until their concentration is equal on both sides.

 Fig 1.5.8 below shows osmosis taking place.

Fig 1.5.8:

Movement of solvent molecules across a partially permeable membrane

 Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure which needs to be
applied to a solution to prevent the inward flow of water across a
semipermeable membrane.

 It is also defined as the measure of the tendency of a solution to

take in water by osmosis.

 The more concentrated the solution, the greater the osmotic

pressure.

 Osmotic potential is the potential of a solution to pull water into

it, and always has a negative value.

 A highly concentrated solution has a more positive osmotic

potential and a more negative osmotic potential.

 Osmosis can also occur when a partially permeable membrane

separates two solutions of different concentrations.

 Water will thus move from the hypotonic (more dilute) solution to
the hypertonic (more concentrated) solution.

 Solutions with equal concentration are said to be isotonic.

 Water potential (ᵠ) is the measure of the ability of water

molecules to move freely in solution.

 The term water potential is usually used for plant cells.

 Under standard temperature and pressure, pure water has a

water potential of zero.

 Adding a solute to water lowers the water potential, thus all

solutions have a negative water potential.
Experiment 1.5.1: Demonstrating osmosis
Materials
 Petri-dish

 Water

 Potato

 sugar solution

 cork

 capillary tube

Procedure
1. Take a potato tuber, remove its outer covering from one end and
cut the same end flat.

2. Scoop out a cavity from the other end of the tuber running
almost up to the bottom.

3. Fill the cavity with the sugar solution and fit an airtight cork
fitted with a capillary tube on the upper end of the cavity (fig.
1.5.9).

Fig.1.5.9:

Demonstrating osmosis with the potato osmometer

  Place the capillary- fitted potato tuber in the water- filled petri-
dish.

 Mark the solution level in the tube and watch the experiment for
some time.

Expected Observations
 After some time, the level of the solution in the tube increases.

 Mark the level of solution when it stops to move.

Conclusion
 The level in the capillary tube increases because osmotic
pressure of the sugar solution is higher than that of the water, so
the water moves through the semipermeable membrane of
potato from petri-dish into the cavity.

 Therefore, the experiment shows the phenomenon of osmosis.

Experiment 1.5.2: Osmosis in serial dilutions

Materials
 Potatoes

 Blade

 Tissue paper

 Balance

 Different concentrations of sucrose solution

 Test tubes and rack

Procedure
1. Cut equal-sized pieces of potato.

2. Blot with tissue paper and weigh.

3. Put pieces into different concentrations of sucrose solution for a

few hours as shown in the diagram.
Fig 1.5.10:

Photo showing potatoes in different concentrations of sucrose solution

 Remove, blot with tissue paper and re-weigh.

 Calculate the loss in mass of the pieces of potato.

Expected Observations
 The loss in mass of the pieces of potato decreases as the
concentration of the sucrose solution decreases

Active transport
 Some molecules can be transported in and out of the cells by
active means, that is, energy is required to drive the process.

 Energy is needed because molecules are transported against the

concentration gradient.

 This type of transportation is known as active transport.

 The process occurs through proteins that span the membrane.

  These proteins accept the molecule to be transported on one
side of the membrane, and convey it to the other side by a
change in the structure of the protein.

 An example of active transport is the process of

moving sodium and potassium ions across the cell membrane by
the sodium-potassium pump which takes place in some cell
membranes such as that of a neuron.

 The process actively removes sodium ions from the cell and
actively accumulates potassium ions in the cell, from the cell
surroundings.

 Cells that carry out this process are characterised by:

 the presence of numerous mitochondria

 a high concentration of ATP

 a high respiratory rate

 Fig 1.5.11 below shows the active transport of sodium and

potassium ions across the membrane.

Fig 1.5.11:

Transport of potassium and sodium ions across the membrane

Active Transport Is Important In:
 The kidneys – certain useful molecules and ions have to be
reabsorbed into the blood after filtration into the kidney tubules.

 The gut – for absorption of some food products of digestion.

 In plants – for loading sugar from the photosynthesising cells of

leaves into the phloem tissue for transport around the plant and
to load inorganic ions from the soil into root hairs.

Bulk transport
 Bulk transport of large quantities of materials involves two ways

which are endocytosis and exocytosis.

 Endocytosis is when the materials are transported into the cell

and exocytosis is when the materials are transported out the cell.

Endocytosis
 It involves the engulfing of the material by the cell membrane to
form small vesicles (membrane-bound spheres).

 It can take two forms which are phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

 Phagocytosis is the bulk uptake of solid material and is also

referred to as cell eating, for example, white blood cells engulf
bacteria.

 The diagram below shows white blood cells engulfing bacteria.

Fig 1.5.12: White

blood cells engulfing bacteria
  Pinocytosis or cell drinking, is the bulk uptake of liquids and in
this case, the vesicles formed are extremely small.

Exocytosis
 This involves removing materials from the cells.

 Secretory products are packaged into transport vesicles.

 In the secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreatic cells for

example, secretory cells vesicles from the Golgi body carry
enzymes to the cell surface and release their contents.

 Plants cells use exocytosis to get their cell wall building materials
to the outside of the cell membrane.

 Fig 1.5.11 below summarises endocytosis and exocytosis.

Fig 1.5.13:

Diagram showing both exocytosis and endocytosis.

2.0 Biological Molecules
2.1 Carbohydrates
Introduction
 Carbohydrates are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

 In most cases the ratio of hydrogen to oxygen is 2:1.

 They are the most abundant class of bio-molecules.

 Their function is to act as an accessible source of energy.

 The general formula for the carbohydrates is Cx(H2O)y.

 Carbohydrates can be divided into three main groups which are

monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides, according
to their size.

 The word saccharide refers to a sugar or sweet substance.

Monosaccharides
 These are sugars which readily dissolve in water, taste sweet and

form crystals.

 They have the general formula (CH2O)n and consist of a single

sugar molecule.

 Monosaccharides can be classified according to the number of

carbon atoms in the molecule, for example triose (3C), pentoses
(5C) and hexoses (6C).

 Their names end in –ose.

 Examples of monosaccharides includes glucose, fructose and

galactose, all of which are hexose sugars.

 Fructose is the sweetest sugar, sweeter than ordinary sugar used

domestically (sucrose).
  It is therefore used in the manufacture of sweets and diet foods
instead of sucrose because the same sweetness can be obtained
for fewer calories.

 The molecular formula for a hexose sugar is written as C6H12O6

 It is possible to draw the structural formula of the hexose sugar

and this shows the arrangement of the atoms.

 Fig 2.1.1 below shows the structural formula for glucose, a

hexose sugar.

Fig 2.1.1:

Structural formula of glucose

 There are five hydroxyl (-OH) groups in glucose.

 The structure of pentoses and hexoses can close up on itself and

form a more stable ring structure.

 Glucose forms a ring, the pyranose ring, by the reaction of

the hydroxyl group on carbon 5 (C-5) of a sugar with
the aldehyde at carbon 1.

 Carbon number 6 is not part of the ring as shown in fig 2.1.2

below
 Fig 2.1.2:

Ring structure of β-glucose

 The -OH group on carbon atom number 1 can change position,

and be below or above the plane of the ring.

 When it is below the ring it is known as α-glucose and when it is

above the ring, it forms β-glucose.

 In an aqueous solution, glucose develops into a ringed molecule

which can orient in two different ways: α-glucose and β-glucose
as shown in fig 2.1.3 below.

Fig 2.1.3:
The two isomers of glucose
  Thus, glucose can form two isomers, which are theα- and β-
isomers.

 Isomers can be loosely defined as the different forms of the same

chemical.

 In the case of fructose, carbon number 2 links with the oxygen

atom on carbon atom number 5 forming a five-sided structure
called a furanose ring.

 Fig 2.1.4 below shows the formation of the furanose ring.

Fig 2.1.4: From the chain structure to the furanose ring

 Both glucose and fructose can form both the pyranose and
furanose forms.

 Monosaccharides have two major functions:

o They are commonly used as sources of energy in

respiration due to their large number of C-H bonds which
can be broken to release a lot of energy.

 This energy is transferred to help make ATP.

o They can also be used as building blocks for larger

molecules like RNA, DNA and ATP.
Disaccharides
 These are also sugars.

 Disaccharides are also referred to as double sugars.

 They are formed by joining together of two monosaccharides

during a process known as condensation.

 Examples of disaccharides include:

 Maltose (glucose + glucose)

 Sucrose (glucose + fructose)

 Lactose (glucose + galactose)

 Sucrose is the transport sugar in plants and the sugar mostly

used in the homes.

 Lactose is found in milk.

 Fig 2.1.5 shows a condensation reaction which produces a

disaccharide.

Fig 2.1.5:

Formation of maltose from glucose molecules

 During condensation, two –OH groups line up alongside each
other and one of them combine with a hydrogen atom from the
other to form water.

 This allows a bond, known as the glycosidic bond to form

between the two molecules and so join them together.

 This process is called condensation because water is released.

 The reverse of this process involves addition of water to the

disaccharides, breaking it up into its constituent molecules.

 This is known as hydrolysis and takes place during digestion of

carbohydrates.

 All monosaccharides such as glucose and some disaccharides

like maltose are known as reducing sugars.

 This is because they can reduce Cu2+ to Cu+ and this forms the
basis of the Benedict’s test for reducing sugars.

 Benedict’s solution is copper (II) sulphate in an alkaline solution

and has a blue colour.

 Reducing sugars reduce soluble blue copper (II) sulphate to

insoluble brick-red copper oxide.

 Sucrose, although being a disaccharide is a non-reducing sugar.

 During qualitative analysis, the presence of a reducing sugar is

shown by a change of colour from blue, through green, yellow
and orange-red to red-brown as a precipitate forms.

 The intensity of the red colour is related to the concentration of

the reducing sugar present.

 This helps in quantitative analysis, to estimate the concentration

of the reducing sugar present by comparing the colour against
the colours obtained using known concentrations of sugar
solutions.
  The time taken for the colour to change is also indicative of the
concentration of the reducing sugar present.

 A colorimeter can be used to measure subtle differences in

colour precisely.

Experiment 2.1.1: Test for reducing sugars

Materials
 Benedict’s solution

 Test tube

 Water bath

 Burner/heater

 Food sample in solution form

 Stand

Procedure
1. Add 2cm3 of the sample solution to a test tube.

2. Add an equal volume of Benedict's solution to the test tube and

swirl the mixture.

3. Leave the test tube in a boiling water bath for about 5 minutes,
or until the colour of the mixture does not change.

4. Observe the colour changes during that time as well as the final
colour.

5. Prepare a control by repeating the steps above using 2cm3 of

distilled water instead of sample solution.

Expected Observations
 The photo below shows the expected results.
Fig 2.1.6:

Expected results of the Benedict’s test

Table 2.1.1: Summary of results of the Benedict’s test

Observation Interpretations

No colour Change No reducing sugars present

(Blue)

Green Trace amounts of reducing sugars

present

Yellow Low amounts of reducing sugars present

Orange Moderate amounts of reducing sugars

present

Brick-red Large amounts of reducing sugars

present
Polysaccharides
 Many monosaccharides may combine by condensation reactions

to give a polysaccharide, whose chain can be branched or

unbranched.

 The condensation reactions are the same as in the formation of

disaccharides.

 The chains can be folded, making them compact and ideal for
storage.

 Because of the large size, the polysaccharide becomes insoluble

and this factor also makes them easy to store.

 Polysaccharides can be hydrolysed to give their constituent

monomers, which can then be used for respiration.

 Starch and glycogen are examples of polysaccharides that can be

used as storage polysaccharides.

 Cellulose is a polysaccharide giving structural support and

strength to cell walls.

Starch
 It is found in most parts of the plant in the form of small
granules.

 Starch is a reserve food formed from any excess glucose

produced during photosynthesis.

 It is common in the seeds of some plants for example the maize

seed.

 Starch is made up of two substances which are amylose and

amylopectin.
Amylose
 Makes up about 20-30% of the starch component.

 It only has bonds between carbon 1 of one monomer and carbon

4 of its neighbour, making it unbranched.

 It is not a straight chain but spirals resulting in the formation of

a helix as shown in fig 2.1.7 below.

Fig 2.1.7:

Structure of amylose

Amylopectin
 This constitutes about 70-80% of the starch.

 Amylopectin mainly consists of glucoses joined by 1-4 bonds

just like in the amylose.

 However, it has branches at roughly 4% of its monomers.

 The branches occur between carbon 6 of the glucose in the main

chain and carbon 1 of the first glucose in the branched chain as
shown below.
Fig 2.1.8:

Structure of amylopectin

 Amylose and amylopectin are usually found together, packed into

starch grains which can be found in storage organs or
throughout the plant.

 It is possible to test for starch in plants in any foods.

 Starch is not a reducing sugar and one cannot test for its
presence using the Benedict’s test.

 Instead, iodine solution is used to test for starch.

 In the presence of starch, the food sample turns blue-black.

 Hydrolysis of starch produces reducing sugars and this can be

used as evidence that digestion of starch (hydrolysis) has taken
place.
Experiment 2.1.2: Testing for starch
Materials
 Test tubes

 Iodine solution

 Dropper

 De-ionised water

 Food sample in solution

Procedure
1. Add 10 cm3 of the liquid food sample to a clean, dry test tube.

2. Add about 5 drops of iodine solution to the test tube.

3. Note any colour changes.

4. To prepare a control, perform steps 1-3 for de-ionized water.

Expected Observations
The food sample turns blue-black if starch is present.

Glycogen
 This is the storage carbohydrate in animals.

 Glycogen consists of long, profusely branched chains of α-

glucose molecules that are linked by 1-4 or 1-6 glycosidic links.

 It is more stable than starch and exists as tiny granules in the

cytoplasm.

 It is particularly abundant in liver and muscle cells.

 The diagram below shows the structure of glycogen.

Fig 2.1.9:

The glycogen molecule

 Human beings have approximately 500g of glycogen in the body

and if it gets used up, we rely on fat reserves.

Cellulose
 This polysaccharide is found in plant cell walls.

 Cellulose consists of long, straight chains of β-glucose

molecules linked by 1-4 glycosidic bonds.

 Because the –OH groups stick outwards from the chain in

opposite directions, they can form hydrogen bonds with
neighbouring chains forming a lattice structure.

 A single cellulose chain may contain up to 10 000 sugar units

with a total length of 5µm.
 The strong glycosidic bonds and the cross-links between
adjacent chains makes cellulose as tough as rubber.

 Because of its strength, it is useful for example:

 in cotton where it is used for making fabrics

 rayon is produced from cellulose extracted from wood and used

in tyre cords

 cellophane used in packaging

 celluloid used in photographic film

 paper is the best-known cellulose product

2.2 Lipids

Introduction
 Just like carbohydrates, lipids are made up of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen.

 However, lipids have a fewer proportion of oxygen compared to

carbohydrates.

 They can also contain some small amounts of other elements like
phosphorous.

 Lipids are hydrophobic and can only be dissolved in organic

solvents such as alcohol, propanone and ether.

 Lipids can occur as animal fats and plant oils.

 They can also occur as phospholipids in cell membranes or

steroids from which sex hormones and growth hormones are
produced.

 Waxes found on plants and animals are also lipids.

Fats and oils

 These are compounds that are known as triglycerides.

 They are formed by condensation reactions between fatty acids

(monocarboxylic acids) and glycerol (an alcohol).

 Glycerol is a small molecule with the general formula C3H8O3 and

the arrangement of atoms is shown in the following structural
formula:
Fig 2.2.1:

Structural formula of glycerol

 Three fatty acid molecules combine with one glycerol molecule as

shown below.

Fig 2.2.2:

Formation of a triglyceride
  Both fats and oils are formed this way and they have the same
chemical structure.

 Fats and oils differ in that at 200oC (about room temperature),

oils are liquid while fats are solid.

 Although lipids are large molecules, they are smaller than

macromolecules like glycogen and starch.

 Fatty acids have long hydrocarbon chains of about 18 carbon

atoms.

 The hydrocarbon tails give the fatty acids their hydrophobic

nature.

 The functional group of fatty acids is the carbonyl group (-

COOH) which can ionise slightly to give H+ ions.

 The carbonyl functional groups of three organic acids react with

three hydroxyl groups of glycerol to form the triglyceride.

 The type of bond formed is an ester bond.

Fig 2.2.2:

Formation of a triglyceride
  Fatty acids can be saturated or unsaturated.

 Saturated fatty acids are those in which all the bonds between
neighbouring carbon atoms are single bonds such that no more
hydrogen atoms can be added to the molecule.

 Lipids formed using such fatty acids are solids at room

temperature and these include margarine, butter, lard and meat
fat.

 These tend to increase the level of cholesterol in the blood and

should not be eaten too often.

 The photo below shows margarine, a saturated fat.

Fig 2.2.3:

Photo showing margarine, an example of saturated fats

 Unsaturated fats are those that are made from fatty acids which
have one or more double bonds that connect neighbouring
carbon atoms.
  They have fewer hydrogen atoms and they are normally liquids at
room temperature.

 Foods containing unsaturated fats include avocado, nuts, and

vegetable oils such as canola and olive oils.

 Meat products contain both saturated and unsaturated fats.

 The photo below shows some of the foods that contain

unsaturated fats.

Fig 2.2.4:

Photo of the some of the foods with unsaturated fats

Functions of fats and oils

 Fats yield approximately twice as much energy on combustion as

carbohydrates for the same mass.

 This is because fats contain less oxygen and so its oxidation

takes longer, but it also gives off more energy.

 To use fats for respiration, more oxygen is required compared to

carbohydrates.
  Animals usually carry more fat than carbohydrates because a
given mass of fats stores more energy than the same mass of
carbohydrates.

 Fats are deposited under the skin as a potential source of energy

when required.

 Fats are heat insulators.

 Animals living in cold climates have extensive fat stores.

 This helps the animals to stay warm.

 Whales and seals have large deposits of fats under the skin,
known as blubber.

 This helps in providing buoyancy for the organism.

 Flats play a major role in the structure of the plasma membrane.

 They are combined with phosphoric acid to form phospholipids.

 Lipids can also act as a source of metabolic water.

 Metabolic water is water created inside a living organism through

their metabolism, by oxidising energy-containing substances in
their food.

Some desert animals do not drink water but survive by

using this water which they can conserve effectively. Test
for fats

Experiment 2.2.1: Testing for fats

Apparatus and Materials
 Food sample- solid and liquid

 Pestle and matter

 Test tubes

 Graduated syringe
  Ethanol

 Deionised water

Procedure

Solid sample
1. Crush the food sample and place in a dry test tube.

2. Add ethanol to about 2cm3 above the level of the sample and
shake thoroughly.

3. Allow the solid to settle (about 3 min) to allow the lipid to be

extracted.

4. Decant the ethanol into another test tube.

5. Add 2cm3 of deionised water to the second test tube

6. Make observations.

Liquid sample
1. Add a few drops of the liquid food sample to a dry test tube.

2. Add 2cm3 ethanol and shake it thoroughly

3. Add 2cm3 of deionized water.

4. Make observations.

Expected Observations

Interpretation
Observation
Lipids are not present
 Solution remains colourless.
No emulsion is formed.

 A layer of cloudy white Lipids are present

suspension forms at the top
of the solution (an emulsion).

Principle of the Ethanol Emulsion Test

  The solubility of lipids and ethanol are exploited in this test.

 Lipids are non-polar organic compounds.

 As a result they are soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol

(alcohol), but insoluble in water.

 Ethanol is an organic substance and so dissolves other organic

substances and is frequently used as an organic solvent.

 The hydroxyl functional group and the short length of its chain
makes ethanol soluble in water.

 The hydroxyl group participates in hydrogen bonding with water.

 The little hydrophobic interaction of the carbon in the short chain

with water is overcome by the hydrogen bonding.

 Ethanol is able to extract the lipid from a crushed solid sample.

 Since ethanol is miscible with lipids, no change is seen upon its

addition to the solid and liquid samples.

 The lipid comes out of solution spontaneously when water is

added and is dispersed as micelles throughout the solution of
ethanol and water.

 This is because the hydrophobic portion of the lipid molecules

project inwards and excludes the aqueous environment while the
hydrophilic portion carbonyl group faces the aqueous
environment.

A layer is formed at the top because lipids are less

dense than water, appearing cloudy white.

2.3 Proteins
Proteins
 Proteins, like carbohydrates and fats, have carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen.

 However, proteins also have nitrogen in addition.

 Proteins play an important role in all organisms.

 It is possible to test for proteins in some food samples.

Experiment 2.3.1: Testing for proteins

Materials and Apparatus
 Food sample

 Pestle and mortar

 Water

 Test tube

 Biuret’s solution

 Dropper

 Measuring cylinder

Procedure
1. Crush the food sample and dissolve it in water.

2. To a test tube, add 40cm3 of liquid to be tested.

3. Add 3 drops of Biuret reagent solution to each test tube.

4. Shake gently to mix.

5. Note any colour change.

Expected Observations
 In the presence of proteins, the colour of the solution changes
from blue to violet.
  In the absence of proteins, no colour change is observed.

Structure of amino acids

 Proteins are made up of their building units called amino acids.

 There are over 100 naturally occurring amino acids and all of
them have an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-
COOH).

 The general structure of an amino acid is shown below.

Fig.2.3.1:

General structure of an amino acid

 Proteins differ in the R group.

 In the simplest amino acid, glycine, R is a hydrogen atom.

 In alanine, R is CH3 and in cysteine, it represents CH2SH and so

on.

 Of the over 100 naturally occurring amino acids, only 20 are

used in the biosynthesis of proteins.
  The table below shows the 20 amino acids used in making
proteins.

Table 2.3.1: The 20 amino acids used in protein biosynthesis

 These can be divided into essential and non-essential amino

acids.

 Non-essential amino acids can be synthesised in the body and

are therefore not needed in the diet.

 Those that the body cannot synthesise and are therefore needed
in the diet are the essential amino acids.

 Amino acids can combine to form proteins.

 Combination of two amino acids is a condensation reaction and a

peptide link is formed.

 If two amino acids combine, a dipeptide is formed and continued

reactions produce a long chain called a polypeptide.

 The diagram below shows the formation of a peptide link

between two glycine molecules.
Fig.2.3.2:

Condensation between two glycine molecules.

 As shown in the diagram, the reaction occurs between the amino

group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of the other,
and a water molecule is removed.

 A polypeptide can be composed of up to 400 amino acids.

 There are infinite possible ways in which the 20 amino acids can
be combined in the natural synthesis of proteins.

 A peptide bond can be broken by hydrolysis (the addition of

water), which is a reverse process.

 In the presence of water they will break down and release 8–

16 kilojoule/mol energy.

 This process is extremely slow, and in living organisms, the

process is catalysed by enzymes known as peptidases or
proteases.
Primary Structure
 The primary structure of a protein refers to the sequence of
amino acids in the polypeptide chain.

 It is held together by peptide bonds that are made during the

process of protein biosynthesis, which are largely covalent
bonds.

 The two ends of the polypeptide chain are referred to as the

carboxyl terminus (C-terminus) and the amino terminus (N-
terminus) based on the nature of the free group on each
extremity.

Secondary Structure
 This refers to the way the chain of amino acids folds or turns
upon itself as a result of hydrogen bonding.

 It refers to highly regular local sub-structures on the actual

polypeptide backbone chain.

 There are two main types of secondary structures which are the
α-helix and the β-strand or β-sheets.

 These secondary structures are defined by patterns of hydrogen

bonds between the main-chain peptide groups.

 Fig.2.3.4 below shows the α-helix.

Fig.2.3.4:

The α-helix structure

 The α-helix helps to maintain the shape of the molecule and is

more stable.

 This is due to the links between successive twists.

 This structure is found in proteins such as enzymes and

antibodies which are three dimensional.

 In the beta-pleated sheets, hydrogen bonding between parallel

chains results in a flat structure which becomes folded as shown
in Fig.2.3.5 below.

 These occur less than alpha-helices.

 They are found in structural proteins like silk and some globular
proteins like the enzyme lysozyme.

 Beta-pleated sheets are found in proteins whose functions

require strength.
Fig.2.3.5:

The beta-pleated sheets

 Both the α-helix and the β-sheet represent a way of saturating

all the hydrogen bond donors and acceptors in the peptide
backbone.

Tertiary Structure
 This refers to the way the polypeptide folds and coils to form a
complex molecular shape.

 Polypeptides may have cross-linkages at intervals.

 These cross-links may be made up of hydrogen bonds, ionic

bonds and sulphur bridges.

 Sulphur bridges are the strongest and contribute to the great

toughness of certain proteins.

 Proteins may have non-proteins combined to them to form

conjugated proteins.
  This non-protein component attached to the protein is known as
a prosthetic group.

 Examples of conjugated proteins are haemoglobin and egg yolk.

 Fig.2.3.6 shows the tertiary structure of proteins with the cross-

linkages clearly shown.

Fig.2.3.6:

The tertiary structure of proteins

Quaternary Structure
 This is found in cases where the protein consists of two or more
polypeptides.

 Quaternary structure refers to the way the polypeptides are

arranged to form the proteins.

 Fig.2.3.7 below summarises the structure of proteins.

Fig.2.3.7:

The summary of protein structure

Factors that influence protein structure
 The following five factors are critical for protein folding and

stability:

 Hydrogen bonds: For amino acids, hydrogen bonding would

occur between the backbone of the amine group and the oxygen
of the carbonyl group.

 Ionic bonds: Electrostatic interactions occur between two

oppositely charged molecules.

 Ionic interactions are weaker in water than in vacuum due to a

different dielectric constant faced in water between opposing
charges within the protein's structure.

 Hydrophobic effect: When non-polar molecules interact with

water, their molecules tend to cluster together in the centre to
form a micelle.
  Van der Waals forces: Van der Waals forces exist between non-
polar molecules at close range.

 While van der Waals forces between individual atoms are weak,
the sum of van der Waals forces resulting from interactions
between many atoms in large macromolecules can be
substantial.

 The strength of van der Waals interactions varies with the

distance between the atoms and is maximal at the van der Waals
contact distance.

 Disulphide bridges: A disulphide bond can be formed between

two cysteines through oxidation.

 These are also the strongest covalent bonds within a protein's

tertiary structure.

Structure and function of haemoglobin

 Haemoglobin is found in red blood cells and is a globular protein

containing four tightly packed polypeptide chains arranged in

such a way as to allow efficient functioning of the molecule.

 It is made of two alpha-chains and two beta-chains.

 Haemoglobin carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues of the

body and also helps in the transportation of carbon dioxide and
hydrogen ions back to the lungs.

 It consists of four subunits, each with a prosthetic group called a

haemo group that has an iron atom centre.

 Fig.2.3.8 below shows the structure of haemoglobin (a) and

haemo (b)
Fig.2.3.8:

The structure of haemoglobin and haemo

 Since the iron is the main component that actually binds to

oxygen, each haemoglobin molecule is able to carry four

molecules of O2.

 The four subunits of haemoglobin actually bind to

oxygen cooperatively, that is, the binding of oxygen to one site
of the four subunits will increase the likelihood of the remaining
sites to bind with oxygen as well.

 Haemoglobin has a lower affinity for oxygen when the

concentration of oxygen is low.

 This makes it possible for haemoglobin to readily release oxygen

during conditions which require more oxygen such as during
exercise.

 When the oxygen concentration is high, the haemoglobin has a

higher affinity for oxygen and therefore readily picks up oxygen.
Structure and function of collagen
 Collagen, the most abundant structural protein in the animal

bodies, consists of three polypeptide chains wound together in

the shape of a helix.

 The three polypeptide chains are held together by numerous

hydrogen bonds and lie side by side forming collagen fibres.

 Collagen molecules within the fibres are held together by

covalent cross-linkages between the carboxyl group of one
amino acid and the amino group of another.

 The ends of the collagen molecules are staggered such that there
are no weak points in the collagen fibres, making the fibres very
strong.

 Fig.2.3.9 shows the collagen fibres as they appear in the body.

Fig.2.3.9:

The structure of collagen

  Collagen is present in large quantities in connective tissue and
provides tendons and ligaments with tensile strength and skin
with elasticity.

 It is also found in cartilage, bone, teeth and in the walls of blood

vessels.

 It often works in conjunction with other important proteins such

as keratin and elastin.

NB:
 Proteins that have a tertiary structure consisting of just one long
strand are called fibrous proteins for example fibrin and keratin

 Those that take a spherical structure are called globular proteins

for example enzymes.

Denaturation of proteins
 Denaturation refers to the loss of the three dimensional structure

of a protein.

 This results from a change in the bonds that maintain the three
dimensional shape of the molecule.

 Changing the shape of the protein makes it useless.

o Exposure to heat or radiation disrupts the hydrogen and

ionic bonds making the protein elongated, disorganised
strands.

o Exposure to heavy metals, organic solvents or extremes of

acidity and alkalinity triggers irreversible denaturation.
Conditions That Denature Proteins:
1. Extreme pH (pH < 4 or pH > 9): alters H-bonding

2. Heat (temp >70oC): thermal effect, disrupts weak forces of non-

covalent bonds.

3. Detergents or organic solvents: disrupt the hydrophobic

interaction

Enzymes
 These are biological catalysts.

 Enzymes are very efficient catalysts for biochemical reactions.

 They speed up reactions by providing an alternative reaction

pathway of lower activation energy.

 Enzymes take part in the reaction but they do not undergo

permanent changes and so remain unchanged at the end of the
reaction.

 They can only alter the rate of reaction, not the position of the
equilibrium.

 Enzymes are usually highly selective, catalysing specific reactions

only.

 This is due to the shapes of the enzyme molecules.

 Many enzymes consist of a globular protein and a non-protein

(called the cofactor).

 The intra- and intermolecular bonds that hold proteins in their

secondary and tertiary structures are disrupted by changes in
temperature and pH.

 This affects shapes and so the catalytic activity of an enzyme is

pH and temperature sensitive.

 Enzyme cofactors may be:

  Organic groups that are permanently bound to the enzyme
(prosthetic groups).

 Captions - positively charged metal ions (activators), which

temporarily bind to the active site of the enzyme, giving an
intense positive charge to the enzyme's protein.

 Organic molecules, usually vitamins or molecules made from

vitamins (coenzymes), are not permanently bound to the enzyme
molecule, but combine with the enzyme-substrate complex
temporarily.

How Enzymes Work

 For two molecules to react they must collide with one another in
the right direction (orientation) and with sufficient energy.

 Sufficient energy refers to enough energy to overcome the

energy barrier to reaction called the activation energy.

 Enzymes lower the activation energy.

 As molecules react, they become unstable, high energy

intermediates, but they are in this state for a short moment.

 The products have a lower energy level than the substrates as

shown in Fig.2.3.10
Fig.2.3.10:

Reaction profile of enzyme catalysed reaction

 This is known as the transition state and forms products

immediately.

 Enzymes have an active site.

 This is the part of the molecule that has just the right shape and
functional groups to bind to one of the reacting molecules.

 The reacting molecule that binds to the enzyme is called

the substrate.

 An enzyme works by binding to its substrate at the active site

 This is known as the lock and key hypothesis.

 This is the simplest model to represent how an enzyme works

and is illustrated below.
Fig.2.3.11:

The lock and key hypothesis

 Sometimes, the enzyme molecule changes shape as the substrate

molecules gets close.

 The change in shape is induced by the approaching substrate

molecule.

 This is known as the induced fit hypothesis and makes the

substrate fit into the active site.

 This is a more sophisticated model which relies on the fact that

molecules are flexible because single covalent bonds are free to
rotate.

Studying Enzyme Catalysed Reactions

 Enzyme catalysed reactions are very fast.

 The rate of the enzyme catalysed reactions can be measured by

measuring the amount of substrate that disappears from the
reaction mixture in a given time.
  This can be seen by the disappearance of colour for example in
the hydrolysis of starch, the rate at which the disappearance of
the blue-black colour can be measured.

 It can also be done by measuring the amount of products

produced at a given time, for example the amount of gaseous
products produced per minute.

 The reaction where catalase speeds up the breakdown of

hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen can be measured.

 The reaction taking place is as follows:

[Math Processing Error]2H2O2 →catalase 2H2O + O2

[Math Processing
Error]Hydrogen Peroxide Water O
xygen

 The amount of oxygen produced can be measured using the

apparatus shown in Fig.2.3.12.

Fig.2.3.12:
Measuring the amount of gas produced during a decomposition of
hydrogen peroxide
Factors affecting catalytic activity of enzymes
A. Temperature
 At low temperatures, enzymes are deactivated.

 As the temperature rises, reacting molecules have more and

more kinetic energy.

 This increases the chances of a successful collision and so the

rate increases.

 In chemical reactions, for every 10oC rise in temperature the rate

of the reaction approximately doubles.

 This is known as the temperature coefficient (Q10) of the

reaction.

 There is a certain temperature at which an enzyme's catalytic

activity is at its greatest as shown in the diagram below.

 This optimal temperature is usually around human body

temperature (37oC) for the enzymes in human cells.

 Above this temperature the enzyme structure begins to break

down (denature) since at higher temperatures intra- and
intermolecular bonds are broken as the enzyme molecules gain
even more kinetic energy.

 The optimal temperatures of all the enzymes is not the same.

Fig.2.3.13:

Graph showing the effect of temperature on enzyme activity

Experiment 2.3.2: The effect of temperature on amylase activity

Materials And Apparatus
 Amylase solution

 Water bath

 Test tube

 Thermometer

 Starch solution

 Stop watch

 Iodine solution

 Measuring cylinder

 White dimple tile

Procedure
1. Bring the samples of the enzyme and the starch solution to the
temperature of the water bath before mixing.

2. Mix the 5cm3 of enzyme and 5cm3 of the substrate samples and
put in the water bath at a temperature of 10oC.

3. Prepare the control experiment by adding 5cm3 of distilled water

to 5cm3 of starch solution.

4. Check the progress of the reaction at half-a-minute intervals by

withdrawing a drop of the sample and placing it on a white tile
and adding iodine solution.

5. Note the colour changes at each interval until the end point when
no more starch is present.

6. Repeat the experiment at the following temperatures: 20oC, 30oC,

40oC, 50oC and 60oC.

Expected Observations
 Up to 40oC, the rate of the reaction increases as shown by the
disappearance of starch.

 The reaction is fastest around 40oC.

 Beyond 40oC the rate decreases the reaction rate starts to

decrease sharply until it stops altogether.

B. PH
 Each enzyme works within quite a small pH range.

 There is a pH at which its activity is greatest (the optimal pH)

which is often close to neutrality.

 This is because changes in pH can make and break intra- and

intermolecular bonds, changing the shape of the enzyme and
therefore its effectiveness.
  This affects the active site of the enzyme such that the substrate
can no longer bind to the enzyme.

 The graph below shows the effect of pH on the rate of enzyme

activity.

Fig.2.3.14:

Graph showing effect of pH on enzyme activity

Experiment 2.3.3: To investigate the effect of pH on amylase activity.

Materials And Apparatus
 Starch and amylase solutions in separate beakers

 Two test tubes

 Water bath at constant temperature

 Iodine solution

 Stop watch

 Dimple tile
Procedure
1. Add amylase to buffered starch solution in a test tube.

2. Place the tube in a water beaker heated by a Bunsen burner and

maintained at a constant temperature.

3. Take samples of the mixture at regular intervals (e.g. every 10 s)

and mix them with a fresh drop of iodine solution on a dimple
tile.

4. Repeat the test until the iodine solution stops changing colour
when the starch/amylase mixture is added. Record the time
taken for this to happen.

5. Repeat the procedure at different pH values.

Expected Observations
 Results will show that the hydrolysis of starch increases as the
pH increases, up to a certain pH and decreases thereafter.

C. Concentration Of Substrate
 Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction.

 This is because more substrate molecules will

be colliding with enzyme molecules, so more product will be
formed.

 However, after a certain concentration, any increase will have no

effect on the rate of reaction, because the substrate
concentration will no longer be the limiting factor.

 The enzymes will effectively become saturated, and will be

working at their maximum possible rate.

 The graph below shows the effect of substrate concentration on

the rate of enzyme activity.
  A saturation point is reached where all the enzymes are occupied
with the substrate such that the increase in substrate
concentration will not increase the rate of the reaction.

 At this point concentration of the substrate is no longer the

limiting factor.

Fig.2.3.15: Graph showing the effect of substrate

concentration on the rate of an enzyme controlled
reaction

Fig: 2.3.15

Graph

Experiment 2.3.4: To demonstrate the effect of hydrogen peroxide

concentration on enzyme activity
Materials and Apparatus
 Gas syringe

 Metal stand

 Yeast (catalase enzyme)

  Hydrogen peroxide

 Test tubes

 Beakers

 Test tube rack

 Stop watch

 Pipette and pipette filler

 Tap water

Procedure
NB: It is very important to accurately measure the
amounts of Hydrogen Peroxide, Yeast and water to ensure
accurate results are obtained.

1.

2. Add 2cm3 of yeast to one test tube and 4cm3 of hydrogen

peroxide solution at a concentration of 20% to the other test tube
using a pipette to measure out the volumes.

3. Pour the hydrogen peroxide solution into the test tube

containing the yeast and immediately put the gas syringe bung
on the end of the test tube.

4. Start the stopwatch at the same time.

5. Bubbles should start to rise up the tube and the gas syringe will
move outwards, as soon as the gas syringe passes the
30cm3 mark stop the stopwatch and note the elapsed time down
to the nearest 1/10th of a second.

6. Repeat the experiment with hydrogen peroxide concentrations of

16%, 12%, 10%, 8%, 4% and 0%. (The 0% concentration of
hydrogen peroxide solution is a control solution to show that at
0% concentration no reaction occurs.)
 7. Repeat all the tests at least three times so that an average can be
obtained. (Repeating the experiments several times will help to
produce better and more accurate results as any inaccuracies in
one experiment should be compensated for by the other
experiments.)

Expected Observations
 Results should show that as the concentration of the hydrogen
peroxide concentration increases, the rate of the reaction
increases.

D. Enzyme Concentration
 Increasing enzyme concentration will increase the rate of
reaction, as more enzymes will
be colliding with substrate molecules.

 However, this too will only have an effect up to a certain

concentration, where the enzyme concentration no longer
becomes the limiting factor.

 This is because when the enzyme and the substrate are first
mixed, there are a large number of substrate molecules.

 The rate will depend on the number of enzyme molecules there

are and the speed at which enzyme can covert the substrate into
the product and then act on to the next substrate molecule.

 As more products are being formed, less and less of the

substrate remains and the rate of the reaction slows down until it
stops eventually.

 The graph below shows the rate of reaction with enzyme

concentration.
Fig.2.3.16:

Graph of enzyme concentration and rate of reaction

Experiment 2.3.5: To investigate the effect of amylase concentration

on the rate of reaction.
Materials And Apparatus
 A water bath at 35°C

 Pipette and filler

 Tests tubes and rack

 Iodine solution

 White tile

 Solutions of amylase solution (0.1%, 0.05%, 0.025% and 0.01%)

Procedure
1. Pipette 5cm³ of undiluted 0.1% amylase solution into one test
tube and 5cm³ starch into another.
 2. Stand both test tubes in the water bath and leave to reach the
correct temperature.

3. Mix the solutions and return the test tubes to the water bath and
at one minute intervals remove a drop of the mixture and test
with iodine solution on a white tile.

4. The starch had been broken down completely when the blue-
black colour (obtained by testing for starch with iodine)
disappeared.

5. Repeat with the other enzyme concentrations of 0.05%, 0.025%

and 0.01% respectively.

Expected Observations
 The rate of disappearance of the blue colour increased with an
increase in the concentration of the amylase.

 This was true up to the point at which the substrate was

saturated with enzymes - at this point any higher enzyme
concentrations gave no further increase.

Enzyme inhibition
 Some substances reduce or even stop the catalytic activity of

enzymes in biochemical reactions by blocking or distorting the

active site.

 These chemicals are called inhibitors, because they limit, prevent

or block the action or function of an enzyme.

 Inhibitor binding is either reversible or irreversible.

 Irreversible inhibitors usually react with the enzyme and change

it chemically for example, through covalent bond formation.

 These inhibitors modify key amino acid residues needed for

enzymatic activity.
 In contrast, reversible inhibitors bind non-covalently and
different types of inhibition are produced depending on whether
these inhibitors bind to the enzyme, the enzyme-substrate
complex, or both.

 Inhibitors that occupy the active site and prevent a substrate

molecule from binding to the enzyme are called competitive
inhibitors because they compete with the substrate for the active
site.

 Inhibitors that attach to other parts of the enzyme molecule are

called non-competitive inhibitors because they do not compete
with substrate to the active site but rather distort the shape of
the active site.

 Blocking an enzyme's activity can kill a pathogen or correct a

metabolic imbalance- because of this, many drugs are enzyme
inhibitors.

 Inhibitors are also used in pesticides.

 Enzyme inhibitors can also occur naturally and are involved in the
regulation of metabolism.

 For example, enzymes in a metabolic pathway can be inhibited

by downstream products.

 This is a type of negative feedback which slows the production

line when products begin to build up and is an important way to
maintain homeostasis in a cell.

 Other cellular enzyme inhibitors are proteins that specifically

bind to and inhibit an enzyme target.

 This can help control enzymes that may be damaging to a cell,

like proteases or nucleases.

 Natural enzyme inhibitors can also be poisons and are used as

defences against predators or as ways of killing prey.
Competitive Inhibition
 Most competitive inhibitors function by binding reversibly to the
active site of the enzyme.

 The inhibitor has the shape as the substrate such that it easily
fits into the active site.

 There is competition for the active site between the inhibitor and
the substrate.

 If there is more of the substrate molecules than the inhibitor,

substrate molecules can easily bind to the active site in the usual
way, so that enzyme function is unaffected.

 Rising the concentration of the inhibitor with a corresponding

decrease in the substrate concentration inhibits the function of
the enzyme.

 Non-competitive inhibition can be reversed by increasing the

concentration of the substrate.

Non-Competitive Inhibition
 A non-competitive inhibitor binds to the enzyme away from the
active site, altering the shape of the enzyme so that even if the
substrate can bind, the active site functions less effectively.

 The binding can be permanent or reversible.

 A well-known example of a non-competitive is cyanide which

can deactivate cytochrome oxidase which is responsible for the
transfer of electrons in respiration.

 Therefore, cyanide prevents respiration and this makes it deadly.

 Heavy metals such as arsenic, mercury and lead combine

covalently with sulphydryl (-SH) groups in the enzyme molecule
  This breaks down the sulphur bridges that hold the polypeptide
chains together, making the enzyme incapable of reacting with
its substrate.

 Most of the time, the inhibitor is reversible.

 However, this inhibition decreases the turnover number, meaning

the rate of reaction decreases.

 As the inhibitor binds to the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate

complex, it reduces the concentration of enzyme available for
proper catalysis.

 Thus, it decreases the rate of the chemical reaction of enzyme

and substrate, which cannot be changed by increasing
concentration of substrate.

 The diagram below illustrates how non-competitive inhibitors

work.

Fig.2.3.18:

Non-competitive inhibition
2.4 Water

Structure of water
 Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen.

 One atom of oxygen is bonded to two atoms of hydrogen that

combine by sharing electrons (covalent bonding) as shown in fig
2.4.1 below.

Fig.2.4.1:

Bonding in water
 The shape of the water molecule is triangular.

 The nucleus of the oxygen atom draws the negatively charged

electrons away from the hydrogen atoms.

 This creates a net negative charge on the oxygen atom and a net
positive charge on the hydrogen atoms as shown below.

 The water molecule carries an unequal charge within it called a

dipole.
  Water is a polar molecule as shown in fig.2.4.2 below.

Fig.2.4.2:

The polarity in a water molecule

The hydrogen bonding in water
 In water, the positively charged hydrogen atom of one molecule

can be attracted to the oxygen atom of another nearby water

molecule.

 This forms a hydrogen bond which is not as strong as the

covalent bond, but strong enough to hold molecules together.

 Fig.2.4.3.below shows the hydrogen bonding between water

molecules.
Fig.2.4.3:

Hydrogen bonding in water

 The hydrogen bond accounts for the physical properties of water.

The properties of water

Heat Energy And Temperature Of Water
 A lot of heat is required to raise the temperature of water since
much energy is required to break the hydrogen bonds that
restrict the movement of water molecules.

 This is known as the specific heat capacity.

 Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat energy required to

raise the temperature of a substance per unit of mass.

 Water has the highest specific heat capacity compared to any

known substance.

 Because of this, aquatic environments like streams, rivers, ponds,

lakes and seas are very slow in changing the temperature when
the surrounding air temperature changes.
  Therefore aquatic temperatures have got stable temperatures.

 This is also the reason why cells and the bodies of organisms do
not readily change in temperature.

Evaporation And Heat Loss

 Water molecules cannot separate easily and evaporate due to the
hydrogen bond.

 Much energy is needed to turn the liquid into the water vapour
and this amount of energy is known as the latent heat of
vaporisation.

 The latent heat for vaporisation for water is very high such that
the evaporation of sweat on the skin or water on the surface of
leaves results in marked cooling.

 The escaping water molecules take a lot of energy with them.

The Solvent Properties of Water

 Water is a solvent for polar substances.

 These include ionic substances like salts which contain ions, and
some non-ionic substances like sugars which contain polar
groups.

 In water, the ions and the polar groups are surrounded by water
molecules which dissociate the ions or molecules from each
other and this is what happens when substances dissolve in
water.

 Once in solution, its molecules or ions can move freely making it

more chemically reactive.

 The majority of the cell’s chemical reactions take place in

aqueous solutions.

 Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic and group together when

in water.
  Its solvent properties also make it a transport medium for
example in blood.

High Heat of Fusion

 This refers to the amount of heat energy required for a solid to
melt.

 Because of its high heat capacity, water requires large amounts

of energy for it to melt.

 This also means that water requires a large amount of heat to be

lost for it to freeze.

 Thus, the cell contents are less likely to freeze.

 Crystals of ice are damaging to the cell if they develop inside.

Density and Freezing

 The freezing point of water is 0oC.

 Water expands when it freezes, forming a crystalline structure.

 The structure is less compact than liquid structure, making it less

dense.

 Ice floats in water because it is less dense.

 If ice was denser than liquid water, then oceans would freeze
from the bottom-up, killing all aquatic life.

 The density of water decreases below 4oC.

 Aquatic life is preserved because floating ice acts as an insulator.

 The film of ice on top of water bodies may also be used as a

habitat by some animals.

High Surface Tension and Cohesion

 Cohesion refers to the forces which make molecules stick
together.
  Surface tension exists between the molecules at the surface of
the liquid due to the cohesive forces between the molecules.

 The result is that the surface of the liquid occupies the least
possible surface area.

 Water has the highest surface tension of all the liquids.

 The high cohesion of water molecules is useful in cells when

water molecules move up the xylem vessels.

 It ensures a continuous water column as water is drawn up the

plant.

Water as A Reagent
 Water participates in metabolic chemical reactions for example in
photosynthesis where it is a source of hydrogen.
3.0 Cell and Nuclear Division

3.1 The Cell Cycle and Mitosis

Cell cycle
 The cell cycle is a regular series of events that lead to cell
division of parent cells into two daughter cells.

 It includes three phases; interphase, mitosis and cytokinesis.

 Length of the cycle is influenced by the type of cell and the

external conditions surrounding the cell.

Fig.3.1.1:

Cell cycle
Interphase
 This is a period of development between one cell division and the

next.
  It is the longest phase of the cell cycle.

 Chromosomes containing Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) exist as

long lengthy threads which cannot be visualised individually
under the light microscope.

 The long lengthy threads are seen as a dense mass known as

chromatin.

 Interphase is divided into three phases: first growth phase/gap

phase 1 (G1), synthesis phase (S) and second growth phase/gap
phase 2 (G2).

First Growth Phase (G1)

 There is a high cellular metabolic rate and regular cellular
activity.

 Biomolecules (RNA and proteins) are produced.

 Organelles including mitochondria are synthesised.

 Cell grows in preparation for DNA replication.

Synthesis Phase (S)

 DNA is replicated.

 Protein molecules (histones) are synthesised and bind to DNA

forming two genetically identical chromatids from each
chromosome.

Second Growth Phase (G2)

 There is continued cell growth in preparation for mitosis.

 Energy storage is increased.

 Organelles including mitochondria and chloroplasts divide.

Fig.3.1.2:

Animal cell during interphase

Mitosis
 This is the division of the nucleus into two genetically identical

nuclei.

 It follows interphase and has four distinguishable phases:

prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.

Prophase:
 Chromatin condenses (coil up and shorten) into chromosomes.

 Chromosomes are seen as two sister chromatids joined at a

centromere.

 Nucleolus disappears and nuclear envelope disintegrates.

 In animal cells, the centriole divides and begin to migrate to the

opposite poles of the cell.
Fig.3.1.3:

Prophase
Metaphase:
 Centrioles reach the poles and form microtubule spindle fibres.

 Spindle fibres from both centrioles attach to the centromere of

each chromatid.

 The chromatids are aligned along the centre of the centre

(equator) of the spindle.
Fig.3.1.4:

Metaphase
Anaphase:
 Spindle fibres contract forcing the sister chromatids to separate
(now chromosomes).

 The genetically identical chromosomes are drawn to the opposite

poles of the cell.
Fig.3.1.5:

Anaphase
Telophase:
 The two chromosome sets reach the poles and spindle fibres
dissolve.

 Chromosomes uncoil and extend to form chromatin.

 Nucleolus develops and nuclear membranes form around each

set of chromosomes.

 In some cells, cytokinesis may occur simultaneously.

Fig.3.1.6:

Telophase
Cytokinesis
 This is the division of the cytoplasm of the parental cell into two

daughter cells.

 It is the last stage of the cell cycle.

 Contents of the parental cell including nuclei, organelles and cell

membrane are divided into two roughly equal parts.

 Cytokinesis occurs by two different physical mechanisms in

animal and plant cells.

Cytokinesis in Animal Cells

 It occurs by constriction of the centre parent cell from the
outside inwards (fig.3.1.7).
Fig.3.1.7:

Cytokinesis in animal cell

Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
 It occurs by cell plate formation across the middle of the parent
cell from the centre outwards (fig.3.1.8).

 This cell plate forms the primary cell wall, which is later
strengthened by deposition of carbohydrates including cellulose
to produce a secondary cell wall.
Fig.3.1.8:

Cytokinesis in plant cells

Importance of mitosis
Growth
 Production of new cells allows for unicellular zygotes to become
multicellular organisms.

 Increase in the number of cells allows organisms to develop and

become complex.

Repair and Replacement

 Worn-out or dead cells are replaced via mitosis to maintain body
tissues, for example cell replacement in the skin.

 Repair occurs when tissues have been damaged (wound healing).

Asexual Reproduction
 Organisms use mitosis to allow continuity of their species
producing genetically identical individuals.
  Examples of asexual reproduction include binary fission in
amoeba, budding in yeast cells and vegetative propagation in
plants.

Production of Genetically Identical Cells (Cloning)

 Clones are useful in processes such as:

o Genetic engineering and biotechnology for mass

production of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

o During immune response for production of B-lymphocytes

and T-lymphocytes.

Experiment 3.1.1: Mitosis in onion root tip

Apparatus/Materials
 Light microscope

 Scissors

 Microscope slide and coverslip

 Acetocarmine stain

 Onion plant with root

Procedure
1. Cut the tip 0.5-1cm from the tip of the freshly sprouted root.

2. Place the cut tip on a clean microscope slide.

3. Add 2-3 drops of acetocarmine stain to the slide.

4. Warm the slide gently over the alcohol lamp for about one
minute: Do not allow the slide to get hot to the touch.

5. Cover the slide with a cover slip.

6. Squash the slide with your thumb using a firm and even
pressure. (Avoid squashing with too much force that the cover
slip breaks or slides).
 7. Observe it under a compound microscope in 10x objective.

8. Scan and narrow down to a region containing dividing cells and

switch to 40x and observe.

Expected Observations and Results

Fig.3.1.9:

Onion root cells stained with acetocarmine 40x magnification

Cancer
 It is a condition that results from uncontrolled cell division of

abnormal cells (cancer cells).

 Cancer cells:

o Have an unusually high growth and division rate.

o Are poorly differentiated (abnormal shape).

o Programmed cell death is suppressed.

Causes of cancer
Mutations
 These are changes in the structure of genetic material (DNA).

 Uncontrolled cell division can be triggered by genetic mutations

within a cell.

 These mutations can occur randomly or are influenced by

external factors.

 Random mutations can occur at any age but overall incidence

increases rapidly with age.

Carcinogens
 These are substances that promote cancer.

 They can directly induce mutations or stimulate cancer in other

ways.

 Forms of carcinogens include:

o Chemical: tobacco smoke, exhaust fumes, asbestos

o Radiation: solar (gamma and x-rays), ultra-violet

o Viruses: Human papilloma viruses (HPV) (cervical cancer)

Stages involved in the development of cancer

Initiation
 It involves mutation in the DNA of cell.

 This mutation cannot be reversed or repaired.

Promotion
 There is uncontrolled growth and multiplication of mutated cells.

 The immune system is unable to recognise these abnormal cells

and they remain undestroyed.
  Eventually, the cells lose their normal functions (including
programmed cell death) but continue to divide forming a tumour
(small mass of cells).

 Continued cell division promotes growth of tumour into a

primary tumour (benign) containing a blood supply.

 Primary tumours are often treatable by removing them surgically

or killing the cancer cells [by chemicals (chemotherapy) or
radiation (radiotherapy)].

Metastasis (Progression)
 This is the invasion of cancerous cells into nearby tissues plus
the migration of cancerous cells to other tissues via circulatory or
transport systems.

 This causes formation of secondary tumours (malignant) which

are critical and can cause death.

Fig.3.1.10:

Stages of cancer development

3.2 Meiosis

Meiosis
 This is a type of nuclear division that divides the parent nucleus
into four daughter nuclei containing half the genetic material.

 It occurs during the formation of gametes:

o sperm and ova in animals,

o spores in most plants.

 Parent cell has two sets of chromosomes (diploid), while

daughter cell contains a single set of chromosomes (haploid).

 One set is derived from the male parent and the other from the
female parent.

 Chromosome pairs are referred to as homologous chromosomes.

 Homologous chromosomes contain same genes at the same loci,

but can have different alleles.

 Human somatic (body) cells have 23 homologous pairs, thus a

total of 46 chromosomes.
Fig.3.2.1:

Haploid and diploid conditions

Fig.3.2.2:

Homologous chromosome pair

Stages of meiosis
  Meiosis involves two types of cellular divisions: meiosis I and
meiosis II.

Meiosis I (Reduction division)

 In this stage, chromosome number is halved forming two haploid

daughter cells.

 It begins after replication of DNA during interphase.

 Meiosis I occur in the same way as mitosis, but has an altered

prophase stage.

Interphase
 Like mitosis, the cell lies in a developmental phase in which it
grows plus replicates its DNA and organelles.

Fig.3.2.3:

Interphase
Prophase I
 Chromosomes condense and become visible, with each
chromosome consisting of two sister chromatids attached at a
centromere.
  Homologous chromosomes pair up by a process called synapsis
forming bivalents.

 Chromatids from the bivalents may cross each other and

exchange pieces of DNA in a process called recombination or
crossing over.

 Nucleolus disappears during prophase I and nuclear membrane

dissolves at the end of this stage (refer to fig.3.2.4).

 If present, centrioles migrate to opposite poles to form a spindle.

Fig.3.2.4:

Prophase I
Metaphase I
 There is random alignment of bivalents along the centre
(equator) of the cell (metaphase plate), with each homologous
pair oriented towards opposite poles.

 Meiotic spindle extends from centrioles located at opposite poles

of the cell.
  The spindle fibres attach to one chromosome of each pair at the
centromere.

Fig.3.2.5:

Metaphase I
Anaphase I
 The spindle fibres contract and separate the homologous
chromosomes.

 One of each pair is drawn towards the opposite end of the poles.

 Sister chromatids remain attached together.

Fig. 3.2.6:

Anaphase I
Telophase I
 The chromosomes reach their opposite poles of the cell and
spindle dissolves.

 At each pole, there is a haploid set of chromosomes, with each

chromosome still having two chromatids.

 Nuclear membrane forms around each set of chromosomes to

create two new nuclei.

 Cytokinesis follows.

 The nucleus may proceed to interphase but with no DNA

replication.

 Usually, the chromosomes at the end of telophase I remain

condensed.

 However, in some cell’s chromosomes become uncondensed and

later condense in prophase II.
Fig.3.2.7:

Telophase I
Meiosis II
 It occurs after Meiosis I, and is essentially mitosis.

Prophase II
 Chromosomes condense again in each of the two daughter cells.

 Nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down.

 Centrioles divide and migrate to the opposite poles and form

meiotic spindle.

 The spindle is perpendicular to the plane of the first meiotic

division.
Fig.3.2.8:

Prophase II
Metaphase II
 Chromosomes align along the equator of the cell.

 Meiotic spindle fibres from each pole of the cell attach to the
centromere of each chromosome.

Fig.3.2.9:

Metaphase II
Anaphase II
 Centromere divides and sister chromatids are then pulled to
opposite poles by the meiotic spindle.

 The separated chromatids become individual chromosomes.

Fig.3.2.10:

Anaphase II
Telophase II
 Chromosomes reach the poles and a nuclear envelope surrounds
each set of chromosomes.

 Cytokinesis occurs producing four daughter cells, each with a

haploid set of chromosomes.

 Some chromosomes appear to have recombined segments of the

original parental chromosomes because of crossing-over.
Fig.3.2.11:

Telophase II
Experiment: Observing behaviour of chromosomes during pollen
formation
Materials
 Microscope

 Prepared slide of anther

Procedure
1. Place the slide under the microscope.

2. Find the pollen sac using low power magnification.

3. Switch to higher magnification and search for cells that seem to

be at different stages of cell division.

4. Observe and compare the cells.

5. Draw three or four different cells each showing some nuclear

structure, but at different stages.
Expected Observations
Fig.3.2.12:

Meiosis in pollen formation 100x magnification

Importance of meiosis
Reproduction and Formation of Gametes
 Organisms use meiosis to produce gametes for sexual
reproduction.

 Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half (haploid

condition) then fertilisation restores the diploid number.

 This maintains the chromosomal number in each generation

(Fig.3.2.13).
Fig.3.2.13:

Importance of meiosis in sexual reproduction

 Genetic variation and evolution

 Meiosis promotes genetic variation in two ways:

o Recombination or crossing over during prophase I

(fig.3.2.14).

o Random distribution of chromosomes during metaphase I

(independent assortment) (fig.3.2.15).

 Genetic variation increases the chances for long term survival in

a constantly changing environment.

 This ability to adapt to new environments favours evolution of

species.
Fig.3.2.14:

Recombination during prophase I

Fig.3.2.15:

Genetic variation by independent assortment of chromosomes during

metaphase I
Meiosis versus mitosis
Similarities Between Meiosis and Mitosis
 Both are forms of nuclear division

 Both begin with a diploid cell

 Phases include:

1. Prophase

2. Metaphase

3. Anaphase

4. Telophase

 Cytokinesis

Table 3.2.1: Differences between meiosis and mitosis

Feature Meiosis Mitosis

Division Single division of Single division of
chromosomes but chromosomes and
double nuclear division. nucleus.

Number of Daughter cells have half Daughter cells have

chromosomes the number in parent the same number as
cell. parent cell.

Chromosome Homologous Homologous

pairing chromosomes associate chromosomes do not
to form bivalents. associate.

Crossing over Crossing over may Crossing over does

occur in prophase I. not occur.

Metaphase Chromosomes form a Chromosomes form a

double row at equator single row at
during metaphase I. equator.

Daughter Four daughter cells Two daughter cells

cells genetically different to genetically identical
parent cell. to parent cell.

Cells formed Somatic (body) cells. Sex cells (gametes).

Function Growth, repair and Sexual reproduction.

asexual reproduction.

4.0 Genetic Control

4.1 Nucleic Acids

Structure of nucleotides
 Nucleic acids are organic substances found in the nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplasts and cytoplasm.

 They are polymers that are made up of nucleotides.

 Thus, nucleotides are building blocks of nucleic acids.

 Nucleotides consists of a nucleoside and a phosphate group that

combine with the elimination of water.

 A nucleoside consists of a nitrogenous base linked to a sugar.

Fig.4.1.1:

Diagrammatic representation of a nucleotide.

 All nucleotides are composed of:

5 Carbon Sugar
 There are two types of nucleic acids depending on the pentose
sugar they contain.

 They can either be a ribose or deoxyribose pentose sugar.

  Those containing ribose sugar are called ribonucleic acids (RNA).

 However, those that contain deoxyribose sugar are called

deoxyribonucleic acids (DNA).

Fig.4.1.2:

Difference between ribose and deoxyribose sugar

A Phosphate Group
 This gives the nucleic acids their acid character.

An Organic Base
 Each nucleic acid contains four different bases.

 There are two types of bases that is purines and pyrimidines.

 Purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G).

 Pyrimidines are cytosine (C) and thymine (T) with thymine being
replaced by uracil (U) in RNA.

 The bases are represented by their initial letters A, G, C, T and U.

Functions of nucleotides
  Building blocks of nucleic acid. (RNA, DNA)

 Regulatory chemicals - cyclic Adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)

 Formation of energy carriers – Adenosine diPhosphate (ADP) and

Adenosine triPhosphate (ATP)

 Formation of coenzymes - NAD, NADP, FMN, FAD)

Formation of a dinucleotide
 A dinucleotide is formed from a phosphodiester link between 2

mononucleotides.

 This is formed through a condensation reaction and water is

eliminated.

 The bond that is formed between a phosphate group and a sugar

is referred as a phosphodiester bond (Fig.4.1.1).

Fig.4.1.3:

Structure of a dinucleotide
 When repeated several times an unbranched sugar-phosphate

backbone is thus formed.

The common nucleic acids are of two types: DNA and

RNA.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
 DNA is the major store of genetic information.

o It is responsible for controlling biosynthetic activities that

occur in cells.

o It carries hereditary information from one generation to the

next.

This Information Is Transmitted by Transcription into RNA Molecules Ribonucleic Acid

(RNA)
o RNA molecules are single stranded.

o They can assume complex structures such as transfer RNA

(tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and mRNA.

Fig.4.1.4:

Differences and similarities between DNA and RNA

The diagram below is showing the structural differences
between DNA and RNA.
Fig.4.1.5:

Three-dimensional structure of DNA and RNA.

4.2 Structure and Replication of DNA

Introduction
 The model structure of DNA was discovered by Watson and Crick
and put forward in 1953.

 They discovered that DNA consists of two polynucleotide chains.

 The two chains coil around each other to form structure called a
double helix (fig.4.2.1).

Fig.4.2.1:

Structure of a DNA double helix

 The two chains are held together by hydrogen bonds.

 The chains run in opposite directions that is they are antiparallel.

 Each chain has a sugar-phosphate backbone with bases which

project at right angles (fig.4.2.2).
  Base pairing occurs between neighbouring chains.

 The base pairs are held by hydrogen bonds.

 Adenine pairs with thymine and guanine with cytosine.

 Adenine-thymine pair has two hydrogen bonds.

 Guanine-cytosine pair has three hydrogen bonds.

 The bases pair according to Chargaff’s rule which states that

DNA from any cell should have a ratio of 1:1 for pyrimidines and
purines.

 Chargaff’s rules specifically say the amount of guanine (G) bases

should equal the amount of cytosine (C) bases same as for
adenine (A) bases and thymine (T) bases.

 The order of bases determines the genetic information stored in

a DNA molecule.

Fig.4.2.2:

The structure of DNA.

 The sequence of bases in one chain determines those in the

other chain because of base pairing rules.

  Thus, the two chains of a DNA molecule are described as
complementary.

 A purine is paired to a pyrimidine.

 Thus, the width between two backbones is constant and equal to

width of a base pair.

 Two purines would be too large and two pyrimidines, too small
to span the gap between the two chains.

 Along the axis of the molecule base pairs are 0.34nm apart.

 The complete turn of a double helix is 3.4nm in length.

DNA replication
 DNA replication is the process in which genetic material that is

encoded in a DNA sequence is copied to produce two identical

copies of DNA molecule.

 This process occurs in the nucleus of the cell.

 Three methods of replication have been put forward to explain

the way DNA replicates.

 These methods include conservative, dispersive and semi

conservative.

Conservative Replication
 This method explains that DNA replication results in two
molecules.

 One molecule produced is made up of both original DNA strands

(identical to the original DNA molecule).

 The other molecule consists of two new strands with exactly the
same sequences as the original molecule.

Dispersive Replication
 DNA replication results in two DNA molecules.
  Both molecules are hybrids of parental and daughter DNA
(fig.4.2.3).

 This results in the formation of two identical copies of the

original double stranded molecule.

Semi Conservative Replication

 Semiconservative replication produces two copies.

 Each copy produced contains one of the original strands and one
new strand.

 This method of replication was proposed by Watson and Crick.

 They proposed that the two strands were capable of unwinding

and separating.

 Each strand will then act as a template to which a complementary

set of nucleotides would attach by base pairing.

 Each original molecule would give rise to two copies with

identical structures.

Fig.4.2.3:

Suggested models of DNA replication.

Process of DNA replication
 During DNA replication, a double stranded DNA molecule
separate.

 This occurs through unwinding of the DNA double helix with the
control of enzyme topoisomerase.

 The strands are later separated by an enzyme referred to as

helicase which breaks hydrogen bonds.

 The point at which a DNA helix is unwound and new strands

develop is referred as a replication fork.

 The two strands will act as templates for making two molecules
of DNA.

 Single strand binding protein will bind to the strands to avoid

reannealing of the strands.

 Enzyme, DNA polymerase then binds to the single stranded DNA.

 DNA polymerase will move along the strand facilitating

approaching of free nucleotides to the chain.

 The nucleotides with the correct complementary base will

hydrogen-bond to the base in the template strand.

 Free nucleotide will then be held in place by the enzyme until it

binds to the preceding nucleotide thus extending the new strand.

 The enzyme will continue to move a base at a time extending the

new strand.

 Each original molecule would give rise to two copies with

identical structures.

 The two copies produced will each contain one of the original
strands and one new strand.

 Therefore, DNA replication is described as semi-conservative.

Fig.4.2.4:

DNA replication
 The movement of DNA polymerase only happen in a 5’ to 3’

direction.

 This means only one strand can be copied continuously (leading

strand).

 This is because DNA polymerase moves in the same direction as

the unwinding enzyme (fig.4.2.4).

 This is referred to as continuous replication.

 Copying of the other strand will result in small gaps called ‘nicks’
being formed.

 The fragments formed are called okazaki fragments.

 Thus, DNA is synthesised in short stretches and these are found

on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

 This is because DNA polymerase cannot join the 3’ end of one

newly synthesised piece of DNA to the 5’ end of the next.
  An enzyme, DNA ligase will close the gaps hence the reason it is
referred to as discontinuous replication.

 Replication is bidirectional meaning that replication moves along

in both directions from the starting point, forming two
replication forks moving in opposite direction.

 Lagging strand - the strand of pre-existing DNA that is oriented

in the 5' to 3' direction with respect to the direction of replication
on which synthesis is discontinuous.

 Leading strand - the strand of pre-existing DNA that is oriented

in the 3' to 5' direction with respect to the direction of replication
on which replication is continuous.

 There were three proposed models for how organisms might

replicate their DNA: semi-conservative, conservative, and
dispersive

Meselson and Stahl experiment

 Meselson-Stahl carried out an experiment in 1958 to prove the

method of DNA replication.

 They were able to test the validity of these three models using
radioactive isotopes of nitrogen.

 They conducted experiments using E. coli cultured on a medium

containing N15

 Nitrogen is a key component of DNA and can exist as a heavier

N15 or a lighter N14

 The bacteria were left to replicate and both strands of the DNA
molecule now contain N15

 Thus, there were now labelled with N15

 The labelled E. coli were then transferred to a culture medium

containing N14 and allowed to replicate.
  After the first generation, the molecules of DNA each one
possessed one strand with N15 and the other strand
with N14 (fig.4.2.4).

 In these molecules the N15 strand represents a parental strand

and the lighter N14 strand presents a newly synthesised strand.

 Thus, each molecule can be regarded as a hybrid DNA (having

both N15 andN14) and it shows semi conservative replication.

 DNA samples were then separated via centrifugation to

determine the composition of DNA in the replicated molecule
(fig.4.2.5).

Fig.4.2.5:

Meselson experiment
Results of the experiment
First Generation
o DNA produced a single band after centrifugation.

o The band was intermediate in density between N15 and N14

o This was hybrid of light N14 and heavy N15 DNA.

 o This fits the dispersive and semi-conservative model but
not with the conservative model.

o Conservative model would have predicted two distinct

bands.

Second Generation
o When second generation DNA was centrifuged, two bands
were produced.

o One was in the intermediate position (hybrid DNA) as the

one from the first generation.

o The other band was higher (labelled with N14) than the
intermediate band.

o This indicated that the DNA was replicating semi-

conservatively.

Third and Fourth Generation

o Two bands were observed and hybrid band become
progressively fainter because it was representing a smaller
fraction of the DNA.

o The lighter DNA became stronger because it was

represented by a larger fraction of the DNA.
4.3 Protein Synthesis

Introduction
 Protein synthesis is the process by which proteins are made from
amino acids.

 During this process amino acids are linearly arranged into

proteins.

 This occurs through the involvement of ribosomal RNA (rRNA),

transfer RNA (tRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA), and various
enzymes.

 Protein synthesis is a two-step process which is made up of

transcription and translation.

 The process through which information flows from DNA to RNA

to proteins is referred to as protein expression.

Transcription
 It is the first step in protein synthesis.

 Transcription occurs in the nucleus of the cell.

 In transcription mRNA is made from a DNA molecule.

 Transcription is initiated on certain segments of DNA that

contain the necessary base-pair sequences.

 The regions where transcription is initiated are referred to as

promoter sites.

 The DNA strand that is used in transcription is called

the template strand.

 In the early stages of transcription, the DNA double helix unzips

thus exposing the bases of each strand.
  In the nucleus, four types of RNA nucleotides are available.

 These nucleotides are composed of the bases Adenine (A), Uracil

(U), Guanine (G) and Cytosine (C).

 The RNA nucleotides will form hydrogen bonds with the exposed
bases on the template strand.

 Thus, the RNA nucleotides of mRNA align with one strand of

DNA.

 This occurs according to complementary base pairing with the

help of RNA polymerase (Fig.4.3.1).

 RNA polymerase helps to link the RNA nucleotides together

through their sugar and phosphate groups.

Fig.4.3.1:

Process of transcription
 The DNA template strand is read from the 3' to the 5' end.

 Thus, the mRNA is made from the 5' to the 3' end.
  During transcription only the coding parts of the DNA are copied
(the exons).

 Non coding parts or introns are not transcribed.

 The mRNA is a complimentary copy of the base sequence on the

template strand.

 The mRNA molecule eventually detaches from the DNA template

(Fig.4.3.1).

 It then moves out of the nucleus and enters into the cytoplasm of
the cell.

Translation
 It involves translating information on mRNA to protein.

 The process requires a copy of mRNA, genetic code, tRNAs

carrying amino acids and ribosomes.

Copy Of MRNA
 mRNA is obtained from the nucleus after transcription is
complete.

 Base sequence of mRNA is the complimentary copy of DNA

strand being copied.

 It carries the genetic material to be translated.

 The mRNA is read as triplets of bases called codons.

Genetic Code
 It is in the form of codons thus referred to as a triplet code.

 A triplet of bases code for one amino acid in a polypeptide chain.

 The code is said to be degenerate meaning a single amino acid

can be coded by one of several codons.

 There are 4 bases which can make 43 possible combination of

bases in a triplet.
  There are 20 amino acids.

 Thus, some amino acids are therefore coded by more than one
triplet code.

 The code is also punctuated.

 This means that there are codons which act as ‘full stops’ to
mark the end of a gene.

 These codons are referred to as nonsense codons as they do not

code for any amino acid.

 They rather act as stop signals for termination of translation.

 The genetic code is universal.

 This means that the 20 amino acids are the same in all
organisms.

 The five bases that A, T, U, G and C are also the same in all
organisms.

 The code is also non-overlapping as one codon follows another

with no sharing of bases.

 This means that the triplets are adjacent and they do not overlap.

Transfer RNA
 tRNA is clover leaf shaped in structure

 Each tRNA molecule is made up of a single strand of RNA

nucleotides.

 The strand is twisted round on itself to form a clover-leaf shape.

 It contains an anticodon.
Fig.4.3.2:

Structure of a transfer RNA.

 An anticodon is a group of three exposed bases.

 tRNA also contains a specific position where an amino acid can

be loaded by a specific enzyme.

 It links between the information encoded in the mRNA and the

amino acids.

Ribosomal RNA And Ribosomes

 It makes up approximately 80% of total RNA in the cell.

 It is founded in the cytoplasm associated with ribosomes.

 Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis.

 Ribosomes direct the synthesis of proteins.

 The ribosomes bring together a single mRNA molecule and

tRNAs charged with amino acids together.
  They ensure proper orientation of mRNA and tRNA so that the
base sequence of mRNA molecule is translated into amino acid 1
sequence of polypeptides.

 Ribosomes facilitates the formation of peptide bond between

successive amino acids of the newly synthesized polypeptide
chain.

Fig.4.3.3:

Relationship between mRNA, tRNA and ribosome during translation.

Process of translation
 After transcription, the mRNA will exit the nucleus through the

nuclear pores into the cytoplasm.

 In the cytoplasm the mRNA attaches to ribosomes.

 Initiation of protein synthesis begins with binding of the 40S

ribosomal unit on the mRNA.

 This is followed by the binding of the 60S ribosomal unit on the

mRNA
  Eventually, tRNA will take specific amino acid to mRNA.

 tRNA with specific amino acid is said to be charged.

 Charging of amino acids is facilitated by the enzyme aminoacyl

tRNA synthetase.

 An anticodon of tRNA pairs with codon of mRNA through

complementary base pairing.

 This starts at the start codon

 AUG is identified as a chain initiating codon in protein synthesis.

 The first tRNA which initiates translation carries the amino acid
methionine.

Fig.4.3.4:

Process of translation
 The codons on the mRNA are read sequentially as the ribosome

moves along mRNA.

 Each tRNA is released to pick up more amino acids (Fig.4.3.4).

  tRNA molecules will continue to collect amino acids from
cytoplasm each per time.

 Amino acids become attached by peptide bonds to form a

polypeptide.

 The polypeptide will be terminated when a stop codon is

reached.

 The polypeptide/protein will be released from ribosome.

Fig.4.3.5:

Summary diagram of protein synthesis

5.0 Gene Technology

5.1 Insulin Production

Introduction
 Gene technology involves the artificial manipulation,
modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid
molecules in order to modify the genetic makeup of organisms.

 DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined either

within cells or in a controlled environment outside a living
organism (in vitro).

 The DNA molecules are then inserted into host organisms in

which they are able to propagate.

 The method creates new combinations of genes and is referred

to as genetic engineering.

 Genetic engineering using bacteria as a host can be broken into

five stages (fig.1.1.1).

Fig.1.1.1

Stages of genetic engineering.

  Basic research on gene structure and function

 Production of useful proteins by novel methods for example

insulin

 Generation of transgenic plants and animals.

 Medical diagnosis and treatment

 Genome analysis by DNA sequencing

Insulin production
 Insulin is a hormone that is produced and secreted by the beta
cells of the pancreas' Islets of Langerhans.

 It is a simple protein which consists of two polypeptides.

 The hormone has a total of 51 amino acids, 30 making one

polypeptide chain whilst 21 make the second chain.

 Insulin is responsible for controlling blood glucose levels and its

shortage causes a condition referred to as diabetes.

 Bacteria are used as hosts in insulin production because of their

ability to readily take up plasmids and produce proteins carried
by the plasmid.

Steps for insulin production

 Insulin can be produced using bacteria (E. coli) through

Recombinant DNA technology.

 Recombinant DNA technology involves joining together DNA

from different species.

 Several steps are involved in insulin production as outlined

below.

1. Extraction
 The plasmid DNA is isolated from bacteria.
  A copy of the human insulin gene is obtained.

 This is done by isolating mRNA from the human pancreas.

2. Digestion by Restriction Enzymes

 Restriction enzymes are used to cut the plasmid DNA.

 Plasmid DNA contains specific sequences which are known as

restriction sites to allow cleavage of specific sites by restriction
enzymes.

 Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific points by recognising

specific sequences on the DNA molecule.

 They are naturally found in bacteria and they protect bacteria

against viruses.

 Restriction enzymes can leave either open stick ends (length of

unpaired bases) or blunt ends.

 The same restriction enzymes (restriction endonucleases) are

also used to cut insulin DNA.

 However, they do not digest their host DNA because bacterial

DNA is containing a methyl group.

Fig.1.1.2

Restriction digestion of the plasmid and the insulin gene

3. Insertion
 The isolated insulin DNA is then inserted into a plasmid vector.

 The cut plasmids are mixed with the insulin gene and DNA ligase
enzymes are added.

 DNA ligase enzymes are enzymes that are used to join together
plasmid DNA with the insulin DNA to form recombinant DNA
molecule

Fig.1.1.3

Diagrammatic representation of the insertion step.

4. Transformation
 The recombinant molecule is then inserted back into the
bacterium which will act as a host.

 The process whereby bacteria take up recombinant molecules is

referred to as transformation.

 The cells which have taken up the plasmid are called

transformants.

 Heat shock is usually introduced to induce transformation.

5. Selection
 The transformed cells are identified and selected basing on
marker genes.

 A marker gene is a gene that allows genetically modified cells to

be readily selected.

 An example is the gene that encodes antibiotic resistance.

 Antibiotic resistance will act as a selectable marker.

 These selectable markers are found on plasmids.

 The bacterial host cell will divide and produce copies of the
plasmid carrying the insulin gene (fig 1.1.4).

6. Extraction and Purification

 Insulin is then extracted from the bacterial culture.

 It is then purified.

Fig.1.1.4

Summary of the steps in the production of insulin

Advantages of Using Insulin to Treat Diabetes`
 Before bacteria was used to produce human insulin, diabetics
were injected with insulin isolated from pigs or cattle.

 However, pig or cattle insulin is not identical to human insulin

and there were cases of immune response.

 There are minor differences in the amino acid composition

between cow or pig insulin and human insulin (fig.1.1.5).

Fig.1.1.5

Differences between pig and human insulin.

 Insulin produced using bacteria is chemically similar to human

insulin and there are less chances of immune response.

 It can also be easily recognised by human insulin receptors on

human cell surface membranes hence duration of response is
shorter.
 Insulin produced by gene technology eliminates the problems
related to the development of tolerance to cow or pig insulin.

 Ethical issues raised by use of cow or pig insulin are eliminated

when insulin is produced through gene technology.

 For instance, religious objections of pig insulin by Muslims and

Christians or objections of both pig and cattle insulin by
vegetarians.

 Extraction of insulin from pancreas of cows or pigs is expensive

as compared to production of insulin through gene technology.

 Production of insulin through gene technology also eliminates

problems related to animal rights issues as there is no need to
slaughter any animal.
 Genetic Screening and
5.2

Fingerprinting

Genetic Screening
 Genetic screening is a process of detecting defective genes in an
individual.

 It can also involve testing of samples of DNA from a group of

people.

 This is done to identify the presence or absence of particular

alleles that pose a risk of having or passing on unfavourable
genetic conditions.

 Genetic screening can be used to predict whether or not the

embryo would have a genetic condition for which both parents
are carriers.

 Genetic tests are performed on a sample of blood, hair, skin,

amniotic fluid (the fluid that surrounds a foetus during
pregnancy), or other tissue.

Process for genetic screening

 There are four different techniques that are used in genetic
screening and the techniques are summarized in the diagram
below.
Fig.1.2.1

Techniques used in genetic screening.

1. Chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
 This technique is based on withdrawing a sample from the

chorion.

 A hollow needle is inserted through the body wall and uterus

wall.

 A syringe is attached to the needle and is used to suck chorionic

material.

 In the cervical route (Fig 1.2.1) a flexible tube called a catheter is

used to remove a small tissue sample by gentle suction.
Fig.1.2.2

Chorionic villus sampling

 Both a needle and a catheter are used in association with an ultra

sound scanner.

 The cells are actively dividing thus their chromosome content can
be actively examined.

 A picture of the chromosomes will then be used for karyogamy.

 Thus, chromosomal disabilities can be identified.

 Diseases such as Down’s and Turner’s syndrome can be

identified using this method.

 Sex of the children can also be identified.

 This is important if a sex-linked disease is suspected.

 Cells from the chorion can also be cultured for further DNA
analysis to identify diseases such as cystic fibrosis and
Huntington chorea.

 CVS can be done in early pregnancy.

  It is important to note this procedure also carries a risk of
miscarriage.

 The process of genetic screening has several stages that are

described below.

 If a genetic disease is identified a genetic counselling is done.

 This help to explain to parents the dangers and options

(abortion) available.

2. Amniocentesis
 Widely used technique.

 It is usually done within 15-18 weeks of pregnancy.

 It is safer than CVS.

 A hollow needle is inserted through the abdomen and uterus

wall.

 This is done with the guidance of ultrasound guidance and local

anaesthetic (fig.1.2.3).

Fig.1.2.3

Amniocentesis
  Amniotic fluid is sucked out of the sack.

 Cells are spun down the centrifuge and cultured.

 The chromosomes of the dividing cells are then examined.

 Cells are tested for products of defective genes.

3. Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis (PGD)

 Carried out on the embryo before it implants to the uterus.

 Involves the use of the test tube baby technique.

 In this case fertilization is done outside the body.

 A cell is removed from the developing embryo.

 This is done at 8 cell stage.

 Only healthy embryos will be replaced into the women.

 There is low success rate.

 The process also involves intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection

(ICSI).

Fig.1.2.4

Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis.

4. DNA analysis
 Genetic screening by examining a person’s DNA.

 It involves several steps that are described below.

Isolation
 Genetic screening starts with isolation of an individual's DNA
from cells.

 DNA may be isolated from different sources such as urine of a

child, adult cells and foetus.

 Cells may also be obtained from a foetus by CVS or

amniocentesis.

Amplification
 The isolated DNA is then amplified through the use of
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR).

 PCR makes use of primers that are specific to the segment of

DNA.

 Primers are small sequences of DNA bases that are designed to

amplify specific sequences.

Digestion
 DNA is cut up into fragments.

 This is done using restriction enzymes.

 They cut DNA into fragments of different lengths.

Separation
 Fragments are separated according to size and charge.

 This is done using electrophoresis.

 Smaller fragments will move faster down the gel than larger
ones.
Southern Blotting
 A particular piece of the mutant DNA is fished out using a DNA
probe.

 In cases where the genetic defect is present, the mutant DNA will
be found is one of the fragments.

 A gene probe is used to fish out the mutant DNA.

 A gene probe is a single stranded DNA sequence which is

complementary to part of mutant gene being sought for.

 The gene probe is labelled.

 DNA in a gel is first converted to single strands.

 It is then transferred to a nitrocellulose filter by a blotting action.

 The labelled gene probe is added to the solution for

hybridization with the DNA on the nitrocellulose filter.

 Autoradiography is carried by placing the filter on an X-ray film.

 Major chromosomes shorten the length of the restriction

fragment.

 Thus, the fragment travels a longer distance on the gel.

Fig.1.2.5

Summary of the use of DNA analysis in genetic screening.

Roles of genetic screening
1. Newborn screening
 It involves testing a new born to identify the conditions that

require immediate attention.

 In some countries, all new born babies are screened for genetic
conditions such as phenylketonuria (PKU) by a simple blood test.

 Infants affected with phenylketonuria must be identified within

2–3 weeks of birth so that they can derive the full benefit from
diet therapy.

 Thus, the significance of screening for PKU is time urgency.

 This test enables the affected individual to be put onto a

protective diet low in the amino acid phenylalanine, for the rest
of their life.

 This can protect them from the damaging symptoms of the

condition.

 Phenylketonuria (PKU) is the first condition for which new born

screening was widely accepted.

 PKU may be due to phenylalanine hydroxylase deficiency.

 This can also be due to the deficiency of dihydropteridine

reductase.

 Early diagnosis allows immediate treatment.

 Many countries have implemented newborn screening for sickle

cell disease.

 However, this has less time urgency as compared to PKU.

 New born screening for cystic fibrosis was also adopted in some
countries.
2. Carrier Identification genetic test
 This involves testing prospective parents for a genetic condition

that they show no symptom but might carry a recessive gene for
it.

 Cystic fibrosis, Tay - Sachs disease and sickle-cell are three

common diseases that are tested for in this area.

 If such recessive genes are identified in parents a genetic

counsellor may discuss issues involved and the possible options
if the parents are planning to have children.

 All the individuals in a family may be screened if one family

member develops a particular condition that may be genetic.

 Potential parents may be screened where there is the possibility

that one or both of them might carry a recessive allele for some
particular condition.

 Knowledge of genetic risks can lead to stigmatisation and

discrimination within the community.

 Discrimination can be in the form of denial of health insurance,

employment or simply social acceptance.

 Knowledge of risk of disease may be used by health insurance

providers and employers to deny individuals employment,
benefits and allowances and health insurance.

3. Prenatal Diagnosis test

 Testing to detect a genetic condition before a baby is born.

 Pre-natal screening may be carried out in different ways and at

different stages of the pregnancy

 Chorionic villus sampling: where the early placental tissue is

sampled and usually done at 10 – 12 weeks of the pregnancy
  Intra-uterine blood test – where foetal blood is sampled, usually
done at 16-18 weeks of the pregnancy

 Amniocentesis: where foetal cells in amniotic fluid are sampled,

usually

 It is usually done at 13 – 18 weeks of the pregnancy.

 Amniocentesis is used to look for a certain defect in a foetus for

instance Down syndrome and neural tube defect.

 It relies on determining the number and appearance of

chromosomes

 Prevention of the birth of babies with lethal diseases such as

Tay-Sachs Diseases.

 Screening test is usually initiated on the basis of family history.

 Many people feel that it is unnatural to alter the natural world

where genetic screening is used certain conditions in groups of
people.

 If a genetic disease is detected, counselling on the quality of life

the child can expect and other potential problems is possible.

 In some countries, parents are even given option of abortion is

they do not want the child.

 However, some people believe that deciding whether a child

should be aborted on the basis of knowing if they have an illness
is playing God.

4. Predictive diagnosis
 This involves prediction of the possibility of suffering with a

certain disease in the future.

 One example is an adult-onset disease known as Huntington’s

disease.
  Some people can be genetically pre-disposed to heart disease
and breast cancer.

 Getting screened for these diseases can help avoid suffering

from the diseases in the future as some of these diseases are
affected by the environment.

 This is done to identify an individual with less likelihood of

response or increased risk of adverse reaction.

5. Preimplantation Screening
 Screening embryos before they are implanted into the uterus.

The diagram below summarizes the main roles of genetic

screening.

Fig.1.2.6

The main roles of genetic screening for genetic screening.

Genetic counselling
 It is a communication service that provide information and advice
about a genetic condition.

 This involves an explanation of the results and the implications

in terms of probabilities, dangers, diagnosis, and treatment.

 Beneficiaries of genetic counselling include:

 People with birth defects and genetic condition.

 Parents of the child with the genetic condition.

 Parents who have a child with a developmental delay, mental

retardation and other related problems.

Purposes of genetic counselling

 Genetic counselling helps beneficiaries to:

 Understand medical facts, including diagnostic, probable cause

of the disorder and available management.

 Appreciate the way hereditary contributes to certain genetic

conditions.

 Understand the option of dealing with risk occurrence.

 To make the best possible adjustment to the disorder in the

affected families.

 Genetic counselling also provides psychological support to both

the affected individuals and family members.

 Counselling services for patients and their families provides

knowledge of genetic disease or predisposition.

 This can lead to better care and management of the patient.

 Ultimately this can result in improved quality of life.

Genetic fingerprinting
 This technique can also be referred to as DNA profiling.

 Genetic fingerprinting is a technique of determining nucleotide

sequences of certain areas of DNA which are unique to each
individual.

 It can readily distinguish DNA of two different individuals.

 This is based on the fact that each person has a unique DNA
fingerprint.

 A DNA fingerprint is the same for every cell, tissue and organ of
a certain individual.

 It cannot be changed by any known treatment.

 The main purpose of DNA fingerprinting is to find out the genetic

difference between the compared individuals

 Principle of genetic fingerprinting:

 About 0.1% of the base sequence differs in all human beings.

 This uniqueness in the base sequence also applies in repetitive

DNA also known as satellite DNA and this brings polymorphism.

 The main satellite DNA having high degree of polymorphism is

the variable number tandem repeats (VNTR).

 Every individual has a distinct composition of VNTRs and this is

the main principle of DNA fingerprinting.
Process of genetic fingerprinting
When carrying out genetic fingerprinting about seven
steps are followed as described below.

1. Extraction
 Extraction is the first step of making a genetic fingerprint.

 DNA is extracted from the nuclei of the white blood cells,

spermatozoa or other source.

2. Digestion
 The extracted DNA is cut into fragments.

 Restriction enzymes (the chemical knife) are used to cut DNA

into fragments.

 The enzymes recognize specific sequences in the DNA.

 The lengths of these fragments will vary from person to person.

 This is because each person has a unique sequence of

nucleotides.

 Fragments that are cut also contain VNTRs.

3. Separation
 After digestion, the fragments are separated.

 They are separated by gel electrophoresis.

 Gel electrophoresis separates the fragments according to size

and charge.

4. Transfer to A Nylon Membrane

 The fragments are treated with alkaline chemicals.

 This is done to split them into single stranded DNAs.

 Single stranded DNA fragments are then transferred to a nylon

membrane.
5. Hybridisation
 Radioactive DNA probes are poured over the nylon membrane.

 Radioactive DNA probes are repeated base sequences

complementary to possible Variable Number Tandem Repeat
(VNTRs).

 VNTR or microsatellite is a location in DNA where a short

repetitive non-coding DNA sequence is organized as a tandem
repeat and often shows variation in length among individuals.

The diagram below (fig.1.2.7) is a summary of the stages

that are involved in genetic fingerprinting.

Fig.1.2.7

Process of genetic fingerprinting.

  Some of radioactive DNA probes will bind to the single stranded
VNTRs on the nylon membrane.

 The process of hybridisation of DNA with probes is called

Southern blotting.

6. Washing
 The unbound probes are removed by washing the nylon
membrane.

 This helps to avoid detecting a false result.

7. Development
 This is the last stage of making a genetic fingerprint.

 The nylon membrane is exposed to X-ray film.

 This is done to visualize where radioactive DNA probes are

bound to DNA fragments.

 When X-ray film is developed and dark bands are visualized.

 The dark bands on the X-ray film will represent the DNA
fingerprints (DNA profiles).

The diagram below shows developed genetic

fingerprinting

Fig.1.2.8

Developed fingerprints collected from the crime scene and three suspects.
 Genetic fingerprinting can be used in forensic science to screen
for suspects depending on the location of the DNA bands.

 From the diagram (Fig.1.2.8) suspect 2 is most likely to be the

criminal.

 This is because of the location and size of the bands on the

diagram.

 Genetic fingerprinting is also used in paternity testing.

5.3 Gene Therapy

Introduction
 Gene therapy is the introduction of therapeutic genes into
existing cells to prevent or cure a wide range of diseases.

 Therapeutic genes are genes used to replace faulty or defective

ones responsible for disease development

 Gene therapy can also be used to deactivate a gene that does not
function properly and to enhance the effect of normally
functioning genes (fig.1.3.1).

 About 50% of the trials are targeting different types of cancers.

Fig.1.3.1

Overview of gene therapy

Types of gene therapy
 There are two types of gene therapy that is somatic and germline

therapy.

A. Somatic Gene Therapy

 This involves the transfer of therapeutic genes into somatic cells.
  Somatic cells are any other living cells in an organism apart from
the reproductive (sex) cells.

 The DNA is introduced into cells such as bone marrow cells,

spleen cells and will not enter the sperm or eggs.

 Hence the effect of the functional gene will end with the patient.

 This cannot be inherited to the next generation since the

therapeutic genes are not introduced to the reproductive cells.

 Somatic gene therapy aims to cure a disease in the patient’s body

only and not the patient’s descendants.

Fig 1.3.2

Somatic cell therapy technique

B. Germline Gene Therapy
 Germline therapy involves the transfer of therapeutic genes into
germ cells (sex cells).

 For example, genes are introduced into eggs and sperms.

  The zygote produced as a result of this germ cell will have a
correct version.

 It is heritable and can be passed on to later generations.

 This is too risky as researchers cannot control where genes are

inserted.

 Inserted genes might damage existing genes which may result in

cancers.

Methods used in gene therapy

 There are two methods that are used in gene therapy that is in

vivo and ex vivo gene therapy.

In Vivo Gene Therapy

 It involves direct delivery of genes into particular cells of the
body.

 Many cells are potential for this type for instance, liver, muscle,
skin, spleen, lung, brain and blood cells.

Ex Vivo Gene Therapy

 This method of gene therapy involves transfer of genes to
cultured cells.

 It can be applied to selected tissues that can be cultured in the

laboratory.

 The cells are later re-inserted into the body of the patient.

 The first successful ex vivo gene therapy was done to correct

deficiency of the enzyme, adenosine deaminase (ADA).

 This was done on a patient who was suffering from severe

combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

 SCID is a condition caused by deficiency of the enzyme,

adenosine deaminase (ADA).
Fig.1.3.3

Methods used in gene therapy.

Vectors used in gene therapy
 There are two categories of vectors that can be used in gene

therapy.

Viral Vectors
 These include:

 retroviruses

 adenoviruses

 Adeno-associated viruses: has proved useful in the treatment of

sickle cell disease.

 Herpes Simplex Virus: herpes virus is preferred when transferring

genes into nerve cells.

Non-Viral Vector
 Non-viral vector for gene therapy include pure DNA constructs.
Strategies of gene therapy
 There are four main strategies that are used in gene therapy and

they are outlined below.

Gene Augmentation
 This strategy is used to treat diseases caused by loss of function
of a gene.

 It involves simply adding a functional gene to compensate for

missing or flawed version.

 Gene augmentation also involves introducing extra copies of a

normal gene.

 This may increase the amount of the normal gene product.

Targeted Inhibition of Gene Expression

 This is used when cells display a novel gene product or
inappropriate expression of a gene.

 The strategy involves silencing of specific genes such as

activated oncogenes.

Targeted Killing of Specific Cells

 This involves stimulating an immune response against specific
cells.

 It also involves utilising genes encoding toxic compounds

(suicides genes) or prodrugs to kill transformed cells.

 This is common in cancer therapies.

Targeted Gene Mutation Correction

 This involves correcting a specific mutation to restore the
function of a gene.

 Effectively used when the inherited mutation produces a

dominant negative effect.
 Ethical Implications, Benefits
5.4

and Hazards of Gene Technology

Benefits of gene technology

1. Production of recombinant proteins
 Gene technology can be used to produce medically useful human

peptides and proteins

 Examples of these proteins include human growth hormones,

insulin, somatostatin and interferon.

A. Human Growth Hormone (HGH)

 It is produced by the pituitary gland and is responsible for
growth.

 Low levels of high in children will result in a condition called

dwarfism.

 Treatment of dwarfism used to rely on high extracted from the

pituitary glands of dead humans.

 However, there were problems associated with this method.

 For instance, the supply was not large enough to meet demand.

 Extracts from the pituitary glands were contaminated with

infectious diseases.

 In addition, growth hormones of different animals work only in

the species of origin.

 Thus, high from other animals could not be used in human

beings.

 Through gene technology, high can be produced from genetically

engineered bacteria.
  It can be produced in large quantities in a pure form.

 Regular injections of high are effective in restoring near-normal

heights in children suffering from dwarfism.

 Technique of high production is similar to insulin production

(refer to subtopic 1.1).

B. Recombinant Insulin
 This hormone is responsible for controlling blood sugar levels.

 Insulin produced through gene technology is referred to as

Humulin.

 Its shortage in the body causes diabetes.

Fig.1.4.1

Human insulin (Humulin)

 This is used to inject diabetics who cannot produce enough

insulin.

 Detail on how insulin is produced (refer to subtopic 1.1).

C. Bovine Somatotrophin (BST)
 BST can now be produced in large quantities in fermenters
through gene technology.

 BST is responsible for stimulating cell division, protein synthesis

and growth in most parts of the body.

 It is important for muscle and skeletal growth.

 If small doses are injected into cows, it can increase milk

production.

D. Recombinant Vaccines
 This includes Hepatitis B vaccine which protects against Hepatitis
B.

 The vaccine for foot and mouth disease is also included.

2. Diagnosis of diseases
 Use of DNA probes is common in disease diagnosis.

 DNA probes are single stranded oligonucleotide sequences.

 They are complementary to a particular DNA sequence of desired

function and are labelled.

 Specific probes are used to fish out specific sequences in

parasites using DNA hybridisation techniques.

3. Production of transgenic plants

 Transgenic plants are those plants in which a gene of foreign

origin is introduced.

 They can also be referred to as genetically modified plants.

 Genes are introduced into plants through the use of the soil
bacterium Agrobacterium tumefaciens as a vector.
 This bacterium possesses a plasmid which can be modified in the
laboratory so that it becomes the carrier of new genetic
information

 This bacterium contains a plasmid which can be used to carry the

desired gene.

 The plasmid is referred to as Ti plasmid.

 Alternatively, phage’s can also be used as vectors in producing

transgenic plants.

 Insect resistant transgenic plants are made by introducing

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) gene into the cells of the crops.

 Bt gene will produce toxins that can kill predators.

 Many transgenic plants have been developed with better qualities

like resistance to herbicides, insects or viruses

 Bt maize and Bt cotton have been produced and is resistant to

insect attack.

 Herbicide resistant crops have also been developed using gene

technology.

 Flavr Savr tomatoes have been produced and they retain their
freshness for long periods.
Fig.1.4.1

Organic and genetically modified tomatoes

 Genetic engineering has made a rapid entry into agriculture in

countries like South Africa in the past decade.

 Zimbabwe has banned GM crop production and importation

citing various health problems.

 Zimbabwe’s National Biotechnology Authority (NBA) opened the

country’s first laboratory to test imports for Genetically Modified
Organisms (GMOs).

 Gene technology also speeds up the process of crop breeding.

 These transgenic plants are also used for the production of

scientifically, medically and/or industrially important
biomolecules.

 This is called molecular farming.

4. Production of transgenic animals

 Gene technology allows desired genes to be inserted into the

animal so as to produce the transgenic animal.

Fig.1.4.2

Genetically modified chickens.

 This allows animal breeders to increase the speed and range of

selective breeding.

 Transgenic animals also help in the production of certain

proteins and pharmaceutical compounds.

 These animals are also used for research purposes such as

studying the functions of certain genes in animals.

 Transgenic sheep, goats and rats have been produced by genetic

engineers.

5. Use of genetically modified microorganisms in pollution control.

 Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology is applied in the

degradation of toxic pollutants which harm the environment.

 Different microorganisms are used for sewage treatment, waste

water treatment, industrial effluent treatment and for
bioremediation.
  These microorganisms have been improved using gene rDNA
technology to increase their efficiency.

 One example is genetically engineered Pseudomonas which have

potential to be used in cleaning oil spoilages.

 Such bacteria might be sprayed onto surfaces polluted with oil

spills.

 Genes responsible for environmental degradation have been

isolated.

 These genes were successfully cloned in microorganisms that are

used to clean polluted areas.

6. Gene therapy
 This involves delivery of specific genes into cells to correct

genetic disorders.

 Thus, genetic disorders such as cystic fibrosis and certain

cancers can be treated by transfer and expression of a gene into
the patients’ cells.

 There is potential for use of gene technology to treat genetic

diseases such as cystic fibrosis and SCID (Severe Combined
Immune Deficiency) as well as in cancer treatment.

 Gene therapy can be done on somatic cells or germline cells.

 This can be done through in vivo or ex vivo gene therapy (refer

to subtopic 1.3 for details)

7. Forensic science
 Gene technology is used in crime scene investigation for

analysing evidence collected from crime scenes.

 A technique called DNA profiling or DNA fingerprinting is

commonly used in evidence analysis.

 It also helps to identify criminals basing on their DNA profiles.

  DNA profiles can be created by analysing hair, blood, serum
among other types of biological evidence.

 DNA fingerprinting also helps to solve the problems of

parentage.

 Refer to subtopic 1.2 for details on DNA fingerprinting.

Hazards of gene technology

1. Production of Hazardous Toxins and Biological Weapons
 Hazardous toxins can be produced by genetic engineering of
several organisms.

 Some of these toxins include neurotoxins and aflatoxins.

 These toxins can be used as biological weapons.

 Toxic chemicals produced due to this technology can be used as

agents of bio-terrorism.

 For instance, genetically engineered microbes such as E. coli,

Haemophilus influenza that cause severe diseases can be used as
biological agents.

2. Negative Effects on The Environment

 When genetically modified plants are released in large quantities,
they may disturb the ecological and environmental equilibrium.

 Superior transgenic plant varieties may outcompete wild type

varieties.

 This can cause a considerable loss to biodiversity.

 Herbicide resistant plants may encourage greater use of

herbicides.

 There is some evidence that But toxin genetically engineered into

plants such as cotton and maize may kill other desirable insects
such as bees and butterflies.
  This may upset the ecological systems by promoting only natural
selection of Bt toxin resistant insects.

 Organisms designed for one environment may escape to other

environments and cause harmful consequences.

3. Problems Associated with Incorrect Integration of Genes

 Incorrect integration of gene into target cells may cause
problems by inactivating the essential genes.

 Thus, gene technology can introduce new genetic disorders if not

done correctly.

 For instance, the appearance of leukaemia in patients treated for

severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID).

 This may also cause mutations.

 Insertion of foreign gene into incorrect site in the host genome

may result in the progeny with deformities.

4. Insurance
 The results from genetic tests can be used by insurance
companies to discriminate people who are associated with a
certain genetic disorder.

 These people can be charged high premiums as they have an

increased chance of dying from a particular disease.

5. Development of Super Weeds

 Transgenes such as insect resistance and herbicide resistance
can be accidentally transferred from transgenic plants to a
related sexually compatible weed species.

 In such case the weed would become more persistent and it

would be difficult to control it.

 These weeds are referred to as 'super weeds'.

6. Health Concerns
 The first food containing foreign genes to be approved for
marketing was the Flavr Savr tomato.

 The main concern relates to the vectors which are used in gene
technology.

 Allergens can be transferred from one food crop to another

through genetic engineering.

 There is little reliable evidence that this has been so, but the risk
remains.

 Food containing the expressed products of antibiotic resistance

marker genes could be consumed at the same time as treatment
with the antibiotic was occurring.

 This would potentially reduce the effectiveness of the treatment.

 Food that is derived from genetically engineered organisms may

prove to be unexpectedly toxic or to trigger allergic reactions
when consumed.

 There are fears that disease causing organisms used in some

recombinant DNA experiments might generate extremely
infectious strains that could cause epidemics worldwide.

Social implications
 The social impact of gene technology refers to its potential and

actual impact on human society.

 In terms of social impact, gene technology could enhance crop

yields and permit crops to grow outside their usual location.

 This ensures food security especially in developing countries.

 Gene technology also enhances the nutritional content of crops

for example Golden rice.
  It can also permit better targeted clean-up of wastes and
pollutants.

 Gene technology can lead to production of more effective

treatments and cheaper medicines.

 This is achieved through genetic manipulation of microorganisms

to make medicines.

 Gene technology produce super-weeds or otherwise interfere

with ecosystems in unexpected ways.

 This can reduce crop yields so that people have less food.

 Gene technology can increase costs of seed and prevent seed

from being retained for sowing next season.

 This is because of the inclusion of genes to kill any seed

produced this way thus reducing food production.

 Crop biodiversity can be reduced when GMOs out-compete

natural crops thus people will be less well fed.

Ethical implications of gene technology

 The ethical impact includes the application of moral frameworks

concerning the principles of conduct governing individuals and

groups.

 Ethical aspects including raising questions concerning what is

morally right or commonly good.

 In gene technology, ethical issues have to do with issues of

whether it is right or wrong to different societies to conduct
research and develop technologies.

 On an ethical point of view, it is good to conduct such research

to develop technologies that might improve nutrition, the
environment and health.
 It is also considered good to use the results of genetic
technology research to produce food, to enhance the
environment or improve health.

 However, it is considered wrong to continue research when the

potential impact of the technology is unknown and many aspects
of it remain to be understood.

 It is wrong to use the results of such research even when the

organisms are kept in carefully regulated environments such as
sterile fermenters.

 This is because the risks of the organisms or the genes they

contain escaping are unknown.

 It is also considered wrong to use the results of such research

when this involves release of gene technology into the
environment as once it is released it cannot be taken back.

 This is because the genes are self-perpetuating, and the risks

that they might cause in future are unknown.

 The same technique used to cure a disease by replacing a faulty

gene could be used for gene enhancement.

 The addition of desired characteristics in humans is

controversial.

 It has been reported that abortion in countries like China and

India is rising because families want sons.

 There is fear that people are prepared to go any length to select

other inherited characteristics.

 One of the controversial issues is brought about by germline

therapy.

 There is an argument that no one has the right to affect future

generations through germline therapy which allows the change
to be passed on to the future generations.
  Ethics also argue that whenever there is a chance that therapy
may be harmful in a way, the treatment should be banned.

6.0 Inherited Change and Evolution

Nature of Gene, Monohybrid and
6.1

Dihybrid Crosses

Gene
 A gene has various definitions but this topic is going to consider
the following two:

o It is a specific length of DNA responsible for coding for a

specific peptide or protein.

o It is the shortest segment of a chromosome which could be

separated from the adjacent segments by crossing over.

 Both definitions consider the fact that a gene is a particular

region of the chromosome that determines distinct traits in an
organism.
  The first definition explains that a gene codes for a specific
peptide in a protein that is coded for by more than one gene.

 Genes determine an organism’s characteristics meaning that they

contain information or a set of instructions of how the organism
should develop.

 Gregor Mendel defined a gene as a unit of inheritance.

 Mendel’s definition is acceptable but it does not shed light on the

physical nature of the gene.

 According to Watson and Crick genetic information in DNA is

passed from generation to generation to code for the sequence
of amino acids in molecule proteins.

 The relationship between bases and amino acids is referred to as

the genetic code.

 The code is a triplet code which is made by a combination of

three of the four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine)
arranged successively in a specific DNA length.

 Each base is part of a nucleotide and the nucleotides are

arranged in a linear form to form polynucleotide strands.

 Various triplets code for the 20 amino acids that are used to
make proteins.

Nature of the genetic code

 The five main features of the genetic code can be summarised as:

1. Triplet of bases in a specific section of DNA is the code for one

amino acid in the polypeptide chain.

2. Universal nature of the code means that the same triplet code
codes for the same amino acids in all organisms.
 3. It is punctuated meaning that there are codons that signal the
beginning “start codon” and the termination “stop codons” of
translation.

4. The code is degenerate meaning that a given amino acid may be

coded for by more than one codon.

5. It is non-overlapping meaning that successive triplets are read in

order and each nucleotide is part of only one triplet

 As an organism develops, tissues such as muscle, liver or blood

become differentiated from each other.

 Each tissue consists of specialised cells which only carry out

certain functions.

 Although a specialised cell has a complete set of the

organism's genes, only those needed for its specialised functions
are switched on.

The Jacob-Monod theory of gene action

 The theory postulated by the French biologists François Jacob

and Jacques Monod in 1961 to explain the control of gene

expression in Escherichia coli bacteria.

 Jacob and Monod investigated the expression of the gene that

codes for the enzyme β-galactosidase, which digests lactose.

 The enzyme is only made if lactose is present.

 When no lactose is present the gene that codes for the synthesis
of β-galactosidase is switched off.

 This ensures that resources are not wasted in the production of

an enzyme when it is not needed.

 The mechanism through which genes act is summarised in the

following three steps:
First Stage
 The section of DNA which codes for a peptide (β-galactosidase)
is called the structural gene.

 Next to the structural gene is a sequence of bases called the

operator gene as shown in fig.5.1.1.

 Operator gene interacts with a specific repressor protein to

control the functioning of the adjacent structural gene.

 Part of DNA that contains operator and structural genes is called

an operon

 The region adjacent to the operon called the promoter region has
the following two functions:

 Firstly, it is the site to which RNA polymerase binds before

moving along the DNA to begin the transcription of mRNA on the
structural genes depending on whether the operator gene is
functional or not.

 Secondly the base sequence of the promoter region determines

which strand of the DNA double helix attracts the RNA
polymerase hence determining which strand of DNA acts as the
template for mRNA transcription.

 Situated a little distant from the operator gene is part of

a DNA chain which controls the activity of the structural gene
called the regulator gene.
Fig.5.1.1:

Position of genes which control synthesis of β-galactosidase

Second Stage
 The regulator gene carries the genetic code that is continually
transcribed into mRNA which is used to synthesise a repressor
protein as shown in fig.5.1.2.

 When there is no lactose present the repressor, protein becomes

attached to the operator.

 This prevents the structural gene from being transcribed, and no

enzyme is made.

 Regulator gene may be situated a distant from structural genes

and also prevents it from becoming active.

 Regulator gene results in the synthesis of a repressor molecule.

Fig.5.1.2:

Effect of repressor protein in synthesis of mRNA that codes for β-

galactosidase
Third Stage
 If molecules of lactose are introduced, they bind to the repressor
protein molecules.

 This prevents the repressor protein binding to the operator.

 Since the operator is free, the structural gene is transcribed and

the enzyme is synthesised as represented in fig.5.1.3.

 Lactose is called the inducer because its presence induces

synthesis of the enzyme.

 The β-galactosidase breaks down any lactose which is present

and when there is none left the repressor protein once again
binds to the operator and switches off the structural gene.
Fig.5.1.3:

Effect of inducer in synthesis of mRNA that codes for β-galactosidase

MONOHYBRID AND DIHYBRID INHERITANCE
 Gregor Mendel, “The Father of Genetics” studied inheritance of

traits in pea plants.

 He proposed a model where pairs of "heritable elements”

or genes specify traits.

 He used two of 34 varieties of garden pea (Pisum sativum) with

more or less distinct characteristics but only 22 exhibited
constant characteristics.

 The following characteristics of garden pea convinced Mendel

that it was the right species for use as experimental plants in his
study:

1. It exhibited characters that are constant and easily recognizable

such as texture of seed, height or stature and colour of specific
plant organs.
 2. Some forms of the genus exhibited contrasting traits such as
smooth or wrinkled seeds, short or tall height and axillary or
terminal flowers.

3. Hybrids and their offspring are fertile, that is, continuous cross
and self-fertilizations were possible and the seeds-maintained
viability.

4. It is highly naturally self-pollinated because the reproductive

parts of the flower are covered by the keel (petals) which only
opens after pollination has been completed.

5. These plants are easy to grow either on the ground or in pots.

6. The plants have short maturity periods.

 Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the following

three fundamental laws of inheritance:

1. The Law of Dominance (Complete Dominance)

 A dominant trait is a trait whose appearance will always be seen
in the offspring.

 In other words, dominance describes the relationship between

two alleles.

 If an individual inherits two different alleles from each of its two

parents and the phenotype of only one allele is visible in the
offspring, then that allele is said to be dominant.

 This law states that if one parent has two copies of allele A, the
dominant allele and the second parent has two copies of allele a,
the recessive allele, then the offspring will inherit an Aa genotype
and display the dominant phenotype.

2. The Law of Segregation

 A parent may have two distinct alleles for a certain gene, each on
one copy of a given chromosome.
  Mendel's second law, the law of segregation, states that these
two alleles will be separated from each other during meiosis.

 This occurs in the second stage of the two cell divisions of

meiosis.

 The two copies of each chromosome will be separated from each

other.

 This causes the two distinct alleles located on those

chromosomes to segregate from one another.

3. The Law of Independent Assortment

 The law of independent assortment states that the way an allele
pair gets segregates during the second division of meiosis has no
effect on how any other allele pair gets segregated.

 In other words, the traits inherited through one gene will be

inherited independently of the traits inherited through another
gene.

 This is because the genes reside on different chromosomes that

are independently assorted into daughter cells during meiosis.

Punnett Square
 A Punnett square is a simple but powerful tool in genetic

analysis.

 A Punnett square can be used to predict genotypes (allele

combinations) and phenotypes (observable traits) of offspring
from genetic crosses.

 To draw a basic Punnett square, draw a square, then draw one

vertical line down the middle and one horizontal line through the
middle to create two rows and two columns.

 This Punnett square can be used to analyse a single gene.

  On the top of the square the two alleles of one parent are
written, for instance A and a, one for each column.

 On the left side of the square the two alleles for the other parent
are written, for instance A and a, one for each row.

 In this example both parents are heterozygous. In the boxes

inside the square, the genotypes of the offspring are written.

 The top left box will be AA, the bottom right box will be aa, and
the other two boxes are both Aa.

 So, the Punnett square reveals the genotypes of the offspring

from this cross between two heterozygous parents: AA, Aa, and
aa, in a 1:2:1 ratio.

 Punnett squares can be used to predict genotypes for more than

one trait.

 A Punnett square for two traits will have 16 boxes and a three
trait Punnett square has 64 boxes.

Monohybrid cross
 It is a genetic cross between parents that differ in the alleles they

possess for one particular gene (single-factor inheritance).

 Alternatively, it can be described as inheritance with interest to a

single pair of alleles of a particular gene.

 “Mono- “refers to one or single.

 Inheritance is the transmission or passing on of genetic

information from parent to offspring.

Important definitions
Dominant
 It refers to an allele that is always expressed in the phenotype if
it is present.
  It is always represented by uppercase letters for example T, G.

Recessive
 It is an allele that is only expressed in phenotype when there is
no dominant allele of that particular gene.

 It also refers to an allele that is expressed in phenotype only

when it is paired with another of the same type.

 It is always represented by lowercase letters for example t, g.

Genotype
 It is the genetic makeup of an organism with respect to alleles of
interest.

 It is usually represented by a pair of letters in monohybrid

genetic diagrams for example TT, Tt or tt.

 In a dihybrid cross it is represented by four letters constituting

two types of letters for instance TTGG, TTGg, TTgg, TtGG, TtGg,
ttGG, ttGg, ttgg

Phenotype
 It the physical or observable traits of an organism resulting from
interaction of its genotype and environment for example eye
colour or height.

Homozygous
 It is a diploid condition of having two identical alleles of a
particular gene or at a specific locus on homologous
chromosomes.

 “Homo- “means the same.

 There are two types of homozygous alleles;

 Homozygous dominant for example TT.

 Homozygous recessive for example tt.

  Two identical homozygous individuals that breed together will be
pure breeding and will produce a pure breed (individual with
identical alleles for a specific characteristic).

Heterozygous
 It is a diploid condition of having two different alleles of a
particular gene or at a specific locus on homologous
chromosomes for example Tt.

 This condition produces hybrids (combination of different

genotypes)

 There are many types of inheritance but this section will cover:
complete dominance, codominance, sex linkage, multiple alleles
and test crosses.

1. Complete Dominance
 It is a kind of gene interaction where one allele (dominant)
completely overshadows or masks the effect of the other allele
(recessive) in heterozygous condition.

 Phenotypes of homozygous dominant and heterozygous are

similar amongst individuals.

 The term pure breed refers to genotype which is homozygous

(either dominant or recessive).

Predicting possible outcomes in monohybrid using genetic crosses

 For instance, Mudanda School in Buhera rears animals including
rabbits for an Agriculture project.

 Fur colour in rabbits show complete dominance, where the

rabbits can have either black or white fur.

 This implies that fur colour phenotype is determined by a gene

which comes in two different alleles; for black and for white.

 A black pure breed and white pure breed rabbits were allowed to
interbreed.
  Let black hair be controlled by a dominant allele represented by B
and white by a recessive allele presented by b.

 There are three possible combinations of the alleles (genotypes):

o BB (homozygous dominant) – Black.

o Bb (heterozygous) – Black.

o bb (homozygous recessive) – White.

 The genetic cross in fig.5.1.4 below shows possible outcomes of

a cross between the two pure breed rabbits.

 NB: Bear in mind that these are theoretical and probability

studies which do not automatically translate to exact practical
(real-life) situations.

All Bb
F1 phenotype All black

Fig.5.1.4:

Genetic cross diagram of first-generation monohybrid inheritance of fur

colour in pure breed (homozygous) rabbits
 A Punnet square (fig.5.1.5) can also be used to show the same
possible outcomes instead of a genetic cross diagram.
Fig.5.1.5:

Punnet square diagram of first-generation monohybrid inheritance of fur

colour in pure breed (homozygous) rabbits.

 During an inbreeding programme if any two offspring of F1 (first

filial generation) in fig.5.1.4 are crossed they will show different
expected outcomes.

 The parents will now change from pure breeds (homozygous) to

hybrid (heterozygous) as shown in fig.5.1.6.

1BB: 2Bb: 1bb

F2 phenotype 3 black: 1 white
Fig.5.1.6:

Genetic cross diagram of second-generation monohybrid inheritance of fur

colour in hybrid (heterozygous) rabbits
 Any monohybrid cross has four possible combinations of
gametes.

 The only difference is whether the combinations in offspring are

similar (as in cross of pure-breeds) or vary (as in cross of
hybrids).

 When hybrids are crossed, there are three out of four chances
that the offspring will have black fur and, one out four chances
that the offspring will have white fur.

 In other words, there is a 75% (0.75 or) chance that an offspring

of a hybrid cross will be black and 25% (0.25 or) chance that it
will be white.

 Figures of offspring from sample may vary but the ratio a cross
between hybrids will always be 3:1.
  For instance, the total offspring of the cross between black fur
hybrid rabbits is 60 of which 45 have black fur and 15 have white
fur.

 The ratio will be;

45 black: 15 white
= (divide both figures by 15)
= 3 black: 1 white

 Important hints to note when doing genetic diagrams are:

 Alleles are represented by letters;

 Alleles controlling the same characteristic are represented by the

same later;

 The dominant allele is represented by an uppercase letter and

recessive allele by a lowercase letter, and;

The Monohybrid Back Cross

 It is also referred to as the monohybrid recessive test cross.

 The process involves crossing of an individual showing recessive

phenotype (tester) with one showing dominant phenotype to
determine the genotype of individual exhibiting dominant
phenotype.

 When a breeder wants to determine the genotype of a black

rabbit which may either be homozygous dominant or
heterozygous, he/she must cross it with a homozygous recessive
(white) rabbit.

 The white rabbit will produce gametes with recessive allele b

only.

 Since the homozygous recessive (white) individual can only pass

on recessive alleles, hence the alleles the individual in question
passes on will determine the phenotypes of the offspring.
  A black homozygous rabbit will produce gametes with dominant
allele B only.

 If the black rabbit is homozygous dominant (BB) all the offspring

from the cross will be black heterozygous (Bb) rabbits.

 Half of the gametes from a black heterozygote would carry allele

B and half would carry allele b.

 So, if a rabbit is heterozygous black, half of the offspring from

the cross will be black Bb and half will be white bb.

 In a nutshell, a result of 1 black: 1 white ratio implies that the

unknown genotype is heterozygous.

 If any offspring show the recessive trait, then the unknown

genotype must be heterozygous.

2. Codominance
 It is a condition where paired alleles of a gene completely
produce their effect or are fully expressed simultaneously in the
phenotype of an individual.

 This means that neither allele is dominant over the other.

 For example, roan character in cattle and blood groups A and B

in humans.

 It is of utmost importance to note that codominance is not the

same as incomplete dominance.

 Incomplete dominance is an allelic gene interaction, where there

is no distinct dominant-recessive relationship between the two
alleles of a gene.

 Thus, in incomplete dominance both the alleles are partially

expressed causing a blending effect, often creating a third
and intermediate phenotype.
  For example, pink offspring in Mirabilis Jalapa and snapdragons,
when purebred red flower plant is crossed with a purebred white
flower plant.

 In contrast to incomplete dominance that shows continuous

variation, codominance displays a discontinuous type of
variation.

 Hence it does not have intermediates or blended phenotypes.

 Differences between incomplete dominance and codominance are

summarised in Table 5.1.1.

Table 5.1.1: Differences between codominance and incomplete dominance

Codominance Incomplete Dominance

 Effects of both alleles are equally  Effect of one of the two alleles is more
conspicuous. conspicuous.

 There is no blending of the  It produces a fine mixture of the

expression of two alleles. expression of two alleles.

 Both the alleles produce their effect  The effect in hybrid is intermediate of
independently. the two alleles.

 The expressed phenotype is a  The expressed phenomenon is new. It

combination of two phenotypes and has no allele of its own.
their alleles.

 The quantitative effect is absent.  The incomplete dominant allele has

quantitative effect.

 Examples: A and B blood group alleles  Examples: Mirabilis Jalapa and

in human; roan character in cattle Snapdragon

 Genotype for codominant alleles is represented by upper case

letters in genetic diagrams, but the letters used are different.
  For instance, fur colour in cattle may be white, black, red,
speckled (both white and black furs) or roan (both white and red
furs) as shown in fig.5.1.7.

 Codominant alleles responsible for fur colour in cattle can be

represented as:

o W for white,

o B for black

o R for red

 A cross between a purebred bull with white fur and purebred cow
with red fur results in all offspring with roan fur shown in
fig.5.1.7.

Fig.5.1.7:

Cross breeding a white bull and red cow produces a roan calf
 The genetic cross diagram representing the cross breeding of

pure breed parents in fig.5.1.7 is shown in fig.5.1.8.

All RW
F1 phenotype: All roan
Fig.5.1.8: Genetic cross diagram of first-generation
monohybrid inheritance of codominant alleles controlling
fur colour in pure breed (homozygous) cattle

 A Punnet square can also be used to show the same possible

outcomes instead of a genetic cross diagram.

Fig.5.1.9:
 Punn
et square diagram of first-generation monohybrid inheritance
of codominant alleles controlling fur colour in pure breed
(homozygous) cattle

 During an inbreeding programme if any two offspring of F1 (first

filial generation) in fig.5.1.9 are crossed they will show different
expected outcomes.

 The parents will now change from pure breeds (homozygous) to

hybrid (heterozygous) as shown in fig.5.1.10.

1RR: 2RW: 1WW

F2phenotype 1 red: 2 roan: 1 white
Fig.5.1.10:

Genetic cross diagram of second-generation monohybrid inheritance of

codominant alleles controlling fur colour in hybrid (heterozygous) cattle

3. Multiple Alleles
 Alleles are alternative forms of a gene, and they are responsible
for the differences in phenotypic expression of a given trait.

 A gene for which at least two alleles exist is said to be

polymorphic.

 Instances in which a particular gene may exist in three or more

allelomorphs (allelic forms) are known as multiple allele
conditions.

 For instance, example ABO blood groups in humans, coat colour

in mice and eye colour in Drosophila.

 Alleles IA, IB and IO control blood groups A, B and O respectively,

in humans.

 The ABO blood group system implies that there are at least three
distinct phenotypes of human blood.
  The "I" stands for isohaemagglutinin which are substances that
agglutinate the red blood cells of others of the same species.

 It is important to note that while multiple alleles occur and are

maintained within a population, any individual possesses only
two such alleles (at equivalent loci on homologous
chromosomes).

 If a person inherits alleles for blood group A and blood group B

then the individual’s red blood cells will carry both antigen A and
B.

 This result in in blood group AB and this is referred to as

codominance.

 However, alleles for groups A and B are both completely

dominant over the allele for group O as shown in table 5.1.2.

Table 5.1.2: Phenotypes and genotypes of human blood groups

Blood group (Phenotype) Genotype

A IAIA or IAIO

B IBIB or IBIO

AB IAIB

O IOIO

 A cross between individuals with heterozygous blood group A

and heterozygous blood group B will produce an expected
offspring with four different blood types as shown in fig.5.1.11.

1IAIB :1IAIO: 1IBIO: 1IOIO

F1phenotype 1A: 1B: 1AB: 1O
Fig.5.1.11:

Genetic cross diagram of monohybrid inheritance of multiple alleles

controlling blood types in humans
 In fruit flies Drosophila, normal (wild type) eye colour is red
whilst the first of many mutants is white eyed.

 The mutant form can also mutate once again to give rise to
another mutant form therefore; a gene can have more than two
allelomorphs.

 The normal (red) type allele is always dominant, while the other
mutant alleles in the series may show dominance or intermediate
phenotypic effect.

 When any two of the mutant multiple alleles are crossed, the
phenotype is the mutant type and not the normal (red) type.

4. Sex Linkage
 It is the phenotypic expression of an allele that is dependent on
the gender of the individual.

 It is directly controlled by sex chromosomes.

 In humans and other mammals’ sex is determined by sex
chromosomes and there are two types; X and Y chromosomes.

 The combination of two X chromosomes from sperm and ovum

results in a female (XX) but a combination of X and Y
chromosomes results in a male (XY).

 In humans, males are heterogametic (sex which has sex

chromosomes that differ in morphology, resulting in two
different kinds of gametes) whilst females are homogametic (sex
which has sex chromosomes that are similar in morphology,
resulting in same kind of gametes).

 A normal human has 22 pairs of homologous autosomes (non-

sex chromosomes) and one pair of sex chromosomes as shown
in fig.5.1.12.

 The inheritance of alleles present on sex chromosomes is in

contrast to the inheritance of traits on autosomal chromosomes.

 Unlike the 22 pairs of autosomes, the X and Y do not carry the

same genes and are not considered homologous.

 Instead of an X and a Y, a human female has two X chromosomes

which can form a bona fide homologous pair.
Fig.5.1.12:

Karyotype of male and female humans

 The traits of the autosomal chromosomes are inherited to both

the sexes with same probability of inheritance.

 Structurally the Y chromosome is shorter than the X chromosome

implying that there are more genes on the X chromosomes than
on the Y chromosome as shown in fig.5.1.13.

 There are more X-linked traits than Y-linked traits basing on the
relative length of the different sex chromosomes.

Fig.5.1.13:

The general structure of X and Y chromosomes

 The human Y chromosome through a gene called SRY (“sex-
determining region of Y”), plays a key role in determining the sex
of a developing embryo.

 SRY is found on the Y chromosome and encodes a protein that

turns on other genes required for male development.

 XX embryos do not have SRY, so they develop as female.

 XY embryos have SRY, so they develop as male.

 In rare cases, errors during meiosis may transfer SRY from the Y
chromosome to the X chromosome.

 If an SRY-bearing X chromosome fertilises a normal egg, it will

produce a chromosomally similar female (XX) embryo that
develops as a male.

 If an SRY-deficient Y chromosome fertilizes a normal egg, it will

produce a chromosomally different male embryo (XY) that
develops as a female.

 The recessive traits on the X chromosome are expressed in males

because males contain only one X chromosome.

 There is no allele for the same trait to mask the expression.

 In the females if the second X chromosome contains a normal

gene for the same trait, the phenotype may be masked.

 As the X chromosome is larger than the Y chromosome most of

the genes that are sex-linked are present on the X than Y
chromosome.

 The X chromosomes also carry genes that determine the female

traits.

 They also contain non-sexual traits like the ability to see colours
and the blood clotting mechanism.
 In the X-linked traits, the allele which is recessive is more often
expressed in males than in female.

 This is because the males have only one allele for a gene on the
single X chromosome while the females have two alleles, as they
have two X chromosomes.

 As in the case of the males, there is no possibility of a dominant

allele that can mask the effect of the recessive allele on the
single X chromosome.

 This is because the Y chromosome lacks the corresponding

allele.

 The X-linked recessive inheritance is the mutation seen in the

gene of the X chromosome.

 This causes the chromosome to be expressed in males who are

hemizygous for the condition as they have only one X
chromosome and the females who are homozygous for the
mutation.

 Hemizygous means having or characterised by one or more

genes (as in a genetic deficiency or in an X chromosome paired
with a Y chromosome) that have no allelic counterparts.

 The homozygous females having the recessive X-linked allele are

the carriers and do not show clinical symptoms for the disorder.

 All the males having the X-linked recessive mutated allele are
affected.

 All the offspring of the carrier mother have 50% chance of

inheriting the mutation, though the father does not carry the
recessive gene.
 Assuming that the mother is neither affected nor a carrier and
the father are affected, all their daughters will be carriers
because they will inherit the recessive allele on X chromosome
from the father.

 However, if the father is affected and the mother is a carrier half

of his daughters will be carriers and the other half will be
affected.

 In the case that the mother is neither affected nor a carrier, all
male offspring of an affected father will not be affected.

 This is because they inherit only the Y chromosome from the

father and an X chromosome with a dominant allele from the
mother.

 If both parents are affected then all their offspring will express
the recessive phenotype since neither of the parents has the
dominant allele.

 An example of a sex-linked condition caused by recessive alleles

found on the X chromosome (X-linked) is haemophilia.

 Haemophilia is a genetic disorder that impairs the body's ability

to make proteins required for blood clotting, a process that stops
bleeding.

 The disorder is caused by a mutated allele that results in

deformed blood clotting proteins.

 The following cross diagrams fig.5.1.14 and fig.5.1.15

demonstrate the expected composition of offspring between
various parents carrying the recessive allele.
H represents normal allele not affected by haemophilia
h represents mutant allele that causes haemophilia
XX represents a female
XY represents a male

1 XHXH: 1 XHXh: 1XHY: 1XhY

F2 phenotype 1 normal female: carrier female: 1 normal

male: 1 haemophilic
Fig.5.1.14:

Genetic cross diagram of a normal male and female carrier of recessive

haemophilic allele.
1 XHXh: 1 XhXh: 1XHY: 1XhY
F2 phenotype 1 carrier female: haemophilic female: 1
normal male: 1 haemophilic
Fig.5.1.15: Genetic cross diagram of a normal male and
female carrier of recessive haemophilic allele.

Dihybrid crosses
 It is a genetic cross between parents that differ in the alleles they

possess for two different genes or inheritance with interest to a

two pair of alleles of different genes.

 Two non-interacting unlinked genes will be inherited

independently of each other.

 Dihybrid crosses works with two characteristics at a time (“di”

means two).

 The process is similar to monohybrid crosses but just differ in

that the two characteristics are passed to the offspring in
different possible combinations.
 If one characteristic has 41(or 4) possible genotypic outcomes,
then two characteristics will have 42(or 16) possible outcomes or
combinations.

 Each trait is controlled by allele of genes, located on a separate

pair of chromosomes.

 Mendel stated that different pairs of genes segregate

independently of the members of other pairs, when two or more
characteristics (traits) are involved in a dihybrid cross.

 This means that each characteristic separates on its own during

meiosis (provided they are on different chromosomes).

 Mendel used peas to explain a dihybrid cross where two traits

were crossed as represented in fig.5.1.16.

 A genetic trait for seed shape (round versus wrinkled) will be

independent of the combinations for seed colour (yellow versus
green).

 This means that seeds can be round and yellow, round and
green, wrinkled and yellow or wrinkled and green.

 Hence there will be 16 allele combinations shown in expected

offspring.

 Assuming that round is dominant to wrinkled and yellow is

dominant to green, a cross between two pure breeds
(homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive) pea plants
will produce 16 combinations.
Seed shape Seed colour
R = round seeds (dominant) Y = yellow seeds
(dominant)
r = wrinkled seeds (recessive) y = green seeds
(recessive)

Fig.5.1.16:

Genetic cross diagram of first-generation dihybrid inheritance of alleles

controlling seed shape and seed colour in pea plants
 Combinations of alleles of different traits in gametes can be
determined using “FOIL” method or Punnet squares.

 FOIL is a mathematical acronym that means;

First
Outer
Inner
Last
  First means combine the alleles of an individual which occur first
in each trait.

 Outer means combine the outermost alleles in the genotype of

an individual.

 Inner means combine the innermost two alleles of the genotype

an individual.

 Last means combine the alleles which occur last in each trait of
an individual.

Fig.5.1.17:

FOIL technique of determining gametes in a dihybrid cross

 The Punnet square technique (fig.5.1.18) involves putting single

alleles into individual vertical and horizontal boxes as shown

below;
Fig.5.1.18:

Punnet square technique for determining gametes in a dihybrid crosses.

 Each parent in a dihybrid cross produces gametes resulting from

four combinations of alleles as shown in the Punnet squares in
fig 5.1.18.

 When parents of dominant and recessive pure-breeds like parent

1 and 2 are crossed, they produce all offspring with the same
heterozygous genotype (RrYy) and dominant phenotype (round
and yellow).

 If inbreeding of any two offspring or self-pollination of F1

generation pea plants occurs, then the expected offspring will be
as represented by a Punnet square in fig.5.1.19.
F2 genotype 1 RRYY : 2 RRYy : 1 RRyy : 2RrYY : 4 RrYy:2
Rryy : 1 rrYY:2 rrYy: 1 rryy
F2 phenotype 9 round, yellow : 3 round, green : 3
wrinkled, yellow : 1 wrinkled, green (There will always be
a total of 16 combinations in a dihybrid cross)
Fig.5.1.19: Punnet square showing second generation
(heterozygous) dihybrid inheritance of alleles controlling
seed shape and seed colour in pea plants

 The phenotypic ratio in fig.5.1.19 can be converted to fractions

as shown below;

The dihybrid back cross

 The process involves crossing of an individual showing recessive

phenotype for both traits (tester) with one showing dominant

phenotype for both traits.

 This is done to determine the genotype of individual exhibiting

dominant phenotype.
 When a breeder wants to determine the genotype of a pea plant
producing round and yellow seeds, which may either be
homozygous dominant for both traits or heterozygous for both
traits he/she must cross it with a homozygous recessive
(wrinkled and green) plant for both traits.

 The pea plant with wrinkled and green seeds (rryy) will produce
gametes with recessive alleles, ry only.

 Since the homozygous recessive (wrinkled and green) individual

can only pass on recessive alleles, hence the alleles the individual
in question passes on will determine the phenotypes of the
offspring.

 A homozygous (round and yellow seeds) pea plant will produce

gametes with dominant alleles RY only.

 If the round and yellow seeds pea plant is homozygous dominant

for both traits (RRYY) all the offspring from the cross will be
heterozygous (RrYy) round and yellow seeds pea plants.

 Quarter of the gametes from a round and yellow heterozygote

pea plant will carry alleles RY, another quarter will carry alleles
Ry, another quarter will carry alleles rY and the final quarter will
carry allele ry.
F2 genotype 4RrYy : 4Rryy : 4rrYy : 4rryy
1 : 1 : 1 : 1

F2 phenotype 4 round, yellow : 4 round, green : 4

wrinkled, yellow : 4 wrinkled, green
1 : 1
: 1 : 1

Fig.5.1.20: Punnet square showing dihybrid test cross

between a heterozygous and homozygous recessive for
shape and seed colour in pea plants

 So, if a pea plant is heterozygous black, then the offspring

composition will be;

o RrYy (round and yellow)

o RrYy (round and green)

o rrYy (wrinkled and yellow)

o rryy (wrinkled and green)

 In a nutshell, a result of 1: 1: 1: 1 ratio implies that the unknown

genotype is heterozygous for both traits.
The χ2 (Chi-squared) test
 Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare

observed data with expected data according to a specific

hypothesis.

 According to Mendel's theoretical laws, when two heterozygous

pea parents (RrYy) are crossed (fig.5.1.19), they are expected to
produce offspring with a phenotypic ratio of;

9 rounds, yellow: 3 rounds, green: 3 wrinkled, yellow: 1

wrinkled, green

 If this cross is actually done for real would the numbers expected
to be seen be the same as the numbers that would be actually
observed in real life?

 The χ2 goodness of fit test is carried out to determine:

 whether the deviations (differences between observed and

expected) were the result of random chance or due to other
factors.

 how much deviation can occur before the investigator, must

conclude that something other than chance is at work, causing
the observed to differ from the expected.

 χ2 is a test, so it should have a hypothesis that can be tested and

proved either right or wrong

 The test is always testing what scientists call the null hypothesis
(HO).

 The null hypothesis states that there is no significant difference

between the expected and observed results.

 The alternative hypothesis (H1), states that there is significant

difference between the expected and observed results.
  The null hypothesis is the complete opposite of alternative
hypothesis.

 The test uses the formula below to calculate the χ2 value;

χ 2 = ∑ ( O − E ) 2 E χ2 = ∑(O-E)2E
where;

∑ = s u m o f ∑ = sum of
O = o b s e r v e d v a l u e O = observed value
E = e x p e c t e d v a l u e E = expected value
 For instance, in a cross of heterozygous pea parents, the actual
numbers counted for various characteristics in offspring were
recorded in table 5.1.3.

Table 5.1.3: Frequency of observed phenotypes in pea offspring

Round yellow Round green Wrinkled Wrinkled green

yellow

219 81 69 31

Is that a 9:3:3:1 ratio? Possibly, but let us prove it.

 First, the null hypothesis.

 H0(Null hypothesis): There is no significant difference between

the expected ratio of 9:3:3:1 and ratio observed in pea offspring.

 H1: There is a significant difference between the expected ratio

of 9:3:3:1 and ratio observed in pea offspring.

 Then calculate the expected number of each phenotype to see if

it results in a perfect 9:3:3:1 ratio.

 Do it by finding the total number of your actual peas (219 + 81

+ 69 + 31 = 400) and total ratio (9 + 3 + 3 + 1 = 16).

 Calculate the expected numbers using the method shown below

and record the values as shown in table 5.1.4:
916 × 400 = 2 2 5 r o u n d , y e l l o w 916 × 400 = 225 round, yellow
316 × 400 = 7 5 r o u n d , g r e e n 316 × 400 = 75 round, green
316 × 400 = 7 5 w r i n k l e d , y e l l o w 316 × 400 = 75 wrinkled, yellow
116 × 400 = 2 5 w r i n k l e d , g r e e n 116 × 400 = 25 wrinkled, green

Table 5.1.4: Frequency of observed and expected phenotypes in pea offspring

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected (E)

Round Yellow Peas 219 225

Round Green Peas 81 75

Wrinkled Yellow Peas 69 75

Wrinkled Green Peas 31 25

Total 400 400

 Next, work out the difference between the observed and

expected (O – E), and then square (to eliminate any inconvenient
negative numbers), as shown in table 5.1.5.

Table 5.1.5: Squared differences between observed and expected frequency

Phenotype Observed (O) Expected O – E (O – E)2

(E)

Round Yellow 219 225 -6 36

Peas
Round Green 81 75 6 36
Peas

Wrinkled Yellow 69 75 -6 36
Peas

Wrinkled Green 31 25 6 36
Peas

Total 400 400

 Now, calculate the rest of the equation by dividing the (O – E)2

result by the Expected number for that phenotype and adding
them all together as shown in table 5.1.6.

Table 5.1.6: Squared differences divided by respective expected frequencies

Phenotype (O – E)2 E (O – E)2/E

Round Yellow Peas 36 225 0.16

Round Green Peas 36 75 0.48

Wrinkled Yellow 36 75 0.48

Peas

Wrinkled Green 36 25 1.44

Peas

Total χ2 = 2.56

 In the calculated example χ2 value = 2.56, but it is just a number

which does not prove or disprove the null hypothesis.

 Now consider another factor known as the degrees of freedom

(d.f).

 These take into account the number of different classes

represented by the cross, in this case they are four (as we have
four different phenotypes).
  The more classes there are, the greater the variation likely to be
observed from any expected numbers.

 Calculate degrees of freedom by subtracting one from the

number of classes present, so in the example, the degrees of
freedom is (4 - 1) = 3.

d f = N u m b e r o f p h e n o t y p e s p r e s e n t − 1 df = Number of phenotypes
present-1
 The degrees of freedom (3), can now be used to identify value of
χ2 in the probability table 5.1.7.

 A significance (or confidence) level of 0.05 is used determine if

the result is statistically significant

 Most biological tests use 0.05 significant level.

 This means that 95 times out of 100, you would see exactly what
you were expecting to see, with variation occurring 5 times out
of 100 purely due to random chance.

 Look at the example probability table for a significance level of

0.05 (along the top) with 3 degrees of freedom (down the left
hand side), the χ2 value = 7.81.

 Since the calculated value (2.56) is less than 7.81, we can accept
the null hypothesis and conclude with 95% confidence that there
is no difference between the expected and observed results.
Table 5.1.7: The χ2-test probability table

 If calculated χ2 value had been greater than 7.81, then we would

have failed to accept HO and concluded that there was a
statistically significant difference between the observed numbers
and the expected numbers.

 Below is another example to show the procedure of doing a χ2-

test.

Two pea plants produced offspring composed of 315 tall

and red flowers, 108 tall and white flowers, 101 short
and red flowers and, 32 short and white flowers. The
parents were heterozygous for both alleles and, the tall
stem and red flower alleles are dominant.
Use a χ2-test to determine whether or not the difference
between observed and expected results is significant.

HO: Phenotypic composition of offspring is; 9 tall and red

flowers: 3 tall and white flowers: 3 short and red flowers:
1 short and white flowers.
H1: Phenotypic composition of offspring is not; 9 tall and
red flowers: 3 tall and white flowers: 3 short and red
flowers: 1 short and white flowers.
Degrees of freedom (d.f) = 4 – 1 = 3
Test at 0.05 significant level (p> 0.05)
Accept HO if χ2 )
Fail to accept HO if χ2 )

Expected values;
916 × 556 = 3 1 2 , 7 5 t a l l , r e d 916 × 556 = 312,75 tall, red
316 × 556 = 1 0 4 , 2 5 t a l l , w h i t e 316 × 556 = 104,25 tall, white
316 × 556 = 1 0 4 , 2 5 s h o r t , r e d 316 × 556 = 104,25 short, red
116 × 556 = 3 4 , 7 5 s h o r t , w h i t e 116 × 556 = 34,75 short, white

Table 5.1.8: Squared differences between observed and expected frequency

Phenotype Observed Expected O – E (O – E)2 (O – E)2/E

(O) (E)

Tall, red 315 312.75 2.25 5.0625 0.016

flowers

Tall, white 108 104.25 3.75 14.0625 0.135

flowers

Short, red 101 104.25 -3.75 10.5625 0.101

flowers

Short, white 32 34.75 -2.25 7.5625 0.218

flowers

Total 556 556 0.470

χ2 = 0,47
Accept HO because the calculated value of χ2 (0,47) is
smaller than 7.81.
The result means that there is no significant difference
between observed and expected values of the phenotype
and any small differences seen are entirely due to random
chance.
6.2 Natural and Artificial Selection

Natural selection
 It is the process by which those individuals that have traits
(characteristics) that are advantageous to enable them to
compete successfully for resources in the environment, and
protect themselves from other organisms and environmental
factors, are able to survive and produce more offspring.

 Every individual is subjected to a process of selection based upon

suitability for survival in line with prevailing environmental
conditions.

 The environment exerts selection pressure on the population.

 The intensity and direction of the pressure varies in both time

and space.

 Resources are limited in nature, individuals with heritable traits

that favour survival and reproduction will tend to leave more
offspring than their peers with less favourable traits.

 This causes the “favoured” traits to increase in frequency over

generations.

 It is of utmost importance to note that natural selection occurs in

a population, not to an individual hence an individual cannot
adapt but the population as a whole.

 The process is very slow and gradual such that change(s) within a
population cannot be observed over short periods of time.

 Natural selection causes populations to become adapted, or

increasingly well-suited, to their environments over time.
  Adaptation refers to the accumulation of characteristics that
improve a species’ ability to survive over long periods of time.

 The process depends on the environment and requires existing

heritable variation in a population.

Fig.2.1.1

Illustration of natural selection

 The theory was first fully expounded around 1850s by a British

scientist Charles Darwin, and it is now regarded to be the main
process that brings about evolution.

 Darwin’s theory is based on three observations which are:

More offspring are produced than can survive.

 Individuals within a population are capable of producing more

offspring than their environment can support.

 The ability to reproduce is basic to all living organisms and it is a

fundamental drive that ensures perpetuation of a species.

 Some offspring will be infected by diseases, killed by predators

and outcompeted by others for limited resources.

 If all fertilised eggs develop and grow successfully then the Earth
would have been an overcrowded place!
Average population size remains relatively constant and no
population grows indefinitely
 Population size of any species is controlled or limited by

environmental factors that includes; food availability, predators,

light, space and water availability.

 Size of population tends to increase until carrying capacity or

equilibrium is reached and no further increase occurs.

 Population size fluctuates around the equilibrium thus it

generally remains almost constant over a period of time.

 Many individuals fail to survive or reproduce because there is

‘struggle for existence’ within a population.

 This can be explained as perpetual competition for limited

environmental resources and predators.

 Natural selection does not favour traits that are somehow

inherently superior.

 Instead, it favours traits that are beneficial (that help an

individual to survive and reproduce more effectively than its
peers) in a specific environment.

 Traits that are helpful in one environment might actually be

harmful in another.

 For instance, in the simplified scenario in fig.2.1.1, the black

mice do not become more common over generations because
they are inherently "better" or "superior" than tan mice.

 Instead, they become more common because they have a

heritable feature that helps them to avoid detection by a
predator.

 This makes them better able to survive and reproduce in an

unchanging environment, one that happens to include black
rocks.
  In an environment with light-coloured rocks, the helpful and
harmful traits would be reversed and black mice will be highly
detected by the predator.

 For example, deer mice living in Nebraska's Sand Hills quickly

evolved lighter coloration after glaciers deposited sand dunes
atop what had been much darker soil. (Fig 2.1.2)

Fig 2.1.2

The tan deer mice were more favoured than the black deer mice.
Variation among heritable traits of offspring in a population
 The offspring in any generation will be slightly different from one

another in their traits (height, colour, size and shape).

 Many of these features will be heritable.

 Pre-requisite of natural selection on a trait is that there must

already be variation (differences among individuals) for that trait
and the differences have to be heritable, determined by the
organisms' genes.

 Due to variation and ‘struggle for existence’ some individuals

possess allele variants that will be more suited to survive and
reproduce.
  The significant factor in determining survival is the ability of
individuals to withstand selective pressure or population
adapting to the environment.

 Any variation (physical, physiological or behavioural) that

presents an advantage to an individual over others will act as a
selective advantage in the struggle for existence.

 Some authors refer to ‘selective advantage’ as ‘survival of the

fittest.’

Fig 2.1.3

The long-necked giraffes are likely to survive in such an environment.

 The term ‘fit’ in this phrase refers to the ability to suit, not the
physical state of health and should not be exclusively equated to
a state of huge muscular built or absence of a disease in an
individual.

 Try to avoid the terms ‘fit’ and ‘weak’ when describing events
involving natural selection.

 Favourable variants of a trait will be inherited by offspring in the

next generation whilst unfavourable variants will be ‘selected
against’ by the environment, and it is a selective disadvantage on
the individual.
 Selection pressure determines the distribution of any allele within
the gene pool.

 Gene pool is the collection of all genes or genetic information in

an interbreeding population that includes each gene at a certain
frequency in relation to its alleles.

 Natural selection perpetuates survival of most suited individuals

and increase vigour within a species whilst the opposite is true
for less suited individuals, a process referred to as differential
mortality.

 For instance, in fig.2.1.1, there was heritable variation in fur

colour: certain alleles made a mouse black, while others made it
tan.

 If all the mice had been tan, the population would have had no
way to adapt to its new environment by natural selection and
might instead have been wiped out.

 What if there had been non-heritable variation (for instance

because we dyed some tan mice black)?

 This might have affected the survival of the individuals, but it

would not have changed the composition of the population over
generations.

 This is because the offspring of the dyed tan mice would have
inherited the tan-mouse gene alleles present in their parents, not
black-mice.

 Actually, whether the individual lives or dies is not significant but

what is relevant is whether or not their alleles are passed on to
the next generation.

 As time progresses the allele frequency of selective advantaged

individuals increases whilst that of selective disadvantaged
individuals decreases until the alleles are eliminated from the
population.
Inheritable variation comes from mutations
 The original source of the new gene variants that produce new

heritable traits is a mutation (random changes in DNA sequence).

 Mutations that are passed on to offspring typically occur in the

germline or gamete lineage of organisms.

 The process is a driving force of evolution since it is a random

change in an organism’s genetic makeup, which influences a
population’s gene pool.

 Mutations give rise to new alleles therefore; they are a source of

genetic variation in a population.

 Meiosis and sexual reproduction "mixes and matches" gene

alleles to make more variation.

 An important point to note is that mutation and genetic variation

are random and not direct adjustments.

 Mutations can be harmful or neutral, but they can also be

beneficial.

 For instance, a mutation may permit some individuals in a

population to produce enzymes that will allow them to use
certain food materials.

 Over time, these types of individuals survive, while those that do

not have the mutations are more likely to perish.

 Therefore, natural selection tends to remove the less suited

individuals and allows more suited individuals to survive,
reproduce and perpetuate the population.

 A common mutation in humans, sickle cell gene is caused by a

single amino acid mutation (valine instead of glutamate at the
6th position) in the beta chain of the haemoglobin gene.
 Inheritance of this mutated gene from both parents leads to
sickle cell anaemia and people with this condition have shorter
life expectancy.

 However, individuals who are carriers (heterozygotes) for the

sickle cell disease have some protective advantage against
malaria.

 The frequency of sickle cell carriers is high in malaria-endemic

areas such as Central Africa.

 Natural selection acted on the changed haemoglobin shape, a

variation produced by mutation.

 The haemoglobin-coding gene did not intentionally mutate to

make itself to a different shape, rather it was by chance.

 Whether a certain mutation happens or not is independent of its

potential significance in enabling an individual to suit and
population to adapt to a changing environment.

 The peppered moth (Biston betularia) is a temperate nocturnal

moth species that provides a great example of mutation that
facilitates natural selection.

 Prior to the industrial revolution-in England, the common colour

of peppered moths was light grey (Biston betularia typic).

 The moth’s light grey colour closely matched the lichen-covered

trees in their environment thus providing them with camouflage
from predators, such as birds.

 There was also a mutated colour variant in the moth population

that resulted in some, relatively rare, very dark coloured
moths (Biston betularia carbonaria) as shown in fig.2.1.3.

 Their numbers remained low because when these dark moths

landed on the light grey lichen-covered tress, they were easy
targets for predators.
Fig.2.1.3

Variants of peppered moths, a) normal form (Biston betularia typica) and b)

melanic form (Biston betularia carbonaria)
 But the industrial revolution changed the environment in a way

that impacted these two peppered moth variants.

 This changed the population a phenomenon called industrial

melanism.

 Industrial melanism refers to a situation where natural selection

pressures due to man-made influences have led to colour
changes in certain species.

 For instance, the increase in allele frequency of dark body

colours in animal species that live in habitats blackened by
industrial soot.

 Early coal-based industry was extremely dirty, and around large

cities, everything was essentially covered in soot.

 This high level of pollution resulted in population reduction of

the light grey lichens on trees.
  When the light-coloured peppered moths landed on the same
trees they had always landed on, they were extremely visible
against the dark bark.

 This made them easy targets for predators because they had lost
their camouflage effect as shown in fig.2.1.4.

 The dark coloured moth variant now had the selective advantage.

 This is because it was more difficult for predators to spot and

more often living long enough to reproduce.

Fig.2.1.4

Industrial melanism in pepper moth Biston betularia

 Over generations, the polluted environment continued to favour

darker moths.

 Thus they progressively became more common such that

towards the 19thcentury, about 98% of the moths near cities
were black.

 Modern air pollution controls have since significantly cleaned up

the environment.
  The clean environment has allowed the light-coloured lichens to
grow back, and the trees have returned to a lighter in colour.

 Natural selection now favours lighter moth varieties so they have

become the most common and the dark-coloured variant is
again rare.

 This form of natural selection is termed selective predation and

acts as a selective pressure on the distribution of melanic and
non-melanic forms of pepper moth.

Types of selection
 There are three types of selection which occur in any type of

population.

Stabilising Selection
 It is a type of natural selection that favours the average
individuals of a population in an unchanging environment where
competition is not severe.

 This type of selection acts against extreme phenotypes but

favours the majority of the population that is well adapted to the
environment.

 Stabilising selection is often shown on a graph as a modified bell

curve (fig.2.1.5) that is narrower and taller than the norm.

 Variation in a population is decreased due to stabilising selection

but the selection does not change allele frequencies within the
population.

 However, this does not mean that all individuals are exactly the
same because mutation rates in DNA within a stabilised
population are actually a bit statistically higher than those in
other types of populations.

 This and other kinds of microevolution keep the population from

becoming too homogeneous.
  Stabilising selection works mostly on traits that are polygenic.

 Polygenic means that more than one gene controls the

phenotype and there is a wide range of possible outcomes.

 Over time, some of the genes that control the characteristic can
be turned off or masked by other genes, depending on where the
favourable adaptations are coded.

 Since stabilising selection favours, the average lot, a blend of the

genes is often what is seen in phenotype.

 Stabilising selection pressures do not promote evolutionary

change tend to maintain phenotypic stability within the
population from generation to generation.

 Example of stabilising selection in human babies; extremely

underweight babies have high mortality rate because they are
weak, average weight babies survive more often since are healthy
and extremely overweight babies have higher mortality because
they often die during birth.

Fig.2.1.5

Diagram showing stabilising selection in a population

Directional Selection
 It is a type of selection that favours one extreme phenotype over
the mean or another extreme.

 This phenomenon is usually evident in habitats whose

environmental conditions (weather, climate, or food availability)
have gradually changed over time.

 The population bell curve’s mean shifts either extremely left or

right due to selection pressure exerted on the phenotype by the
environment.

 However, unlike stabilising selection, the height of the bell curve

does not change as shown in fig.2.1.6.

 Once mean phenotype coincides with the new optimum

environmental conditions, stabilising selection will take over.

 Human interaction can also speed up directional selection.

 Hunters most often kill the bigger individuals of the population

for their meat or other large ornamental or useful parts.

 Therefore, the population tends to skew towards the smaller

individuals which cause the directional selection bell curve to
shift to the left (individuals with smaller bodies).

 Similarly, many slower individuals in a prey population are killed

and eaten, meaning directional selection, in this case, would
skew towards the faster individuals.

 This type of selection results in evolutionary change by exerting

a selective pressure which favours the increase in frequency of
new alleles within a population.

 Directional selection creates the basis of artificial selection where

selective breeding of phenotypes displaying desirable
characteristics increases the frequency of those phenotypes
within the population.
Fig.2.1.6

Diagram showing directional selection in a population

Disruptive Selection
 It is a type of selection that selects against the average
individuals in a population.

 The make-up of this type of population would

show phenotypes of both extremes but have very few individuals
in the middle (bimodal shape).

 Fluctuating environmental conditions within a habitat, associated

with season and climate changes may favour the presence of
more than one phenotype within a population.
 Selection pressures acting from within the population retards the
phenotypes away from the population mean towards the
extremes of the population.

 If gene flow between the two sub-populations is disrupted, each

population may give rise to a new species.

 Polymorphism which is defined as the appearance of two or more

different forms (phenotypes) within a species or population.

 This can result from this form of selection due to individuals with
distinct phenotypes suiting particular environmental conditions
in a habitat.

 When a species occupies an extremely large geographical range,

organisms distributed along it may show local changes in
phenotypic traits which are intermediate between those at the
extremes of the range.

 Polymorphism refers to many different forms of the same species

 Disruptive selection is the rarest of the three types of natural

selection.

 The normal bell curve is changed greatly in disruptive selection

because it looks almost like two separate bell curves.

 There are two peaks, each at both extremes and a very deep
valley in the middle (between the two peaks) as shown in
fig.2.1.7.

 Disruptive selection can lead to speciation, and form two or more

different species in areas of drastic environmental changes.

 Similar to directional selection, disruptive selection can be

influenced by human interaction.

 Environmental pollution can drive disruptive selection to choose

different colourings in animals for survival.
Fig.2.1.7

Diagram showing disruptive selection in a population

Speciation
 It is an evolutionary process through which new species arise
from previously existing species.

 Remember, species is defined as a population that can

interbreed, so during speciation, members of a population form
two or more distinct populations that can no longer breed with
each other.

 Speciation will only occur as a result of formation of barriers

which lead to reproductive isolation between individuals of the
same population.

 New species may arise from a single species (intraspecific

speciation) or two species (interspecific hybridisation).
Intraspecific speciation
 Intraspecific speciation is facilitated by isolating mechanisms that

form within a population over time.

 Isolating mechanism is anything (ecological, physiological,

anatomical or psychological barrier) that confines reproduction
within a population and limits interbreeding between groups of
different species or populations.

 Two broad kinds of isolating mechanisms between species are

typically distinguished; pre-zygotic (before fertilisation) and
post-zygotic (after fertilisation) as summarised in table 2.1.1.

Table 2.1.1: Isolating mechanisms in a population

PROCESS EXAMPLE

Pre-zygotic mechanisms (barriers to the formation of hybrids)

Individuals of different species do not

Bishop and Monterey pine release their
mate because they are active at
pollen at different times of the year. Natural
different times of day or in different
Seasonal hybrids between American toad (Bufo
times of the year. It is frequently
(temporal) americanus) and fowler’s toad (Bufo fowleri)
observed in plants, where flowering in
isolation are rare because B. americanus breeds early
different species is strictly under the
in the rainy season whereas B. fowleri
control of photoperiod, intensity of
breeds late in the season.
light as well as temperature.

Individuals mate in their preferred

habitat, and therefore do not meet
Ecological Viola ardencies grows on calcareous soils
individuals of other species with
isolation whilst Viola tricolor prefers acid soils
different ecological preferences in the
same region.

To attract male glow worm

(chitaitai/isitayitayi) female glow worm give
Occurs where animals exhibit courtship
a species-specific sequence of flashes.
Behavioural patterns. Potential mates meet, but
Auditory stimuli or other acoustic signals
isolation only choose members of their own
like songs, calls and croaking of frogs play
species.
an important role in the courtship of frogs,
toads and birds

Copulation is attempted, but transfer In alpine sky pilots (a flowering plant), the
Mechanical
of sperm does not take place. Shape of length of the floral tube varies. Bees can
isolation
reproductive parts in animals pollinate in species with short tubes but
 (genitalia) is incompatible. Genitalia are
supposed to work on “lock and key” only hummingbirds can pollinate in species
principle, like enzymes. Flowers are with long tube.
pollinated by different animals.

In sea urchins a protein called binding

Copulation is successful but allows sperms to penetrate ova. Differences
Gametic
fertilisation fails because sperms and in the sequence of amino acids of binding
barrier
ova are incompatible. hinder fertilisation between closely related
species.

Post-zygotic mechanisms (barriers affecting hybrids)

When ring necked doves (njiva/ijuba) mate

Hybrid Hybrid embryo forms, but fails to
with rock doves (njiva/ijuba), less than 6% of
inviability develop to maturity.
the eggs hatch.

Hybrid is viable, but results ininfertile Mule (2n = 63) results from the cross
Hybrid
adult that fails to produce functional between horse (Equus equus, 2n = 60) and
sterility
gametes. donkey (Equus hemionus,2n = 66)

First generation (F1) hybrids are viable

Hybrid and fertile, but further hybrid F2 hybrids formed between species of
breakdown generations (F2 and backcrosses) may cotton (donje/utshinda) are infertile.
be inviable or infertile.

 Depending on whether a geographical barrier is present or

absent, intraspecific speciation can further be divided into;
allopatric and sympatric speciation.

Allopatric Speciation
 It is when a biological population is physically isolated by an
extrinsic (geographical) barrier and evolve intrinsic (genetic)
reproductive isolation, such that if the barrier breaks down,
individuals of the either sub-populations can no longer
interbreed.

 A geographical barrier for instance a mountain range, habitat

preference, wide river, lake or sea cans prevent gene flow
between two sub-populations.

 Gene flow is the continual interchange of alleles between

individuals in a population, from generation to generation.
 A geographic change separates members of a population into
more than one sub-population.

 Such changes include; the formation of a new mountain range or

waterway, development of new canyons and human activities
such as civil engineering, agriculture, and pollution can have an
effect on habitable environments and cause some members of a
population to migrate.

 Adaptations to new geographic conditions or random genetic

drift in small sub-populations lead to changes in allele and
genotype frequency.

 Different gene mutations occur and build up in the different sub-

populations over time.

 The inability of individuals of sub-populations or their sex cells

to meet results in a reproductive isolation.

 The different variations of genes may lead to different

characteristics between the two sub-populations.

 The populations become so different that members of the

different populations can no longer interbreed anymore even if
they are to be in the same habitat in the same time.

 Fig.2.1.8represents an experiment on fruit flies where the

population was forcibly separated and the two groups were fed a
different diet.

 After many generations the flies looked different and preferred to

mate with flies from their own group.

 If these two populations continued to diverge for a long time,

they could become two different species through allopatric
speciation.
Fig.2.1.8

Diagram showing fruit flies fed on different diet and their sexual
preferences
Examples of Allopatric Speciation in Galapagos Finches
 A major example of allopatric speciation occurred in the
Galapagos finches that Charles Darwin studied.

 There are about 15 different species of finches on the Galapagos

Islands which look different from each other and have specialised
beaks for eating different types of foods, such as insects, seeds,
and flowers.

 All of these finches came from a common ancestor species that

must have immigrated to the different islands from the mainland.

 Once sub-populations were established on the islands, they

became isolated from each other such that selective pressures
acted on them independently and different mutations arose.

 The mutations that caused the birds to be most successful in

their respective environments (fig.2.1.9) became more and more
prevalent, and many different species formed over time.
Fig.2.1.9

Galapagos finches showing different beaks based on diet

 When many new species emerge from one common ancestor in a

relatively quick geological time frame to suit changing
environmental conditions, it is called adaptive radiation.

 It allows organisms to make new resources available, create new

challenges or open new environmental niches.

Sympatric speciation
 New species arise from populations living in highly overlapping

or even identical environments.

 Sympatric speciation does not involve geographical separation of

populations at the time at which genetic isolation occurs.

 It requires the development of some form of reproductive

isolating mechanism (structural, physiological, behavioural or
genetic) which has arisen by selection within a specific
geographical area.
  It may be more common in bacteria than
in multicellular organisms because bacteria can transfer genes to
each other as well as transfer genes to offspring when they
divide.

 It is not known how often sympatric speciation occurs, and it is

much rarer than the other types of speciation, but there have
been some examples seen in nature.

 One such example is seen in cichlid fish (fig.2.1.10) that live in

Lake Malawi one of East African Great Lakes.

 The population has two very different forms: a yellow-green one

that lives by the shore, and a blue-black one that lives by the
bottom of the lake.

 By looking at the fishes’ DNA, researchers could see that the two
forms were very different genetically and it is believed that these
two forms are currently in the gradual process of speciation.

Fig.2.1.10

Cichlid fish of different colours exist in Lake Malawi

  Biologists conclude that adaptive radiation by a small group of
colonisers into available niches explains the diversity of feeding
specialisations among these closely related species, much
like Darwin’s finches in the Galapagos.

 Females of two closely related species appear to select mates

based on differing, brightly coloured backs.

 Although the two-colour variations can still interbreed in the lab,

they do not appear to do so in nature.

 Sympatric speciation is more commonly thought of as providing

an explanatory mechanism of how closely related species, which
probably rose from the same ancestor by temporary isolation can
co-exist as separate species within the same geographical area.

Interspecific Hybridisation
 It is a type of sympatric speciation which occurs when a new
species is produced by crossing of individuals from unrelated
species.

 Fertile hybrids mostly appear only in cases of interspecific

hybridisation as a result of a form of chromosome mutation
known as allopolyploidy.

 Allopolyploidy is when an organism contains two or more sets of

chromosomes that are from different species.

 Allopolyploid offspring will have the genetic make-up for two

different species, which makes it a hybrid and a different species
from the parent species.

 Fig.2.1.11 shows an example of allopolyploidy in case of hybrids

formed between the cabbage and radish.
Fig.2.1.11

Stages that occur in hybridisation of the cabbage and the radish

Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural

selection
 Evolution is a slow and gradual process that leads to formation of
differentiated organisms from pre-existing, less differentiated
organisms over an extensive period of time (up to millions of
years).

 In 1831 Darwin got an opportunity to travel on H.M.S. Beagle (a

ship in which Charles Darwin sailed around the world from 1831-
1836) for a voyage of world exploration.

 During that period Darwin explored the fauna and flora of a

number of continents.

 Darwin noticed giant tortoises, marine and land iguanas, many

unusual plants, insects, lizards, sea shells and birds on
Galapagos Islands.
  The Spanish word for tortoise, galapago, gives the islands their
name.

 Birds of Galapagos Islands called finches, influenced Darwin to

think about the evolutionary change.

 Darwin noticed the conflict between resources of population and

its continued reproductive pressure implying that competition
exists among all living things.

 While Darwin was busy in formulating his theory of natural

selection, he received a brief essay from Alfred Wallace in June
1858.

 Alfred Wallace (1823-1913), a naturalist from Dutch East Indies

was working on Malay Archipelago (present Indonesia).

 The thinking of both Darwin and Wallace in respect of organic

evolution was similar.

 Darwin described in detail how populations become well adapted

to their environments through natural selection.

The Principle of Natural Selection

 It stems from important observations that have already been
discussed earlier in this topic.

 Natural selection is differential success in reproduction and its

product is adaptation of populations to their environment.

 Thus natural selection occurs through an interaction between the

environment and the variation inherent in the population.

 The main features of the theory of natural selection are as

follows:

Over production (Rapid Multiplication)

 All organisms possess enormous fertility and multiply in

geometrically.
  For instance; insects lay hundreds of eggs, cod-fish lays several
hundred eggs at a time, female rabbit gives birth to six young
ones in one litter and produces four litters in a year and six-
month-old rabbit is capable of reproduction.

 If all the rabbits survived and multiplied at this rate, their number
would be very large after some time.

 Thus, some individuals (of the same population) produce more

offspring and others produce fewer offspring a phenomenon
called differential reproduction.

Limited resources
 Despite the rapid multiplication of all types of species, food and

space and other resources remain limited.

 They are not liable to increase and it exerts selective pressure on

the individuals in a population.

Struggle for Existence:

 The struggle for existence can be of three types summarised

below:

Intraspecific Struggle:
 It is competition between the individuals of the same species
because their requirements like food, shelter and breeding places
are similar.

 Many human wars are the examples of intraspecific struggle.

 Cannibalism (eating the individuals of its own species) is another

example of this type of struggle.

Interspecific Struggle
 It is competition between the members of different species.

 This struggle is normally for food and shelter for instance, a fox
hunts out a rabbit, while the fox is preyed upon by a tiger.
Environmental Struggle
 It is the struggle between the organisms and the environmental
factors, such as drought, heavy rains, extreme heat or cold,
earthquakes, diseases and predation.

 Thus, climate and other natural factors also help in restricting

the number of individuals of particular species.

Variation amongst individuals of same population

 Except the identical twins, no two individuals are similar and

their requirements are also not exactly the same.

 Small differences that exist among individuals of the same

species are referred to as variation.

 Due to variation some individuals would be better suited to the

surroundings than the others.

 Mutations are a source of new genetic combinations that produce

variation within a population.

 Adaptive modifications are a result of the struggle for existence.

 According to Darwin, the variations are gradual (continuous).

 Those variations which are helpful in the survival of an organism

in its environment would be passed on to the next generation,
while the others disappear.

Selective advantage (survival of the fittest)

 The individuals with selective advantage (favourable traits) would

survive because they suit best in their environment.

 However, individuals with selective disadvantage gradually

dwindle in quantity.

 Populations adapt or change themselves according to the

changed conditions of the environment as environment is always
dynamic.
  Extinct reptiles can be cited as an example to explain the
phenomenon of survival of the fittest.

 It is believed that during the evolution of reptiles, giant reptiles

and the dinosaurs appeared and majority of them were
herbivorous.

 However, due to certain climatic changes, the vegetation

disappeared and they starved to death, therefore most of them
became extinct.

 However, small animals who had the ability to change their diet
from herbivorous to carnivorous diet survived because they could
easily get suited to the changed environment.

 These, therefore, will survive more and hence are selected by

nature.

Inheritance of useful variations:

 The organisms after adapting to the surroundings pass on their

useful alleles to the next generation.

 However, the frequency of non-useful alleles decreases within

the population.

Criticism of the Natural Selection Theory (Objections against the

Natural Selection Theory)
Inheritance Of Small Variations
 According to natural selection theory, only useful variations are
passed on to the next generation but sometimes small variations
which are not useful for the possessor, are also inherited.

Over-Specialization Of Some Organs

 This theory cannot explain why some organs like tusks of
elephants, antlers of deer have developed so much that instead
of being useful to the possessor, they often give hindrance to
them.
Vestigial Organs
 Why vestigial organs are present in some animals when they have
no function?

 According to the Natural Selection Theory, vestigial organs

should not be present.

Arrival Of The Fittest

 The theory only explains the survival of the fittest but, is unable
to explain the arrival of the fittest.

Degeneration Of Organs
 The theory does not account for the degeneration of certain
organs in animals.

Discontinuous Variations
 The theory fails to explain the cause of sudden changes in the
body.

 The main drawback of Darwin’s theory was the lack of knowledge

of heredity and that is why he could not explain how the
variations come about.

 Darwin himself was conscious of the inadequacies of his theory,

when he remarked that, “I am convinced that natural selection
has been the most important but not the exclusive means of
modifications.”

An Example Of Evolution By Natural Selection In Bacterial Resistance To Antibiotics

 Antibiotic resistance is the reduction in effectiveness of an
antibiotic medication in controlling a bacterial infection.

 Bacteria are tiny, unicellular prokaryotic organisms which

reproduce rapidly so they evolve at a faster rate.

 During the past few decades, many strains of bacteria have

evolved resistance to antibiotics for example Neisseria
gonorrhoeae.
 In the 1960s penicillin and ampicillin were successfully used to
combat bacterial infections such as tuberculosis (TB), gonorrhoea
and pneumonia.

 Today infectious bacteria are much harder to control than their

predecessors were ten or twenty years ago.

 This is because they are resistant to at least one antibiotic.

 Natural selection processes in pathogenic bacteria are widely

documented.

 For instance, a person who is sick because of pathogenic bacteria

can become well when given antibiotic drugs, which destroy the
bacteria in the person’s body.

 Bacteria that once were controlled by a particular type of

antibiotic drug can “become resistant” to the drug over time.

 The first time the drug is used, most of the bacteria are killed,
but some of them can survive, if they have a gene or genes that
allow them to withstand the drug's effects.

 The ones that survive are better suited to deal with that
particular type of antibiotic.

 If the survivors are able to reproduce inside the person’s body

(for instance, if the patient stops taking antibiotics early), then
the next generation of bacteria is better suited to deal with the
antibiotic drug as well.

 If the drug is used again, the bacteria will be more resistant to

the drug; more will survive and be able to reproduce and the
person remains ill (fig.2.1.11).
Fig.2.1.11

Natural selection causing antibiotic resistance in bacteria

 Today, strains of bacteria resistant to antibiotic drugs have

developed, so scientists are always trying to develop more
effective antibiotics.

 During the past few decades, many strains of bacteria have

evolved resistance to antibiotics.

 Emergence of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) in sub-

Saharan Africa poses a major risk to human health and further
destabilisation of regional TB control programmes.

 Recent studies show that extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis

(XDR-TB), the most dangerous form of TB, is on the rise in South
Africa.

 XDR-TB does not respond to four or more drugs (two first-line

drugs and at least two second-line drugs) commonly used to
treat TB, making the condition potentially fatal.
  Drug-resistant tuberculosis has traditionally been thought to
develop as a result of selection pressure that occurs with
inadequate treatment of tuberculosis, incomplete adherence to
treatment, or sub-therapeutic drug levels (acquired resistance).

 The high degree of resistance in XDR-TB can develop only after

multiple episodes of ineffective treatment, including the use of
second-line drugs for multidrug-resistant (MDR) tuberculosis.

 The human population is under pending health threat from

growing resistance by bacteria and other pathogens to drugs, a
result of natural selection.

Artificial Selection (Selective breeding)

 It is human controlled crossing of organisms (plants and
animals) with desirable trait in an attempt to produce offspring
with similar desirable or improved traits.

 Humans have been taking the advantage of genetic variations for

improving the qualities of domesticated plants and animals.

 Individuals with desired traits are selected and interbred.

 If it is repeated for many generations it produces a new breed

with desired characteristics.

 Artificial selection helps to establish food and health security for

through isolation of natural populations that possess traits useful
to humans.

 The calves of high milk-yielding cows are interbred to get the

new generation of calves.

 After repeating this process for a number of generations, a breed

of high milk-yielding cows is produced.

 By artificial selection animal breeders are able to produce

improved varieties of different kinds of domestic animals (pigs,
poultry, cows, goats, and sheep.) from their wild ancestors.
 Similarly, the plant breeders have obtained improved varieties of
useful plants such as wheat, rice, sugarcane, cotton, pulses,
vegetables, and fruits.

 The main objectives of selective breeding are:

 improved growth rate

 increased production of milk, meat, egg, wool, fruits and grain

size

 superior quality of plant and animal products

 improved resistance to various diseases

 increased drought resistance

 increased or, at least, acceptable reproduction rate.

 However, no single breed has all the traits necessary for the best
economic yield under all conditions.

 Therefore, a planned programme of selective breeding is often

practised to increase the quality of the breed and yield.

 Humans exert a directional selection pressure which leads to

changes in allele and genotype frequencies within a population.

 This is an evolutionary mechanism which gives rise to new

breeds, strains, races and subspecies.

 However, it retains basic gene and chromosomal structure which

is characteristic of the species to which they still belong.

 Artificial selection is similar to natural selection except that the

role of nature is taken over by man and the traits selected are of
human use.

 Selective breeding is done using either of the two basic methods,

depending on the particular aim:
Inbreeding
 It is the mating of individuals or organisms that are closely

related through common ancestry for example mating offspring

of same parents.

 Inbreeding is useful in the retention of desirable characteristics

or the elimination of undesirable ones.

 However, it often results in decreased vigour, size, and fertility of

the offspring.

 This is because of the combined effect of harmful genes that

were recessive in both parents.

 Inbreeding is necessary for humans to develop a pure line in any

animal.

 The closest type of inbreeding is self-fertilisation, the union of

male and female sex cells produced by the same organism
especially plants.

 Superior cows and superior bulls of the same breed are identified
and mated.

 The progeny obtained from such mating are evaluated and,

superior males and females are identified for further mating.

 A superior female, in the case of cattle, is the cow that produces

more milk per lactation.

 On the other hand, a superior male is that bull, which gives rise
to superior progeny as compared to those of other males.

 Line-breeding is a form of inbreeding that involves selection of

mates on the basis of their relationships to a certain superior
ancestor.

 The backcross (crossing a first-generation hybrid with one of the

parental types) is a common method of inbreeding.
  Inbreeding increases the risk of the offspring carrying deleterious
recessive traits, because it increases the probability
of homozygosis in the offspring.

 This leads to reduced fitness of the organism and, if a regular

occurrence, reduces fitness of the population as a whole in a
phenomenon called inbreeding depression.

 In animal or crop farming where this occurs, offspring that are

the result of inbreeding, pose a risk to the overall gene pool, are
often culled in a process called genetic purging.

 When inbreeding depression occurs, selected animals of the

breeding population should be mated with superior animals of
the same breed but unrelated to the breeding population to help
in restoring fertility and yield.

Outbreeding
 Outbreeding is the intentional mating of unrelated individuals,

which often produces more vigorous offspring than the parents

in terms of growth, survival, and fertility.

 Populations that outbreed usually show more variation

than inbreeding ones and have a greater potential for adapting to
environmental changes.

 Outbreeding increases the number of heterozygous individuals,

so disadvantageous recessive characteristics tend to be masked
by dominant alleles.

 The following several ways are used in outbreeding:

Cross Breeding
 In cross-breeding superior males of one breed are mated with
superior females of another breed.

 Many new animal breeds have been developed by this strategy

because it gives better breeds.
  Cows of an inferior breed may be mated to bulls of a superior
breed to improve progeny.

Outcrossing
 It is the mating of individuals within the same breed but having
no common ancestors on either side of their pedigree up to 4-6
generations.

 The offspring formed from such a cross is called as an outcross.

 Outcrossing is the best breeding method for animals that are

below average in productivity in milk production, growth rate in
beef cattle and many other desirable traits.

 Sometimes only one outcross helps to overcome inbreeding

depression.

Interspecific Hybridisation
 Male and female animals of two different species are mated in
this approach.

 The progeny obtained from such a mating are usually different

from both the parental species.

 But in some cases, the progeny may combine desirable

characters of both the parents.

 Mule is produced from a cross between female horse (mare) and

male donkey.

 Mules are stronger than their parents and are well suited for hard
work in mountainous regions.
7.0 Energetics
7.1 ATP Structure and Synthesis

The importance of energy in living organisms.

 Living organisms require a continuous supply of energy.

 Energy is required for anabolic reactions.

 Anabolic reactions are energy-requiring reactions which build

complex molecules from simpler ones.

 Anabolic reactions include glucose synthesis, synthesis of

cellulose from glucose, synthesis of proteins from amino acids
and synthesis of new DNA strands from nucleic acid building
blocks.

 Survival, reproduction, growth and maintenance of structures are

essential in living organisms and require energy.

 Removal of toxic substances from the body requires energy.

 Movement by living organisms requires energy, for example,

beating of cilia and flagella; muscle contraction in eukaryotes.

 Electrical transmission of nerve impulses requires energy.

 The active transport of ions and molecules across the

membranes using membrane pumps also requires ATP.

 Green plants make sugars from simpler substances by

photosynthesis, a process which requires light energy as a source
of energy.

 Maintenance of a constant internal environment requires energy.

 There is regulation of heat energy flow.

  Energy is required for stimulation of breakdown of substrates to
release more energy. For example, stimulation of the enzymes
that breakdown glucose into simple sugars.

 Energy makes chemicals more reactive, enabling them to react

more readily.

 An example is the phosphorylation of glucose at the start of

glycolysis.

 Formation and secretion of substances from cells such as

enzymes and hormones require energy.

 Cell division, formation and maintenance of organelles such as

mitochondria and Golgi apparatus in the cytoplasm also require
energy.

 Organisms which produce light use energy in so doing, for

example glow worms and fireflies.

Structure of ATP
 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the short-term energy store of

all cells.

 It can be referred to as the universal energy currency because of

its use in all metabolic processes within living organisms.

 ATP is consumed by energy-requiring processes and produced

by energy-releasing processes in the cell.

 It achieves this by losing or gaining a phosphate group from its

structure.

 ATP is an efficient energy currency molecule because it is able to

transfer energy in relatively small amounts which are adequate to
drive individual reactions.

 It can move efficiently within cells and organisms, transporting

chemical energy.
 It is classified as a nucleoside triphosphate because it comprises
of three components; a nucleic acid, ribose sugar and phosphate
groups.

 A nucleoside consists of a nitrogenous base covalently attached

to a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose) but without the phosphate
group.

 A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a sugar (ribose or

deoxyribose) and one to three phosphate groups.

 ATP consists of an adenine attached by the 9-nitrogen atom to

the 1’ carbon atom of the ribose sugar, which in turn is bound to
the 5’ carbon atom of the sugar to a triphosphate group, as
shown in fig.6.1.2.

 Basically, ATP consists of3phosphate groups, adenine and ribose.

 One part is a double ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms

called adenine.

 Attached to the adenine molecule is a small five-carbon

carbohydrate called ribose.

 The molecule is attached to three phosphate units linked

together by covalent bonds.

 The covalent bonds that unite the phosphate units in ATP are
high-energy bonds.

 When the covalent bonds are broken, energy is released; for

example, when an ATP molecule is broken down by an enzyme,
the third (terminal) phosphate unit is released as a phosphate
group, and approximately 7.3 kilocalories of energy are released.

 The adenosine triphosphatase enzyme accomplishes the

breakdown of an ATP molecule to form ADP and a phosphate.

 Energy can be made available in the cell through two extremely

important processes: photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Fig.6.1.1:

Structure of ATP

ATP Synthesis
 ATP is the universal energy carrier in living cells.

 It is formed from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and inorganic

phosphate (Pi), actively.

 Addition of an inorganic phosphate to ADP is called

phosphorylation.

 Inversely, when a phosphate group is removed from ATP, ADP is

formed and 30.5kJ mol-1 of energy is released.

 Furthermore, removal of a second phosphate produces

adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and 30.5kJ mol-1 of energy is
again released.

 The last phosphate group when removed releases only 14.2kJ

mol-1, leaving only adenosine.

 Hydrolysis of ATP is a reversible reaction which is simply

explained by the following reaction:
A T P + H 2 O ⇋ A D P + H 3 P O 4 + 3 0 , 5 k J m o l − 1 ATP + H2O ⇋ ADP +
H3PO4 + 30,5kJmol-1
 The formation of ATP from ADP and Pi requires energy and would
normally proceed in the reverse direction.

 However, in order to drive the reaction forward there is need for

catalysis by an enzyme, ATP synthase, which catalyses the
production of ATP from ADP.

Synthesis by Chemiosmosis
 ATP is generated from ADP and phosphate ions by a complex set

of processes occurring in the cell.

 Processes depend on the activities of a special group of three

coenzymes which are nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD),
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP), flavin
adenine dinucleotide (FAD).

 Most ATP in cells is generated using electrical potential energy.

 The energy is from the transfer of electrons by electron carriers

(such as NADH and FADH) in mitochondria and chloroplasts.

 ATP is produced through a process called chemiosmosis.

 Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a selectively

permeable membrane, down an electrochemical gradient.

 The process was first proposed by Peter Mitchell in 1961.

 During this process, in the matrix, NADH and FADH2 bring high
energy electrons and protons from the electron transport chain.

 The electrons and protons provide energy for the proton pump to
actively pump protons to the outer membrane.

 A measure of the potential energy as a result of proton and

voltage across the membrane is called proton motive force.
 However, an electrochemical gradient is then created in the outer
membrane, thus electrons can diffuse back into the matrix with a
lower concentration gradient.

 Protons then flow down an electrochemical gradient by facilitated

diffusion, through a protein (ATP synthase) that extends across
the bilayer, because the inter-membrane is essentially
impermeable to protons.

 ATP synthase performs two functions of catalysing the reaction,

as well as being a carrier protein.

 Passage of protons through the enzyme ATP synthase provides

energy to create ATP.

 Transfer of three protons allows the production of one ATP,

provided that ADP and an inorganic phosphate are available in
the organelle.

 This process occurs in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast or

inner membrane of the mitochondrion.

 In prokaryotes, due to lack of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the

organisms use this gradient to move nutrients across the
membrane and synthesise ATP.

 ATP is made using energy, from the oxidation of organic

molecules during respiration in mitochondria (see Respiration).

 Since the energy to add the phosphate to the ADP

(phosphorylation) comes from oxidation, the process is known as
oxidative phosphorylation.
ATP Synthase
 ATPase (ATP synthase) couples ATP synthesis during cellular

respiration to an electrochemical gradient created by the

difference in proton (H+) concentration across the mitochondrial
membrane in eukaryotes or the plasma membrane in bacteria.

 It uses energy of an existing ion gradient across the membrane

to power ATP synthesis.

 Ion gradient used is of hydrogen ions [H+] across the

mitochondrion membrane.

 There is a concentration difference of H+ ions across the

membrane.

 ATP synthase is a multi-subunit with four complex parts:

 a rotor in the inner mitochondrial membrane

 a knob that gives into the mitochondrial matrix

 internal rod extending from the rotor into the knob

 a stator that holds the knob stationery

 A hydrogen ion goes in between the stator and the rotor which
rotates the rotor.

 Spinning the rod activates catalytic reactions that combine

inorganic phosphate to ADP to form ATP.

 ATPase has three binding sites and a part of the molecule gamma
(γ γ) that rotates as hydrogen ions pass.
 This produces structural changes in the binding sites and allows
them to pass sequentially through three phases:

o binding ADP and Pi

o forming tightly bound ATP

o releasing ATP
Fig.6.1.2:

Production of ATP
7.2 Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis
An energy transfer process
 Organisms can be defined by their carbon and energy source.

 Organisms which can synthesise their own organic materials

from simple inorganic materials are referred to as autotrophs.

 Heterotrophs are organisms which have an organic source of

carbon and derive their nutritional requirements from complex
organic substances.

 Organisms which use chemical energy are described as

chemotrophs.

 Those organisms that use light as a source of energy are said to

phototrophic.

 The previous chapter briefly highlighted how energy can be made

available by the process of photosynthesis.

 Photosynthesis is the process used by plants, algae and certain

bacteria to harness energy from sunlight into chemical energy.

 In the process, energy from sunlight is trapped by chlorophyll

and used for the manufacture of carbohydrate from carbon
dioxide and water.

 Process can be summarised by the following equation:

[MathProcessingError]CO2 + H2O →ChorophyllEnergy of

sunlight CH2O + O2

 However, the equation does not give a clear and detailed picture
of how the process occurs because of its complexity.
  The process occurs in three stages:

o Light harvesting

o Electron transport

o Reduction of carbon dioxide.

 The first two stages depend on light and take place in the
thylakoids of chloroplasts.

 Light dependent reactions involve synthesis of adenosine

triphosphate (ATP) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADP).

 Reduction of carbon dioxide is a light independent reaction (does

not require light) and takes place in the stroma.

Structure of Chloroplasts
 Chloroplast is the photosynthetic organelle in eukaryotic

organisms.

 It is found in plant cells and some protists such as algae.

 The photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll is found in the

chloroplast.

 Chlorophyll captures the energy from light.

 It converts and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP and

NADPH.
Fig.6.2.1:

Structure of chloroplast
Photosynthetic pigments
 There are several types of photosynthetic pigments.

 Pigments are light-absorbing-coloured pigments.

 When illuminated (exposed to light), they absorb some and

reflect some.

 The appearance of a pigment is due to the reflected light, for

example, chlorophyll absorbs the blue-violet light and reflects
green colour, giving plant leaves its green colour.

 Pigments can be classified in two groups: chlorophylls and

carotenoids.

1. Chlorophylls
 Types of chlorophyll include chlorophyll a and b

 All types contain a ring structure called a porphyrin ring with

magnesium at the centre linked to a long hydrocarbon chain.
  The hydrocarbon chain anchors the structure in the inner
membranes of the chloroplasts.

 Chlorophyll a is the primary pigment in most plants and

cyanobacteria.

 It is the only pigment that takes a direct part in photosynthesis.

 Chlorophyll a absorbs visible light mainly in the red-orange and

blue-violet parts of the visible light spectrum, see fig.6.2.2.

 Some photosynthetic bacteria (except cyanobacteria), absorb

bacteriochlorophyll which differs from chlorophyll a in structure.

 Bacteriochlorophyll, which is a form of chlorophyll b, contains

manganese in the centre instead of magnesium.

 Chlorophyll a is yellow-green in colour, whereas chlorophyll b is

blue-green in colour.

2. Carotenoids
 The other group of pigments, unlike chlorophyll a, do not
participate directly in light dependent reactions.

 Along with chlorophyll b, carotenoids are referred to as accessory

pigments.

 They are called accessory pigments because they help

chlorophyll a absorb more light by passing on the light energy
they absorb.

 They are of two types; carotenes and xanthophylls.

 However, chlorophyll b is an accessory pigment.

 They absorb the green-yellow pigments in the visible light

spectrum.

 Carotene is a carotenoid which reflects the orange colour, thus

orange in colour.
  Xanthophyll reflects the yellow colour.

 Red colour of tomato and chillies is due to carotene called

lycopene.

Role of chloroplast pigments

 The amount of light energy absorbed by pigments depends on

two things which are intensity and wavelength.

 The greater the light intensity, the greater the amount of energy
absorbed at a given time.

 The wavelength determines the frequency of the light that strikes

the pigments.

 These wavelengths can be plotted on a graph to show the

absorption spectrum.

 An absorption spectrum is a plot which shows the absorbance of

different wavelengths of light by a pigment (fig.6.2.4a)

 However, the relative effectiveness of each pigment in

photosynthesis is given by an action spectrum.

 An action spectrum shows which wavelength is most effectively

used in a chemical reaction (fig.6.2.3).

Fig.6.2.2:

Absorption spectrum
Fig.6.2.3:

Action spectrum
 The absorption spectrum of the combined photosynthetic
pigments in a plant coincides with the action spectrum of that
particular plant.

 Action spectrum suggests which pigments can channel energy

into photosynthesis.

 The shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy it contains.

 Absorption spectrum is given by pigments but action spectrum

only by chlorophyll a.

 This is because all the other accessory pigments do not take part
directly in photosynthesis.

 They play a vital role of being antenna pigments.

 This means they absorb light energy which chlorophyll cannot

and channel it to chlorophyll.
  They also get rid of excess light, which can potentially damage
the reaction centre.

 Excess heat is dissipated a heat energy upon receiving.

 Not all light energy is passed on to chlorophyll.

Photo-activation of Chlorophyll
 Photosynthetic pigment molecules are clustered in the thylakoid

membrane.

 Each cluster is called an antenna complex.

 They are arranged in such a way that enables easier passing of

energy by reduction (gaining an electron) and oxidation (losing
an electron).

 Ultimately, they channel light energy to the reaction centre.

 The reaction centre is a molecule of chlorophyll a that receives

energy from the light absorbed by surrounding accessory
pigments in a photosystem.

 Reaction centre is surrounded by a cluster of light gathering

complexes which together forms the photosystem.

 There are two types of photosystems which are Photosystem I

(PSI) and Photosystem II (PSII).

 PSI can maximally absorb light at wavelength 700nm, whereas

PSII absorbs maximally at 680nm.

 However, absorption of photons of light causes a photo

activation of chlorophyll.
Fig.6.2.4:

Light harvesting of chlorophyll in a photosystem

 A chlorophyll molecule absorbs a photon of light and one of its

pigment’s electrons gains energy.

 Photons of different wavelengths are required to excite different

pigments.

 The electrons are raised to a higher level called an excited state.

 This enables the pigment molecule to pass the energy

immediately and revert back to its stable ground state.

 A molecule with an electron in the excited state is highly

unstable.

 Energy is passed randomly from one pigment molecule to

another.

 The accessory pigments (also known as antenna pigments) pass

on the energy to each other until energy level is just right to pass
on to chlorophyll a in the reaction centre.
  This means photosystems modify the energy level of light so it
contains the correct amount for the reaction centre to use.

 Excessive amounts of light are not required by the reaction

centre.

 The electrons are immediately captured by an electron acceptor

in the nearby chain of electron carrier molecules (electron
transport system).

 The energy is then utilised in photosynthesis for the production

of ATP and glucose (fig.6.2.5).

 Some of the excess energy is released as heat and a red

fluorescence because the reaction centre requires a certain
amount of energy.

 Chlorophyll molecule in the reaction centre is oxidised, thus

arises a need to be immediately replaced by water molecules.

 A water molecule acts as the electron donor (see fig.6.2.4).

 It is hydrolysed to form hydrogen ions and oxygen.

 The process is called photolysis of water, because it takes place

in the presence of light.

Light dependent reactions

 Photolysis of water, together with the transfer of electrons along

electron carriers, are light dependent reactions because they take

place in the presence of light.

 These reactions take place in the thylakoids of chloroplasts.

 Photoactivation of chlorophyll provides energy for ATP

production.

 ATP is generated in a process called photophosphorylation,

which occurs by chemiosmosis (discussed earlier in ATP structure
and Function).
  Synthesis of ATP in chloroplasts is similar to that in
mitochondria, except that in the thylakoids (chloroplasts) protons
are moved outwards, whereas in mitochondria they move
inwards.

 Photophosphorylation and photolysis do not take place as

independent events in chloroplasts.

 However, photophosphorylation can either be cyclic or non-

cyclic.

Fig.6.2.5:

The Z scheme: Electron flow during the light dependent stage

Cyclic photophosphorylation
 It is termed cyclic because electrons travel in a cyclic manner as

they travel back to the photosystem.

 It occurs in green plants when there is sufficient ADP and

inorganic phosphate.

 It utilises only one reaction centre, which is P700 (PSI).

  The photosystem acts both as the donor and acceptor of
electrons.

 A photon of light excites the electrons in the pigments and they

travel to the primary pigment.

 Electrons are then transferred to an electron acceptor.

 The electrons move across electron carrier Plastoquinone, then

through the Cytochrome complex onto Plastocyanin.

 The first electron acceptor in PSI is an iron-sulphur protein.

 An electrochemical gradient is created as the electrons move

along the carriers.

 Some electrons from the second acceptor may be passed back to

the chlorophyll molecule at the reaction centre, forming ATP as
they do so.

 Photolysis of water does not occur in cyclic

photophosphorylation because electrons from the electron
carriers are used to stabilise the molecule to its ground state.

 Absence of photolysis means there is no oxygen gas produced.

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
 Both photosystems are involved; PSI (P700) and PSII (P680).

 A photon of light is beamed at PSII, which excites electrons and

they are passed on randomly from pigment to pigment until they
reach the reaction centre with the rightful amount of energy.

 The electrons which have been previously removed from the

chlorophyll are replaced by pulling in other electrons from a
water molecule.

 This hydrolysis causes the water molecule to dissociate into

hydrogen ions and oxygen gas.
  Reaction can be demonstrated by the following equation:

[Math Processing Error] H2O → H+ + 2e- + 12O2

 The electrons are then absorbed by electron acceptors and

passed along electron carriers.

 Electrons flow from Plastoquinone to cytochrome complexes and

then to Plastocyanin.

 ATP is produced as the electrons move along the carriers losing

energy.

 The protons produced (from the photolysis of water) combine

with electrons from PSI and reduce NADP to NADPH (it gains a
H+ ion)

 NADPH stores the electrons and protons.

 Products of the non-cyclic reactions; ATP and NADPH are both

used in the light independent reaction to manufacture
carbohydrates from carbon dioxide.

Light independent reactions

 These reactions do not depend directly on light.

 However, they require ATP and NADPH, which are generated from
the light dependent reactions.

 The light independent reactions take place in the stroma of the

chloroplasts.

 It is a series of biochemical reactions which occur in the stroma

of chloroplasts during photosynthesis.

 This biochemical cycle was named after the scientist, Melvin

Calvin, who discovered this pathway taken by carbon.

 Process can be called Calvin Cycle, C3 Cycle or Photosynthetic

Carbon Reduction Cycle.
  The cycle can be said to occur in three stages:

1. Carbon Fixation
 Carbon dioxide fixation involves a five carbon compound called
ribulose biphosphate (RuBP) and an enzyme ribulose biphosphate
carboxylase (RuBISCO).

 Carbon dioxide enters the plant through stomata pores in the

leaf.

 Rubisco is a very large enzyme and is believed to be the most

abundant enzyme in the world, consequently.

 It is made up of 16 polypeptides.

 Eight polypeptides have active sites that combine with carbon

dioxide.

 Large amounts of Rubisco occur in photosynthetic bacteria and in

the stroma of chloroplasts in green plants.

 RuBP combines with carbon dioxide to form an unstable six

carbon compound, with the catalytic help of Rubisco.

 The compound is unstable thus immediately splits into two 3-

carbon compounds of glycerate 3-phosphate (GP):
2. Reduction
 GP is converted to 1.3 biphosphoglycerate (an intermediate)
which is then reduced to triose phosphate.

 A triose phosphate is a phosphorylated carbon sugar called

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GALP).

 Thus GALP, G3P and TP can be used interchangeably.

 Process requires energy from ATP and electrons from NADH,

previously produced from the light dependent reactions.

 GP has a carboxylic –COOH group, and thus is an acid.

 Reduction of GP to TP involves actively removing an oxygen atom

from the carboxylic group, to make it a sugar.

 Hence TP contains an aldehyde group –CHO.

 TP is the first product of the Calvin cycle.

 However, it is unstable and unable to accumulate in large

quantities within the cells.
  Therefore, it is quickly converted to other products.

 It is converted to starch for storage, glucose as an energy store

together with other polysaccharides such as cellulose for cell wall
formation.

 TP can also be converted into amino acids for proteins, and fatty
acids to form fats by polymerisation, as well as form acetyl
coenzyme A for use during respiration process.

3. Regeneration Of RuBP
 Five sixths of the total TP is converted back to RuBP.

 This regeneration is an active process which requires ATP.

 In actual fact, the Calvin cycle can be summarised by the

following equation:

 Six CO2 molecules enter into the cycle.

 They combine with six RuBP acceptors to form six 6-C unstable
compounds
  The unstable compounds split to form twelve 3-C molecules.

 The 3-C molecules are then converted to two TP molecules (high

energy molecules).

 Two 3-C molecules are used to make polysaccharides and other

compounds.

 Ten 3-C molecules, in the presence of ATP will regenerate six 5-

C RuBP compounds.

 RuBP regenerated are used to restart the cycle.

 This shows that there is no net gain or loss of carbon molecules

in the cycle.

 No carbon compounds are wasted or produced.

Fig.6.2.6:

Calvin cycle
Photosynthesis in C4 Plants
 C3 plants function efficiently in temperate conditions but

however face challenges in dry conditions.

 For C3 plants to obtain sufficient carbon dioxide, stoma must
open, but however as they open, water also escapes.

 In order to minimise water loss, leaves close their stoma, but

oxygen then accumulates in so doing.

 This abundance forces Rubisco to bind with oxygen instead of

carbon dioxide, thereby favouring photorespiration.

 When Rubisco binds with oxygen it produces a molecule of GP

and another called glycollate-3-phosphate.

 However, conversion of this other molecule to GP uses ATP and

produces carbon dioxide, thus photorespiration.

 Photorespiration results in loss of some of the energy produced

in photosynthesis.

 Photorespiration, unlike photosynthesis does not produce any

carbohydrates, and does not yield any ATP.

 These challenges make survival for C3 plants in hot arid

conditions a bit difficult.

 There is always a need for continuous opening of stoma.

 However, this has resulted in certain plants evolving a different

mechanism for survival by taking a different carbon pathway
which reduces photorespiration.

 C4 plants are identified as C4 plants because their immediate

product after carbon fixation is a four-carbon compound.

 In addition, Rubisco, though abundant does not fix vast amounts

of carbon.

 In the cycle, C4 plants do not use RuBP to fix carbon dioxide

directly into the Calvin cycle.

 Instead, they use phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP), to fix CO2 as four

carbon compounds, oxaloacetate.
 The reaction is catalysed by PEP carboxylase which has a high
affinity for carbon dioxide and does not combine with oxygen.

 PEP carboxylase is also highly efficient even in carbon dioxide

concentrations, unlike Rubisco.

 The leaves are specially adapted to necessitate the cycle by being

arranged in the Kranz anatomy way.

 In this distinctive arrangement, a ring of mesophyll cells

surrounds the bundle of sheath.

 Carbon fixation occurs in the mesophyll cells.

 PEP combines with carbon dioxide in the presence of PEP

carboxylase to form oxaloacetate.

 Oxaloacetate is reduced to malate-by-malate dehydrogenase

(fig6.2.8b).

 Malate is then transferred from mesophyll to the bundle of

sheath cells (fig6.2.8a).

 Oxaloacetate is reduced to malate because malate can easily

diffuse into the bundle of sheath cells.

 Carbon dioxide is then removed from malate to form pyruvate.

 Pyruvate regenerates to form phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP), and

the cycle continues.

 The removed carbon dioxide is released into the Calvin cycle in

the bundle sheath of cells.

 C4 plants reduce photorespiration by separating initial

CO2 fixation and the Calvin cycle in space. They occur spatially;
in separate cell types.

 Examples of C4 plants include maize, sugar cane, sorghum and

several species of pigweed (Amaranths sp).
Fig.6.2.7:

a. Outline of C4 cycle and Calvin cycle in space b. C4 Cycle

CAM plants
 These are plants that use the crassulacean acid metabolic

pathway, so as to thrive in dry and arid conditions.

 They were named so because of the pathway they use to

minimize photorespiration.

 Examples include cacti, pineapple, jade plant, wax plant and

Spanish moss.

 CAM plants photosynthesise just like C4 plants, spatially by

using different cell types.

 In addition, CAM plants further minimize photorespiration by

photosynthesising temporarily.

 They open their stoma at night to take up carbon dioxide and fix
it into the cell to form oxaloacetate.

 During the day, the stomata close and the carbon dioxide is
released for photosynthesis.
Limiting factors
 In any chemical reaction which depends on more than one factor,

the rate of the reaction is limited by the factor which is nearest

its lowest value.

 A limiting factor has the slowest reaction in the series of

reactions.

 Law of limiting factors was propounded in 1905 by Blackman,

and it states that the rate of a physiological process is limited by
the factor with the shortest supply, and that factor alone.

 Any change in the limiting factor will affect the rate of the
reaction.

 For example, the amount of light will affect the rate of the
reaction.

 If there is no light, photosynthesis will not occur, and if light

increases, the rate of reaction will also increase but light intensity
will remain a factor for as long as there is an adequate supply of
all the other factors.

 However, as the reaction proceeds another factor will eventually

become depleted.

 For a process to occur at its maximum level, all the factors

should be at their optimal levels.

Factors affecting Photosynthesis

 There are several factors which affect the rate of photosynthesis.

 Photosynthesis can be measured using an apparatus called a

photosynthometer.

 The chief factors are light intensity and wavelength, carbon

dioxide concentration and temperature.
  However, other factors such as chlorophyll concentration,
specific inhibitors, water and pollution also affect the rate of
photosynthesis.

Carbon Dioxide Concentration

 Generally, carbon dioxide is found in low concentrations in the
atmosphere.

 Its concentration varies between 0.03% and 0.04%.

 Carbon dioxide is used to make carbohydrates in the reaction.

 An increase in carbon dioxide concentration is directly

proportional to the rate of reaction.

 Rate of reaction is increased up to a point where a plateau is

reached (stationary phase)

 An increase in carbon dioxide concentration increases the rate of

the reaction.

 The plant is saturated with carbon dioxide and the reaction will
not increase any further, unless levels of other factors are
changed.

Fig.6.2.8:

Effect of carbon dioxide on the rate of photosynthesis

Temperature
 Light dependent reactions are not affected much by temperature.
  This is because reactions are driven by light not heat.

 Calvin cycle is directly affected by temperature because the

reactions are enzyme-driven.

 High temperatures which exceed the optimum temperature

denature the enzyme

 At low temperatures, enzymes do not work efficiently.

 Glucose concentration produced decreases.

 In greenhouse plants, installation of a thermostat helps improves

rate of photosynthesis.

 Optimum temperatures differ relatively with the plant type.

 Most plants photosynthesise optimally at around 25°C.

Fig.6.2.9:

Effect of temperature on the rate of photosynthesis

Light Intensity And Wavelength
 There are two types of plants which absorb different light
intensities.

 Sun plants’ chlorophyll pigments are excited by high light

intensities.

 Shade plants photosynthesise efficiently in low light intensities.

 Not all light absorbed is transferred to the reaction centre.

 Very high light intensities may actually damage some plants.

 Excess light is emitted as a red florescence and as heat energy.

 Activation by light of the light-dependent reactions requires a

certain amount of light intensity and wavelength.

 Photosystem I absorb maximally at 700nm and photosystem II at

680nm.

 However, the rate of photosynthesis is directly proportional to an

increase in light intensity.

Fig.6.2.10:

Effect of light intensity on rate of photosynthesis.

Experiment: Rate of photosynthesis
Aim
To measure the rate of photosynthesis using a water
plant, Elodea

Materials
o 60W lamp

o beaker

o measuring cylinder

o test tube

o water

o blades

o stop watch

o capillary tube

o graduated Syringe

o thermometer

o pondweed, Elodea

o sodium hydrogen carbonate

Procedure
1. Measure 400cm3 of water and pour into a beaker. Water solution
aids as a water bath.

2. Cut the stems of a pondweed to about 5cm.

3. Place pondweed into a test tube containing dilute sodium

hydrogen carbonate solution.

4. Place the test tube in the beaker of water and note the
temperature with a thermometer.
5. Check the temperature at constant intervals. The water beaker
acts as a heat shield or filter.

6. Attach the syringe to the capillary tube.

7. Darken the laboratory by turning off all the lights.

8. Place the lamp 10cm away from beaker.

9. Allow the plant to absorb light for 2-3 minutes.

10. Observe production of air bubbles over an interval.

11. Place the gas-collecting apparatus (syringe connected to

capillary tube) in the test tube when the bubbles become regular
and constant, for example, (>10/min). Set up apparatus as
shown below.

12. Repeat procedure from step 8, placing the lamp at a

varying greater distance, for example 20cm, 30cm, 40cm, 50cm.

13. Record results in a table, then plot a graph of volume of

oxygen/minute against the distance between the lamp and the
plant.
Expected Results
 As the distance between beaker and light source increases, the
volume of oxygen decreases.

 As light intensity increases (distance between lamp source and

beaker decreases), volume of gas produced increases.

 The production of oxygen becomes constant upon proximity of

the lamp source with the beaker.

 This means, there are no significant increases in oxygen volumes

at high levels of light intensity.
7.3 Respiration

Respiration
Cellular Respiration
 Respiration is the oxidation of organic substances to release

energy.

 It is the process by which energy in food molecules is made

available for use in the organism.
  The energy in food molecules is transferred to ATP molecules for
storage.

 ATP molecules are the short-term universal energy store (as

described in Section 6.1).

 Organic substances used are referred to as respiratory

substrates.

 Respiratory substrates mostly used are carbohydrates

(particularly glucose) and fats.

 Respiration can either be aerobic or anaerobic.

1. Aerobic respiration
 Aerobic respiration occurs in the presence of oxygen.

 Aerobic respiration can be summarised by the following

equation:

[Math Processing
Error]C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP

 Respiration process is complex and occurs in stages.

 There are three major stages on aerobic respiration namely:

o Glycolysis

o Krebs cycle

o Oxidative phosphorylation

 In prokaryotes, respiration occurs in the cytosol.

 Eukaryotic organisms perform aerobic respiration in the matrix

of mitochondria.

Structure Of Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are the organelles which are the site for respiration.

 Mitochondria are referred to as powerhouses of the cell.

  This is because they supply energy to the cell, as a result of
respiration, the energy-releasing process.

 Mitochondria have an envelope membrane.

 The inner membrane is folded inwards to form the cristae.

 This increases surface area in which respiratory processes can

occur.

 The fluid is held in the matrix, together with enzymes and

ribosomes.

 ATP is formed in the matrix by the activity of ATP synthase on

the cristae.

 Mitochondria are found in all body cell types, because most

cellular metabolic processes require a certain amount of energy.

 Abundance of mitochondria in a cell depends on the

specialisation of the cell.

 For example mitochondria are abundant in liver and muscle

cells.

Fig.6.3.1:

Structure of Mitochondrion
Glycolysis
 It is the first stage of respiration which occurs in the cytoplasm,

in both aerobes and anaerobes.

 It is the splitting of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate.

 It occurs in a series of steps, shown in the annotated flow

diagram below (fig.6.3.2).

Fig.6.3.2:

An outline of the main stages of Glycolysis

 Glucose is activated by phosphorylation and then converted into

its isomer Fructose phosphate.

 It is further phosphorylated to form Fructose biphosphate.

 Fructose biphosphate then breaks down into two molecules of

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, a triose phosphate.

 Energy is released, and oxidation of Nicotinamide adenine

dinucleotide (NAD) occurs as glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate is
converted to pyruvate.

 Two molecules of ATP are released by each reaction, making a

total of four ATP molecules.
  However, two molecules of ATP were utilised in activating and
converting the hexose sugar.

 Therefore, glycolysis yields two molecules of ATP and two

molecules of NADH.

 The end product, pyruvate contains a great deal of potential

chemical energy.

 Pyruvate is converted to acetyl coenzyme in the link reaction.

Link reaction
 Pyruvate, a 3-carbon molecule (3C Pyruvate) is actively

transported from the cytoplasm to the mitochondrial matrix.

 The inner and outer membrane allows for movement of

substances.

 Carbon dioxide is removed from pyruvate (decarboxylation).

 Hydrogen atom is also removed from pyruvate

(dehydrogenation).

 The resulting molecule combines with coenzyme A.

 Acetyl coenzyme A, a 2 carbon compound (2C Acetyl coenzyme

A) is formed.

 The process occurs in the presence of oxygen, thus is called

oxidative decarboxylation.

 The acetyl coenzyme A produced then enters the Krebs cycle in

the matrix.
Fig.6.3.3:

Conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.

Krebs cycle
 This cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in 1937.

 It is a step wise cycle which is used to oxidise the pyruvate

formed during glycolysis to carbon dioxide and water.

 It is also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA).

 The cycle synthesises NADH.

 It is also responsible for the production of amino acids.

 Acetyl CoA from the link reaction combines with oxaloacetate

(4C) to form citrate (6C).

 Citrate is isomerised by aconitase to form isocitrate.

 Isocitrate is oxidised into α-ketoglutarate by isocitrate

dehydrogenase.

 In this reaction NAD is reduced to NADH and CO2 is generated.

  α- Ketoglutarate (5C) is converted by α-ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase, to succinyl CoA.

 A molecule of CO2 is produced, NAD is also reduced.

 Succinyl CoA (4C) is converted to succinate.

 Energy is released in the process which is used to synthesise ATP

in plants and guanosine triphosphate (GTP) in animals.

 GTP has a role as a source of energy in metabolic reactions.

 ATP however, remains the main energy currency in cells.

 Succinate dehydrogenases convert succinate to fumarate.

 Fumarate is further converted to malate by dehydrogenases.

 Malate is converted by a reduction reaction back to oxaloacetate.

 Oxaloacetate re-enters the cycle.(Fig 6.3.4)

Fig.6.3.4:

Krebs cycle
Decarboxylation and Dehydrogenation
 The link reaction and Krebs cycle involve oxidative

decarboxylation reactions.

 The oxidative decarboxylation reactions are however exorgenic.

 They release enough energy to synthesise one ATP in each turn

of the cycle.

 This synthesis of ATP is called substrate level phosphorylation.

 Substrate level phosphorylation is the physical addition of a

phosphate group to ADP which is facilitated by an enzyme in
conjunction with substrates.

 The process is driven by oxidation.

In Link Reaction
 Carbon dioxide molecules are removed, as hydrogen atoms are
also removed.

 Removal of a carbon dioxide molecule is called decarboxylation.

 Removal of a hydrogen atom is called dehydrogenation.

 Link reaction involves one decarboxylation reaction and one

dehydrogenation reaction.

In Krebs Cycle
 For one acetyl fragment entering the Krebs cycle,
decarboxylation occurs twice whereas dehydrogenation occurs
four times.

 In Krebs reactions, NAD is reduced three times and FADH is

reduced once.

 Two molecules of carbon dioxide are produced.

  However, the cycle occurs twice for every glucose molecule.

 Thus yielding twice as much ATP, CO2, NADH and FADH2 (Table
6.3.1).

 All the dehydrogenation reactions are catalysed by

dehydrogenases.

 This means there is a need for regulation of temperatures for

optimum enzyme activity.

 The hydrogen atoms gained by the electron carriers, FAD and

NAD from the Krebs cycle are then transferred to the Electron
transport chain.

Table.6.3.1: Overall budget for aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule

CO2 ATP NADH + FADH + H+

H+

Glycolysis - 2 2 -

Link reaction 2 - 2 -

Krebs 4 2 6 2

Total 6CO2 4 ATP 10 NADH 2 FADH

Oxidative Phosphorylation
 The formation of ATP through the oxidation of hydrogen atoms

in the electron transport chain is called oxidative

phosphorylation.

 It is a combination of Electron transport system (ETS) and

Chemiosmosis.

Electron Transport System

 The Electron transport system is the means by which energy from
the Krebs cycle is converted to ATP.
  From the matrix, the electron carriers move to the inner
membrane of the mitochondrion.

 There are folds in the inner membrane called cristae.

 These increase surface area for the Electron transport chain to

effectively take place.

 Five enzyme complexes are involved in the electron transport

system.

 These are Complexes I-IV, with ATP synthase being the fifth.

 Complex I is NADH dehydrogenase; II is Succinate

dehydrogenase; III is Cytochrome-c dehydrogenase and complex
IV is Cytochrome oxidase.

Fig.6.3.5:

Electron transport chain

 Reduced NAD and reduced FAD are passed to the electron

transport chain.
 Reduced NAD contains two protons and two high energy
electrons.

 These are carried to the first electron carrier, and NADH becomes
oxidised to NAD.

 The electrons are received by flavin mononucleotide (FMN) within

the first carrier.

 FMN then donates to the iron sulphur (Fe-S) protein, and redox
reactions occur.

 The redox reactions generate energy which is used to pump H+

from the matrix to the inner mitochondrial membrane.

 Fe-S protein then donates electrons to a mobile carrier protein,

coenzyme Q, which transports the electrons to Electron acceptor
II.

 Q is Ubiquinone protein which is a freely permeable protein in

the inner mitochondrial membrane.

 Ubiquinone is then reduced by combining with two H+ ions from

the matrix.

 FADH2 donates electrons to the second complex called Succinate

dehydrogenase complex.

 Electrons are donated to Ubiquinone from Complex II.

 Within Complex II, the electrons bounce across all the three
subunits of Complex II; Cytochrome C1, Fe-S protein and
Cytochrome b, respectively.

 The electrons are then passed to Cytochrome C, a mobile carrier.

 Cytochrome C is an intermediate protein which is used to

transfer electrons to the fourth complex.

 Electrons move down Complex IV to the final electron acceptor,

oxygen.
  The oxygen combines with two H+ ions in the matrix to form
water.

Chemiosmosis
 Redox reactions in the fourth complex creates energy which
result in the pumping of two H+ ions from the matrix into the
inter membrane space.

 This causes high concentration of H+ ions in the intermembrane

space, compared to low concentration in the matrix.

 The inner membrane is impermeable to H+ ions such that they

flow of electrons from a region of higher concentration to lower
concentration is facilitated by ATP synthase.

 ATP synthase uses the flow of energy to generate energy.

 The flow of energy is used to synthesise ATP from ADP.

Energy yield in Oxidative Phosphorylation

 NAD and FADH are the electron donors which send electrons to

the ETS.

 Each NADH (reduced NAD) molecule results in the production of

three ATP molecules.

 Each reduced FADH (FADH2) produces two ATP molecules.

 Thus, 30 ATP molecules are produced since ten NADH molecules

are passed into the ETS.

 Four ATP molecules are produced from FADH2.

 34 ATP molecules and ten water molecules are produced from

the Electron Transport system by oxidative phosphorylation.
Fig.6.3.6:

Summary of the Electron Transport Chain

2. Anaerobic respiration
 Anaerobic respiration does not require oxygen so as to take
place.

 Obligate anaerobes are organisms which can only respire

anaerobically.

 Examples are bacteria which thrive in deep sediments and

stagnant ponds; Clostridium tetani which causes tetanus.

 Facultative anaerobes are those that respire anaerobically only

when oxygen is not in adequate supply.

 These include yeasts and Escherichia coli.

 During anaerobic respiration, sugar is converted to lactic acid or

ethanol.

 In plants and yeasts, sugar is converted to ethanol in a process

called alcoholic fermentation.

 Animals that respire in the absence of oxygen produce lactic acid

as the end product.
  There are two types of anaerobic respiration which are alcohol
fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

A. Alcohol Fermentation
 It occurs in plants such as rice plants in water logged soils, yeast
cells and fungi specifically Aspergillus.

 Strains of yeast cells usually used are Saccharomyces cerevisae

because of their efficiency in producing high levels of carbon
dioxide.

 Roots of plants submerged in water respire anaerobically

because supply of oxygen to the roots is cut off.

 Plants that respire anaerobically must at a certain point revert

back to aerobic respiration to prevent poisoning of the plants by
ethanol.

 After glycolysis, pyruvate is produced just like in aerobic

respiration.

 A carboxyl group –COOH is removed from pyruvate, thus carbon

dioxide is released.

 The reaction is catalysed by pyruvate carboxylase.

 Ethanol, an acetaldehyde is produced from the removal of carbon

dioxide from pyruvate.

 Ethanal is then reduced to ethanol by gaining an H+ ion from

NADH.

 Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product.

  Alcohol fermentation is of economic importance to humans.

 It is used in the brewing industry for the manufacturing of beer,

wine and other alcoholic drinks.

 The production of carbon dioxide by yeasts is useful in bread

making.

 Yeasts make dough rise by producing carbon dioxide.

 Two molecules of ATP are produced for each glucose molecule

oxidised during anaerobic reaction.

 The total energy released by the conversion of glucose to ethanol

is 210 kJ per mole

 The process is summarised by the equation:

[Math Processing
Error]Glucose → 2 Ethanol + 2CO2 + 2ATP + 210kJ
B. Lactic Acid Fermentation
 It occurs in the cytoplasm of animal cells, especially in skeletal
muscles.

 It is also common in endoparasites and tapeworms especially

Ascaris.

 Pyruvate is converted directly to lactate through a reduction

reaction by lactate dehydrogenase.

 There is no release of carbon dioxide.

 In the process, NADH is oxidised to NAD+, so that the NAD+ is

reused in glycolysis.

 Production of food products such as yoghurt, sauerkraut and

cheese is achieved through lactic acid fermentation (fig6.3.7).

 A commercially important bacterium for fermentation is lactic

acid bacteria, Lactobacillus.

 In yoghurt production, it digests the sugars found in milk.

  Process is summarised by the equation:

[Math Processing Error] Glucose → 2 Lactate + 2ATP

 However, in the event that oxygen is made available again,

lactate can be further broken down.

 This occurs in muscle cells when one has had strenuous exercise.

 There will not be an adequate supply of energy in the muscle

cells, thus lactic acid will accumulate.

 Accumulation of lactic acid increases acidity within muscle cells

and causes pain and fatigue.

 An increase in oxygen supply will then breakdown lactic acid into

glucose, in the liver.

 This explains why a person breathes heavily after strenuous

exercise so as to maximise oxygen uptake to cancel the oxygen
debt.

 Oxygen debt is the amount of oxygen needed to oxidise lactic

acid to carbon dioxide and water.

 The oxygen debt refills depleted stores of ATP and oxygen in the
tissue.

 In some organisms such as tapeworms which have an abundant

supply of food, the lactate is simply excreted hence there is no
need to repay an oxygen debt.
Fig.6.3.7:

Anaerobic respiration in the industry

Factors affecting rate of fermentation
 Fermentation is an anaerobic cellular process mediated by

microorganisms in which organic substances are converted into

simpler compounds of economic value and ATP is yielded.

 It does not require the Electron transport chain so as to produce

ATP.

 However, the process and the rate at which it occurs can be

affected by several factors.

 The type of substrate used affects rate.

 These include glucose, sucrose and the type of yeast cells.

 Some are more efficient than others depending on the

microorganism strain used.
  Temperature and pH will affect which species will grow.

 For example yeast cells die in extremely high temperatures.

 Yeast cells perform optimally within a range of 27-29°C.

 pH determines which species and strains can grow.

 Lactobacillus grows readily at pH 3.8.

 Availability of nutrients favours growth of the microorganism

used.

 The product can also affect rate of reaction by inhibition.

 For example, ethanol can inhibit production of more ethanol.

Experiment: Fermentation of yeast

Aim
 To compare rates of fermentation in yeast cells using different
substrates.

Materials

 4 bottles  measuring cylinder

 4 balloons  electronic balance
 yeast sachets  thermometer
 warm water  hot plate
 25g glucose
 25g sucrose
 25g fructose

Procedure
1. Boil and cool water to 29°C.

2. Label the bottles, C, 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

3. Weigh 25g of glucose and place in a beaker.

4. Pour water to make a glucose solution to the 250ml mark.

5. Transfer contents to bottles.

6. Repeat procedure using fructose and sucrose.

7. Maintain temperature of solution between 27-29°C by adding

boiling water or cold water.

8. Add 5g of yeast to each bottle.

9. Swirl bottle to allow contents to mix.

10. Immediately place a balloon on each bottle.

11. Use rubber bands to make it air tight.

12. Set up the apparatus as shown below.

13. Leave for five minutes to allow fermentation to occur.

14. Observe changes in five-minute intervals, until no further

changes can be observed.
Expected Results

 No fermentation occurs in control because substrate was

missing.

 Fermentation rate is measured by the inflating of balloons.

 Solution 1 containing fructose ferments the slowest.

 Solution 3 containing glucose forms the most inflated balloon.

Respiratory substrates
 Molecules from which energy can be liberated to produce ATP are

called respiratory substrates.

 There are basically three molecules which can be used as

respiratory substrates.

A. Carbohydrates
 These are usually used first by most cells.

 Carbohydrates are polysaccharides.

  They are hydrolysed to monosaccharides to enter the respiratory
pathway.

 Glucose is the main respiratory substrate.

 It is stored as starch in plants and glycogen in animals and fungi.

 Glucose is vital for brain cells, red blood cells and lymphocytes.

 These cells respire using glucose only.

 Energy liberated depends on the relative amount of hydrogen

atoms.

 The energy value for carbohydrates is 15.8, (refer to table 6.3.2

below)

B. Fats
 Alternatively, lipids can be used as a source of energy.

 Oxidation of fats starts with hydrolysis to its constituents;

glycerol and fatty acids.

 By enzyme action, acetyl fragments are separated from the fatty

acid molecule.

 The remaining fatty acid is cut into 2C fragments.

 Acetyl combines with coenzyme A to form acetylcoenzyme A.

 Acetylcoenzyme A then enters the Krebs cycle.

 Glycerol is converted to glucose, and respires using the usual

respiratory pathway.

 Fats are used by muscle cells and liver cells.

  This explains why physical vigorous exercise results in weight
loss.

 The hydrogen atoms found in fats are more than those in

carbohydrates, hence more energy is yielded.

C. Proteins
 Proteins are a potential source of energy used by animals,
particularly carnivores.

 They are used only in the case of starvation, provided

carbohydrates and fat reservoirs have both been depleted.

 Proteins are first hydrolysed to amino acids.

 The amino groups –NH2 are then removed from the amino acids
(deamination).

 The deaminated molecules are converted to urea.

 The remaining ones are converted to pyruvate or acetate which

can enter the respiratory cycle.

 However, proteins do not go through glycolysis.

 They go straight to the link reaction, Krebs cycle and ETS to yield
ATP.

 Fats have the highest energy value.

 The energy value for carbohydrate does not differ much from
that of protein.

 Fats liberate about twice as much energy as that released by

carbohydrates and protein (table 6.3.2).

Table 6.3.2: Energy values for respiratory substrates.

Respiratory substrate Mean energy value (kJ g-1)

Carbohydrate 15.8
Fat 39.4

Protein 17.0

Experiment: Energy values for food

Aim
 To determine the energy values for carbohydrates, fats and
proteins.

Materials

 3 boiling tubes  electronic

balance
 3 crucibles
 oven
 thermometer
 clamp
 measuring cylinder
stand
 Bunsen burner
 water
 mounted needle with wooden handle
 100g
 heatproof mat bread

 100g
animal
fat

 100g
beans

Procedure
1. Cut up the food into small cubes.

2. Place in crucibles and dry in the oven, making sure all traces of
water have been removed.
 3. Weigh 30g of the dried bread cubes using a balance and place in
a crucible.

4. Measure 40cm3 of water and pour into the boiling tube.

5. Measure the temperature of the water using a thermometer.

6. Record the temperature in a table.

7. Carefully mount the cubes from the crucible onto a needle.

8. Place the heat resistant mat beneath the clamp stand.

9. Light the Bunsen burner and hold the food in the flame until it
catches alight.

10. As soon as the food has burnt away completely, put it

under the boiling tube of water.

11. Set the apparatus as shown in the fig below.

12. Hold the food in place until it is completely burnt and the
flame has gone out.

13. Stir the water carefully with the thermometer until the
temperature stops rising.

14. Record the highest temperature.

15. Calculate the energy released using the formula :

[Math Processing Error]

Energy released from food per gram = Mass of water g
× temperature rise × 4,2Mass of food sample g

 Repeat procedure using the other food samples.

Expected Results
 Food samples burn at different rates.

 From calculations using the formula given above:

Respiratory substrate Energy value (kJ g-1)

Fat ±39

Protein ±17

Carbohydrates ± 16

Respiration rates
 Respiration rate refers to the uptake of oxygen per unit time.

 The rate of respiration can be measured by either measuring the

products or the reactants.

 The amount of energy consumed can be used to determine rate

of reaction.
  The carbon dioxide produced also gives a measure of the rate of
the reaction.

 A device that measures this rate is a respirometer.

Fig.6.3.8:

A respirometer
 A measure of the ratio of carbon dioxide evolved by an organism

to the oxygen consumed over a certain period is called

respiratory quotient.

[Math Processing
Error]RQ = Carbon dioxide given outOxygen taken in

 RQ indicates what kind of substrate is being respired.

 It also shows whether the respiration was aerobic or anaerobic.

 RQ is calculated using the moles from the appropriate chemical

equations.

 Carbohydrates have an RQ of 1.

 Proteins have an RQ slight lower than that of carbohydrates.

 Fats require a greater amount of oxidation for its complete

oxidation.

 Thus fats have an RQ less than 1 (Table 6.3.3)

 They have the lowest carbon dioxide to oxygen ratio.

 An RQ greater than 1 indicates anaerobic respiration.

Calculating RQ: Example 1
 Using the following equation, calculate the RQ for the complete
aerobic respiration of oleic acid, a fatty acid found in olive oil.

[Math Processing
Error]2C18H34O2 + 51O2 → 36CO2 + 34H2O

Solution
[Math Processing Error]
RQ = Carbon dioxide given outOxygen taken in

[Math Processing Error] = 3651

[Math Processing Error] = 0,71

Table 6.3.3: Respiratory quotients

Substrate RQ

Carbohydrate 1

Fat 0.7

Protein 0.9

 The rate of respiration is affected by several factors.

 These include oxygen concentration, carbon dioxide produced,

temperature, light, protoplasmic conditions and substrate
concentration.

 Other factors such as ions affect rate by inhibiting the activity or

respiratory enzymes.

Experiment: Effect of temperature on the rate of respiration

Aim
 To investigate the effect of temperature on the rate of respiration
Materials

 potassium hydroxide  Manometer

 small animals such as  dyed water
beetles or caterpillars  2 boiling tubes
 stop watch  2 pieces of zinc gauze
 water bath  syringe
 thermometer  clamps and stands
 glass beads  screw clips
 2 corks

Procedure
1. Pour equal volume of potassium hydroxide into both test tubes,
and label one tube as experimental and the other as a control.

2. Place a zinc gauge in each of the test tubes which fits the
diameter of the tubes.

3. In the experimental tube place the small animals, making sure

they do not come in contact with the potassium hydroxide.

4. In the control tube, place glass beads of equal volume to the

beetles.

5. Half fill a manometer (capillary U-tube) with dyed water.

6. Close the tubes with corks and use the capillary tube to join the
tubes together.

7. Attach a 1cm3 syringe to one end of a three way tap attached at

the arm of the control tube. Set up apparatus as shown below.
 8. Clamp the apparatus so that the boiling tubes are in a water
bath at 20°C and leave the apparatus at this temperature with the
taps open for at least 15 minutes.

 9. Close the tap and screw-clip; note the position of the

manometer fluid and start the stopwatch.

 10. At regular intervals, read off the position of the manometer

fluid against the scale.

 11. At the end of the experiment open the tap and screw-clip
again.

 12. Plot a graph of the change in fluid level against time.

 13. Repeat the experiment several times over a range of

temperatures such as 25, 30, 35 and 40°C.
Expected Results

 Distance moved by manometer is directly proportional to the

temperature.

 The fastest rate moves the greatest distance in the shortest

period of time.

 The gas evolved by the respiring animals displaces the coloured

fluid in the manometer.

8.0 Transport Systems

Structure and Mechanisms of

8.1

Transport systems in Plants

Introduction
 Plants have transport systems that are collectively known as the
vascular bundle.

 This vascular bundle is made up of two different tissues called

the xylem and phloem.
  They have several adaptations to enable them to efficiently
perform their functions.

 The diagrams below (fig.7.1.1 and fig.7.1.2) show the different

positions of the xylem and phloem in monocotyledonous and
dicotyledonous plants.

 In dicots, such as trees, the phloem is found in concentric rings

with the xylem on the inside of the ring and the phloem on the
outside.

 Monocots have phloem in paired bundles with the xylem

throughout the stem.

Fig.7.1.1:

Vascular bundle position in a monocotyledonous and a dicotyledonous

root.
Fig.7.1.2:

Vascular bundle position in a monocotyledonous and a dicotyledonous

stem.

1. Xylem
 The main function of xylem tissue is for transporting water and

dissolved minerals in a plant.

 It is also responsible for support in a plant.

 The xylem tissue fibres have two specialised types of cells known
as vessels and tracheids.

A. Vessel Elements
o These are dead cells with lignified walls (making them rigid)
and have no cytoplasm.

o They serve the dual role of water transport and plant

support.

o Vessel elements are made of cells whose cross walls have

broken down resulting in long tubes ideal for carrying
water.
 o They form a system of cylindrical pipes through which
water with the dissolved minerals can flow.

o The detailed structure of vessels is shown in fig.7.1.3.

B. Tracheids
o These are long and narrow spindle shaped cells arranged in
rows with the ends of the cells overlapping.

o Like vessel elements, the cells have lignified walls and have
no cellular contents.

o These provide mechanical strength and support in the

plant.

Fig.7.1.3:

(a) Tracheids that are joined to form a continuous pipe. (b) Xylem vessel
element showing position of the pores (c) Micrograph of the xylem tissue.
Xylem Structure In Relation To Function
o The xylem is specialised tissue that transports and stores
water and water soluble nutrients in vascular plants.
 o Because of the rigidity of the xylem tissue, vascular plants
can grow higher than other plants.

o Both vessels and tracheids are composed of long hollow

cells that are joined end to end allowing water to flow in a
continuous column.

o To allow for the uninterrupted flow of water from the roots

to the leaves, the end walls of the xylem vessels are broken
down.

o Tracheids with walls have large bordered pits that reduce

the resistance to the flow of water.

o Some of the pits allow lateral flow of water where

necessary.

o The lignin lined walls are rigid therefore making them

resistant to collapse from the large tension forces created
by transpirational pull.

o The lignin lined walls increase the adhesion of water

molecules and helps the water to rise by capillarity.

o The narrow lumina of vessels and tracheids increase the

capillarity of forces thus improving the water transport
efficiency of the tissue.

2. Phloem
 This is the tissue that transports the photosynthetic products

such as sugars from the regions of manufacture (usually the

leaves) to the storage regions such as tubes, roots or fruits.

 The phloem tissue is composed of living cells.

 It is composed of two specialised cells: sieve tubes (sieve

elements) and companion cells.
  The layout of the phloem and interaction of cells can be seen in
fig 7.1.5.

A. Sieve Tubes
o The sieve tube cells are adapted for the longitudinal
transport of material by being elongated, with a series of
pores in the end walls.

o They are lined with the polysaccharide callose and form

sieve plates.

o Sieve tubes are narrow, elongated elements connected end

to end forming tubes.

o The end walls, known as sieve plates are perforated by

pores.

o The sieve plates are areas of phloem with large pores which
allow for the sap to get into and out of the phloem for
transport to different areas of the plant.

o Mature sieve tubes lack nuclei and other cell organelles in

the cytoplasm.

o However, each of the sieve tube is connected to a

companion cell by strands of cytoplasm called
plasmodesmata.

o These strands pass through narrow gaps, called pits in the

walls.

Companion Cells
o The role of the companion cell is to maintain the cytoplasm
of the sieve tube (because it has lost its nucleus).

o The companion cells service and maintain the cytoplasm of

the aerobic respiration during transport.
 o Companion cells are therefore responsible for providing
ATP, proteins and other substances needed for cell
maintenance.

o Companion cells also regulate the flow of nutrients

through the tube.

o ATP is needed for energy because manufactured food

transport is an active process that uses energy from
metabolism.

Fig.7.1.4:

Structure of the phloem.

Fig.7.1.5:

Cell interaction of the phloem

Fig.7.1.6:

Transverse section of the phloem as seen under a microscope.

The transport of water in a plant
 Water enters the plant through the root hairs by osmosis.

 Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the
xylem.

 The root hair cell is hypertonic (it has a lower water molecule
concentration) to the surrounding soil water.

 Water then moves from cell to cell through the root cortex by
osmosis along a concentration gradient.

 Water can move by diffusion through the cell walls and the
intercellular spaces.

 Transpirational pull is involved in driving the transport of water

up a plant.

 Transpiration is the process by which water evaporates from the

leaves, which results in more water being drawn up from the
roots.

 The transpirational pull occurs because of the large cohesive

forces between the water molecules.

 The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules

to form a column that moves up through the xylem- a
phenomenon known as capillarity.

 Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates
from their leaves and the plant by diffusion through the stomata.

 As the water molecules leave xylem cells, they pull other water
molecules in what is known as the transpirational pull.

 The uptake of water by roots occurs through the root hairs that
protrude from the epidermal cells through three types of
mechanisms which are: apoplast, symplast and vacuolar
pathways.
1. The Apoplast Pathway
 Water enters the protoplast of the endodermal cell since it is
prevented from moving completely through the cell walls by the
waterproof suberin of the Casparian strip.

 Salts are secreted by active transport into the xylem from the
endodermal cells.

 This makes the water potential in the xylem more negative

(lower).

 This makes it possible for water to move from the endodermis to

the xylem.

 This route completely avoids living contents of the cells and can
only take water near the xylem.

 Fig.7.1.7 shows the apoplast pathway.

Fig.7.1.7:

The apoplast and symplast pathways of water transport

2. The Symplast Pathway
 Water moves between cytoplasm of adjacent cells (refer to
fig.7.1.7).

 Water enters the plant through the cell surface membrane by

osmosis and diffuses through the cytoplasm of the cells and
cytoplasmic connections between the cells (called the
plasmodesmata).

 Cells in the pericycle will have more negative water potential as

the water molecules leave to enter the xylem.

 In turn, the pericycle cells draw in water through the symplast

from the neighbouring endodermal cells, lowering their water
potential as well.

 The endodermal cells then draw in water through the symplast

from the nearby cortex cells.

 This makes the water potential of the cortical cells become more
negative and water is drawn via the root hair cells that absorbed
water from the soil by osmosis.

 The water molecules encounter high resistance to flow because

of the packed organelles.

 This makes the symplast pathway a minor way by which water

moves in a plant.

3. The Vacuolar Pathway

 Water moves from one vacuole of a cell to the adjacent cell by
osmosis along a water potential gradient.

 Fig 7.1.8 shows the movement of water by the vacuolar pathway.

 The water crosses the symplast and apoplast pathways and

moves through membranes and tonoplasts by osmosis.
  This gradient is due to water potential of the vacuole in a cell
that increases through the vacuoles from the neighbouring cells,
causing them to also lower water potential.

 Therefore water is drawn in via the root hair cells that absorbed
water from the soil by osmosis.

 The water moves up the stem by the cohesion tension theory -

water in the roots is pulled by the transpirational pull to the
leaves.

 The transpirational pull creates tension in the xylem cells when

water that is lost through transpiration is replaced by water from
the xylem, which enters the mesophyll cell by osmosis.

Fig.7.1.8:

The vacuolar pathway

Root pressure
  This is based on the idea that plant roots can either maintain a
higher or a lower pressure based on its surroundings.

 Root pressure occurs in the xylem when the soil moisture level is
high either at night or when transpiration is low during the day.

 A plant does this in order to maintain or discourage nutrient

uptake.

 Osmosis is very important in altering root pressure.

 A greater water concentration outside the root system drives

water to move across the root membranes and into the plant’s
water and nutrient transport system.

 Sap is able to move up the stem to the leaves.

The transport of food in a plant

 Products of photosynthesis need to be transported from the

leaves that carry out photosynthesis to either the storage regions

such (roots) or growing regions (shoots) that do not make food.

 The process by which the manufactured food is transported

around the plant is known as translocation.

 The manufactured food includes sugars and amino acids

(assimilates).

 Transport of assimilates around the plant occurs through the

phloem tissue.

 The sugars made by photosynthesis are transported as sucrose.

 Transport through the phloem occurs by a process known as

mass flow represented by the diagram in fig 7.1.9.
Fig.7.1.9:

The mechanism of phloem loading in a plant.

 It is driven by the pressure difference created by different

hydrostatic pressures in the source and the sink areas in the

phloem.

 The source area is the point where sugars are made whereas the
sink area is the point where the sucrose is converted into the
insoluble starch form.

 The sugars accumulate in the leaf mesophyll.

 Sucrose is loaded into the phloem sieve tubes through transfer

cells (refer to fig.7.1.10)

 The sucrose is then pumped into the companion cells by the

action of both primary and secondary pumps.

 Phloem loading at the leaf level is as represented in fig 7.1.10.

Fig.7.1.10:

The mechanism of phloem loading in a leaf.

 These are special proteins in the cell surface membrane.

 The primary pumps remove hydrogen ions from the cytoplasm of

the companion cell, so setting up a gradient in hydrogen ion
concentration between the exterior and the interior of the
companion cell.

 This process is powered by ATP.

 Hydrogen ions then flow back into the companion cell down their
concentration gradient and this occurs at the secondary pumps.

 At these specific sites, the flow of the hydrogen ions is linked to

the transport of sucrose molecules in the same direction.

 As sucrose accumulates in the companion cells it diffuses into

the sieve tubes, passing along the plasmodesmata.
 The accumulation of sugar in the phloem tissue lowers the water
potential and water follows the sucrose, diffusing down a water
potential gradient.

 This creates a high hydrostatic pressure in the sieve tubes of the

source area.

 Elsewhere in the plant, mostly the roots, sucrose may be

converted into insoluble deposits of starch (the sink area).

 As sucrose flows out of the sieve tubes here, the water potential
is raised.

 This enables water to move down its potential gradient and the
hydrostatic pressure is lowered.

 These processes are thus responsible for creating the difference

in hydrostatic pressures between the source and the sink which
drives mass flow in the phloem.

 Mass flow can be demonstrated using the apparatus setup shown

below.
Fig.7.1.11:

A model of the Mass flow hypothesis

 The different sugar concentrations are put in two portions of

visking tubing which are connected to both ends of a glass pipe.

 At the end with a high concentration of sugar, the water moves

into the visking tubing by osmosis.

 At the other end of the set up with a low sugar concentration, the
water moves out by osmosis.
8.2 Mammalian Circulatory System

Blood vessels
 The circulatory system consists of three types of blood vessels
that are arteries, veins and capillaries.

 Their common function is to carry blood to different parts of the

body.

 The three blood vessels are different in size, structure and

therefore function.

 Their physical differences are shown in fig.3.1.1 below, which

shows an artery, a vein and a capillary.

Fig.3.1.1

Differences in the size of an artery, a vein and a capillary.

1. Arteries
 Arteries carry blood away from the heart (refer to fig.3.1.2).

 They carry oxygenated blood (except the aorta).

 They also carry blood under high pressure.

 The outer layer is made of elastic fibres which can stretch to

accommodate the high pressure of blood from the heart.

 Arteries have a smaller lumen compared to veins.

 Because they have a higher percentage of elastic fibres, they are

able to expand and recoil reducing their resistance to blood flow.

2. Veins
 Veins carry blood back to the heart.

 They carry deoxygenated blood (except the pulmonary vein).

 Veins have a relatively larger lumen and thin walls to reduce

resistance to the flow of blood (refer to fig 3.1.2)

 Their walls are less elastic since the blood pressure at this point
is much reduced.

 Have valves to prevent backflow of blood.

Fig .3.1.2

The structure of an artery and a vein.

Fig.3.1.3

Micrograph of an artery and a vein. The relative thickness of an artery and

a vein is also shown. Both arteries and veins have three layers of tissue.

3. Capillaries
 These are fine networks of tiny tubes that link arteries and veins
(refer to fig.3.1.4 for the structure and positioning of capillaries).

 They are the smallest blood vessels where physical exchange of

substances occurs between the blood and tissue cells found in or
in the organs (see fig.3.1.4).

 Capillaries are microscopic in size, having a lumen ranging from

5-10 micrometres in size.

 Capillaries have leaky walls to allow substances such as glucose,

water, gases, hormones and leukocytes to pass through.
Fig.3.1.4

Capillary structure in relation to red blood cell size.

Fig.3.1.5

Capillary structure in relation to the position of arteries and veins

Transport of gases
 One of the main functions of the circulatory system is to
transport respiratory gases, oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide
(CO2)

 Oxygen is transported from the lungs to respiring cells and

carbon dioxide from the respiring cells to the lungs.

 These two respiratory gases are transported by haemoglobin, an

efficient respiratory pigment.

Structure of haemoglobin
 Haemoglobin is a globular protein with quaternary structure

found in red blood cells.

 The haemoglobin molecule is made of:

o iron porphyrin (the haem group) and a

o protein (globin).

Refer to fig.3.1.6 for the structure of haemoglobin and

the haem group.

o Haemoglobin has four polypeptide chains in total, 2 β-

chains and 2 α-chains.

o These chains have hydrophilic (R) groups that point

outwards to maintain solubility.

o The haem group combines or binds to oxygen, enabling

transportation.

o The haem group contains a ferrous ion (Fe2+) atom capable

of carrying a single oxygen molecule as shown in the
equation below.

o 4 molecules of oxygen or 8 oxygen atoms are carried per

haemoglobin molecule because it has four iron atoms.
 o Therefore the human haemoglobin molecule is capable of
carrying four oxygen molecules because it has four iron
atoms.

Fig.3.1.6

(a) The haemoglobin structure. (b) The associated haem group

Oxygen transportation
 Haemoglobin binds to oxygen in a reversible reaction forming

oxyhaemoglobin.

Haemoglobin + Oxygen ⇌low oxygen concentrationhigh oxygen concentra

t i o n O x y h a e m o g l o b i n Haemoglobin + Oxygen ⇌low oxygen concentra

tionhigh oxygen concentration Oxyhaemoglobin

 When haemoglobin is exposed to a gradual increase in oxygen
concentration (oxygen tension), it readily absorbs oxygen at first,
but less readily as the oxygen tension rises.

 This relationship between the oxygen concentration or oxygen

partial pressure and saturation of haemoglobin is known as the
oxygen dissociation curve and is illustrated in fig 3.1.7 below.

 The curve is S-shaped indicating that the first oxygen molecule

attaches with difficulty.
  This is because the attachment of the first oxygen molecule has
to slightly distort the shape of the haemoglobin molecule.

 Once the first oxygen molecule attaches, it becomes

progressively easy for the second, third and fourth molecules to
be attached and it is this sequence of events that accounts for
the S-shaped curve.

Fig 3.1.7

The oxygen dissociation curve

Carbon dioxide transportation
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the other respiratory gas that is

transported in both the blood plasma and red blood cells, from
respiring cells to the lungs.

 It is mainly transported as hydrogen carbonate ions.

 There are three ways by which carbon dioxide is transported:

In The Form Hydrogen Carbonate

 About 85% of CO2 combines with water to form carbonic acid
(H2CO3) in a reaction catalysed by the enzyme carbonic
anhydrase, forming hydrogen ions and hydrogen carbonate ions.

H 2 O + C O 2 ⇌ H 2 C O 3 ⇌ H + + H C O − 3 H2O + CO2 ⇌ H2CO3 ⇌ H

+ + HCO3-
 This reaction occurs in the red blood cells.
In Combination With Haemoglobin
 About 10% of the carbon dioxide will combine with the amino
groups (-NH2) in the four polypeptide chains of the haemoglobin
molecule.

In Physical Solution
 About 5% CO2 is dissolved in the blood plasma.

The Bohr Effect

 This is a physical phenomenon which states that, haemoglobin’s
oxygen binding affinity is inversely related to both acidity and
the concentration of carbon dioxide (refer to fig.3.1.8.)

 The release of oxygen from haemoglobin is facilitated by the

presence of carbon dioxide.

 When carbon dioxide reacts with water, it forms carbonic acid

thus reducing the blood pH.

 This causes the haemoglobin proteins to release their oxygen

load.

 Conversely, a reduction in carbon dioxide production ultimately

results in an increase in oxygen affinity, that is, the haemoglobin
picking up more oxygen once the pH increases due to a drop in
carbon dioxide concentration.

 The Bohr Effect improves the efficiency of oxygen transportation

since it facilitates the release of oxygen in the tissues after it
binds to haemoglobin in the lungs.

 Tissues that have a greater demand for oxygen such as muscles

under strenuous activity, produce more carbon dioxide (and
therefore more HCO3- and H+) which eventually result in those
muscles receiving more oxygen because of the Bohr Effect.

 The Bohr Effect therefore makes it possible for the body to adapt
to changing demand for oxygen.
Fig.3.1.8

The Bohr shift curve

Oxygen affinity in myoglobin and foetal

haemoglobin
 Respiratory pigments vary between and within species.

 Myoglobin is a respiratory pigment found in muscle tissue.

 It consists of a single polypeptide chain and a single haem group

instead of the four found in haemoglobin.

 Because of its structure, myoglobin, has a greater affinity for

oxygen than haemoglobin and therefore has a dissociation curve
displaced to the left (refer to fig.3.1.9).

 Myoglobin readily carries oxygen, stores and releases it where

the demand for oxygen is higher.

 Foetal haemoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen compared to

adult haemoglobin.
  Two of the polypeptide chains in foetal haemoglobin differ from
those in an adult.

 The higher affinity for oxygen by foetal haemoglobin enables it

to readily absorb oxygen from the maternal blood in the
placenta.

 Foetal haemoglobin therefore has a dissociation curve further to

the left of the adult (normal) curve (see fig 3.1.9).

Fig 3.1.9

Myoglobin and haemoglobin dissociation curves compared.

The heart and the cardiac cycle

 The cardiac cycle refers to the sequence of physical and electrical
activities of the heart in a single heartbeat.

 It includes a phase of relaxation (diastole) and a phase of

contraction (systole) of both the atria and ventricles (refer to fig
3.1.10).
Fig 3.1.10

The cardiac cycle.

 The cardiac cycle begins with the contraction of the atrium

(atrium systole).

 As the atrium contracts, blood pushes the atrioventricular valve

into the ventricles where the blood is under low pressure (back-
flow is prevented by the semilunar valves)

 The atrium then relaxes for about 0.7 seconds (atrial diastole).

 The contraction of the atrial walls seals off the vena cava and the
pulmonary veins.

 Next, the ventricle contracts (ventricular systole) generating high

pressure which shuts the atrioventricular valve and forces the
semilunar valves to open.

 This allows blood to flow into the aorta and this flow generates a
detectable pulse.

 The ventricles then relax (ventricular diastole), to be followed by

the next contraction of the ventricles.
  After contractions of the cardiac muscle, the muscles relax and
recoil.

 A cardiac cycle is complete when the heart chambers fill with

blood and the blood is pumped out of the heart.

 There are changes in pressure in the different chambers of the

heart, and during the cardiac cycle (refer to fig 3.1.10), which
automatically open and close the valves

 The graph shows two complete cycles.

Fig 3.1.11

Pressure and volume changes during the cardiac cycle.

Heart action initiation and control

 Heart beat is rhythmic throughout life, without rest.

 It is myogenic, meaning it is initiated from within the heart tissue

with no external stimuli involved.

 The original stimulus for a heartbeat originates in a group of

cells known as the sino-atrial node (SA node)
 It determines the basic rate of the heart beat and is therefore
termed the pacemaker.

 This is positioned in the wall of the right atrium near the vena
cava.

 A wave of excitation originates from the SA node and spreads out

across both atria causing muscles of both atria to contract
simultaneously emptying the chambers into the ventricles (atrial
systole).

 The stimulus does not reach the ventricles immediately because

of the presence of a narrow band of muscle of non-conducting
fibres known as the Purkyne fibres (Bundle of His) at the base of
the atria.

 These block the excitation wave, preventing its conduction

across to the ventricles.

 Instead, the wave is picked by a group of cells called the atrio-

ventricular node (AV node) which is at the base of the right
atrium.

 The wave is passed from the AV node to the base of both

ventricles through the Bundle of His.
Fig.3.1.11

Heart structure showing the position of the heart initiation and the heart
 The ventricles thus contract simultaneously from the base,

forcing the blood upwards into the arteries (ventricular systole).

 The atria and ventricles do not contract at the same time because
of the delay that occurs as the impulse is picked up by the AV
node and is transmitted to the base of the heart through the
Purkyne fibres.

 This delay allows the atria to empty their contents into the
ventricles.

 After each contraction, the cardiac muscle momentarily becomes

insensitive to stimulation and this is known as the refractory
period.

 In this phase, there is passive refilling of the heart.

Systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure and hypertension

 Blood pressure is measured with a sphygmomanometer and it is

measured in millimetres of mercury (mmHg).

 The readings show two pressure numbers for example

170/90mmHg.
  The top number represents what is known as the systolic blood
pressure.

 This refers to highest pressure when the heart beats and pushes
blood round the body.

 The bottom number represents the diastolic blood pressure and

it is the lowest pressure of blood in the arteries when the heart
relaxes between beats.

 A normal diastolic pressure is lower than 80, with a value of 90

and above indicating high blood pressure.

 Diastolic blood pressure changes as the body goes through

changes such as stress or intense exercise.

 Other factors that affect the diastolic blood pressure include diet,
weight loss, smoking, and alcohol use and poor sleeping habits.

 Abnormally high blood pressure is known as hypertension.

Consequences of exercise on the cardiovascular system

 Exercise has several effects that can benefit the heart and

circulation.

 Aerobic exercise such as running or swimming increases the

muscles' need for oxygen and nutrients.

 Breath becomes deeper and pulse rate increases when one

engages in moderate to intense aerobic exercise.

 The normal resting heart rate for an adult range from 60 to 100
beats per minute.

 A lower heart rate at rest is a sign of a more efficient heart and

better cardiovascular fitness, for example, a professional athlete
may have a heart rate of 40 beats per minute.

 A heart rate of more than 100 beats per minute in an adult is

considered too fast and is known as tachycardia.
 With regular exercise, though, the cardiovascular system evolves
and adapts and this has several benefits on the body in general,
including:

 Heart muscles thicken and become stronger due to continuous

heart action. There is increased heart size, heart volume and
muscle.

 Blood volumes pumped therefore increase (increased cardiac

output) due to increased rate of stroke volume and heart rate.

 The heart is able to pump more blood through the body with
every heartbeat and will be able to work at a maximum rate if
there is need, with less strain.

 The number of red blood cells increase therefore improving the

body’s ability to transport oxygen.

 Because the heart is stronger, the heart work less to pump, the
force on the arteries is reduced therefore blood pressure is also
reduced.

 The systolic blood pressure is reduced.

 Quicker recovery from exercise.

 Lowered resting heart rate because less effort is needed to pump

blood.

 There is development of more capillaries in the muscles.

 Exercise helps reverse some heart disease risk factors. There is

reduced risk of cardiovascular (heart disease), high blood
pressure and stroke.

 These include an improvement in cholesterol and fat levels and

the reduction in inflammation of arteries which keeps them
flexible and open.
  All the factors which result in increased size, heart volume and
muscle as well as increased cardiac output eventually result in an
efficient cardiovascular system which is able to circulate blood
around the body with minimum strain on the tissues involved.

9.0 Nervous Control

9.1 Need for Communication and Action Potential

Need for communication

 The ability of organisms to detect change and to make responses
is very important for the survival of living things in both large
and small organisms

 Large and complex organisms have the ability to instantly detect

changes in both the external environment and the internal body
environment.

 They need to communicate the information gathered to the body

parts which can then effect the necessary changes.

 The changes that bring about responses are referred to as

stimuli.
  The stimulus is detected by a receptor and that which brings
about a change is called an effector.

 Internal communication is very important so that the different

organs can communicate with each other rapidly.

 This rapid communication is achieved by the nervous system.

 The nervous system responds instantaneously to a stimulus.

 The nervous system has three functions which are:

 To collect information about the internal and external

environment (carried out by receptors).

 To process and integrate the collected information (performed by

the central nervous system, CNS).

 To act on the information by coordinating the organism’s

activities.

 Neurons transmit the information together with the receptors

form the sensory system.

 The final function of the nervous system is carried out by the

effector motor system and is divided into two parts which are:

1. Autonomic nervous system

 The autonomic nervous system activates the involuntary

responses.

 An example is when the breathing and heart rates automatically

increase in a prey animal being chased by a predator, so as to
increase its chances of escaping.

 It dilates the blood vessels that carry blood to the muscles,

releases glucose from the liver, and makes other adjustments to
provide for the sudden increase in activity.
  When the animal has escaped and is safe once again the nervous
system slows down all these processes and resumes all the
normal body activities.

2. Somatic system
 The somatic system (also called the voluntary nervous system)

activates the voluntary responses.

 It is associated with the voluntary control of body movements

via skeletal muscles.

 In the process of voluntary movement, sensory neurons carry

impulses to the brain and to the spinal cord.

 The sensory and motor systems are collectively referred to as the

peripheral nervous system (PNS).

 In general, the receptors detect changes in the environment

(stimuli), and the effectors (usually muscles) produce a response.

 The diagram below (fig 4.1.1) shows the nervous system is

organised in humans.

 The nervous system is built from specialised nerve cells known

as neurons and these neurons are grouped into the central
nervous system which consists of the brain and spinal cord.

 Nerves of the peripheral nervous system run to and from the

central nervous system.

 Communication between the central nervous system and all parts

of the body occurs via neurons in these nerves.
Fig 4.1.1

The mammalian nervous system.

Fig.4.1.2

Organisation of the mammalian nervous system and coordination of the

mammalian nervous system.

Neurones
 The neuron is a specialised conductor cell that receives and
transmits electrochemical nerve impulses.

 It is the basic unit of the nervous system.

 Nerve impulses travel to a specific body point so the effects of

the impulses are localised.

 A neuron is composed of a cell body, a dendrite and an axon.

 All neurons have a cell body containing a nucleus.

 The cell body has several processes called dendrites which

transmit impulses to the cell body.

 Dendrons are thick extensions that appear like cables.

  The numerous dendrons and dendrites provide a large surface
area for connecting with other neurons.

 Impulses leave via the axon which is a long thin process that
carries impulses away from the cell body to another neuron or
tissue.

 An axon can be several meters long.

 There is usually one axon per neuron.

 Some axons are covered by an insulating layer of fatty material

known as myelin sheath formed by Schwann cells.

 Nerve impulse can be passed from the axon of one neuron to the
dendron of another at a synapse

 There are three types of neurons namely motor neurons, relay

neurons and sensory neurons.

1. Motor neurons
 Motor neurons have a cell body that lies within the brain or

spinal cord.

 A motor neuron is also known as an efferent neuron which

means moving toward a central organ or point.

 Many dendrites extend from the cell body.

 The function of the motor neuron is to transmit impulses from

the CNS to the effector organs, such as muscles or glands. The
diagram in fig.4.1.2 is a representation of a motor neuron.
Fig.4.1.3

The structure of a motor neuron

2. Relay neurons
 Relay neurons are (also called inter-neurons) have many short

fibres and each fibre is a thread-like extension of a nerve cell.

 Relay neurons are found in the CNS.

 They make up the brain and spinal cord.

 Their function is to relay impulses from the sensory neurons to

the motor neurons. Fig 4.1.4 below is a representation of a relay
neuron.
Fig.4.1.4

The structure of a relay neuron.

3. Sensory neurons
 Sensory neurons have a single long dendron which brings

impulses towards the cell body and a single axon which carries
impulses away from the cell body.

 Their function is to transmit impulses from receptors to the

spinal cord or brain.

 The sensory neuron is also described as an afferent neuron which

means impulses are moving away from a central organ or point.

 The structure of a sensory neuron is shown in fig.4.1.5.

Fig.4.1.4

The structure of a sensory neuron.

The three types of neurons are compared in table 4.1.1

below and the differences in the function, location and
structure are shown.
Table 4.1.1: Comparison of sensory, relay and motor
neurons

SENSORY NEURON RELAY NEURON MOTOR NEURON

To transmit impulses
from the sensory To transmit impulses to
To conduct impulses to
Function neuron to the an effector (muscle or
the spinal cord
appropriate motor gland)
neuron

The axon is outside of

Cell body and dendrite
the spinal cord whereas
are outside of the spinal Entirely within the
Location dendrites and the cell
cord; the cell is in the spinal cord on CNS
body are in the spinal
dorsal root ganglion
cord

Length of Short axon and long Short dendrites and Short dendrites and long
fibres dendrites short or long axons axons
There are several differences between axons and
dendrites. These are shown in table 4.1.2.
Table 4.1.2: Differences between axons and dendrites

DENDRITES AXONS

o Take impulses away from

o Bring impulses to the cell
the cell body
body
o There is usually one axon
o There are usually many
per cell
dendrites per cell
o Usually has myelin sheath
o There is no myelin
insulation
insulation
o Branch further from the
o Branch near the cell body
cell body
o Have a rough surface
o Have a smooth surface
o Have ribosomes
o No ribosomes

Action Potential
 Nerve impulses generated by stimuli travel as action potentials.

 A nerve impulse is an action potential which passes along an

axon as a wave of depolarisation.

 This section looks at the initiation of an action potential and its

propagation along a myelinated neuron.

 However, the resting state of the neuron, referred to as the

resting potential is discussed first.

Resting potential
 The potential difference across the membrane at rest is called

the resting potential and is around -70mV.

  The charge (potential difference) which exists across the cell
surface membrane of nerve cells is usually negative inside the
cell with respect to the outside.

 In this state, the membrane is described as polarised (see

fig.4.1.5) which shows the charge in the axoplasm.

Fig 4.1.5

A polarised membrane during the resting potential in a neuron.

 The axoplasm (cytoplasm inside the axon) has a high

concentration of potassium (K+) ions and a low concentration of

sodium (Na+) ions.

 However, the fluid outside the axon has a low concentration of

potassium ions and a high concentration of sodium ions.

 The electrochemical gradient (gradients across the membrane) of

an ion is due to its electrical and chemical properties.

 The electrical property of an ion is its charge - it will be attracted

to an opposite charge and repelled by a similar charge.
 Its movement is also affected by its concentration in a solution, a
chemical property.

 It will move from a high concentration to a low concentration.

 Movement of the ion therefore depends on a balance of both

charge and concentration.

 The resting potential is maintained by the process of active

transport of ions against their electrochemical gradients carried
out by sodium/potassium pumps (Na+/K+) pumps).

 These pumps (gates) are carrier proteins located in the cell

surface membrane and are driven by energy supplied by ATP.

 They couple the removal of three sodium ions from the axon with
the uptake of two potassium ions as shown in fig.4.1.6.

 The active movement of these ions opposed by the passive

diffusion of ions which constantly pass down their
electrochemical gradients through a specific ion channel
proteins.

 The rate at which diffusion occurs is determined by the

permeability of the axon membrane to the ion.

 Potassium ions have permeability 20 times greater than that of

sodium ions therefore potassium ion loss from the axon is
greater than sodium ion gain.

 This results in a net loss of potassium ions from the axon and
the production of a negative charge in the axoplasm.

 The potassium ion electrochemical gradient largely determines

the value of resting potential.
Fig 4.1.6

A cell surface membrane showing the Na+/K+ pump together with the
protein channels responsible for maintaining the resting potential through
both active transport and passive diffusion of ions. The Na+ and K+ gates
remain closed during the resting potential.
Action potential
 The polarity change is called an action potential.

 An action potential is generated by a sudden and brief opening

of the sodium gates in response to a stimulus, which brings
about a slight depolarisation or loss of charge of the axon
membrane.

 Opening the gates increases the permeability of the axon

membrane to sodium ions which enter the axon by diffusion.

 This increases the number of positive ions inside the axon, which
therefore becomes further depolarised.

 A fraction of a second after the sodium gates open,

depolarisation of the axon membrane causes the potassium
gates to open.
  Potassium ions therefore diffuses out of the cell.

 Since potassium is positively charged, this makes the inside of

the cell less positive, or more negative, and starts the process of
repolarisation.

 At the peak of the action potential, the sodium gates start to

close again thus sodium permeability declines.

 The sodium-potassium pump continues to work, gradually

restoring the original resting potential, a condition called
repolarisation.

 The charge on a neuron can be reversed, given an appropriate

stimulation.

 The negative charge of -70mV inside the membrane changes to a

positive charge of around +40mV.

 This is known as the action potential and a membrane in this

state is said to be depolarised.

 Repolarisation (restoration of the -70mV in the axoplasm) of the

membrane takes about 2ms.

 These changes are shown on a graph in fig.4.1.7.

Fig.4.1.7
Diagrams to show changes in the axon during the propagation of a nerve.
(a) The membrane potential showing electrical events associated with a
nerve impulse. The refractory period is also shown. (b) Net charge across
the axon membrane during an action potential.
 An action potential results when the stimulus exceeds a certain

value, known as the threshold value also shown in fig.4.1.7

 Above the threshold value the size of the action potential

remains constant, regardless of the size of the stimulus. Stimulus
that fails to reach to threshold value does not result in an action
potential being initiated.

 The action potential remains the same as it is transmitted along

the neuron.

 It is the result of a sudden increase in the permeability of the

membrane to sodium resulting in a sudden influx of sodium ions
from outside where there is a high concentration.

 This high concentration of sodium ions outside the membrane is

maintained by the sodium pump shown in fig.4.1.6

 The influx of sodium ions begins to depolarise the membrane

and this in turn increases the membrane’s permeability to
sodium, leading to further influx and depolarisation.

 This is an example of positive feedback.

 When sufficient sodium ions have entered to create a positive

charge inside the membrane, the permeability of the membrane
to sodium to decrease.

 At the same time, as the sodium ions move inward, potassium

ions begin to move out in the opposite direction along a
diffusion gradient.

 On the contrary, the outward movement of potassium is less

rapid than the inward movement of sodium.
 The movement of ions continues however, until the membrane is
polarised.

 The movement of ions is rapid because of the presence of some

protein molecules (called gated channels) with a fine pore or
channel, which span the membrane.

 Some of these channels allow sodium ions to pass through while

others allow potassium ions to pass through.

 These channels or gates are closed in the resting state and only
open when the membrane is depolarised by a stimulus.

 Sodium channels open more quickly than the potassium

channels.

 For this reason, the sodium ions cause depolarisation followed by

the potassium ions leaving which causes repolarisation.

 At the peak of the action potential, the sodium gates start to

close again thus reducing sodium permeability.

 The sodium-potassium pump continues to work, restoring the

resting potential.

 This is known as repolarisation (return to the original resting

potential).

 It is shown by the falling phase of the action potential.

 There is a slight overshoot into a more negative potential than

the original resting potential.

 This is called hyperpolarisation and is due to the slight delay in

closure of the potassium gates compared to the sodium gates.

 The resting potential is largely determined by the potassium ions

whereas the potential is largely determined by the sodium ions.
Hyperpolarisation gives way to a period of insensitivity to
stimuli known as the refractory period (refer to fig 4.1.7
(a).

The refractory period

 The refractory period refers to the time immediately following

stimulation during which a nerve or muscle is unresponsive to

further stimulation.

 The depolarisation that produces Na+ channel opening also

causes delayed activation of K+ channels and Na+ channel
inactivation.

 This leads to repolarisation of the membrane potential as the

action potential is transmitted along the length of an axon.

 The action potential leaves the Na+ channels inactivated and

K+ channels activated for a brief time.

 These transitory changes make it more difficult for the axon to

produce subsequent action potentials during this interval.

 This interval is what is referred to as the refractory period.

 The refractory period therefore limits the number of action

potentials that a given nerve cell can produce per unit time.

Conduction along a myelinated neuron

 A myelin sheath is the whitish, fatty segmented sheath found

around the axon.

 It has three functions:

 Increase the speed of impulse conduction.

 Protect the axon.

 Insulate fibres from one another.

Fig.4.1.8

Impulse transmission along a myelinated neuron

 In a myelinated neuron, depolarisation only across at the node of

Ranvier so the wave of impulses move faster than along a non-

myelinated neuron.

 Sodium ions come in and potassium ions go out just like in a

non-myelinated nerve fibre, except this only occurs at the node
of Ranvier.

 In essence, the action potential is generated only at the nodes

(refer to fig.4.1.8)

 The signal seems to “jump” from one node to the next a

condition called saltatory conduction.

 The term comes from the Latin word saltaire which means to
jump or leap.

 Saltatory conduction is up to 50 times faster (up to 40ms-1) than

conduction through the fastest unmyelinated axons because they
don’t have to travel throughout every single space before moving
to the next.

 The movement of impulse is only one-way transmission that is it

occurs only from the cell body towards the end with the axon.
The Reflex Arc
 A reflex arc is the pathway followed by nerves which carry

sensory information from the receptor to the spinal cord, and

then carry the response generated by the spinal cord to the
effector organ(s) during a reflex action.

 A reflex is a rapid automatic response to a stimulus.

 Examples include the jerking of the knee upon stepping on a hot

or sharp object or the quick removal of the arm upon touching a
hot object.

 There are two types or reflex arcs:

o autonomic reflex arc (affecting inner organs) and

o somatic reflex arc (affecting muscles).

 However, autonomic reflexes sometimes involve the spinal cord

and some somatic reflexes are mediated more by the brain than
the spinal cord.

 The sensory information is passed to the spinal cord to allow for

faster reflex actions to occur by activating spinal motor neurons
without the delay of routing signals through the brain.

 This protects the organ exposed from danger by allowing a quick

response since the reaction produced does not involve the input
of the brain.

 However, the brain receives the sensory information while the

reflex is being carried out and the analysis of the signal takes
place after the reflex action

 The three types of neurons are arranged in circuits and networks

so they can efficiently carry out their function.

 One of these circuits is known as the reflex arc and fig.4.1.9

shows one such simple circuit.
  In a simple reflex action, such as the jerking of the arm, a
stimulus (pain caused by the sharp pin pricking the finger) is
detected by a receptor in the skin.

 The stimulus is sent as impulses to the central nervous system

(the brain or spinal cord), where it synapses with a relay neuron
(interneuron).

 The interneuron synapses with a motor neuron, which transmits

the nerve impulse out to an effector, such as a muscle.

 The muscle responds by contracting and the arm is moved from

the point of danger in the process.

 It is important to note that this is a very quick and almost instant

reaction since the nerve impulses travel at very high speeds of up
to 40metres per second.

Fig.4.1.9

A reflex arc
9.2 Cholinergic Synapse

The synapse
 A synapse is a junction between neurones.

 The neurons do not physically touch.

 Synapses consist of a swelling called a synaptic knob of the axon

of one neurone (presynaptic neurone) and the dendrite or cell
body of another neuron (post synaptic neuron).

 A synaptic cleft is the gap/space between neurons at a nerve

synapse.

 A synaptic cleft does not allow an action potential to cross it.

 Transmission only occurs by particular chemicals known as

transmitter substances.

 These are small and diffusible molecules and are produced in the
Golgi apparatus in the synaptic knob and held in tiny vesicles
before use.

 Acetylcholine (Ach) is a common transmitter substance.

 Cells releasing acetylcholine are known as cholinergic neurones.

 Another common neurotransmitter substance is noradrenaline

(released by adrenergic neurones)

 Synapses are usually found between the fine branches at the end
of the axon of one neurone and the dendrites or cell body of
another neuron.

 The number of neurones is usually very large, (over 1000

synapses on dendrites and cell bodies of a single motor neuron),
providing a large surface area for the transfer of information.
Structure of the synapse
 The structure of the synapse is shown in fig.4.2.1

 It is made up of a swelling at the end of a nerve fibre called a

synaptic knob that is found close to the membrane of a dendrite.

 The synaptic knob has cytoplasm containing small synaptic

vesicles in which the neurotransmitter is kept and numerous
mitochondria for energy production.

 The neurotransmitter is responsible for the transmission of

impulses across the synapse.

 The membrane near the synapse is thick and known as the

presynaptic membrane whereas the membrane of the dendrite is
called the postsynaptic membrane.

 Between the two is a gap of about 20nm called a synaptic cleft.

 The presynaptic membrane is adapted to for the attachment of

synaptic vesicles and the release of the neurotransmitter
substance into the synaptic cleft.

 The postsynaptic membrane has:

 protein molecules which are the receptor sites for the transmitter
substances;

 channels to allow the movement of ions into the postsynaptic

neurone and;

 pores for the movement of ions into the postsynaptic neurone.

 The transmission of nerve impulses across the synaptic cleft is

triggered by the release of calcium ions and an account of the
events is given in the next section.
Fig 4.2.1

Structure of the synapse.

Steps to synapse transmission
 Though the events during synapse transmission are continuous,

they are described in steps in this section. Refer to fig 4.2.2.

1. Arrival Of The Action Potential

 An action potential arrives at the synaptic knob and depolarises
the presynaptic membrane causing calcium channels to open,
increasing the permeability of the membrane to calcium
Ca2+ions channels in pre-synaptic membrane.

 Calcium ions then flow in from the synaptic cleft.

2. Release Of Neurotransmitter
 The calcium ions cause vesicles of transmitter substance to fuse
with the pre-synaptic membrane and they release a transmitter
substance into the synaptic cleft (exocytosis).

3. Diffusion Of Neurotransmitter Across The Cleft

 The transmitter substance diffuses across the synaptic cleft
(creating a delay of about 0.5ms) and binds to a specific receptor
protein (site) on the post-synaptic membrane.

 In the post-synaptic membrane, there are specific receptor sites

for each transmitter substance.

 The attachment of a transmitter molecule to its receptor on the

post-synaptic membrane instantly causes a change in the shape
of the receptor site and opens the ion channel.

 When a molecule of the transmitter substance attaches to its

receptor site, sodium ion channels open.

 As the sodium ions rush into the cytoplasm of the post-synaptic

neurone, depolarisation of the post-synaptic membrane occurs.

 As more and more molecules of the transmitter substance bind,

an action potential is generated in the post-synaptic neurone

4. Inactivation Of Neurotransmitter.
 The transmitter substance on the receptor is quickly inactivated
once it causes depolarisation.

 The usual transmitter substance is acetylcholine which is

hydrolysed to choline and ethanoic acid by the enzyme
cholinesterase also called acetylcholinesterase (AChE).

 After this reaction, the ion channel of the receptor protein close
and this allows the resting potential in the post-synaptic neurone
to be re-established.
5. Recycling Of Neurotransmitter
 In the meantime, the inactivated products of the transmitter re-
enter the presynaptic knob, are resynthesised into transmitter
substance and packaged for reuse.

Fig 4.2.2

Synapse transmission
Functions of synapses
 Synapses have an overall effect of slowing down nerve impulses

by about 0.5ms per synapse… they have several functions stated

below.

1. Amplification.
 Each nerve impulse produces sufficient acetylcholine at the
neuromuscular junction to produce a response in the muscle
fibre.
2. Adaptation And Fatigue.
 The supply of transmitter substance constantly drops in response
to constant stimuli eventually depleting the transmitter
substance (making the synapse fatigued).

 Fatigue prevents damage to an effector through overstimulation.

3. Uni-Directionality.
 Nerve impulses can only pass in one direction since transmitter
substance released by presynaptic membrane is received on the
receptor sites only found on the postsynaptic membrane.

4. Integration, Convergence And Special Summation.

 The postsynaptic neurone has the ability to summate (add up) all
stimuli from all the presynaptic neurones to enable integration of
all the stimuli and production of a coordinated response.

5. Facilitation.
 The synapse is left more sensitive to stimuli by stimulus leaving.

6. Discrimination And Temporal Summation.

 They filter out low level stimuli of limited importance.

7. They facilitate flexibility of response by the CNS,

particularly the brain.

Effects of analgesics on the nervous system

 Analgesics are drugs that prevent and kill pain.

 Their primary purpose is to relieve pain.

 They act in various ways on the peripheral and central nervous

systems.

 Analgesics include paracetamol, the non-steroidal anti-

inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) such as the salicylates, and
opioid drugs such as morohine and oxycodone.

 The two main types of analgesics are mild and strong.

 Mild analgesics, such as aspirin, intercept the feeling of pain at
the source and often alter the production of those substances
that cause the pain in the body.

 Strong analgesics such as opium and its derivatives block the

transmission of pain to the brain, by temporarily binding to the
receptor sites.

 The feeling of pain is not felt in one who has taken strong
analgesic tablets.

 The CNS is not depressed since the stimulus of pain never

reaches the brain.

 The common strong analgesics are the opioids, which include

opium, heroin and morphine.
10.0 Sexual Reproduction
10.1 Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Introduction
 Sexual reproduction occurs through flowers (fig.5.1.1) in
flowering plants (angiosperms).

 It involves the fusion of male and female gametes to produce a

diploid zygote that develops into a new organism.

 Male gametes are produced inside pollen grains (male

gametophyte) and female gametes are produced in ovules
(female gametophyte).

Fig.5.1.1

Flower structure
Anther structure
 An anther (fig.5.1.2) has two lobes which contain four elongated

chambers or pollen sacs (microsporangia).

 Each pollen sac is surrounded by an outer fibrous layer and the

epidermis.

 The fibrous layer comprises of endothecium and middle layers.

 These outer layers protect the pollen sacs and help in dehiscence
of anther to release pollen.

 Inside the fibrous layer is the tapetum which provides

nourishment to the developing pollen grains.

 In the centre of pollen sacs is a mass of diploid

pollen/microspore mother cells.

 The anther is attached to the filament which contains the

vascular bundle for transporting water and nutrients to the
anther.

Fig.5.1.2

Anther structure
  Enlarged view of pollen sac

 Mature anther in dehiscence

Pollen grain formation

 Each pollen mother cell divides by meiosis producing four

haploid daughter cells (tetrad).

 The daughter cells become individual microspores that develop

into pollen grains.

 Each pollen grain nucleus divides by mitosis forming a pollen

tube nucleus and a generative nucleus (later forms two male
gametes).

 Pollen grains develop a thick wall that consist of an inner layer

(intine) and a highly resistant patterned outer layer (exine).

 The intine is made from cellulose and pectin, while the exine is
made from a waterproof substance called sporopollenin.

 This wall ensures the survival of pollen grains in harsh conditions

for long periods of time.

 Anthers undergo dehiscence and release the mature pollen

grains for dispersal.

Fig.5.1.3

Pollen formation
Ovule structure
 The ovule is made up of a mass of cells known as the nucellus

which is supported by a small stalk called funicle which attaches

the ovule to the ovary wall (placenta).

 The nucellus is covered by a protective layer of two integuments

which have a narrow gap called the micropyle.

 One of the nucellus cells enlarges to form the embryo sac mother
cell.

Fig.5.1.4

Ovule structure
Experiment: Examining ovary structure
Materials
 Slide

 Scissors or scalpel

 Fresh flower (female flower or bisexual flower)

 Dissecting microscope
Procedure
1. Carefully strip away all other flower parts except the ovary with
the scissors or scalpel.

2. Cut into the ovary longitudinally and gently open the ovary.

3. Examine the ovary under the dissecting microscope.

4. Draw the cross section of the ovary.

Expected Observations
Fig.5.1.5

Part of ovary of Easter lily (Amaryllis) flower

Ovule development
 The embryo sac mother cell divides by meiosis creating four

haploid daughter cells (megaspores).

 Three of the cells closest to the micropyle degenerate and the

outstanding cell enlarges forming the embryo sac.

 The embryo sac nucleus divides by mitosis and the two daughter
nuclei migrate to opposite poles.
  Each nucleus divides two times by mitosis, producing eight
haploid nuclei, four are at each end of the sac.

 One nucleus from each pole migrates to the centre and these two
polar nuclei may fuse forming a secondary nucleus.

 The six remaining nuclei develop cytoplasm and are surrounded

by thin cell walls.

 Three cells opposite the micropyle (chalazal pole) are called

antipodal cells.

 These appear to have no function and soon degenerate.

 The three cells at the micropyle end constitute the egg

apparatus.

 One of the cells becomes the egg cell (ovum) and the other two
cells (synergids) will later degenerate.

Fig.5.1.6

Embryo sac development

Fig.5.1.7

Ovule structure with a mature embryo sac

Fertilisation
 Fertilisation is the fusion of male and female gametes.

 It occurs after pollination (transfer of mature pollen grains from

anther to stigma).

 Angiosperms experience a unique fertilisation mechanism known

as double fertilisation.

Double fertilisation
 These are the events that lead to double fertilisation:

o A pollen grain lands on a compatible stigma and absorbs

nutrients (sucrose solution produced in the stigma).

o The pollen grain begins to germinate forming a pollen tube

from the intine through a pore in the exine (germ pore).

o The tube grows down the style towards the ovary by

chemotropism (grows in response to auxins produced by
the ovule).
 o Growth of the pollen tube is controlled by the haploid
pollen tube nucleus at the tip of the tube.

o The haploid generative nucleus moves down the pollen

tube and divides by mitosis forming two haploid male
gamete nuclei.

o The pollen tube enters the ovule through the micropyle and
the tube nucleus degenerates.

o The tube tip bursts open and two male gamete nuclei are
released into the embryo sac.

o One male nuclei fuses with the egg cell to form the zygote
(2n).

o The other nucleus fuses with the secondary nucleus in the

embryo sac to form the primary endosperm nucleus (3n).

Fig.5.1.8

Pollen tube formation and double fertilisation

Importance of double fertilisation
 Double fertilisation has some advantages in sexual reproduction.
Initiates Embryogenesis And Fruit Formation
 The diploid zygote begins to divide by mitosis to form the
embryo (young plant).

 The ovary is also stimulated to become the fruit and ovules to

become seed containing the embryo.

Restores Chromosome Number

 The fusion of the haploid male and female gametes restores the
diploid state in zygote.

Forms Endosperm
 The triploid endosperm nucleus divides mitotically forming the
endosperm.

 Endosperm provides nourishment to the developing embryo.

 The nutrients are stored as starch, protein and oil.

Promotes Genetic Variation

 There is a new combination of genes when the two genetically
different gametes fuse together creating genetic variation in
offspring.

Fig.5.1.9

Importance of double fertilisation

10.2 Sexual Reproduction in Animals (Gametogenesis)

Introduction
 Sexual reproduction in humans involves the fusion of a male
gamete with a female gamete to produce a zygote.

 The male gametes are known as spermatozoa (sperm) and

female gametes are called ova or eggs.

 Sperms are produced in the testes and ova are produced within
the ovaries, which are found in the male and female reproductive
systems respectively (fig.5.2.1).

Fig.5.2.1

Human reproductive system

Structure of testes
 Each testis is enclosed in a fibrous capsule (fig.5.2.2).

 Inside the testis are lobules of folded seminiferous tubules where

sperm are manufactured.
 The epithelium of the seminiferous tubule is lined with cells
known as Sertoli cells (fig.5.2.3).

 These cells have several functions including:

o providing structural support and nourishment to

developing sperm cells,

o fluid secretion,

o phagocytosis of foreign materials.

 In between the tubules are secretory interstitial cells known as

Leydig cells.

 These cells produce and secrete the male sex hormone

testosterone.

 The seminiferous tubules converge to become efferent ducts

which lead to a tightly coiled tube called the epididymis.

 The epididymis then extends to the sperm duct (vas deferens)

which connects to the urethra.
Fig.5.2.2

Internal structure of testis

Fig.5.2.3

Diagram of cross section of seminiferous tubule.

Structure of ovaries
 Each ovary is made up of a solid mass of tissue with two distinct

layers: the medulla and the cortex (fig.5.2.4).

Medulla
 This is a central mass of connective tissue surrounded by the
cortex.

 It contains lymph vessels, blood vessels and nerve fibres.

Cortex
 This is a dense framework of connective tissue surrounded by
the germinal epithelium.

 It contains the ovarian follicles and each follicle contains an

ovum.

Fig.5.2.4

Diagram of a section of an ovary showing stages of development of an

ovarian follicle.
Gametogenesis
 This is the formation of gametes.

 Formation of sperm is spermatogenesis and formation of ova is

oogenesis.

 The two processes are fundamentally similar and involve three

stages: multiplication, growth and maturation.

Spermatogenesis
 It is a continuous process that begins during puberty stage of

male development.

 Germinal epithelial cells, which lie on the basal lamina of the

convoluted seminiferous tubules develop into immature sperm
cells called spermatogonia.

 Spermatogonia undergo a series of mitotic divisions to produce

more stem cells.

 Half of the daughter cells begin to grow and migrate towards the
lumen of the tubule to become primary spermatocytes.

 The remaining half serve as replacement for the stem cells.

 Primary spermatocytes continue to move towards the lumen and

undergo meiosis I to produce secondary spermatocytes.

 Meiosis II of secondary spermatocytes then produces spermatids

 Each spermatocyte produces four spermatids which all

differentiate into spermatozoa in a process known as
spermiogenesis.

 Spermatozoa are stored in the epididymis where they mature

(become motile) and are released later during ejaculation.
Fig.5.2.5

Diagrammatic representation of spermatogenesis.

Oogenesis
 This process starts before birth during female development.

 The germinal epithelium of the ovary produces immature ovum

cells known as oogonia.

 There is no further production of oogonia by the germ cells after

birth.

 Oogonia divide repeatedly by mitosis to produce millions of

primary oocytes.

 These grow and are surrounded by follicle cells (granulosa cells)

forming primordial follicles.

 By birth, the primary oocytes begin division by meiosis but

remain arrested in prophase I during childhood due to secretion
of oocyte maturation inhibitor (OMI) by follicular cells.
  At puberty, one of the primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I to
form two unequal haploid cells.

 The larger cell is called the secondary oocyte and the smaller cell
is known as polar body.

 The secondary oocyte remain in metaphase II and is released

during ovulation.

 Meiosis II is completed after fertilisation of the ovum by a sperm,

producing a second polar body.

 The polar bodies lack functionality in oogenesis thus eventually

degenerate.

Fig.5.2.6

Diagrammatic representation of oogenesis.

Hormonal control of gametogenesis
 The process of gametogenesis is also controlled by three

important brain hormones:

  gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the
hypothalamus

 follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) from the anterior

lobe of pituitary gland

 luteinising hormone (LH) also from the anterior lobe

of pituitary gland.

 At puberty there is a significant increase in the secretion of

GnRH.

 The increased level of GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary

gland to secrete LH and FSH.

 LH and FSH are gonadotrophins which act on male and female

gonads (testes and ovaries respectively).

 They function to stimulate gametogenesis and the production of

sex hormones in the gonads.

Fig.5.2.7

Hormonal control of gametogenesis

Hormonal Control Of Spermatogenesis
o In males, LH stimulates Leydig cells to synthesise and
secrete testosterone.

o FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to secrete other factors which

help in the process of spermatogenesis.

o The Sertoli cells also produce the hormone inhibin, which

inhibits the release of GnRH and FSH when sperm levels are
too high (negative feedback mechanism).

o Testosterone also regulates production of the brain

hormones by negative feedback.

Fig.5.2.8

Hormonal control of spermatogenesis

Hormonal Control Of Oogenesis
o This is a cyclical process which involves an interaction of
the brain hormones and the female sex hormones.

o The cycle is known as the menstrual cycle.

Menstrual cycle
 It involves a series of changes which occur within the female

reproductive system that begin at puberty in preparation for

sexual reproduction.

 Each cycle involves the production of a single ovum cell and sex
hormones within a period of about 28 days.

 There are four important phases in the cycle: menstruation,

follicular (proliferative) phase, ovulation and luteal (secretory)
phase.

Fig.5.2.9

Representation of the menstrual cycle

Menstruation
 This is the shedding of the uterus lining (endometrium) as
menstrual flow (blood, mucus, and tissue) through the cervix and
vagina.

 The first day of menstruation defines the beginning of menstrual

cycle and indicates that fertilisation has not occurred.
  Menstruation period differs in individuals but on average lasts for
approximately 3 to 5 days.

Follicular Phase
 This involves cyclic changes within the ovaries.

 It is associated with oogenesis and hormone production (refer to

fig.5.2.4).

 The ovary produces around 5 to 20 primordial follicles per each

cycle.

 Only one of the primordial follicles matures into a primary follicle

through multiplication of granulosa cells to form several layers
around the follicle.

 The primary follicle then develops into a secondary follicle.

 Ovary stroma cells form a structure known as theca around the

layers of granulosa cells.

 Granulosa cells and the internal layer of theca have an endocrine

function.

 They help in secretion of the female sex hormone oestrogen.

 Oestrogen is contained in a fluid-filled space called anthrum.

 The release of oestrogen stimulates the uterus lining to thicken

(endometrium proliferation) in preparation for fertilisation and
possible pregnancy.

 The outer part of the theca contains blood vessels which extend
from the stroma.

 Secondary follicle then matures into the ovarian/Graafian follicle.

 Graafian follicle contains a haploid secondary oocyte formed

after meiosis I which is located eccentrically within the follicle.
Ovulation
 This is when the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases the ovum
from the ovary towards the oviduct.

 It generally occurs mid-cycle around day 10 to day 14.

 The released ovum may survive about 12-24 hours after

ovulation.

Luteal Phase
 This involves cyclic changes within the endometrium from
hormonal influence in preparation for fertilisation and pregnancy.

 The ovarian follicle develops into a corpus luteum (yellow body)

which secretes the sex hormones progesterone and oestrogen.

 Progesterone causes glands in the endometrium and vagina to

produce increased amounts of watery mucus (secretory phase),
which may assist the passage of sperm towards the ovum.

 The corpus luteum degenerates (after about 10 days in humans)

into a mass of fibrous scar tissue called corpus albicans.

Fig.5.2.10

Stages of the menstrual cycle

Hormonal control of the menstrual cycle
 The sequence of events is outlined below:

1. The hypothalamus releases GnRH which stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland to release FSH.

2. FSH stimulates the development of primary follicles within the ovary.

3. The maturing follicle secretes oestrogen which targets the uterus and pituitary gland.
o Oestrogen stimulates the repair of the endometrium.

o It inhibits the further release of FSH in the pituitary gland to

prevent development of new follicles if pregnancy occurs.

o It also inhibits the release of LH from the pituitary gland.

o Shortly before ovulation, there is a significant increase in

the level of oestrogen which actually stimulates the release
of LH and FSH.

4. LH and FSH are released in relatively large amounts in a short period of time.
o A surge of LH stimulates ovulation within 24 hours.

o LH also stimulates the development of the corpus luteum.

o LH has negative feedback on oestrogen release, reducing

the levels of LH and FSH.

5. The corpus luteum secretes progesterone which has effects on both uterus and pituitary
gland.
o Progesterone helps to maintain the uterus lining by
stimulating the thickening and the development of blood
vessels.

o Development of glands in preparation for pregnancy.

o It also increases negative feedback of oestrogen on LH and

FSH.

o Release of progesterone is linked to a slight rise in body

temperature.
6. If pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum remains due to the presence of the hormone
human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) being released by the implanted embryo.

7. If no pregnancy occurs, the corpus luteum degenerates.

 The release of progesterone ceases and the lining of the uterus
breaks down resulting in menstruation.

 FSH inhibition also ceases and a new follicle can develop thus
initiating a new cycle.

Fig.5.2.11

Diagram outlining the hormonal control of menstrual cycle

Fig.5.2.12

Summary of events involved in the menstrual cycle

Experiment 5.2.1: Observing the microscopic structures of ovary and
testis
Apparatus/Materials
 Compound light microscope

 Prepared slide of cat ovary (transverse cross section)

 Prepared slide of rat testis (longitudinal cross section)

Procedure

Part A: Ovary
1. Obtain a stained slide of a cross section of an ovary from a cat.

2. Using the low-power objective of a microscope, examine

different areas of the slide.

3. Locate follicles in different stages of development.

Part B: Testis
1. Obtain a stained slide of the testis of a mature rat for
examination under the low-power objective of a microscope.

2. Examine the cluster compartment of small circles within each

septa of the testis: these are the cut surfaces of the tiny coiled
seminiferous tubules.

3. Carefully switch to the high-power objective and adjust the slide

focusing on one of the seminiferous tubules.

4. Closely examine these cells in order to trace the various stages

of sperm cell production.
Answer The Following Questions
1. In what way are mature sperm and egg cells different from all
other types of body cells?

2. For which would one use a higher-power objective—observing

the structure of the testis or observing the structure of a
seminiferous tubule? Why is that so?

3. Does one expect to observe a greater number of individual

sperm cells or of egg cells in the slides of the testis and ovary?
Explain.

4. Does one expect to see follicles in several stages of development

in ovarian tissue? Explain.

5. If you observed the presence of a large corpus luteum in ovarian

tissue, would you conclude that the animal from which tissue was
taken was pregnant or not pregnant? Explain.

6. Observing in the ovarian tissue, how many follicles in various

stages of development did were seen?

7. Considering that cats give birth to litters rather than single

kittens, in what way does ovulation in cats differ from ovulation
in humans?

8. Is it reasonable to refer to the corpus luteum as an endocrine

structure? Explain.
Expected Observations And Results
Fig.5.2.13

Microscopic structures of rat testis (top) and part cat of ovary (bottom)
under higher power magnification.

Answers
1. While all other body cells are diploid, sperm and egg cells are
haploid.

2. The higher-power objective would be used to observe the

structure of the seminiferous tubule because it is a small part of
the structure of the testis as a whole.

3. One should expect to observe a greater number of sperm cells

because many more sperm cells than egg cells are produced by a
single animal.

4. Yes; follicles are continuously maturing and releasing eggs. At

any one time, there are follicles starting the process and follicles
near the end of the process.
 5. Not pregnant; the corpus luteum enlarges after ovulation if
pregnancy does not occur.

6. Answers will depend on the condition of the ovarian tissue

observed and on students’ skill in differentiating follicles from
surrounding connective tissue.

7. Learner should infer that cats ovulate multiple eggs at once,

while humans generally ovulate only one egg at a time.

8. Answers will depend on their understanding that the corpus

luteum secretes hormones as do other endocrine structures.

Premenstrual tension (PMT)/ Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

 These are physical, emotional and behavioural symptoms (table

5.2.1) in a woman’s body prior to or during menstruation.

 It is are usually experienced 5 to 11 days before menstruation.

Role Of Hormones In PMT

 The exact cause of PMT is still undetermined, however,
symptoms can be triggered by fluctuating levels of oestrogen
and progesterone during the menstrual cycle.

 Oestrogen and progesterone are also involved in the regulation

of two neurotransmitters: serotonin and gamma-aminobutyric
acid (GABA) respectively.

 These neurotransmitters have an effect on mood, sexual desire,

appetite, sleep as well as some social behaviour.

 High levels of oestrogen help to stimulate serotonin production

and transmission promoting the feeling of happiness.

 Low levels of progesterone reduce GABA receptor activity

resulting in increased nervous system excitability causing anxiety
and sleep disorders.
Table 5.2.1: Role of sex hormones in PMT

POTENTIAL HORMONAL
SYMPTOMS
STIMULUS

Anxiety, Irritability, Insomnia, Shivers, Sweating, Mood High oestrogen and/or low
swings progesterone.

Depression, Despair, Crying, Lethargy, Insomnia, Neurotransmitter deficit due to low

Apathy, Low sex drive oestrogen.

Breast tenderness, Nipple sensitivity, Oedema (hands &

High oestrogen levels.
feet), Weight gain, Bloating

Menopause
 This is the time in a woman's life when her period stops and the

function of the ovaries ceases.

 It usually begins around the age 40 and is diagnosed 12 months

after the absence of the menstrual period.

 Most women experience symptoms during menopause such as:

o hot flushes

o night sweats

o irregular periods

o low libido

o mood changes

o vaginal dryness

o thinning hair

o dry skin
  Menopause can gradually lead to loss of bone tissue resulting in
a disease called osteoporosis.

 These symptoms can be alleviated through hormone replacement

therapy (HRT).

Hormone replacement therapy

 This involves the use of female hormones oestrogen and

progesterone to treat common symptoms of menopause.

 Regulated doses of these hormones are taken in two ways:

Systemic Hormone Therapy

 Hormones are administered into the body in the form of an oral
pill, skin patch, gel, cream or spray for no less than one year.

 This is the most effective treatment for relief of menopausal hot

flashes and night sweats.

 Treatment can be taken for at least five years to prevent

osteoporosis.

Low-Dose Vaginal Products

 The hormones are packed in a cream, tablet or ring form.

 This treatment can effectively treat vaginal and urinary

symptoms, while minimising absorption into the body.

Health Risks Of HRT

 HRT has been associated with the increased risk of certain
diseases, including:

o heart disease

o stroke

o blood clots

o breast cancer
10.3 Sexual Reproduction in Animals (Fertilisation)

Fertilisation
 This is the fusion of the sperm with the egg (fig.5.3.1) to form a
diploid zygote.

 It occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube).

 The zygote matures into an embryo which then develops into a

foetus.

 There are three biochemical reactions that are involved to ensure

successful fertilisation of the gametes, these are: capacitation,
acrosomal reaction and cortical reaction.

Fig.5.3.1

Human gametes
1. Capacitation
  These are structural and functional changes of the sperm which
occur after ejaculation in the uterus.

 Fluids in the female reproductive tract play a role in capacitation

through secretion of biomolecules such as albumin, lipoproteins
and digestive enzymes.

 The process involves three energy consuming changes:

Membrane Changes
 Proteolytic and glycolytic enzymes are responsible for the
removal of glycoprotein which surrounds the plasma membrane
of sperm.

 Plasma protein coat is also removed.

 This layer of proteins becomes integrated within the sperm

plasma membrane as the sperm pass through the epididymis and
seminal vesicle.

 Albumin is associated with the removal of cholesterol embedded

in the plasma membrane of the head of sperm.

 This weakens the membrane (destabilises the acrosome cap) thus

facilitating the release of the lysosomal enzymes necessary for
the acrosome reaction to occur upon sperm and egg contact.

Protein Alterations
 Protein phosphorylation in the flagellum of the sperm results in
increased movement activity of flagellum improving the motility
of sperm cell.

Regulation Of Enzymatic Activity

 Membrane modifications result in increased permeability of
plasma membrane to calcium and hydrogen carbonate ions.

 Movements of such ions may result in conformational changes in

plasma membrane proteins.
  It also increases pH level inside cell which may have effect in
several cell signalling pathways within the sperm necessary for
successful fertilisation.

2. Acrosomal reaction
 This is the initial interaction of the acrosome of the capacitated

sperm, with the jelly coat of an oocyte.

 This reaction occurs in the oviduct and is triggered by follicle

cells.

 The sperm penetrates the follicular cells and binds to the jelly
coat.

 The acrosome vesicle fuses with the jelly coat and releases
hydrolytic enzymes which digests the glycoprotein coat creating
a path for the sperm haploid nucleus.

 Actin filaments from the acrosome process extend from the

sperm head penetrating the jelly coat and bind to exposed
protein receptors on the egg membrane.

 The membrane of the egg and sperm then fuse allowing the
sperm nucleus to enter the egg.

3. Cortical reaction
 This is modification of the jelly coat after successful penetration

of egg cell by sperm to prevent possible polyspermy (fusion of

multiple sperm with one egg).

 It is triggered by the fusion of the sperm and egg membranes

which causes an influx of Ca2+ into the egg’s cytoplasm.

 Increased levels of these ions result in cortical granules within

the egg’s cytoplasm releasing enzymes (via exocytosis) into the
perivitelline space adjacent to the jelly coat.

 These enzymes terminate sperm binding sites and also thicken

and harden the glycoprotein matrix of the jelly coat.
  This prevents other sperm from penetrating the egg, ensuring
the zygote formed is diploid.

Fig.5.3.2

Overview of acrosome and cortical reactions

Implantation
 After fertilisation, the zygote migrates to the uterus at the same

time, undergoing a series of mitotic divisions to form an embryo.

 The embryo then attaches to the endometrium, a process known

as implantation.

 It usually takes a period of about 7 days for implantation to be

completed after ovulation.
Fig.5.3.3

Illustration of events from ovulation to implantation.

The placenta
 This is a disc-shaped structure that connects the developing
foetus to the mother during pregnancy.

 It is formed from foetus membranes which grow into the uterine

wall during early development of embryo.

 The main function of the placenta is to support the growth and

survival of the foetus throughout pregnancy.

 Specific functions of the placenta include:

1. Nourishment
 Nutrients such as glucose, amino acids and essential minerals

are transported to the developing foetus.

2. Gaseous exchange
 The placenta ensures efficient exchange of oxygen and carbon

dioxide primarily by diffusion.

3. Excretion
 Metabolic wastes such as urea are removed from the foetus

blood via the placenta into maternal blood.

4. Heat transfer
 The placenta has a large surface area and high blood flow which

helps to disperse heat generated from the foetus’ high metabolic

rate.

5. Hormone production
 The placenta acts as a temporary complex endocrine organ

secreting necessary hormones for pregnancy.

 These placental hormones include:

o Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG): maintains the corpus

luteum in the early weeks of pregnancy.

o Oestrogen: maintains pregnancy, stimulates the growth of

uterine muscles (myometrium) and also stimulates
production of other pregnancy hormones.

o Progesterone: maintains the endometrium reducing uterine

contractions and potential maternal immune responses.
The placenta produces ten times more progesterone than
the corpus luteum.

6. Protection
 This is expressed in three ways:

Protective Barrier
 Maternal hormones, certain pathogens and other toxic
substances can be prevented from reaching the foetus by the
placenta.
  However, the placenta does not provide an effective barrier
against some harmful substances crossing from mother to
foetus.

 Some of these may act as teratogens by causing foetal

deformities.

 Examples of such include alcohol, cytotoxic drugs, nicotine and

some pathogens such as Human Immuno-deficiency Virus (HIV).

Separating Maternal And Foetal Blood

 The placenta allows the maternal and foetal blood systems to
function at different pressures.

 It also prevents potential agglutination if the mother develops

antibodies against foetal blood.

Passive Natural Immunity

 Antibodies from the mother’s blood are transferred to the foetus
via placenta which helps protect the foetus from infections.

Structure of placenta
 The placenta contains chorionic villi.

 These villi project from a layer called the chorion which surround
the embryo into the maternal blood space in the endometrium.

 The blood filled space is derived from extensions of the mother’s

uterine artery.

 The chorionic villi have features which make them well adapted
to their function, these are:

o extensive loops of capillaries within the villi to increase

surface area;

o presence of microvilli on the epithelial surface of villi to

further increase surface area;
 o epithelial surface also contains a relatively large number of
mitochondria for active transport of substances.

 Besides adaptations in the chorionic villi, other factors which

increase efficiency of exchange of materials include:

o thin barrier between the blood in the capillaries and the

maternal blood;

o counter-current flow of foetal capillary blood and maternal

capillary blood;

o greater affinity for oxygen by foetal haemoglobin than

maternal haemoglobin.

 The placenta is connected to the foetus by the umbilical cord.

 The umbilical cord is made up of two blood vessels namely:

umbilical artery and umbilical vein.

 The umbilical artery carries blood from the aorta of the foetus to
the placenta.

 Umbilical vein carries blood from the placenta to the posterior

vena cava of the foetus.
Fig.5.3.4

Diagram showing the structure of placenta

Contraception (Birth control)
 This is the deliberate prevention of conception or pregnancy.

 There are several methods of contraception which include the

use of various devices, drugs and techniques (table 5.3.1).

Table 5.3.1: Methods of contraception

DESCRI ADVAN DISADVA

METHOD FORM
PTION TAGES NTAGES

Natural Abstinen This is This None

ce when method
there is is 100%
no effectiv
sexual e.
interco No side
urse effects.
engage
d in.
 A
couple
engage
s in
sexual This is a
interco very
It is
urse unreliable
used by
during method
people
the especially
who do
infertile to women
not
period who do
want to
Rhythm of the not have
use one
method female a regular
of the
menstr menstrual
other
ual cycle.
contrac
cycle It does
eptive
and not
method
avoids protect
s.
copulati against
ng STIs.
during
the
fertile
period.

Withdra This is It is Very

wal when used by unreliable
the people because
male who do of timing
remove not and
s his want to semen
penis use one may leak
from of the before
the other ejaculatio
vagina contrac n.
during eptive It does
interco method not
urse s. protect
just against
before STIs.
he
ejaculat
 es.

Barrier /Mechanical A thin

rubber
sheath
placed
over
erect
penis
before
interco
urse. In
females Easy to
it is use.
inserted Safe
inside when
the used Unreliable
vagina correctl not 100%
Condom with the y. effective.
(in smaller It Condoms
males) / ring prevent may
Femido and the s break or
m (in larger transfer come off
females) ring of during
rests on Sexually intercours
the Transmi e.
outer tted
surface Infectio
of the ns
vagina. (STIs).
It
prevent
s sperm
from
enterin
g the
vagina.
97%
effectiv
e.

Cap/ A An Some
Diaphra rubber effectiv semen
 dome
placed
may seep
over
or escape
cervix
into the
before
uterus
interco
e around
urse.
method the edges
It
gm if used of the
should
correctl cap.
be used
y. It does
with a
not
spermic
protect
ide.
against
87-97%
STIs.
effectiv
e.

IUD It is a It is a The loop

(Intra- small very may
Uterine- plastic effectiv cause
Device)/ device e discomfor
(loop/coi wrappe method t in some
l) d in which women.
copper lasts for It does
or a long not
contain time. protect
s against
hormon STIs.
es. It is
fitted
inside a
woman’
s uterus
and it
prevent
s
embryo
from
implanti
ng.
96-99%
effectiv
 e.

These Only
are effective
Chemical
chemic if used in
als combinati
which on with
kill another
Quite
Spermici sperm. method
easy to
des They such the
use.
are cap.
applied It does
just not
before protect
interco against
urse. STIs.

Hormonal The pill The pill This can The pill

(oral contain be a can have
contrace s reliable unpleasan
ptive) or female and t side
injection sex effectiv effects on
hormon e some
es method women
oestrog as long such as
en and as the weight
progest pills or gain and
erone. injectio painful
These ns are period
hormon taken at pains.
es can the It does
also be right not
injected time. protect
. They against
work by STIs
prevent
ing
ovulatio
n. The
pills are
taken
daily
while
 the
injectio
ns can
be
adminis
tered
once a
month.
98-
100%
effectiv
e.

Pill with
high
hormon
al
An
content
effectiv
taken by
e birth High
the
control hormon
woman
method al doses
within
in case may
72hours
of have
Morning-after pill of
emerge long
intercour
ncy in term
se.
the effects
It
absenc on the
prevents
e of body.
ovulatio
contrac
n or
eption.
implanta
tion.
95%
effective.

In An It is
males, extreme permanen
sperm ly t and
Surgical Sterilisati ducts effectiv usually
on are cut e not
or tied method reversible
(vasect for hence
omy) to contrac suitable
 prevent
them
from
being
ejaculat
ed. In
females
, the
when one
oviduct
has
s are
decided
cut or
not to
tied
have any
(tubal
more
ligation eption.
children.
)
It does
prevent
not
ing
protect
them
against
from
STIs
travellin
g down
the
oviduct
s.
100%
effectiv
e.

Ethical considerations of contraception

 These include medical, religious, moral and personal views on

contraception.

1. Medical Ethics
 Hormonal contraceptives have been associated with some long-
term health risks including heart attacks, stroke, breast and
cervical cancer.
  IUDs are also considered potentially harmful because the
presence of a foreign body inside the uterus increases the
susceptibility to infection, uterine wall rupture and other
complications.

2. Religious Ethics
 Some religious communities are opposed to using some forms of
contraception especially those which have an abortifacient
(inducing a miscarriage) effect because they believe life begins at
conception.

 Other religious sectors are completely opposed to the use of

contraception, arguing that it interferes with the natural process
of child bearing.

 However, over the years, a host of problems (poverty, increased

cases of illegal abortions and baby dumping) have resulted from
lack of family planning due to religion’s doctrines.

3. Moral Views
 There is an argument over gender balance as most contraceptive
methods are designed for women and less options are available
for men.

 This creates a situation where women are more at risk of

experiencing side effects of birth control than men.

 A highly controversial issue occurs when it comes to prescribing

birth control to adolescents.

 Some argue that helping these teenagers to prevent unwanted

pregnancies is unethical because it encourages sexual activity.

 Others argue that adolescents are very likely to engage in sexual

activity hence there is need to allow them to take necessary
precautions.
  However, most of the contraceptive methods expose them to the
risk of contracting STIs.

4. Personal Views
 Some couples or individuals prefer not to use artificial forms of
contraception because of certain beliefs they may have
concerning them.

 A common belief is that contraceptive measures are manipulative

and interfere with the natural way of conception.

 Nonetheless, natural family planning is also considered a form of

manipulation due to the fact that one is making a conscious
decision to avoid pregnancy.

In vitro fertilisation (IVF)

 This is a specialised technique of fertilisation of an egg with

sperm outside the body.

 It is mainly used as an alternative for those who want to have

children in some cases of infertility such as:

 Damaged or blocked oviducts

 Failure to produce eggs

 Previous tubal ligation

 Low sperm count

 IVF is also used to screen for potential genetic defects and sex
selection before allowing pregnancy to occur and this is known
as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD).

 Prior to IVF, tests and counselling are performed to ensure

suitability for treatment.

 The first day of IVF treatment cycle is day 1 of the menstrual

period.
  There are four basic steps for IVF procedure which takes
approximately 40 to 60 days.

1. Egg Stimulation
o Ovaries are stimulated to produce mature multiple eggs by
artificial hormonal treatment.

o Doctors supress the release of follicle stimulating (FH) and

luteinising hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary gland
and artificially supply modified doses of the hormones to
obtain optimal response.

o This takes about 15 to 25 days.

2. Egg Retrieval
o Mature eggs are collected from the follicles just before
ovulation.

o This can be done through the vagina by a suction needle

under ultrasound guidance (fig.5.3.4).

o Eggs are then placed in separate test tubes containing

special culture medium and maintained at 37o C for about
4-24 days.

o This is a 1 day procedure.

3. Fertilisation
o Sperms are harvested from the male and prepared before
they are added to each egg in Petri dishes for fertilisation.

o Fertilisation can occur naturally, or in cases of sperm with

poor motility, fertilisation can occur via sperm injection
directly into cytoplasm (fig.5.3.5) or zona pellucida of the
egg.

4. Embryo Transfer
o Embryos are placed in the incubator to develop for 4 to 5
days.
 o Afterwards, they are transferred into the woman’s uterus by
placing a small tube (catheter) through the cervix.

o Up to three embryos can be placed in the uterus to increase

the chances of implantation.

o About two weeks after placing the embryos, a pregnancy

test is done to see if any of the embryos have implanted
successfully.

o An ultrasound scan is done about a month after placing the

embryos, to see if the pregnancy is proceeding normally.

o Unused embryos may be frozen at -196 o C for future use.

Fig.5.3.5

Egg extraction during IVF done under local anaesthetic.

Fig.5.3.6

Intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) of egg during IVF

Ethical considerations of IVF

 These vary depending on the country and also by religious

beliefs within that country.

 Different aspects concerning IVF treatment are usually regulated,

and some aspects may be permissible in one country but not in
another.

 In Zimbabwe, IVF was re-launched in June 2016, more than 30

years after it was first introduced thus it is a relatively new
technique.

 Accordingly, this is an uncommon practise at the moment,

making the ethical concerns about IVF in Zimbabwe limited.

 However, some common ethical implications of IVF include:

Failure Of IVF Treatment
 The success rate of IVF is known to decrease with age, with the
general worldwide success rate of less than 40% though it is said
to be improving.

 Therefore, there is a great risk of IVF treatment failing thus

exposing couples to trauma, financial burden and exploitation.

Multiple Pregnancy
 In an attempt to increase chances of pregnancy, there is also the
risk of more than one embryo implanting.

 Multiple pregnancies can increase the risk of pregnancy and birth

complications.

 In some countries, the number of embryos that can be

transferred are strictly regulated.

Embryo Manipulation
 In several countries, embryos mature for some days to allow
selection of the healthiest embryos, however, other countries
implant early embryos only.

 PGD is allowed in some countries but banned in others.

 Also, there is limit a on the maximum storage time for frozen

embryos in some countries.

Sperm/Egg/Embryo Donation
 The use of donor sperm, eggs and embryos raises a lot of ethical
issues.

 Some of the ethical implications includes the use of frozen

specimens after the death of the donor or the guarantee of
anonymity for donors.

Use Of Surrogates
o Gestational surrogates are women who become pregnant
through IVF and are not biological mothers of the baby.
  These women can receive payment for this service in some
countries while in others commercial surrogacy is banned.

Personal And Religious Views

 Some people support the use of IVF for conception while others
oppose the idea because of certain values they have concerning
conception.

 Some religious perspectives on IVF are based on the idea that life
begins at conception such that all fertilised embryos should be
implanted.

 Nevertheless, others believe that life begins some weeks later

after conception and that manipulation of unused embryos
should be done before the embryo is considered to be alive.

Abortion
 This is the early termination of pregnancy resulting in the death

of embryo or foetus.

 Naturally induced abortion or spontaneous abortion is commonly

known as miscarriage.

 A deliberate act of abortion is called induced abortion.

 In Zimbabwe, induced abortion is considered illegal and is only

permissible under a few exceptional and limited circumstances
as per Termination of Pregnancy Act of 1977 [Chapter 15:10] as
follows:

o Pregnancy endangers the life of the woman;

o Pregnancy threatens the physical and mental health of

pregnant woman;

o There is a serious risk of physical or mental defect to the

unborn child;
 o Pregnancy is as a result of unlawful intercourse which
includes the following;

Rape
 Sexual intercourse with a child below 16 years without her
consent;

 Sexual intercourse with a woman without her consent;

Incest
 Two individuals are so closely related that they are forbidden to
marry by law, religion or culture;

Mental handicap
 Sexual intercourse with a mentally handicapped woman.

Ethical Considerations Of Abortion

 In Zimbabwe, abortion is regarded by the constitution as illegal.

 The religious groups say that abortion is murder and a sin to

God, since an embryo is life in itself.

 They believe that life begins after conception.

 However, others argue that if abortion is murder, then most birth

control methods which are implemented after conception are
murder as well, as they manipulate the embryo after fertilisation

 There are many ethical implications surrounding abortion which

can be primarily categorised into two groups, pro-choice and
pro-life (Table 5.3.3).

 Pro-choice advocate the legal right of a woman to choose

whether to have an abortion or not.

 Pro-Life oppose the idea of abortion.

Table 5.3.3: Some ethical implications of abortion pro-choice versus pro-life.

PRO-CHOICE PRO-LIFE
Unwanted pregnancy creates lots of potential future
Mother should opt for adoption
problems such as increased responsibilities, finances
instead of aborting the baby.
and extra needs.

Abortion poses stigmatisation for

Abortion can be an effective family planning method in
the handicapped.
terms of number of children, sex preference and
Sex selection is regarded as
controlling passing of potential genetic disorders.
unjustifiable.

Abortion is murder because life

Life begins at birth, foetus has no living rights. begins at conception and foetus has
living rights.

The biological father of the baby has

Only the mother should have the right to decide
the right to influence the decision to
whether she needs to have an abortion.
abort.

Some religious beliefs condemn

Some women are pressured into abortion due to
abortion because it is regarded as
circumstances in the society around them.
murder.

Abortion generally poses health

Completing a pregnancy has higher physical health
risks to the mother both physically
risks than having an abortion.
and psychologically.

Abortion should be legalised to reduce the mortality

rate of women due to illegal and unsafe abortions.

11.0 Ecology
11.1 Levels of Ecological Organisation

Introduction
 Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of the processes
influencing the distribution and abundance of organisms, the
interactions among organisms, and the interactions between
organisms and their immediate environment.

 Common terms used in ecology are represented in fig.6.1.1.

Fig.6.1.1

Schematic diagram of ecological organisation levels

 The total space consisting of land, water and atmosphere around

the earth, where living organisms inhabit is called biosphere.

 Biosphere is made up of several distinct biomes.

 A biome is a major and distinct ecological community of mainly

plants (flora) and animals (fauna) adapted to a particular climatic
 or environmental condition on a large geographic area in which
they occur.

 Biomes are divided into two major categories namely the

terrestrial (land) and aquatic (water) environments.

 Aquatic biomes can be further subdivided into:

 Freshwater (water bodies on terrestrial environment that include:

ponds, rivers, lakes, streams or wetlands).

 Marine (sea or ocean rocky shores)

 Estuarine (semi-enclosed coastal body of water near seas or

oceans).

 Terrestrial biomes are defined by two most important climatic

variables for life, namely rainfall and temperature.

 The prevailing climatic conditions of a particular place determine

the level of biodiversity (plants and animals) that inhabit a
specific biome.

 Terrestrial biomes are usually categorised as climatic regions

like: Savanna, Tropical rainforest, Desert, Temperate deciduous
forests and Tundra.

 Each biome has a specific biological organisation which include:

 Species, Population, Habitat, Ecological niche, Community and

Ecosystem

1. Species
 A species is a group of closely related organisms that are very
similar to each other structurally and biochemically, capable of
interbreeding and, producing a fertile and viable offspring.

 It is important to note that a complete definition of species

includes the following four parameters;
  Closely related individuals of common origin or ancestry.

 Similar physiology and anatomy

 Capable of interbreeding (mating).

 Production of live offspring capable of interbreeding to produce

more individuals of the same species.

 A single member of a species is called an individual.

 An example of species is a donkey.

 A horse or zebra are other unique species.

 A donkey and a horse can successfully interbreed to produce a

mule which is infertile, hence organisms belonging to different
species.

 The scenario can also occur between similar organisms in the cat
family but the offspring will be infertile.

 As long as the product of interbreeding between similar

organisms is infertile, then the two organisms belong to different
species.

2. Habitat
 It is a physical or environmental area within a biome where a
particular species inhabits.

 A single biome is composed of several habitats, each with a

particular set of conditions and associated organisms.

 Typical habitats include freshwater ponds, slow-flowing streams,

rock pools, dams, lakes (Lake Kariba is the habitat for tiger fish),
grasslands and forests.

 Habitats can be further divided into microhabitats.

  Microhabitats are small localities or habitats within a habitat that
possess unique properties where new variations of life can exist
and thrive due to the unique conditions (microclimates).

 Examples of microhabitats include fallen log in a forest,

conditions on underside will differ from those on the upper side
of the same leaf, and a leaf on the topmost part receives a lot of
light whilst a leaf on the bottom most part of the same tree
receives less light.

 A habitat can support existence of more than one species

simultaneously, for example a forest can support survival of
predators and prey at the same time.

3. Niche (Ecological niche)

 It is a specific position that an organism or species occupies in
its habitat.

 A niche is determined by the total characteristics required for an

organism’s survival such as physical, chemical and spatial
factors.

 It is the way in which an organism functions in relationship to

abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) factors within its habitat.

 Ecological niche is defined by a place a species can take in

nature.

 This is determined by its abiotic requirements, food preferences,

microhabitat characteristics diurnal and seasonal specialization,
or predation avoidance.

 The concept of ecological niche combines the ideas of spatial

habitat with functional relationships of that organism.

 Thus an organism’s niche describes both its location and

purpose (for instance decomposer, predator, parasite, producer
and pollinator) within a specific habitat.
  For example, in a pond habitat, there are several species of
submerged, partially submerged and floating plants, as well as
many species of animals that include aquatic insects and fish.

 However, the niche of dragonfly nymph, an aquatic insect in the

pond habitat is to be a secondary consumer by eating tadpoles in
its habitat.

 No two species occupy the same niche in the same environment

in each other’s presence.

 Potential niche refers to what an organism or species’ niche

would be in the absence of limiting factors such as; food, water,
predators and competition from other species.

 It is the entire set of conditions under which an organism

(population, species) can survive and reproduce itself without
limitations.

 Realised niche is the part of fundamental niche containing set of

conditions actually used by given organism (population, species),
after interactions (predation and competition) with other species
have been taken into account.

 Realised niche is a subset of the fundamental niche as illustrated

in fig.6.1.3.

Fig.6.1.3

Relationship between fundamental and realised niche

4. Population
 It is a collection (all) of individuals or organisms of a specific
species that inhabits a particular space (habitat) at a particular
time.

 Note that the important factors of this definition are;

 Collection of all organisms.

 Individuals of the same species

 Specific habitat

 Example of a population is all individuals of the Mopane worms

(madora/amacimbi) population in a Mopane tree.

 Definition for population should not be confused with that of

population size.

 Population size is the number of individuals in a population.

 In itself population is not a level of organisation as no

organisation exists between the individual members.

 In some species, however the individuals exhibit some

organisation in which they cooperate for their mutual benefit to
form a society.

5. Community
 An ecological community is defined as all organisms of different
species living and interacting in the same habitat at the same
time.

 The organisms include plants, animals and microorganisms.

 A community is bound together by the network of influences that

species have on one another.
  Inherent in this view is the notion that whatever affects one
species also affects many others to bring about the "balance of
nature."

 An example of a community is microorganisms in the soil, grass

and trees, zebras or lions in a grassland.

 Vegetation (grass and trees) absorbs nutrients in the soil to

photosynthesise organic compounds like carbohydrates.

 Zebras then feed on the grass for survival.

 Lions then hunt down zebras and eat them.

 When the lions die or release waste matter, decomposition by

microorganisms take place and the nutrients are recycled in soil
for use by plants again.

 There are several interactions in a community besides the simple

one given as an example above and they include: symbiosis,
competition and predation.

a. Symbiosis
 It is a close relationship between two organisms of different

species.

 There are three kinds of symbiosis which are:

Mutualism
 It is when two organisms of different species exist in a
relationship in which both individuals benefit from the activity of
the other.

 Similar interactions within a species are known as co-operation.

 Example of mutualism is the lichen (fig.6.1.3), a close association

between a fungus and algae.

 The fungus supplies protection, moisture and inorganic nutrients

to algae whilst algae in turn supplies carbohydrates for fungus.
Fig.6.1.3

A lichen on a log
Commensalism
 It is a relationship between two individuals of different species in
which one species obtains food or other benefits from the other
without either harming or benefiting the latter.

 Example of commensalism is cattle egrets birds

(mafudzamombe/amalanda) that live near grazing cattle as
shown in fig.6.1.4.

 They benefit from living with the cattle because the cattle disrupt
insects in the grasses, providing the birds with a readily available
food source.

 The cattle gain nothing from this relationship but they are not
disadvantaged in any way.

Fig.6.1.4

Cattle egrets following a grazing cow in the pastures

  Another example of commensalism is remora (or sucker) fish
attachment onto the body of a shark (fig.6.1.5).

 The remora fish feeds on pieces of food left by the shark during
and after feeding on its prey.

 The shark neither benefits nor gets harmed from this

association.

Fig.6.1.5

Remora fish attaching onto a shark

Parasitism
 It is a relationship between species, where one species, the
parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host.

 Traditionally, parasite referred primarily to organisms visible to

the naked eye, or macroparasites (such as helminthes).

 However, currently it refers to organisms ranging from

microorganisms (bacteria, protozoa, fungi and virus) to large
organisms like ticks.

 A common example of parasitism is mosquito bites on human

beings.

 The mosquito parasite benefits (food in form of blood) whilst the

human host is harmed by the bites (fig.6.1.6).
  In some cases the human host gets infected with diseases such
as malaria or elephantiasis.

Fig.6.1.6

A mosquito feeding on human blood

b. Competition
 It is the interaction of two or more organisms of the same or

unique species where each organism is adversely affected by the

presence other organisms in respect of limited resources like
food, shelter, water, space, light and many others.

 Competition occurs when individuals attempt to acquire a

resource that is inadequate to support all individuals seeking it.

 Even when resources are adequate organisms harm each other in

an attempt to obtain it.

 There are two types of competition namely:

Intraspecific Competition
 It is competition occurring between individuals of the same
species (competition within a species).

 It can also be called scramble competition.

Intraspecific Competition
 It is competition occurring between individuals of different
species whose requirements are common and inadequate in the
environment.

 It can also be called contest or interference competition.

c. Predation
 It is an interaction between two individuals of different species

where one organism hunts, captures and kills another organism

of different species for food.

 A predator is an organism that hunts and consumes all or part of

the body of another, living or recently killed organism.

 The hunted individual is called the prey.

 "Living or recently killed" distinguishes predators from

decomposers, such as fungi and bacteria that break down the
leftover remains of organisms that have died.

 Examples of predators are lions, cheetah and leopards.

 Examples of prey are most herbivorous animals like zebras,

antelope, giraffe, buck and many more.

 Lions, leopards and cheetah hunt, kills and prey on zebras,

antelope and bucks.

Population Dynamics Of Predators And Prey

 Populations of predators and prey in a community are not always
constant over time; they vary in cycles that appear to be related.

 The most frequently cited example of predator-prey dynamics is

seen in the cycling of the predator lynx and its prey the
snowshoe hare (fig.6.1.7).

 The number of hares fluctuates between 5 000 at the low points

and 75 000 to 150 000 at the high points.
  There are typically fewer lynxes than hares, but the trend in
number of lynxes follows the number of hares.

Fig.6.1.7

Graph showing relationship between population size of lynx and snowshoe

hare
 The population cycles of lynx and hare repeat themselves

approximately every 10 years, with the lynx population lagging

one to two years behind the hare population.

 The classic explanation is that as hare numbers increase, there is

more food available for the lynx, allowing the lynx population to
increase as well.

 When the lynx population grows to a threshold level, so many

hares are killed such that the hare population size begins to
decline.

 This is followed by a decline in the lynx population due to

scarcity of food.
  When the lynx population is low, the hare population begins to
increase due, at least in part, to low predation pressure hence
starting the cycle anew.

 Today, ecologists no longer think that the cycling of the two

populations is entirely controlled by predation.

 For instance, it appears that availability of plant food eaten by

the hares which decreases when hares become too abundant,
due to competition may also be a factor in the cycle.

 Some recent studies have also shown that stress, whether due to
predation, low food availability, or other density-dependent
factors, may directly reduce the fecundity (reproductive output)
of female hares.

 However, the predator-prey interaction between lynx and hare is

a clearly a key element of the cycle.

Defence Mechanisms Against Predation

 When we study a community, we must consider the evolutionary
forces that have acted and continue to act on the members of the
various populations of the community.

 Species are not static but, rather, change over generations and
can adapt to their environment through natural selection.

 Predator and prey species both have adaptations.

 Adaptations are beneficial features arising by natural selection

that help them perform better in their role.

 For instance, prey species have defence adaptations that help

them escape predation.

 These defences may be mechanical, chemical, physical, or

behavioural.
 Mechanical defences, such as the presence of thorns on Acacia
plants (fig.6.1.8a) or the hard shell on turtles, discourage animal
predation and herbivory.

 This is achieved by causing physical pain to the predator or by

physically preventing the predator from being able to eat the
prey.

 Chemical defences are produced by many animals as well as

plants.

 The millipede (zongororo/tshongololo) has both chemical and

mechanical defences

 When threatened it curls into a defensive ball and produces a

noxious substance that irritates eyes and skin (fig.6.1.8b).

 Invasive plant called Lantana camara is extremely toxic when

eaten by herbivores (fig.6.1.8c).

 Armoured bush cricket (munya/iqhutshumbane) shown in

(fig.6.1.8d) is an insect native to the African bush across
Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and South Africa.
Fig.6.1.8

Various mechanisms of defence against predation

 Since they have many different predators, they possess a

remarkable array of defensive measures.

 These strategies can be deployed selectively against different

threats.

 They can also be deployed progressively against a single

predator if any lone measure does not work to deter the attack.

 These tactics range from the clever to the gross as stated below;

 Armoured exoskeleton provides some protection from predators.

 The crickets’ thorax is covered in sharp spines.

 They have strong jaws to bite.

 Male crickets can produce a loud, harsh noise by rubbing parts of

their body together, a behaviour known as stridulation.

 When attacked from the side, males stridulate to either scare off
predators or warn them.
 The crickets squirt haemolymph (insect blood) out of seams in
their exoskeletons if their armour, spines, jaws, and noisiness
fail to deter a predator.

 The haemolymph is pale yellowish-green, acrid-smelling and

distasteful.

 If all their other defences fail to deter a predator, the armoured

bush cricket regurgitates its stomach contents, covering its body
with its vomit.

 Many species use their body shape and coloration to avoid being
detected by predators.

 For instance, the crab spider has the coloration and body shape
of a flower petal.

 This makes it very hard to see when it is standing still against

the background of a real flower (fig.6.1.9).

 Another famous example is the chameleon, which can change its

colour to match its surroundings.

 Both of these are examples of camouflage, or avoiding detection

by blending in with the background.
Fig.6.1.9

Crab spider on a flower blending with yellow petal

 Some species use colouration to warn predators that they are not

good to eat.

 For instance, the strawberry poison dart frog shown in fig.6.1.10

has bright coloration to warn predators that it is toxic.

 The striped skunk (chidembo/mantshwane), uses its bold

pattern of stripes to warn predators of the unpleasant odour it
produces.

Fig.6.1.10

Images showing strawberry poison dart frog (left) and skunk (right)
  Beyond these two examples, many species use bright or striking
coloration to warn of a foul taste, a toxic chemical, or the ability
to sting or bite.

 Predators that ignore this coloration and eat the organism will
experience the bad taste or toxic chemicals, hence may learn not
to eat the species in the future.

 This type of defensive mechanism is called aposematic

coloration, or warning coloration.

 Some species have evolved to mimic, or copy another species'

aposematic coloration though they themselves may not be
tasting bad or toxic.

 In case of mimicry, a harmless species imitates the warning

coloration of a harmful one.

 If they share the same predators, this coloration protects the

harmless species, even though its members do not actually have
the physical or chemical defences of the organism they mimic.

 However, predators also have their own set of adaptations to

maximize the capture of prey, such as sharp claws and teeth, fast
running speed, and colouring that provides camouflage, allowing
the predator to lie in wait for the prey.

d. Herbivory
 Herbivory is the act of eating plants or plant-like organisms and

is a behaviour found in herbivores (herbi- refers to plants, and -

vory refers to eating).

 It is a predator-prey relationship in which an animal or insect

consumes a plant as shown in fig.6.1.11.

 In most cases herbivory does not kill the plant directly but it may
affect its growth, development and reproduction.
 This is because instead of feeding on the whole plant, herbivores
consume periphery parts.

 Herbivores have developed numerous feeding methods which

allow them to effectively exploit certain plant resources.

 Herbivore feeding may include techniques such as removing and

chewing fruits, leaves and stems, stripping and consuming bark,
boring into buds, seed and roots or sucking nectar and eating
pollen from flowers.

 The damage inflicted upon plants by herbivores can affect these

plants in negative and/or positive ways.

 This depends on the type, frequency and intensity of herbivory.

 For instance, low levels of grazing may actually stimulate a plant

to grow more quickly and produce more biomass.

 Once grazing levels become intense, however, plants are often

unable to compensate for the loss of biomass and therefore
either maintain very low biomass or die.

 Insects that feed on the nectar or pollen of plant flowers may

also be of benefit to the plant, as they often facilitate cross
pollination as they move from one plant to another.

 On the contrary, many insects (e.g. aphids, locusts and several

insect larvae) are considered serious pests.

 This is because they cause significant damage to vegetative and

reproductive structures on plants.
Fig.6.1.11

Some various forms of herbivory

 Many plants have evolved strategies that allow them to

compensate for, or completely avoid losses due to herbivory.

 Several plants possess physical and mechanical adaptations that

reduce or prevent the occurrence of herbivory.

 However, plants may have hairy or waxy leaves, thorny stems or

thick bark, all of which reduce the ability of a herbivore to
damage the plant.

 Another strategy involves the production of toxins or resins by

the plant.

 These toxins or resins serve to reduce digestibility of the plant,

repel or (in severe cases) kill the herbivore.

 The development of effective strategies for avoiding or deterring

herbivores can significantly enhance the survivorship of a plant
species.
  There are several examples, however, of herbivores which have
developed counter mechanisms that allow them to avoid or, in
some unique cases, exploit the plant’s defences.

 A good example of this demonstrated by the Monarch butterfly

(Danaus plexippus) which feeds exclusively on Milkweed
(Asclepias curassavica), on the leaves as a larva and on the nectar
as an adult.

 Milkweed is a herbaceous plant that produces a milky sap which

acts as a skin irritant, as well as toxic glycosides which are
poisonous if ingested.

 Through consuming this plant, Monarch butterflies are able to

sequester the plant toxins and therefore become poisonous to
birds and other animals which may prey upon them.

6. Ecosystem
 It is the interrelationship that exists between all living organisms
(biotic factors) and physical environment (abiotic factors) in a
habitat.

 An ecosystem is a basic functional unit of ecology since the

organisms that make up a community cannot realistically be
considered separate from their physical environment as shown in
fig.6.1.12.
Fig.6.1.12

A grassland ecosystem
 Ecosystems vary in size depending on the size of the community

or geographical areas considered so they can range from

localised areas to regions of the Earth.

 Examples of ecosystems are: grassland, desert, freshwater pond,

forest, marsh and coral reef.

 Types of ecosystems can also be grouped into terrestrial (land) or

aquatic (marine, freshwater or estuarine).

 Different ecosystems have communities composed of different

organisms and exposed to different geographical factors.

 An ecosystem is relatively self-contained and tends to perpetuate

itself through cycling of inorganic nutrients within it.

 In grasslands for instance, leaves fall, dry and decompose and

their nutrients are returned to the soil.

 Consequently other plants absorb these inorganic compounds

from the soil and use them for growth, development and
maintenance.
  Several different ecosystems can occur one area and sometimes
they overlap such that it may not be possible to draw a distinct
boundary between ecosystems

 The hierarchy of complex biological structures and systems that

define life is summarised in fig.6.1.13.

Fig.6.1.13

Diagrammatic representation of levels of ecological organisation

Energy transfer and efficiency
 In all ecosystems, light energy is converted during

photosynthesis to chemical energy through creating organic

molecules.

 This is carried out by plants using atmospheric or aquatic carbon

dioxide

 Some of these organic molecules are used as respiratory

substrates whilst others are used to generate biomass for
instance protein synthesis.
  Biomass is the combined total dry weight of a defined set of
organisms.

 Biomass revolves around the idea that energy is created

by producers in the food chain, which are then eaten.

 Energy and materials such as amino acids and glucose, however,

travel up the food chain or trophic levels.

 Biomass can be measured in terms of carbon content and dry

mass of tissue per unit area at any time

Pyramid of Energy
 This pyramid indicates the energy contained within the biomass

of each trophic level (fig.6.1.14).

 Organisms are burnt in a calorimeter to calculate the energy

released per gram.

 This method is both time consuming and destructive, so is rarely

used.

Fig.6.1.14

Pyramid of energy
Productivity
 Ecologists often look at the rate that energy passes through each

trophic level because it gives an idea of how much energy is

available to organism

 It is measured in mega joules of energy per square meter per

year

 At the base of the food chain, productivity is called primary

productivity

 Gross primary production = chemical energy store in plant

biomass in a given volume at a specific time

 However, some energy is lost when the plant respires and the
remaining energy is called net primary production

 Net primary production = chemical energy store in plant biomass

after respiratory losses to the environment have been taken into
account.

 Net primary production is what is available to the plant for

growth and reproduction.

 It is also available for consumption by organisms in higher

trophic levels, for instance herbivores or decomposers.

N = I − ( F + R ) N = I - (F + R)
Where; N = net primary production (energy available to
animals)
I = chemical energy store in ingested food
F = chemical energy lost to environment in faeces or
urine
R = chemical energy lost to environment in respiration

Energy transfer efficiency

 2% of light energy is converted to chemical energy by

photosynthesis and the rest is lost through reflection from

 leaves, heat loss, not all wavelengths being utilised and light
striking non-photosynthetic structures.

 10% of that energy is passed on along trophic levels and the rest
of the energy is lost at each trophic as heat (in respiration),
faeces or urine

 Less energy is therefore available for organisms at the next level.

 Respiration releases energy, some of which is used to maintain

temperature, for digestion and fix organic substance among
other things.

 Energy remains stored in dead organisms and waste material,

which is only available to decomposers.

 Waste material also includes parts that cannot be broken down

and digested by consumers.

 Higher up in food chains, less energy is available to sustain living

things so less tissue can be kept alive.

 This means that if organisms are of the same size, fewer can be
sustained higher up the food chain.
11.2 Nitrogen Cycle

Introduction
 Nitrogen cycle can be defined as a continuous natural cycle by
which nitrogen and nitrogenous compounds in the soil are
converted by nitrification, nitrogen fixation, into substances that
can be utilised by green plants (fig.6.2.1).

 The substances then return to the air and soil as a result of the
decay of the plants and denitrification.

 About 80% of the atmospheric air is unreactive nitrogen.

 Nitrogen is crucial to both plants and animals, as it is an element

in important biological elements such as amino acids,
chlorophyll, proteins, and DNA.

 However atmospheric nitrogen is unreactive and is not available

for use by the plants.

 The nitrogen gas must be converted into a more reactive state,

like nitrates and ammonia.

 Nitrates are formed by nitrogen fixation and by nitrification.

Fig.6.2.1

The nitrogen cycle

Nitrogen fixation
 Nitrogen fixation is a chemical process that combines nitrogen
and hydrogen to form ammonium ions, which then form nitrates.

 Nitrogen fixation occurs in three ways:

1. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria
 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria exist in two forms, which are mutualistic

bacteria and free-living bacteria.

 The best nitrogen fixing organisms are bacteria living in

mutualistic symbiotic relationship with leguminous plants such
as beans (bhinzi/indumba), peas, cowpeas (nyemba/omaqutha),
groundnuts (nzungu/amazambane), roundnuts (nyimo/indlubu)
and clover.

 The most common symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria belong to

the genus Rhizobium.
  Legume nitrogen fixation starts with the formation of nodules.

 Rhizobium bacteria in the soil invade the root and multiply within
its cortex cells forming a swelling called a nodule.

Fig.6.2.2

Root nodules containing Rhizobium.

 When nodules are young and not yet fixing nitrogen, they are

usually white or grey inside.

 As nodules grow in size, they gradually turn pink or reddish in

colour, indicating nitrogen fixation has started.

 The bacteria in the nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen to

ammonia.

 The leguminous plants use the ammonia to make amino acids for
protein synthesis and photosynthesis.

 The plant supplies protection, all the necessary nutrients and

energy for the bacteria to fix nitrogen.
  The relationship between the legume and Rhizobium is
mutualistic.

 When the plant dies the fixed nitrogen is released, making it

available to other plants hence helps to fertilize the soil.

 Free-living bacteria (non-symbiotic) are chemoautotrophs that

reduce atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia in the soil.

 Chemoautotrophs are organisms that produce organic matter by

the use of energy obtained by oxidation of certain chemicals with
carbon dioxide as the carbon source.

 Bacteria like Azotobacter lives aerobically in neutral to alkaline

soils and in aquatic environments where they convert nitrogen to
ammonia or ammonium compounds.

 Nitrogen fixing bacteria possess nitrogenase, an enzyme that

enables them to reduce nitrogen ammonia.

 The nitrogen fixation process by bacteria is represented by an

equation represented below:

N i t r o g e n + H y d r o g e n ⇌ A m m o n i a Nitrogen + Hydrogen ⇌ Ammoni

a
 The ammonia can be absorbed by any plants and used to
synthesise proteins and nucleic acids.

2. Lightning
 Large amount of energy in lightning breaks nitrogen (N2)
molecules and forms reactive nitrogen (N) atoms.

 Some of the reactive atoms may combine with oxygen in the air
to form nitrogen oxides.

 The formed nitrogen oxides dissolve in rain and when they reach
the soil they form nitrates.
  However, the energy from lightning may cause some reactive
nitrogen (N) atoms and water (H2O) to combine to form ammonia
(NH3) which will be converted to nitrates (NO3) in the soil

3. Haber process
 The ammonium nitrate fertilisers are manufactured in man-made

industries from ammonia in the Haber process.

 The fertilisers directly increase the nitrate content of the soil.

 Farmers also use natural fertilisers (manure) which release

nitrates through the action of the decomposers.

Ammonification
 It is the decomposition (decaying, putrefaction or rotting) of
nitrogenous organic matter (like proteins and nucleic acids) to
produce ammonia or ammonium compounds.

 Ammonification usually occurs in the soil in an aerobic

environment which gives decomposers enough oxygen respires.

 Decomposers (such as bacteria and fungi) breakdown waste or

dead, plant and animal matter releasing ammonia and
ammonium compounds into the soil.

 Ammonium can be a source of nutrition for many species of

plants, especially those living in acidic soils.

 However, most plants cannot use ammonium effectively and they

require nitrate as their primary source of nitrogen nutrition.

 There are two groups of organisms collectively known as

decomposers:

1. Saprobionts
 They are microorganisms like fungi and bacteria that live on

detritus (dead animal and plant matter).

  Sapribionts digest detritus by extracellular digestion and then
absorb the soluble nutrients.

 Microbial saprobionts break down proteins in detritus to form

ammonia in two stages:

 they digest proteins to amino acids using extracellular protease

enzymes, and then

 they remove the amino groups from amino acids using

deaminase enzymes

 Given time, they can completely break down any organic matter
(including proteins, cellulose and lignin) to inorganic matter such
as carbon dioxide, water and mineral ions.

2. Detrivores
 They are small invertebrate animals (such as earthworms and

woodlice) that feed on detritus.

 They digest much of the material, but like all animals are unable
to digest the cellulose and lignin in plant cell walls.

 Detrivores speed up decomposition by helping saprobionts that

is detrivores physically break up large plant tissue (like leaves or
twigs) into much smaller pieces, which they egest as faeces.

 The egested matter has smaller particles which has larger surface
area that makes it more accessible to the saprobionts.

 Detrivores excrete useful minerals such as urea, ammonia or

ammonium compounds which saprobionts can use.

 Detrivores aerate the soil, which consequently helps the

saprobionts to respire.
Nitrification
 Nitrification is a series of reactions that oxidise ammonia and
ammonium ions to form nitrates.

 The proteins in the dead plants and animals are gradually turned
back to ammonia or nitrates.

 The nitrification is a two-stage process which is done naturally

by the aerobic nitrifying bacteria which are found in the soil and
water.

 Stage one involves the oxidation of ammonia or ammonium ions

to nitrites by free-living bacteria like Nitrosomonas.

2 N H 3 + 3 O 3 → 2 N O − 2 + 2 H + + 2 H 2 O 2NH3 + 3O3 → 2NO2- + 2

H+ + 2H2O
 Stage two is the final part of the process involving oxidation of
nitrites into nitrates by other free-living bacteria like Nitrobacter.

2 N O − 2 + O 2 → 2 N O − 3 2NO2- + O2 → 2NO3-
 In both cases these chemosynthetic bacteria use these processes
as a way of getting their respiratory energy.

 The two stages are self-regulatory because accumulation of

nitrites inhibits Nitrosomonas, so it depends on Nitrobacter to
convert this to nitrate, whereas Nitrobacter depends
on Nitrosomonas to generate nitrite.

Denitrification
 Denitrification is the process in which nitrates in soil are

converted into atmospheric nitrogen which is unavailable for use

by plants.

 Denitrifying bacteria (which are anaerobic) reverse the action of

the nitrifying bacteria.

 This is because of the lack of oxygen for normal aerobic

respiration in soil.
 Thus they use nitrate in place of oxygen as the terminal electron
acceptor.

 Denitrification is carried out by a wide variety of heterotrophic

bacteria and the most common ones are thought to
be Pseudomonas and Clostridium.

 The denitrifying bacteria convert ammonia and nitrate to nitrites

anaerobically and finally back to nitrogen gas again which
escapes into the atmosphere, completing the nitrogen cycle.

 Denitrification occurs most readily in poorly aerated and

waterlogged soils (clay soils) hence such soils are prone to great
loss of nitrogen.

 Farmers and gardeners plough or dig their land to improve

aeration and drainage to avoid anaerobic conditions.
11.3 Conservation

Introduction
 Conservation is the preservation, protection and management of
biodiversity (various species), their habitats, and ecosystems
from extinction and erosion of biotic interactions.

 Extinction is when the last living member of a species dies and

the species ceases to exist on any part of the Earth.

 Biodiversity is the existence of many various kinds of species

within or among ecosystems, including variety within species and
habitats.

 Conservation seeks not to keep ecosystems as they are

indefinitely but rather to allow them to evolve naturally, much as
they would have done without human interference.

Importance of conservation
 There are several reasons for conserving ecosystems and their
respective biodiversity but just to mention a few:

 Species have an inherent right to exist.

 Future generations of humans should be able to enjoy all

species.

 Preserve potential medicines and other products that might

benefit humans.

 Preserve genetic variation in populations.

 Preserve food webs and community structure.

 Preserve ecosystem services such as nutrient recycling, waste

decomposition and water purification (wetlands).
  Various animals can serve as indicators for other environmental
problems.

 For instance the situation in which the loss of peregrine falcons

and bald eagles was one of the factors that alerted scientists to
the toxicity of DDT.

 This may have gone unnoticed for longer in a less diverse

ecosystem.

 Wildlife conservation may help solve other environmental

problems in a similar way.

 Providing tourists with the chance to see African animals within

their habitats (ecotourism) is a tremendous stimulus for
economies within Africa. Ecotourism is responsible travel to
natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the
well-being of local people.

 Conservation is pinned on three main principles which are:

o Preservation

o Management

o Reclamation

1. Preservation
 It is the act of maintaining, protecting (especially from loss,

injury, or danger) or keeping something in existence.

 Preservation aims to maintain individuals, populations and

ecosystem

 It is the strict setting aside of natural resources to prevent the

use or contact by humans or by human intervention.

 In terms of policy making this often means setting aside areas as

nature reserves (otherwise known as wildlife reserves), parks, or
other conservation areas.
  These areas usually restrict or prohibit activities such as farming,
logging, hunting, fishing and mining that may cause damage to
habitat or biodiversity.

 Legal devices such as laws and regulations may be employed

often, such as the Endangered Species Act in the United States,
which is not dependent on designating a specific geographic area
aside for conservation.

 Endangered species is a species threatened with extinction.

 This is because numbers of its individuals are reduced to critical

levels or population is too small.

 Such low numbers can compromise independent reproduction.

 A government's environmental policy determines which areas or

species are protected and how.

 Environmental preservation is different from conservation in that

conservation allows for sustainable development, whereas
preservation is complete restriction.

2. Management
 Ecosystem management is a process that aims at careful

treatment and control of the way ecosystems are handled.

 Management supervises major ecological services.

 It also restores natural resources while meeting the

socioeconomic, political and cultural needs of current and future
generations

 Two examples of environment managing bodies in Zimbabwe are

EMA and CAMPFIRE.
Environmental Management Agency (EMA)
 It is a statutory body in Zimbabwe responsible for ensuring the
sustainable management of natural resources and protection of
the environment.

 It also focuses on the prevention of pollution and environmental

degradation.

 It is also responsible for the preparation of Environmental Plans

for the management and protection of the environment.

 It was established under the Environmental Management Act

[Chapter 20:27] and became operational on the 17th of March
2003 through SI 103 of 2003.

 EMA has since 2003 been embarking on training activities aimed

at capacitating local authorities on the production of Local
Environmental Action Plans (LEAPs).

 LEAPs are local plans that local authorities develop for the
management of the environment within areas under their
jurisdiction

 The process involves all relevant key stakeholders, Non-

Governmental Organisations (NGOs), government institutions,
business people, CBOs, councillors and local authorities.

 These key stakeholders have come together to identify the

environmental challenges they face in their communities and
work together to solve them.

 The concept of sustainable development evolved in the early

1980s worldwide and it saw the development of the National
Conservation Strategy.

 The major objective of this strategy is to ensure that

development planning takes into consideration the need to
balance socio-economic development with environmental
protection.
 Some of the development planning mentioned above involves the
construction of infrastructure, dams and establishment of
settlements of settlements.

 EMA through the Environmental Planning and Monitoring (EPM)

unit established Community Based Organisations (CBOs).

 CBOs are community groups made up of individuals who have

passion for the environment.

 They voluntarily come together with the same objective of

managing their physical environment.

 This is in line with the Agency’s initiative to protect the

environment at the same time providing a livelihood option to
communities.

 When the concept was adopted by the Agency, most groups were
involved in awareness and clean up campaigns (advocacy).

 The Agency then added value to these groups by including a

livelihood sustenance component under the theme “Converting
Trash to Cash”.

 The intended goal is to have reduced amounts of waste going

into the landfill by making sure that communities through CBOs
reduce waste at source.

 The Agency capacitates CBOs through training, provision of

protective clothing, equipment and Environmental Management
Plan (EMP) development.

 EMA has also through a number of workshops created relations

with recycling companies, NGOs and other stakeholders whose
activities affect CBO operations.

 CBO activities are closely monitored by the Agency to ensure

compliance to the law and safe handling of waste.
Communal Areas Management Programme For Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE)
 It is a Zimbabwean community-based natural resource
management programme that considers wildlife as renewable
natural resources.

 It also addresses the allocation of ownership of wildlife to

indigenous peoples in and around conservation protected areas.

 It focuses on supporting the ability of rural communities to

participate in the economy through wise and sustainable use of
natural resources.

 The CAMPFIRE Association works with local communities to help

them to manage their land and wildlife for future generations.

 It also helps them realise financial benefits from effective

resource stewardship.

 CAMPFIRE provides the following services to local communities:

Law enforcement:
Training and financially support of “Resource Monitors”
or “Game Scouts”, who monitor and apprehend those
persons breaking the national, district or locally
developed rules designed to protect natural resources.

Contracting and monitoring of commercial activities:

Working with private tourism and safari operators in
liaison with Local Authorities to broker contracts and
ensure that producer communities are fairly compensated
for access to their wildlife resources.

Managing human-wildlife conflict:

This is a major issue in CAMPFIRE areas and a variety of
wild mammals and reptiles pose major threats to people’s
lives and crops.
The CAMPFIRE Association provides technical support and
funding for local projects that will reduce human-wildlife
conflict.

Fire management:
Uncontrolled veld fires cause substantial damage to
indigenous forests and wildlife areas, grazing areas,
people and property, and the environment.
The reduction of incidences of uncontrolled veld fires and
associated environmental damage is achieved through
implementation of effective fire protection strategies,
including training, and in some cases the purchase and
maintenance of equipment.

Counting wildlife and quota setting:

Knowledge of the number of animals in a given area and
where they are found using ground-based methods of
counting.
This allows producer communities to effectively increase
the productivity of wildlife based enterprises and
contribute to improvement of wildlife habitats.
Effective wildlife management by communities comes with
skills in monitoring changes in wildlife populations, and
the ability to contribute such information to the quota
setting process.

CAMPFIRE Managing Hunting For Conservation

 Wildlife is a nuisance for most rural Africans, posing a serious
threat to their livelihoods and sometimes their lives.

 Lions and leopards prey on their livestock, and elephants and

buffalo trample their crops, often destroying the people's only
source of subsistence and income in the process.

 Until now, the only solution has been to illegally hunt or 'poach'
animals for their meat, or to call for the Department of National
Parks to cull individual problem animals.
  However, given a steady income from trophy hunting, rural
people are now motivated to conserve and manage their wildlife,
and have the funds to protect their villages and crops.

 Through CAMPFIRE, hunting contributes to environmental

conservation in Zimbabwe's communal areas for instance:

 Young people from each CAMPFIRE area are trained to be game

scouts to prevent poaching and assist in local wildlife
management.

 Revenues from hunting are used by CAMPFIRE communities to

undertake animal censuses, provide environmental education and
prevent poaching.

 Hwange Rural District Council has imported wildlife onto

communal lands, where the wildlife population had been
decimated.

 During drought years, Beitbridge residents have drilled wells to

provide water for elephants, and supplied emergency food for
wildlife.

 Land is being zoned and set aside for wildlife.

For example, the Mahenye community abandoned its

villages on Ngwachumeni Island to turn it into a wildlife
management area.
They have stopped cutting down trees so as to improve
wildlife habitat and have also banned grazing of cattle
outside their community boundaries.
This was done with the objective of increasing the
amount of habitat available for wildlife.

3. Reclamation
 It is repairing and restoring lost or damaged habitats so that they

may be used once more.

  In Zimbabwe for instance a lot of investment through programme
like the Food-for-work was introduced.

 This has been made to reclaim land that was damaged by gullies
resulting from excessive erosion.

 A gully is a channel or small valley, especially one carved out by

persistent heavy rainfall or a small valley originally worn away by
running water and serving as a drainage way after prolonged
heavy rains.

 Gully reclamation is the process of reinstating and improving

land that has been disturbed by excess runoff back to its original
condition and preventing further damage to it.

 Gulley filling and/or planting vegetation to stabilize the banks

are some of the projects one can undertake to prevent erosion in
gullies.

 This can include the use of small dams of manure and straw,
earth, stone, or concrete to collect silt, thus gradually filling in
channels of eroded soil.

Gully reclamation tips

Grass Controls Erosion
 Exposed soil near a gully will be whittled away by both wind and
water, planting grass provides immediate relief.

 Grass seedlings can also be planted, provided they are protected

by mulch or straw until they sprout, otherwise they run the risk
of being blown or washed away before they develop roots.

Waterway Debris Removal

 Gullies and ditches that are choked with overgrown grass or
other plants will create a bottleneck effect during heavy rainfall
downpour, causing the water level to increase behind the
blockage.
  Debris floating downstream will also accumulate, and may create
a sort of "debris dam" which will further aggravate flooding.

 All vegetation should be cleared from a gully and shorelines.

 Grass should be left intact along the bank to provide erosion

control.

 Man-made objects such as trash, tires or old appliances must be

removed as they will also provide a trapping point for debris.

Diversion Barriers
 Low spots may allow water to flow into areas not designed to
channel it, and increase erosion.

 For instance, water may flow across a ball field instead of into a
storm drain or nearby gully, washing away topsoil and damaging
the field over time.

 A diversion barrier to channel runoff in the desired direction can

be as simple as arranging bales of hay in a line.

 The bales allow ponding of water on the upstream side of the

barrier, further slowing flow and reducing erosion potential.

 New home or other building construction sites should set up

erosion controls soon after the land portion of the work is
completed.

 Diversion barriers can also be built of sandbags or berks of soil.

Stone Lined Drainage

 Grass planting may be impractical or ineffective for steep gullies
or those which experience high water flow during storms.

 Rip rapping is a more viable solution in these cases.

 Rip rapping means placing rocks along and in the stream bed
and partially burying them so they do not wash away.
  Sometimes a metal screen is placed over the rocks to further
stabilise their positions.

 The rock surfaces break up and slow the runoff flow, preventing
it from eroding underlying soil.

 Another version of the rock-placing technique is to position

rocks at the end of a storm drain or gully where two runoff
sources join.

 The rock slows the water speed, reducing erosion at the junction
point while still allowing flow.

Retention Ponds
 Heavy runoff from non-absorbent surfaces such as parking lots
may require retention ponds.

 These depressions are dug into the earth and lined with clay or
stones.

 Runoff is channelled into the retention pond by concrete gullies,

and it flows over a spillway on one end at a much reduced rate of
flow.

 Retention ponds may be wet or dry, where dry ones do not retain
water between precipitation events.

 Wet retention ponds are better for removing sediment and

particles of pollution from water, but they may also become a
breeding ground for mosquitoes.

Conservation methods
 Natural resources can be conserved through various methods to

combat different pressures exerted on the environment

including:
1. Development Of National Parks And Nature Reserves
 National park is an area of substantial size containing a habitat
or habitats and attractive scenery that is legally safeguarded by
national wardens.

 Parks strive to maintain biodiversity mainly animals and plants in

their natural environments (in-situ) and limit building, grazing
domestic animals, hunting or other human activities.

 In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation or

the conservation of genetic resources in natural populations of
plant or animal species

 For instance conserving forest genetic resources in natural

populations of tree species.

 Zimbabwe Parks and Wildlife Management Authority (Zimparks) is

mandated to conserve Zimbabwe’s wildlife heritage.

 This is done through effective, efficient and sustainable

utilisation of natural resources for the benefit of present and
future generations and stakeholders.

 National parks in Zimbabwe are: Chimanimani, Chizarira,

Gonarezhou, Hwange, Kazuma Pan, Mana Pools, Matobo,
Matusadonha, Nyanga, Victoria Falls and Zambezi.

 Zimparks manages one of the largest estates in the country,

about 5 million hectares of land or 13% of Zimbabwe's total land
area.

 It should be noted that most of the Parks are located in

Ecological Regions four and five or rugged mountainous areas
which would not have much economic alternative use.

 Nature reserves are smaller than national parks but they also
protect biodiversity.
  Planning authorities have greater powers to control
developments and activities within these areas.

 In Zimbabwe and other African countries game parks are used to

help conserve endangered species such as the African Elephant
(Loxodonta africana) and White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium
simum).

 Tourists who regularly walk on tracks in these parks may cause

soil erosion in some parts of the parks.

 Soil erosion can cause loss of biodiversity due to habitat

destruction.

 The challenge is balancing the increasing wish of people to watch

natural scenery in parks and the need for conservation.

2. Cryopreservation
 It is the use of very low temperatures to preserve structurally
intact living cells and tissues ex-situ.

 Ex-situ conservation is the preservation of components

of biological diversity outside (off-site) their natural habitats.

 Cooling of cells from embryos and shoot tips is done in liquid

nitrogen -196°C.

 This is done to prevent dehydration and formation of

intracellular ice crystals, which can cause cell death and
destruction of cell organelles during the freezing process.

 Storage at low temperature halts all metabolisms implying that

the material can be preserved indefinitely given no mechanical
failure of storage systems occurs.

 The demerit of this method is that evolution of the germplasm

also stops with freezing.

 Hence the genetic material loses the ability to adapt to the

changing natural environment.
  Plant species may fail to survive in the changed environment
when they are reintroduced into the wild.

3. Breeding Zoos
 A zoo (zoological park) an ex-situ establishment which maintains
a collection of wild animals, typically in an enclosure, park or
gardens, for study, conservation, or display to the public.

 Zoos can freeze ova, sperm and embryos (cryopreservation) for

later development when natural habitats become available and
finances permit.

 Using embryo transfer and surrogacy, these frozen embryos can

be later used to produce additional individuals of endangered
species.

 Endangered animals may also be bred in the protected

environment of a zoo.

 When the numbers have been sufficiently increased they may be

reintroduced into the wild (captive breeding programmes).

 One species conserved in this way has been the Hawaiian Goose.

 Its population in the wild fell to around to 20 pairs before

supplemented by thousands of birds bred in captivity and
released into wild.

 Despite being less adapted to feeding and more prone to

predators, the introduced pairs stabilised the falling population.

 Another challenge with captive breeding animals from small

populations is inbreeding which shrinks genetic diversity or gene
pool.

 In the wild, female animals tend to mate with various male

individuals, which tend to increase genetic diversity within a
species.
  Some animals like the Giant Panda simply refuse to mate in
captivity making zoos an ineffective conservation method for the
species.

4. Botanical Gardens
 Botanical gardens protect endangered plant species ex-situ.

 Seeds or cuttings are collected from various species in the wild

and then used to build up a population.

 Harare Botanic Gardens and Mukuvisi Woodlands are examples of

botanical gardens found in Harare.

 Roles of botanic gardens are to:

 Protect endangered plant species which are increasingly

threatened in the wild by environmental degradation.

 Research methods of reproduction and growth so that species

cultivated can be grown in appropriate conditions and be
propagated.

 Research conservation methods so plants can be introduced to

new habitats if their original habitat has been destroyed.

 Introduce species to habitats where they have become very rare

or extinct.

 Educate the public in the many roles of plants in ecosystems and

their economic value

5. Seed Banks
 They are ex-situ facilities where seeds are stored.

 This is done with a commitment to safeguard genetic diversity

and ensure they remain viable for generations to come.

 They are a convenient and space-efficient method of conserving

germplasm.
 Seed banks were initially designed to focus on food crops and
their wild relatives but they now include reserves of many
endangered wild species.

 Maintained at a low constant temperature of about -20°C and

dried to a moisture content of about 10 per cent, seeds of many
species remain dormant and viable for a very long time (about 20
years).

 Seeds that can be stored under the above mentioned conditions

are referred to as orthodox for instance cotton, soyabean, cereals
and many vegetable species.

 If possible, seeds of same species are collected from different

sites so that the stored samples contain a representative of total
gene pool for the species.

 Seed banks carry out germination (viable) tests at five-year

intervals.

 When less than 85% of the seeds germinate successfully, and

then plants are grown from these seeds so that fresh seed can be
collected and stored.

 Seed banks take up little space, but can be expensive to run.

 This is because of the need to maintain low temperatures and

the necessity for germination tests, growth trials and
regeneration.

 They are not suitable for species with recalcitrant seeds like tea,
cocoa and rubber.

 Recalcitrant refers to seeds that undergo no maturation drying as

the final phase of development.

 These seeds tolerate very little post-shedding desiccation and

are often chiIIing-sensitive.
  Such seeds cannot be stored by any of the methods used for air-
dry orthodox seeds.

 Freezing can also derail evolutionary development of species in

seed banks.

 Genetic diversity may be lost with each regeneration cycle.

6. Field Gene Banks

 Plant genetic resources are kept ex-situ as live plants that
undergo continuous growth and require continuous maintenance
in field gene banks.

 Field gene banks are often used when the germplasm is either
difficult or impossible to conserve as seeds.

 When no seeds are formed, seeds are recalcitrant or seed

production takes many like many tree species.

 Field gene banks provide an easy and ready access to the plant
genetic resources, for characterisation, evaluation or utilization.

 The same material conserved in the form of seeds, in vitro must

be germinated or regenerated and grown before it can be used.

 They are also useful for conserving vegetatively propagated

genotypes that commonly produce variants (genetic variation)
since these can be more easily identified and rouged out in the
field than in vitro.

 Their main limitation is that they are expensive (require more

labour, more inputs and more land) and are difficult to maintain.

 They also have higher levels of risk from natural disasters and
adverse environmental conditions like drought, floods or attacks
from pests and diseases.
7. Legal Protection Of Endangered Species
 Countries should develop legislation that makes it illegal to
collect, hunt, capture or kill certain species.

 In Zimbabwe the Giant Ground Pangolin (Smutsia gigantea) is an

endangered species of animal which is prohibited to hunt or
capture.

 Possession of protected and endangered species attracts a heavy

fine, a long jail term or both.

 Lion (Panthera leo) is also a protected species in Zimbabwe.

 Hence the reason for outcry when “Cecil the Lion” was shot dead
by United States dentist Walter Palmer in July 2015.

 Two Zimbabwe citizens faced prosecution in relation to the death

but Palmer faced no charges.

 Legislation protects some species from extinction.

 However, regardless of stiff penalties such laws are violated.

 This is because of the difficulty of enforcing them especially due

to corruption amongst some law enforcers.

8. Removal Of Organisms From Threatened Habitats

 Organisms in habitats threatened by humans or natural disasters
such as floods or volcanoes may be removed and resettled in
more secure and stable habitats.

9. Control Of Introduced Species

 Organisms imported into a country by humans should be
controlled strictly to protect indigenous species.

 Failure to control organisms introduced into the country may

lead to proliferation of invasive alien species.

 These alien species may disrupt the natural biodiversity of a

habitat.
  In Zimbabwe imported plants will require inspection by Plant
Health Inspector from the Ministry of Agriculture, prior to their
release by the Zimbabwean Revenue Authority (ZIMRA).

 An import permit issued by the Plant Quarantine Services at the

Mazowe Plant of the Ministry of Agriculture is a pre-requisite
before importing plants or plant material into Zimbabwe.

10. Planned Land Use

 Specific areas of land are set aside for designated use.

 The types of activities permitted on the land are carefully

controlled and governed by legislation.

 In Zimbabwe the law prohibits construction of any form on

protected areas like wetlands.

 Monavale Vlei in Harare is a Protected Wetland Area which re-

charges the water table, filters and purifies the water; prevent
erosion, siltation and flooding.

 The vlei is grassland that holds an amazing array of plants and

animals.

 This includes 36 species of grass and more than 80 species of

other plants with their trillions of kilometres of roots which
remove toxic chemicals and hold the spongy clays together.

 Some areas are designated as Environmentally Sensitive Areas

(ESAs).

 Farmers or other landowners may be compensated for

restricting activities that may conflict with conservation of natural
habitats in the area.

11. Reduce, Reuse And Recycle(3Rs)

 3Rs refers to three terms often used when talking about waste.

 Reducing is cutting back on the amount of waste people make.

 People practice reducing the amount of waste they produce by
choosing to buy products that do not create excess waste and
have to be added to landfills.

 Buy supplies in bulk instead of single serve products, when

shopping.

 You can also buy products that have packaging that can be easily
recycled, and stop buying bottled water altogether.

 Reusable bags are also a good way to reduce waste.

 Families can reduce food waste by starting a compost pile in the

backyard using things like vegetables, leaves, paper, and coffee
grounds.

 Compost manure can then be used to fertilise gardens.

 You can then use your garden to grow food, and avoid having to
buy fruits and vegetables that come in packaging.

 Reusing is finding a new way to use trash so that it is not thrown

away.

 Instead of throwing things away that you might not use anymore,
give them to people who can use them.

 For instance if you outgrow your clothes, you might have a

younger sibling or friend that would be able to use them instead
of just throwing them in the garbage.

 People can also reuse items like cups and plates instead of using
disposables.

 The government of Zimbabwe, through taxing shopping bags has

encouraged people to reuse shopping bags instead of buying a
new one each time they go shopping.

 Recycling is using waste to remake new goods that can be sold

and used again.
  It is important to avoid throwing everything in the garbage
because things like bottles, cans, cardboard, and paper, that can
be used to make other products.

 When you recycle things that can be used to make new items,
you are helping to reduce how much energy is being used and
also reducing the amount of garbage sitting in landfills.

 Recycled products can be used to make all kinds of things for

example recycled soda bottle can be used to make lots of
different plastic items like combs.

 This reduces the amount of waste available reducing soil and

water pollution.

 Recycling in companies or big organisations can be done through

creating specific bins for specific waste material for instance
plastic, paper and food waste.

 Recycling is also a source of income because the waste will be

raw materials that can be sold to manufacturing and processing
companies.

12. Adopt Use Of Renewable Sources Of Energy

 Around the World, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is the most
rampant source of fuel in our homes today.

 Continued use of LPG results in the depletion of the oil reserves,

biogas is therefore an alternative.

 Biogas is mainly produced from cattle dung, biogas plants are a

source of both biogas and manure.

 People should migrate to use of bio-fuels which are mainly from

plant species.

 Bio-fuels are known to be bio friendly and they reduce the

occurrence of air pollution.
13. Pollution Control
 Measures to control pollution such as smoke emissions, oil
spillage, over-use of pesticides, fertiliser run-off and many
more, help to prevent habitat and species destruction.

 This is very important in sensitive and vulnerable areas such as

river estuaries, wetlands and salt marshes.

 The Environmental Management Act in Zimbabwe prohibits:

 The discharge or disposal of any waste in a manner that causes

pollution to the environment or ill health to any person and the
transportation of waste except under a licence issued by EMA.

It also gives details of who should apply for a waste

licence; this includes waste transporters within
Zimbabwe, operators of waste disposal sites or plants
and or to generators of hazardous waste.

 The discarding, dumping, and leaving litter on any place except

in containers or places provided for that purpose.

14. Education
 It is of paramount significance to educate people in ways of
preventing habitat degradation and encouraging the conservation
of organisms.

 The main role of education when it comes to environment

protection is offering awareness to everyone in a society.

 Education can help people of various ages and social standing to

find out about values, motivation, skills and responsibility
regarding maintaining the quality of the environment.

 Education has the power to modify the society and present better
knowledge to its populace.

Conservation of African Elephant (Loxodonta Africana)

  African elephants (Loxodonta africana) currently occur in wild
herds in sub-Saharan Africa.

 The majority of the population living in the savannah grasslands

of southern, western, and eastern Africa and the forest of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo.

 L. Africana is the largest known terrestrial animal currently

surviving on Earth.

Fig.6.4.1

A herd of African Elephants

 The distribution of African elephants varies considerably across

the four regions, with small fragmented populations in West

Africa and large tracts of range remaining in Southern Africa.

Fig.6.4.2
The range and population density of African Elephant
  The elephants have no major natural predators but their
population size continue to shrink, dropping from about 1.2
million in 1981 to about 623 000 in 1989

 Even though serious threat to African elephants is believed to be

posed from poaching and the illegal ivory trade, range and
habitat loss remain a significant long-term threat to the species’
survival.

 Human beings are the greatest threat to the elephants’ survival

because they compete with the elephants for land for; forestry,
agriculture and settlement hence dwindling the elephants’
habitat.

 Elephant-human conflict occurs when elephants and humans

interact; there is conflict from crop raiding, injuries and deaths to
humans caused by elephants, and elephants being killed by
humans for reasons other than ivory and habitat degradation.

Fig.6.4.4

Elephants invading human settlement, feeding and trembling on planted

crops
 The conflict leads to humans killing elephants that threaten
crops or property, killing them for food and mostly kill them for
their ivory.

 Poaching of elephants for ivory tremendously increased in the

early 1970s in response to a growing demand from Asia.

 In late 1980s ivory prices soared toUS$200 - US$300 per

kilogram on the open market, a price higher than that of silver!

 The high prices encouraged and promoted poaching in Africa

because it was a lucrative deal to most low-income earning
individuals.

 Poaching came along with a more complex challenge of

disrupting gene flow within the elephant population.

 Poachers identified and killed those elephants that had big tusks
because they had higher market value but robbing the
population of specific characteristics that may be significant in
adaptation to the changing environment.

 Adult (sexually mature)individuals were poached because they

had larger tusks compared to the younger ones meaning the
population size was bound to decrease since young individuals
cannot mate successfully to produce more offspring.

 Some poachers lace salt licks with cyanide and pour the chemical
into watering holes whilst in some cases, Paraquat, a powerful
agricultural herbicide that is extremely toxic to humans as well
as other animals can also be used.

 Poachers hack off tusks from the dead elephants (Fig.6.4.5) to

sell them on black market usually of Asian origin.

 The first known case of elephant poisoning in Zimbabwe was a

single massacre of over 100 elephants in Hwange national park
in 2013.
  Since then it has become a common means of poaching, not only
in Hwange but throughout the country’s protected areas,
including the, Matusadona, Mana Pools, Chizarira and
Gonarezhou national parks.

 A 2014 report, the National Survey for Elephants in

Zimbabwe, said that the number of elephants in the Zambezi
Valley had fallen from about 19,000 in 2001 to 13,000—a 40
percent drop.

Fig.6.4.5

Carcasses of the two African Elephants with tusks hacked off by poachers
 Young elephants living in matriarchal groups without mothers

(leaders of the social groups) usually lake guidance which

compromises their chances of survival to adulthood.

 In 1986 quotas for export of ivory were stipulated by the

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) to protect endangered species like
African Elephants.
 CITES banned international trading of ivory in 1989 to protect the
African Elephant.

 However, some countries like Zimbabwe, Zambia, Botswana and

South Africa objected to CITES arguing that they already had
successful sustainable management programmes.

 Zimbabwe used the CAMPFIRE programme to manage elephant

populations.

 The elephant population in Zimbabwe at that time was of good

age, sex structure and stable or in some cases required culling to
maintain rangeland.

 Culling is the process of reducing the size of an animal

population by segregating organisms from a group according to
desired or undesired characteristics for instance killing some of
the ‘problem causing’ individuals.

 Sustainably managed elephant populations create income from

sale of ivory, meat and hides, and at the same time promote
tourism.

 Sustainability is avoiding using up of natural resources in order

to maintain an ecological balance.

 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of

the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

 Elephants are regarded as a valuable resource, generating jobs

and money which are used for development programmes.

 Indigenous people of communities with elephants have strong

support for the maintenance of the herds and consider poaching
as an antisocial act.
  Advocates of CAMPFIRE argue that its introduction has
dramatically increased amount of land made available to wildlife
(up from 12% in 1988 to 35% in 1993).

 The reason for this increase is simply that the economic returns
from wildlife have in recent years those from domesticated
animals.

 However, some people believe that absolute ban of trade on ivory

products is the only way to avoid extinction of the elephants.

 They argue that people must be educated that avoiding wearing

or using ivory products reduces the demand for the elephant
tusks.

 The concept is similar to the idea when people were discouraged

from wearing fur coats made from skins of exotic and rare
species which resulted in low demand for the products, hence
helped to save many endangered species.

 Some also argue that as long as there is a legal source of ivory

from sustainable managed herds, it is difficult to enforce ivory
trade ban.

 Increase in human population continues to endanger the

existence of elephants even if they are no longer killed for their
ivory.

 The threat persists because humans continue to destroy or

invade habitats for elephants.

Conservation of White Rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum)

 The White rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum), along with the

roughly equal-sized Greater one-horned rhinoceros, is the

second largest species of land mammal after the elephant.

 White rhinoceros are also known as the square-lipped rhinoceros

due to their square upper lip.
  It has two distinct subspecies, but only populations of the
Southern white rhino remain viable.

 The Northern White rhinoceros is extinct in the wild due to

poaching a nemesis that may befall its southern counterpart if
conservation programmes are not applied.

 Southern White rhinoceros is classified as a near threatened

species.

 The White rhinoceros is a grazer with two (a longer and shorter)

horns made of keratin fibres on its snout and it lives in long and
short-grass Savannas of Africa as shown in fig.6.4.6.

Fig.6.4.6

Two White rhinos grazing in Savanna grassland

 White rhinoceros can live to live to about 50 years.

 White rhinoceros are semi-social and territorial with females and

young adults generally social, but bulls are typically solitary.
Fig.6.4.7

The range of White rhinoceros in Africa

 The majority (98.8%) of white rhinos occur in just four countries:

South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe, and Kenya.

 The overwhelming rhinoceros conservation success story is that

of the Southern white rhino. With numbers as low as 50-100 left
in the wild in the early 1900s, this sub-species of rhino has now
increased to between 19,666 and 21,085 and become the most
populous of all the rhinoceros species.

 Uncontrolled hunting in the colonial era was historically the

major factor in the decline of white rhinoceros.

 Today, poaching for the illegal trade in their horns is the major
threat.

 Powdered horn is used in traditional Asian medicine as a

supposed cure for a range of illnesses from hangovers to fevers
and even cancer.
 The powdered horn is also believed to be a strong aphrodisiac in
Asia.

 The recent surge has been primarily driven by the demand for
horn by upper-middle class citizens in Vietnam.

 The current spike in poaching of White rhino, particularly in

South Africa, has seen record numbers killed in recent years.

 Rhino horn is also bought and consumed purely as a symbol of

wealth apart from its use in medicine.

 White rhinos are particularly vulnerable to poaching because they

are relatively unaggressive and occurs in herds.

 Habitat loss through clearance of land for human settlement and

agricultural production to is another major threat White rhino
populations.

 White rhinoceros can be conserved using some conservation

methods mentioned earlier in the topic that include creation of
national parks, zoos, cryopreservation, captive breeding
programmes to name a few.

 The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) is an international organisation

actively involved in protection, monitoring and management
programmes to conserve the White rhino.

 The roles of WWF in White rhino conservation include:

 Expanding existing protected areas and improving their

management;

 Establishing new protected areas.

 Improving security monitoring to protect rhinos from poaching.

Fig.6.4.8

Game wardens using radio telemetry to monitor White rhinoceros

 Improving local and international law enforcement to stop the

illegal flow of rhino horn from Africa to other regions of the

world.

 Promoting well-managed wildlife-based tourism experiences

that will also provide additional funding for conservation efforts
for instance the Lowveld Rhino Trust, a Zimbabwean-registered
trust supported by a consortium of donors including WWF, was
created in 2008. This trust helped to form large conservancies
through technical and funding support.
11.4 Anthropogenic Impact on Ecosystems

Human settlement
 The need to establish human dominated communities where
people construct their homes has posed a great threat to various
ecosystems globally.

 Settlements clear and compact large portions of land to construct

buildings and infrastructure for effective service delivery.

 Clearing of land in grassland ecosystems remove vegetation

(grass, bushes and trees) which is usually home to animals such
as birds, rodents and other wild animals.

 Compaction during road construction reduces habitat for plants

and microorganisms that dwell in the soil.

 It also leads to loss of soil fertility through encouraging

anaerobic conditions which promote denitrification instead of
nitrogen fixation or nitrification.

 Paved and tarred surfaces affect the hydrological cycle negatively

since there will be enormous amounts of water lost as runoff
instead of increased infiltration.

 In general human settlements lead to limited biodiversity through

habitat destruction for other organisms.

 Habitat destruction is the process in which natural habitat is

rendered unable to support the species present.

 Fig.6.3.1 below shows limited biodiversity that exists in a human

settlement.

 How many different types of living organisms can you observe?

 Do you see any grass?

  Do you see any patch of soil?

Fig.6.3.1

A typical urban settlement constructed by humans

 In Zimbabwe wetland ecosystems had and still have a strong link

with development of the society.

 However, due to increase in population size the demand to

establish settlements is ever growing on the areas within and
surrounding urban areas.

 Recently a trend where people have started building houses on

wetlands has been evident in greater parts of already established
settlements in Zimbabwe.

 Concerned Harare residents had to engage the Harare City

Council and Environmental Management Agency (EMA) of
Zimbabwe to block invasion and construction of houses on
Monavale Vlei, an internationally recognised wetland.

 Monavale is an urban seasonally flooded short grassland wetland

ecosystem situated in northwest Harare, close to the City centre.
  Wetlands have been lost or degraded because of the disruption
of the natural process by establishment of settlements and
urbanisation.

 Many home owners seem unaware of the dangers of building in

wetlands.

 Constructing in such areas comes with a lot of risks for instance:

 the soil is not the best to build because its structure is weak and
mostly made of clay.

 building on wetlands directly tampers with the natural flow of the

environment by blocking water passage which is naturally
instituted by the free flow of water.

 it also tampers with natural water collection and may lead to

flooding as shown in fig.6.3.2.

 it can also expose people to water borne diseases such as

cholera and typhoid.

 rubbish dumping causes pollution to the wetlands as evident in

fig.6.3.3.

 Worse still the building can collapse as what happened to houses

built in wetlands in Chitungwiza early this year.

 In 2016 houses built in a wetland in Monavale and Dzivarasekwa

were affected by flash floods during the rainy season.

Fig.6.3.2
Flooded foreground of houses constructed on a wetland
 In Harare it is common to see waste dumped in wetlands and

wetlands around urban areas are often polluted.

Fig.6.3.3

Pollution of wetlands through rubbish dumping

 Sewage removal and treatment systems are usually overloaded in

overcrowded urban settlements.

  This leads to blockage, leakage and spilling of sewage systems.

 The raw sewage is usually deposited into wetlands which

drastically increase the amount of inorganic ions that may lead to
eutrophication of the water bodies.

Deforestation
 Deforestation is clearing forests on a massive scale, often
resulting in damage to the quality of the land.

 The world’s rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred

years at the current rate of deforestation.

 Deforestation has a devastating effect on the biodiversity of

some countries.

 Some common reasons for deforestation include:

 To make more land available for housing and urbanization.

 To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper,

furniture and homes.

 To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items,

such as the oil from palm trees.

 To create room for planting crops and cattle ranching.

 To clear land for mining activities.

 To create firewood (fig.6.3.4) that is used as fuel in most

developing world like Zimbabwe.
Fig.6.3.4

Humans cut down trees for firewood

 The biggest driver of deforestation is agriculture.

 Much of the forest in the northern hemisphere has been cleared

by humans to grow food, a process that began about 10 000
years ago.

 Vast tracts of forests remained in the southern hemisphere until

well into the 20th century.

 However, much of those in South-East Asia, Africa, Amazonia

and Central America have now been cut down and have often
been replaced with cattle ranches and plantations of palm which
have much lower biodiversity.

 Usually small farmers will clear a few acres by cutting down trees
and burning them in a process known as slash and burn
agriculture.
  Logging operations, which provide the world’s wood and paper
products, also cut large quantities of trees each year some of
which are shown in fig.6.3.5.

 Logging is the process, work, or business of felling, cutting trees

and transporting the logs to sawmills to prepare timber and
other tree products.

Fig.6.3.5

Logged trees awaiting transportation from forest

 Loggers, some of them acting illegally, also construct roads to

access more and more remote forests which lead to further

deforestation.

 Forests are also cut as a result of growing urban sprawl as land is

developed for settlement.

 Not all deforestation is intentional; some is caused by a

combination of human and natural factors like wildfires and
subsequent overgrazing, which may prevent the growth of young
trees.
Effects of deforestation
 The most immediate and dramatic impact is habitat destruction
for millions of species.

 Eighty percent of Earth’s land animals and plants live in forests,

and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their
homes.

 Loss of habitat can lead to loss of species or species extinction in

extreme cases.

 It also has negative consequences for medicinal research and

local populations who rely on the animals and plants in the
forests for hunting and medicine.

 Deforestation also accelerates climate change because moist

soils are without protection from sun-blocking tree cover,
quickly dry out.

 Climate change is a general change in global or regional climate

patterns.

 Precisely, it is a change caused mainly by the increased levels of

atmospheric carbon dioxide produced by industrial combustion
and the use of fossil fuels.

 Vegetation also helps to perpetuate the water cycle by returning

water vapour to the atmosphere.

 In absence of vegetation to assume these roles, many former

forest lands can quickly become barren deserts.

 Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy,

which blocks the sun’s rays during the day, and holds in heat at
night.

 This disturbance leads to more extreme temperature fluctuations

that can be harmful to plants and animals.
  Vegetation also plays a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse
gases that fuel global warming.

 Fewer forests mean larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering

the atmosphere and increased speed and severity of global
warming.

 Tree roots anchor the soil so without trees, the soil is prone to
soil erosion (washing or blowing away soil), which can lead to
loss of fertile topsoil.

Solutions to deforestation
 Use alternative renewable sources of energy like solar and biogas

instead of firewood.

 Curb the felling of trees, by crafting a robust legislature to

criminalise indiscriminate cutting of trees.

 Land cleared of its tree cover for urban settlements should have
trees planted in the vicinity and replace the cut trees.

 Cut trees must be replaced by planting young trees a process

called reforestation.

 Trees are being planted under several initiatives every year, but
they still do not match the numbers of the ones we have already
been lost.

 Trees should be planted on areas that did not have trees

previously an exercise called afforestation.

 Reduce paper consumption and opt for recycled paper products,

including printing paper, notebooks, napkins and toilet paper.
Simple habits to try are paperless banking services,
printing/writing on both sides of the paper, using less toilet
paper, avoiding paper plates and napkins.

 Using Recycled Products. Recycling is the process of utilizing

used or abandoned material to create new products.
  Using recycled paper products, such as paper pads, shopping
bags, books and tissue paper, can be helpful in preserving
forests as using recycled products reduces the need for the
cutting of trees.

Industrial activities
 Industrialisation to achieve economic development has resulted

in extensive global environmental degradation.

 While the impacts of industrial activity on the natural

environment are a major concern in developed countries, much
less is known about these impacts in developing countries.

 The developing world is often seen as having a high percentage

of heavily polluting activities within its industrial sector.

 This, combined with a substantial agricultural sector, which

contributes to deforestation, the erosion of the top soil and
desertification, has led to extreme pressures on the environment
and impoverishes the population by destroying its natural
resource base.

 With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, humans were able

to advance further into the 21st century.

 Technology developed rapidly, science became advanced and the

manufacturing age came into view but accompanied to these
came one more effect, industrial pollution.

 Earlier, industries were small factories that produced smoke as

the main pollutant but since the number of factories were limited
and worked only a certain number of hours a day, the levels of
pollution did not grow significantly.

 However, when these factories became full scale industries and

manufacturing units, the issue of industrial pollution started to
be conspicuous.
  Many of the largest polluters come from the chemical, pesticide,
oil refining, petrochemical, metal smelting, iron and steel, and
food processing industries which are all major users of energy
that produce large amounts of waste products and pollution.

 Other industries have less potential impact but are still

considered highly problematic when it comes to pollution and
these industries include the textile, leather tanning, paint,
plastics, pharmaceutical, and paper and pulp industries.

 Industries that are often outside the traditional manufacturing

sector but nevertheless contribute to environmental degradation
include the construction and mining, to name but a few.

 Industrial pollution takes on many faces including contaminating

sources of drinking water, releasing unwanted toxic gases into
the air and reduces the quality of soil all over the world.

 Major environmental disasters have been caused due to industrial

mishaps for instance the radioactive substance leak at Fukushima
nuclear plant in Japan on 11 March 2011, which is yet to be
brought under control.

Effects of industrial activities on ecosystem

Global Warming
 Global warming is among the most serious outcome of industrial

pollution, witnessed on the account of the steady rise of

industrial activities.

 Industries release into the atmosphere a variety of greenhouse

gases including carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4).

 These gases absorb (traps) thermal radiation or counter radiate

long (infrared) waves from the Earth thereby increasing the
general temperature of the earth, leading to global warming.

 Global warming has several severe effects on human health and

the environment.
  Melting of glaciers, rise in water levels, extinction of polar
species, tsunamis, flooding, and hurricanes are some of the
extreme effects of global warming.

 Furthermore, global warming has threatened human survival and

presented health risks such as the increased incidences of
diseases like cholera, plague and malaria.

Water Pollution
 Pollutants discharged from the industries have widespread

implications, and one of the unpleasant effects is on water

bodies.

 Industries demand lots of water for efficient production such as

cooling, cleaning, and treatment and as such, the water drawn
from the water sources is never the same after use.

 Contamination of water used and the discharge of different

industrial waste water into water sources often result in water
pollution (fig.6.3.6).

Fig.6.3.6

Dirty industrial water being disposed in an open water source

  When the nutrient content of water changes, it can disturb the
delicate balance of the ecosystem.

 For example, when the nutrient content of water increases above

normal, a condition known as eutrophication, can promote algal
bloom.

 Algal bloom can deplete the oxygen content of water.

 Though algae produce oxygen in the daytime with the help of

photosynthesis, at night, they use the oxygen dissolved in water.

 Algal bloom is often followed by the death of large quantity

algae, which are decomposed by bacteria using oxygen.

 The entire process of algal bloom and the consequent bacterial

decomposition of algae deplete the amount of dissolved oxygen
in water.

 Sometimes, this process can reduce the oxygen content of water

to such an extent that it can no longer support aquatic life.

 Such hypoxic areas of ocean, where marine life cannot survive

are known as dead zones.

 In most cases, the water is contaminated with dangerous

chemicals, radioactive materials, heavy metals or organic sludge.

 For this reason, dumping of the wastewater directly into

waterways or oceans negatively impacts on marine life, humans,
and the environment on various aspects.

Air Pollution
 Based on the increased counts of factories and manufacturing
processes, both large and small scale, gaseous emissions in form
of smoke have continued to increase exponentially.

 This makes industrial pollution one of the main causes of air

pollution.
  The emission from different industries (fig.6.3.7) contains
gaseous contaminants such as sulphur dioxide, carbon dioxide
(CO2), oxides of nitrogen and methane.

Fig.6.3.7

Air pollution caused by emission of waste industrial gases

 These gases, when too much in the atmosphere, frequently

results in several illnesses and environmental hazards.

 Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), chemicals found mainly in spray

aerosols and refrigerants heavily used by industrialised
countries, are the main culprits in ozone layer depletion.

 Ozone layer depletion is the reduction in the concentration or

amount of ozone in the ozone layer.

 When CFCs reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to

ultraviolet rays, which cause them to break down into substances
that include chlorine and bromine.

 The chlorine and bromine free radicals that react with the oxygen
atoms in ozone molecule and destroy their molecular structure,
hence depleting the ozone layer.
  One chlorine atom can break more than 1 million molecules of
ozone but bromine atom is believed to be 40 times more
destructive than chlorine atoms.

Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on health of humans
 Humans become more prone to UV rays that reach the Earth’s

surface.

 Studies suggest that high levels of UV rays cause non-melanoma

skin cancer and play a major role in malignant melanoma
development.

 Direct exposure to UV rays can lead to development of cataracts

which clouds the eye’s lens.

 Permanent exposure to UV rays can also lead to weakening of the

response of immune system and even permanent damage to
immune system in worst cases.

 Rapid aging of skin is another problem that will make humans

look older than their age.

 Extensive exposure to UV rays can lead to acceleration of the

aging process of human skin.

Effect on plants
 The physiological and developmental processes of plants are also

severely affected apart from the growth.

 UV radiation can alter the time of flowering, as well as the

number of flowers produced by a plant.

 Some changes that are caused by excessive UV rays include the

way plants form, timing of development and growth, how
nutrients are distributed within the plant and metabolism.
Effect on marine ecosystems
 It badly affects the planktons that form the foundation of aquatic

food webs.

 Phytoplankton grow close to the surface of the water and

plays vital role in the food chain and oceanic carbon cycle.

 Changes in UV levels are known to affect both orientation and

motility in phytoplankton which adversely reduces the survival
and growth rate of these organisms.

 UV rays are also affect the development stages of fish, shrimp,

crab, amphibians, and other marine animals.

 When this happens it affects whole marine food chain as

animals in the upper food chain that feed on these fishes are also
affected.

Effect on biogeochemical cycles

 Increases in UV radiation alter both sources and sinks of

greenhouse gasses in the biosphere for instance carbon dioxide,

carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulphide, ozone, and possibly other
gases.

 Changes in UV levels contribute to biosphere-atmosphere

feedbacks that mitigate or amplify the atmospheric
concentrations of these gases.

 Acid rain formation, the presence of smog, and heightened

incidences of respiratory disorders among humans are some of
the implications of air pollution.

 Acid rain is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation

with unusually acidic components, such as sulphuric or nitric
acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry
forms (rain, snow or hail).
  It is caused when precipitation absorbs or reacts with pollutant
gases in the atmosphere like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides.

Soil Pollution
 Soil pollution occurs when the soil loses its fertility and structure
owing to diverse natural and artificial phenomenon.

 Disposal of industrial wastes into landfills is among the artificial

aspects contributing towards soil pollution.

 Industrial wastes have in them varied amounts of toxic materials

and chemicals such that when deposited in landfills, it
accumulates in the top soil thereby depreciating the fertility and
biological activity of the soil due to soil poisoning.

 Such implications eventually contribute to ecological imbalances

thus creating problems in crop productivity.

 Apart from that, the chemicals and toxic materials in poisoned

soils accumulate in plants grown in such areas causing health
problems to those who consume such crops.

Effect On Human Health

 The world Health Organization (WHO) revealed that outdoor air
pollution accounts for about 2% of all lung and heart diseases.

 WHO also underscores, around 5% of all lung cancers and 1% of

all chest infections are implications of outdoor air pollution.

 One of the worst industrial disasters of all times that took place
in Bhopal, India, in 1984 claimed the lives of more than 8,000
people and the effects were still being felt more than two
decades later.

 This means, industrial air pollution may not manifest

immediately but may take several years for its effects to be
evident.
  Industrial toxic and chemical wastes that are disposed into water
bodies or landfills are also responsible for cancers and human
cell poisoning for example exposure to inorganic arsenic causes
tumours to form.

 Above all, industrial pollutants are responsible for thousands of

illnesses and premature deaths across the globe.

Wildlife Extinction
 The tendency of industrial and manufacturing processes that
constantly demands production resources and repeated
exploitation of raw materials has cumulatively led to the
destruction of forests and the natural habitats that support
wildlife.

 Acts such as mining, deforestation, and utilization of water

resources for industrial production have destroyed natural
habitats and forced organisms to move further into the wild,
exposing them to predators and intolerable living conditions.

 Consequently, some wildlife species have faced extinction while

several others remain highly endangered.

 Industrial wastes, chemicals, emissions, or accidental leaks, fires,

oil spills and so on have also been prime contributors to wildlife
extinction.

 Furthermore, these environmentally damaging materials take

several years to clean-up thereby compounding the effects for
instance, the British Petroleum (BP) oil accidental spill in 2012
claimed thousands of marine life (fig.6.3.8), and some of them
were among the rarest species on earth.
Fig.6.3.8

Dead marine birds whose feathers have been degraded by oil from oil spills
 Even after some time had passed, marine animals continued to

die.

Other Common Implications

 Other common implications of industrial pollution encompass
damage to structures and buildings and increased risks of
different occupational hazards like exposure to asbestos,
chemical dust, among other mineral or metallic particles.

Some ways to control effects of industrial activities on ecosystem

Control At Source
 It involves suitable alterations in the choice of raw materials and
process in treatment of exhaust gases before finally discharged
and increasing stock height up to 38 metres in order to ensure
proper mixing of the discharged pollutants.
Proper Selection Of Industrial Site
 The industrial site should be properly examined considering the
climatic and topographical characteristics before setting of the
industry.

Thorough Treatment Of Industrial Waste

 The industrial wastes should be subjected to proper treatment
before their discharge.

Plantation
 Intensive plantation in the region considerably reduces the dust,
smoke and other pollutants.

Stringent Government Action

 Government should take stringent action against industries
which discharge higher amount of pollutants into the
environment than the level prescribed by Pollution Control Board.

Assessment Of The Environmental Impacts

 Environmental impact assessment should be carried out regularly
which intends to identify and evaluate the potential and harmful
impacts of the industries on natural eco-system.

Strict Implementation Of Environmental Protection Act

 Environment Protection Act should be strictly followed and the
destroyer of the environment should be strictly punished.

 In Zimbabwe EMA is responsible for crafting effective laws that

protects the environment.

Agricultural activities
 The main impact from farming comes from clearing natural

habitats for agriculture and aquaculture, especially for intensive

monocultures.

 Agriculture is a major land use. Around 50% of the world's

habitable land has already been converted to farming land.
 Overall, farmland covers 38% of the world's land area and this
area is still expanding.

 Soil erosion commonly occurs following conversion of natural

vegetation to agricultural land carrying away fertile soil as well as
fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals.

 When natural vegetation is cleared and when farmland is

ploughed, the exposed topsoil is often blown away by wind or
washed away by runoff rain.

 Erosion caused by deforestation can also lead to increased

flooding.

 In banana plantations, for example, flooding occurs partly

because soil is no longer there to absorb the water and partly
because of poorly constructed plantation drainage systems.

 Agricultural ecosystems provide important habitats for many wild

plant and animal species.

 The rising demand for food and other agricultural products has
seen large-scale clearing of natural habitats to make room for
intensive monocultures and monocropping.

 Recent examples include the conversion of lowland rainforests

in Indonesia to oil palm plantations and of large areas of
the Amazon rainforest and Brazilian
Savanna to soybean and cattle farms.

 This ongoing habitat destruction threatens entire ecosystems as

well as many species for instance expanding oil palm plantations
in Indonesia and Malaysia.

 For example, poses the most significant threats to endangered

mega fauna including Asian elephant, Sumatran rhinoceros,
and tigers.
 On top of habitat loss due to clearing, 12 million hectares of land
are lost each year to desertification due to unsustainable
agricultural practices.

 The replacement of traditional and local crops and farm animals

with more genetically uniform, modern varieties has caused
the genetic erosion of crops and livestock species around the
world.

 The widespread use of genetically uniform modern crop varieties

has caused agricultural crops to lose about 75% of their genetic
diversity in the last century.

 This lost genetic diversity reduces the potential for modern crops
to adapt to, or be bred for; changing conditions and so directly
threatens long-term food security.

 Aquaculture on the other hand, is in direct competition with

natural marine and freshwater habitats for space.

 Excessive water use for agriculture is leaving rivers, lakes and

underground water sources dry in many irrigated areas.

 Globally, the agricultural sector consumes most of the Earth's

accessible freshwater.

 The main causes of wasteful and unsustainable water use are:

 leaky irrigation systems

 wasteful field application methods

 cultivation of thirsty crops not suited to the environment.

 Unsustainable water use harms the environment by changing the

water table and/or depleting ground water supplies.
 Excessive irrigation can also increase soil salinity and
wash pollutants into rivers causing damage to freshwater
ecosystems and species as well as those further downstream,
including coral reefs and coastal fish breeding grounds.

 The use of pesticides, fertilizers and other agrochemicals can

overlap or escape to areas surrounding a field.

 This is caused by some application methods such as pesticide

spraying by aeroplane that lead to pollution of adjacent land,
rivers or wetlands.

 Due to inappropriate water management and irrigation

technology, fertilizers and pesticides also commonly run-off
from fields to adjacent open water bodies and contaminate
groundwater sources.

 Presence of fertilisers in freshwater and marine areas alters the

nutrient system and in consequence the species composition of
specific ecosystems.

 These chemicals eventually end up in the open water sources and

lead to eutrophication.

 Toxic pesticides often do not just kill the target pest but
beneficial insects in and around the fields can be poisoned or
killed.

 Pesticide pollution of rivers, lakes and wetlands also directly

poisons freshwater species, as well as people.

 Some pesticides are suspected of disrupting the hormone

messaging systems of wildlife and people, and many can remain
active in the environment for many generations.

 Pesticides that remain active for many years and are not
degraded after killing the target pest are referred to as persistent
pesticides.
  Persistent pesticides kill organisms that feed on the killed pest,
and kill many more other organisms in the food chain of the
pest.

 Use of dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) as a pesticide

was banned worldwide because of its persistent characteristics in
food chains.

 DDT was initially used by the military in World War II to control

malaria, typhus, body lice, and bubonic plague.

Mining
 Mining is an inherently invasive process that can cause damage
to a landscape in an area much larger than the mining site itself.

 The effects of this damage can continue years after a mine has
shut down, including the addition to greenhouse gasses, death of
flora and fauna, and erosion of land and habitat.

Effects of mining to ecosystems

Habitat Degradation
 Mining can lead to the destruction of habitats in surrounding
areas preceded by deforestation during clearing of the land
above the mine.

 Most mining companies can sacrifice to destroy an entire forest

to get access to mineral wealth.

 Deforestation deprives birds, animals, and creatures that depend

on vegetation for food or shelter of their habitat.

 Any remaining survivors are forced to relocate and find a new

dwelling thus reducing biodiversity in the ecosystem.

 The removal of trees can also significantly affect the plants that
rely on them for shade from the extreme sun.
  Some mining methods cause further destruction, such as the use
of explosions to destroy mountain tops.

 Toxic chemicals and minerals could go to streams, rivers, and

other bodies of water which can create harmful effects to aquatic
species.

 Mining can cause species loss and extinction of species endemic

to the geographical location of a mine.

 Reclamation of the disused mining area usually fails to support

flora and fauna that originally grows on the location before the
mining occurred.

Pollution
 Mining can leak pollutants into the environment that may lead to
water contamination.

 At the simplest level, mining requires clearing of trees that hold

soil in place.

 The process can disturb the ground and wash the soil into nearby
water bodies through soil erosion.

 The increase in sediment (siltation) is not poisonous, but it can

still upset the delicate balance of the aquatic ecosystem by
changing growing conditions and eventually alter the shape of
the river.

 The mining process exposes bodies of water to heavy metals and

toxic minerals like selenium which can negatively impact the
human and the aquatic lives.

 Release of harmful trace element cobalt, lead and cadmium leads

to the contamination of surface water.

 Underground water is also contaminated due to seepage and

infiltration of leached drainage.
  Most modern mining techniques have high water demands for
extraction, processing, and waste disposal.

 Wastewater from these processes can be disposed into and

pollute water sources nearby, and deplete freshwater supplies in
the region surrounding the mine.

Water Loss
 Mining cause the water table level to decrease.

 Water often seeps into areas that contain coal and other valuable
products, and that water needs to be pumped out of the mine to
allow the miners to work.

 Aside from pollution, the process would also cause water loss in
the ground.

 Some mines have to collect water for use as a dust suppressant,

which puts more strain on the local water supply.

 Nearby settlements that depend on wells for their water supply

can also get affected negatively.

 They will need to drill even deeper to ensure that they have
access to water.

 A drastic drop in water table level leads to drying up of

surrounding open water sources like springs, rivers and dams
hence negatively affecting aquatic organisms.

 When the water loss from mining is combined with another large
source of strain on the supply, it can lead to a shortage, which
can contribute to the destruction of ecosystems.

Climate Change
 Mining is one of the most common methods for extracting fossil
fuel from the ground.

 Fossil fuels can be used to power mining machinery.

  Although useful, burning fossil fuels release greenhouse gasses
into the air which contributes to climate change.

 Many mines produce methane as a waste product.

 Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas; even a small

amount of it can gradually worsen climate change.

 Coal mines are responsible for approximately six percent of the

methane that is released due to human activities.

Global warming
 It is a gradual increase in the overall temperature of the earth's
atmosphere generally attributed to the greenhouse effect.

 Greenhouse effect caused by increased levels of carbon dioxide,

CFCs, and other pollutants.

 Greenhouse effect is the trapping of the sun's heat in Earth’s

lower atmosphere (by carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen oxides,
ozone and CFCs).

 This is due to the greater transparency of the atmosphere to

short wave radiation from the sun than to infrared radiation
emitted from the planet's surface.

 Some animal species are already shifting toward higher

elevations or higher latitudes, as warming intersects with other
natural and human-produced environmental change.

 Ecosystems will change, for instance some species will move

further north or become more successful but others will not be
able to move and could become extinct.

 Pika, diminutive rodents found in mountainous parts of North

America and Asia, has disappeared from more than half of their
range in the U.S. Great Basin in the last century.
 Though agricultural growing seasons in some areas will expand,
the combined impacts of drought, severe weather, greater
number and diversity of pests, lower groundwater tables and a
loss of arable land could cause severe crop failures and livestock
shortages worldwide.

 Warmer ocean temperatures, most evident during El Niño events,

have weakened or killed off coral species during "bleaching"
incidents.

 More than 15% of the world’s reefs were damaged by ocean

warming associated with the 1997–98 El Niño.

 Warming waters and related changes are also helping push some
algae, plankton, and fish species toward North and South poles.

 Another threat to coral reefs arises from changes in the

chemistry of ocean water that make the water less alkaline as it
absorbs carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.

 A reduction in the intensity of winter cold snaps is expanding the

range where some insects can flourish.

 Mountain pine beetles and spruce budworm have invaded forests

across western North America.

 More than 30% of amphibian species have been recognized as

vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered.

 There are multiple causes, including the interaction of warming

temperatures with rainfall cycles and seasonality, as well as
ozone depletion, pollution, and other environmentally induced
stresses.

 Warmer temperatures will also expand the range of many

pathogens that were once confined to tropical and subtropical
areas, killing off plant and animal species that formerly were
protected from disease.
 Some diseases will also spread, such as mosquito-borne malaria
and the 2016 resurgence of the Zika virus.

 Ice is melting worldwide, especially at the Earth’s poles, including

mountain glaciers, ice sheets covering West Antarctica and
Greenland, and Arctic sea ice.

 Many species have been impacted by rising temperatures for

instance the decline in the penguins on Antarctica, where their
numbers have fallen from 32,000 breeding pairs to 11,000 in 30
years.

 Some butterflies, foxes, and alpine plants have moved further

north or to higher, cooler areas.

 Some invasive species are thriving.

 For example, spruce bark beetles have boomed in Alaska thanks

to 20 years of warm summers.

 The insects have chewed up 4 million acres of spruce trees.

 Precipitation (rain and snowfall) has increased across the globe,

on average.

 Sea levels are expected to rise between 18 and 59 centimetres by

the end of the century, and continued melting at the poles could
add between 10 to 20 centimetres.

 Hurricanes and other storms are likely to become stronger whilst

floods and droughts will become more common.

 Less fresh water will be available for instance if the Quelccaya ice
cap in Peru continues to melt at its current rate, it will be gone by
2100, leaving thousands of people who rely on it for drinking
water and electricity without a source of either.

 Research scientists have observed that since the mid-1980s, with

less ice on which to live and fish for food, polar bears have
gotten considerably skinnier.
  There are fears that if sea ice disappears, the polar bears will
face extinction in the wild.

 The effects of global warming can be summarised as:

o Changes in the timing of seasonal life cycle events

o Range shifts

o Food web disruptions

o Buffer and threshold effects

o Pathogens, parasites, and disease spreading

o Extinction risks

Invasive plant species

 Species that grow and reproduce quickly, and spread

aggressively, with potential to cause harm, are referred to as

“invasive”.

 Invasive species are primarily spread by human activities, often

unintentionally.

 People, and the goods we use, travel around the world very
quickly, and they often carry uninvited species with them.

 Invasive species do not necessarily have to come from another

country.

 For example, lake trout are native to the Great Lakes, but are
considered to be an invasive species in Yellowstone Lake in
Wyoming because they compete with native cutthroat trout for
habitat.

 Invasive alien plant species refers to a foreign plant species that

grow and reproduce quickly, and spread aggressively, especially
one that is not natural to the country where it is growing.
 Invasive species may exploit a resource that native species
cannot use which allows them to take hold and dominate in the
new ecosystem.

 Some invasive species also alter the ecosystem in a manner that

makes it more favourable for them, but less favourable for
natives, which is called ecological facilitation.

 Threats of invasive plant species include:

o Preying on native species.

o Out-competing native species for food or other resources.

o Causing or carrying disease.

o Preventing native species from reproducing or killing their

young.

o Changing food webs: Invasive species can change the food

web in an ecosystem by destroying or replacing native food
sources. The invasive species may provide little to no food
value for wildlife.

o Decreasing biodiversity: Invasive species can alter the

abundance or diversity of species that are important habitat
for native wildlife.

o Aggressive plant species like Lantana camara can quickly

replace an ecosystem of a rich biodiversity with a
monoculture of just Lantana camara.

o Some invasive species are capable of changing the

conditions in an ecosystem, such as changing soil
chemistry or the intensity of wildfires.
Examples of invasive alien plant species in Zimbabwe
Water Hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes Martius)
 It is a freshwater aquatic plant that is a native of Brazil and
Ecuador region in South America.

 It grows from a few inches to about a meter in height but the

stem and leaves contain air filled sacs, which help them to stay
buoyant in water.

 Water hyacinth (fig.6.3.9) is considered as anoxious weed since it

grows very fast and depletes nutrient and oxygen rapidly from
water bodies, adversely affecting flora and fauna.

 Water Hyacinth in Zimbabwe is a threat in rivers along the

Manyame Catchment, Lake Mutirikwi and Zambezi River.

Fig.6.3.9

Water hyacinth covering part of water surface at Lake Chivero b. specimen

of a water hyacinth plant
Lantana Camara
 It is a small perennial shrub which can grow to about 2m in
height and grows rapidly forming dense thickets in a various
ecosystems.

 Due to extensive selective breeding throughout the 17thand

18thCentury for use as an ornamental plant there are now many
different forms of L. camara present throughout the world.

 L. camara produces berry-like fruits (fig.6.3.10) that turn to deep

purple colour when mature.

 Up to 12,000 fruits can be produced by each plant which is then

eaten by birds and other animals which can spread the seeds
over large distances, facilitating the spread of L. camara.

 It is poisonous to livestock and children have been known to die

after eating unripe berries.

 It is also unpalatable, and in large doses (approximately 1% of

total body weight) is poisonous, particularly to cattle.

 If untreated L. camara poisoning can result in photosensitisation,

loss of appetite, jaundice, liver and other organ or tissue
damage, and even death.

Fig.6.3.10

Lantana camara a. Mature berry fruits of the plant b.Thicket of the plant
The Jumping Cholla (Cylindropuntia Fulgida)
 It is mainly found in Matabeleland South Province with the
severely affected districts being Gwanda and Beitbridge.

 The plant species is spreading to other arid districts rapidly and

is threatening livestock and human settlements.

 The plant species (fig.6.3.11) spreads by vegetative means and

rarely through seed.

 The thorny plant segments are adapted for dispersal by animals,

birds and humans.

 Current management strategies include cutting and burning

(EMA) but the most sustainable management method is to
release the biological control agent for the cholla biotype of the
cochineal insect Dactylopius tomentosus.

Fig.6.3.11

Jumping cholla (Cylindropuntia fulgida) in an arid environment

12.0 Biodiversity

12.1 Classification

Introduction
 The general organisation and grouping of living organisms is
referred to as classification.

 The study and science of classification is called taxonomy.

 Taxonomy aims to facilitate the identification of unknown plants.

 All organisms are arranged into groups which fall into

hierarchies.

 The groups then become more specific and contain fewer

organisms.

 All organisms are placed into one of 5 kingdoms which are the
largest.

 The Five Kingdom Classification was proposed by R.H.

Whittaker in 1969.

 The main criteria used by him includes:

o Cell structure- whether complex eukaryote or simple

prokaryote.

o Thallus organization.

o Mode of nutrition- autotrophic or heterotrophic.

o Mode of reproduction.

o Phylogenetic relationships.
  The kingdoms are classified into Prokaryotes, Protista, Animalia,
Plantae and Fungi.

 This system of classification clearly indicates cellular

organisation and modes of nutrition.

 Kingdoms are further classified into phyla.

 Phyla are grouped into called class.

 Classes are grouped into order.

 Order is then classified into family.

 Family are further grouped into genus which is finally grouped

into species.

 Organisms that belong to the same species are able to interbred

and produce a viable offspring.

Binomial system of naming

 Binomial system represents a scientific and international
approach to naming organisms.

 The naming consists of a two part name.

 The first word is a Latin noun representing the genus while the
second is an adjective representing the species.

 The generic name is written in capital letters followed by the

specific name with a small letter.

 The name is written in italics.

 If the name is written it is supposed to be underlined.

 Organisms might have the same generic name but different

species name.

 The lion is scientifically named Panthera leo.

 Panthera is the genus while leo is representing the species.

Taxonomic hierarchy
Fig.7.1.1

Taxonomic hierarchy

Kingdom Animalia
 This kingdom includes vertebrates and non-vertebrates.

 The cells are eukaryotic.

 The organisms are heterotrophic, multicellular organisms with

nervous coordination.

 They move and get food from external sources.

 Kingdom Animalia is subdivided into 36 phyla with different

characteristics.

 Body wall is either diploblastic or triploblastic.

 Diploblastic are animals in which cells are arranged in two

embryonic layers.

 Triploblastic are animals whose cells are arranged in three

germinal layers.

 Cnidarians such as jellyfish are diploblastic.

Fig.7.1.2

Diploblastic and triploblastic body wall

 Animals are categorized into asymmetrical, radial symmetry and

bilateral symmetry.

 Asymmetry represents animals which cannot be divided into

equal planes.

 Radial symmetry represents animals that can be divided into two

when a plane passes through centrally.

 Bilateral symmetry represents animals that can be divided into

right and left identical halves.

 Some animals exhibit metameric segmentation in which the body

is segmented.

 Acoelomates have an absent body cavity.

Fig.7.1.3

Acoelomate, Coelomate and Pseudocoelomate comparison

 Pseudocoelomates have a body cavity not derived from the

mesoderm but are present between the ectoderm and the

endoderm.

 Coelomates have a body cavity lined by the mesoderm.

Fig.7.1.4

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Porifera
 This phylum consists of salt water sponges.

 They do not possess nervous control.

 They have no organs or muscle cells.

 Examples include Sycon, Euspongia and Spongilla.

 These organisms do not possess a clear symmetry.

 They are found attached to a surface.

 Organisms in this phylum have pores through body.

 No mouth or anus is visible.

 A classic example is a sponge.

Fig.7.1.5

Sponge which an example of an organism in the Phylum Porifera.

Phylum Cnidaria
 Phylum cnidaria consists of aquatic animals.

 They are diploblastic with a body wall of inner gastrodermis and

outer dermis cells.

 This phylum shows polymorphism.

 Organisms in this phyla are radially symmetric.

 They have tentacles.

 Stinging cells are also present.

 They possess a mouth but no anus.

 An example of a cnidarian is a jellyfish

Fig.7.1.6

Jellyfish
Phylum Platyhelminthes
 These are a group of flatworms with bilateral symmetry.

 They are triploblastic with a body wall consisting of inner and

outer gastrodermis.

 They are bilaterally symmetrical.

 Platyhelminthes have flat bodies.

 Their bodies are unsegmented.

 Platyhelminthes have a mouth but the anus is absent.

 An example of a Platyhelminthes is a tapeworm.

Fig.7.1.7

Flatworm which is an example of a Platyhelminthes.

 The flatworms are endoparasites that live in other animals.

 Examples are Taenia and Fascicola.

Phylum Nematoda
 These are parasitic worms.

 They lack cilia and flagella.

 Phylum Nematoda consists of roundworms with a complete

digestive system.

 Pseudocoelom- body spaces but no true coelom.

 They have an unsegmented and cylindrical body.

Fig.7.1.8

Roundworm which is an example of an animal in the phylum Nematoda.

Phylum Annelida
 Phylum Annelida are aquatic, terrestrial and are free living or
parasitic in nature.

 They are true worms that have a non-chitinous cuticle, chaetae

and metameric segmentation.

 The organisms are bilaterally symmetrical.

  Bristles often present in these organism.

 Animals in this phylum have a segmented body.

 They have a mouth and anus.

 Examples are earthworms and Leeches.

Fig.7.1.9

Earthworm which an example of an annelid.

Phylum Arthropoda
 Phylum Arthropoda is the largest phylum.

 Insects have exoskeleton mainly comprising a chitinous cuticle.

 They have dorsal heart and open blood system.

 Grow in stages after moulting.

 Athropods are bilaterally symmetric.

 They have segmented bodies and jointed appendages.

 Examples: spiders, butterfly, grasshoppers and locusts.

Fig.7.1.10

Grasshopper which an example of an anthropod.

Phylum Mollusca
 Phylum Mollusca is the second largest phylum in the kingdom
Animalia.

 They are aquatic and terrestrial.

 Examples are Octopus and Squids.

 Body is divided into muscular foot and mantle.

 Mantle may secrete calcareous shell.

 Bilateral symmetry but torsion may lead to asymmetry.

 In some cases shell may be present.

 Segmentation not visible in these organism

 The mouth and anus is present.

 Specific examples include slugs and snail.

Fig.7.1.11

An image of a snail which is a classic example of a mollusc.

Phylum Echinodermata
 Phylum Echinodermata consists of sea stars and sea urchins.

 They have a water vascular system, tube feet and are predators

Fig.7.1.12

An example of an echinoderm (Starfish)

  They are triploblastic.

 Mouth is present on ventral side while anus is present on dorsal

side.

 Nervous system is absent and they are brainless organism.

Phylum Chordata
 Phylum Chordata includes vertebrates which include fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.

 They have a notochord, a dorsal hollow nerve and paired

pharyngeal.

Fig.7.1.13

Examples of chordates.
Kingdom Protista
 The kingdom Protista is a group of eukaryotic organisms which

are categorised into Protozoans and Algae.

 Most of the organisms are single-celled, colonial or multicellular.

 They contain chloroplasts for photosynthesis and mitochondria
for respiration.

 Nucleus contains linear DNA strands with attached histone

protein.

 Movement of Protista is by cilia or flagella.

 Respiration is usually an aerobic process but for some living in

mud below ponds or in digestive systems of animals they are
facultative anaerobes.

 Nutrition can be heterotrophic in protozoa or autotrophic in

algae.

 Some protists feed by the process of endocytosis.

 Reproduction is mainly by mitosis but meiosis in other Protists.

 Plasmodium falciparum which causes malaria is found in the

kingdom Protista.

 Protozoans are classified on the way they move into

 Sacordinians, which move using pseudopod.

 Zooflagellates, which move using flagella.

 Ciliaphorans, which move using cilia.

 Sporozoans which form spores.

Fig.7.1.14

Kingdom Protista
Phylum Ciliophora (Ciliates)
 Protozoans of this phylum are unicellular and heterotrophic.

 They move with hair like structures called cilia that stick out of
their cells.

 Most ciliates have two nuclei which made up of a large

macronucleus and smaller micronucleus.

 The micronucleus is used in a sexual process called conjugation.

 Reproduction is asexual.

 An example is Paramecium.
Fig.7.1.15

Paramecium which is an example of a ciliate.

Phylum Rhizopoda
 The Rhizopoda are protozoa which are unicellular and have
pseudopodia (Fig.7.1.16).

 Pseudopodia are useful for taking in food by phagocytosis and

movement.

 They are heterotrophic and produce asexually.

 An example is Amoeba proteus

Fig.7.1.16

A diagrammatic representation of Amoeba.

Phylum Chlorophyta
 The green algae are photosynthetic and contain chlorophylls a
and b.

 They are multicellular and unicellular.

 The green algae contain carotenes and xanthophylls.

 Reproduction is sexual.

 Cell walls are made of cellulose and pectin.

 They are mostly fresh water organisms

 An example is Chlorella.

Phylum Rhodophyta (Red Algae)

 Red algae are multicellular and marine.

 They carry out photosynthesis and have chlorophyll a.

 Reproduction is sexual.
  They contain the red pigment phycoerythrin and the blue
pigment phycocyanin.

Fig.7.1.17

Red algae
Kingdom fungi
 Fungi are multicellular eukaryotic organisms with a distinct

nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

 They form mycelium which is a network of hyphae that

sometimes have septa.

 Cell walls contain chitin.

 They do not possess chlorophyll.

 Fungi are heterotrophic.

 Yeasts an example of fungi reproduce through budding.

 Reproduction is by spores and is through asexual and sexual

reproduction.

 An example is Penicillium chrysogenum.

Fig.7.1.18

Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Ascomycota
 Ascomycota produce spores from sac-like ascus.

 Mature sac fungi spores are known as ascospores.

 Ascomycetes reproduce asexually by fission, spores or budding.

 Aspergillus, Claviseps and Neurospora are all examples of

Ascomycota.

Phylum Zygomycota
 Zygomycota are zygote forming fungi.

 Zygospores are produced when asexual reproduction by

conjugation takes place.

 Hyphas join together fusing their nuclei to form zygospores.

 Asexual reproduction occurs by means of spores which develop

inside sporangia.
Phylum Basidiomycota
 Phylum Basidiomycota includes mushrooms, rusts, and toad
stool.

 The spores are made on a club-shaped spore case called

basidium.

 Spores are produced by sexual reproduction and they are called

basidiospores.

 Most members of this group form associations with roots and are
called Mycorrhizae.

Kingdom plantae
 Kingdom Plantae consists of multicellular eukaryotic and

chlorophyll containing organisms.

 The cells have green plastids called chloroplasts which contain

chlorophylls a, chlorophylls b and other pigments.

 Cell walls of plant cells contain cellulose.

 Plant cells have the ability to grow by cell division.

 Reproduction is by sexual and asexual means with alternating

haploid and diploid generations.

 Nutrition is autotrophic.

 They obtain their energy from the sun through photosynthesis.

 Plants are classified based on the presence or absence of

vascular tissue and the presence or absence of seeds.
Fig.7.1.19

Kingdom Plantae
Phylum Bryophyta
 Phylum Bryophyta contains bryophytes.

 These are non-vascular plants that do not contain any

conducting tissue.

 They are anchored on the ground by structures known as

rhizoids.

 Reproduction occurs in the spores.

 Bryophytes which include mosses and liverworts are found in

moist habitats.

 The moist conditions are important because sperm which have

flagella have to swim in water to fertilise the eggs.

 Liverworts, mosses (Fig.7.1.17) and hornworts are all bryophytes.

Fig.7.1.20

Mosses
Phylum Filicinophyta
 Ferns are seedless vascular plants that contain vascular tissue
but do not produce seeds.

 Reproduction is carried out by spores.

 The dominant phase is the sporophyte.

 Horsetails, ferns and club mosses are found in this group.

Fig.7.21

Fern which is an example of a plant in the phylum Filicinophyta.

Phylum Angiospermophyta
 Angiosperms are flowering plants which develop the seed within
a protective structure called a fruit.

 This group includes all major food plants and flowers.

 Reproduction is carried by Angiosperm.

 Seeds are developed within an ovary which after fertilization

becomes a fruit.

 Angiosperms are divided into two classes namely,

monocotyledons and dicotyledons.

 The embryo in monocotyledons has one seed leaf while in

dicotyledons the embryo has two seed leaves.

 Trees, vines, flowers and shrubs are all Angiosperms

Fig.7.1.22

A sunflower which an example of an Angiospermophyta.

Phylum Coniferophyta (Conifers)
 Confers are corn bearing plants that lack flowers or fruit.

 The corns produce sporangia.

 Reproduction is via wind pollution.

 They produce different male and female spores.

 Corn bearing trees make up this group.

Fig.7.1.23

Confers which an example of a plant in Phylum Coniferophyta

Kingdom Prokaryote
 Prokaryotes are represented by bacteria as the only member.

 They exist in different shapes which include spherical (coccus),

rod (bacillus), spiral (spirillum) and shapeless bacteria.

 Only a few prokaryotes can move by means of flagella while the

rest are non-motile.

 Prokaryotes are phototrophs, chemotrophs and heterotrophs.

 Phototrophs are photosynthetic organisms that synthesize their

own food by using light energy.

 Chemotrophs prepare their own food by using chemical energy.

 Heterotrophs depend on other substances for nutrition as they

cannot make their own food.

 Reproduction is asexual by binary fission, conjugation,

transduction and transformation.

 Examples include blue-green algae such as cyanobacteria.

 Prokaryotes are made of two groups, archaea and bacteria.

Archaea Bacteria
 Archaea bacteria include organisms that can withstand and grow
under extreme conditions.

 Halophiles grow under extreme salt concentrations.

 Thermophiles grow under extremes in temperatures and pH.

 Methanogens in marsh and animal guts produce methane gas.

Eubacteria
 Photosynthetic autotrophs such as cyanobacteria.

 Usually have flagellum for movement.

 Strictly anaerobes.

Table 7.1: Summary of the five kingdom classification system.

NUMBER OF TYPE OF HOW THEY GAIN DO THEY

KINGDOM EXAMPLES
CELLS CELLS THEIR ENERGY? MOVE?

Some Heterotrophic, Bacteria,

Prokaryotae Unicellular Prokaryotic Some
Some Autotrophic Cyanobacteria

Mainly Some Heterotrophic,

Protoctista Eukaryotic Some Amoeba
Unicellular Some Autotrophic

Mainly Mushroom,
Fungi Multicellular Eukaryotic Heterotrophic
not Moulds, Puffballs

Trees, Flowering
Plantae Multicellular Eukaryotic Autotrophic No
Plants

Animalia Multicellular Eukaryotic Heterotrophic Yes Bird, Human, Cow

12.2 Importance

Economic importance of kingdom Prokaryote

 Prokaryotes are important in fermentation, biotechnology, food
spoilage and decomposition.

Fermentation
 Fermentation is done by anaerobic bacteria and is the production

of organic acids, gases and alcohol in the absence of oxygen.

 Streptococcus, Lactobacillus and bacillus produce lactic acid

while Escherichia and Salmonella produce ethanol, lactic acid,
acetic acid and carbon dioxide.

 Bacteria work by metabolizing some sugars.

 Lactic acid fermentation occurs in yogurts and in animal muscles

during oxygen depletion.

 During yogurt and cheese production, the highly acidic

environment generated by lactic acid fermentation denatures
proteins in milk causing it to solidify.

 Production of lactic acid as the only fermentation product is

called homolactic fermentation.

 Heterolactic fermentation produces a mixture of lactic acid,

ethanol and carbon dioxide.

 These types of bacteria use the pentose phosphate pathway

instead of the EMP pathway for glycolysis.

 Leuconostoc mesenteroides is used for souring vegetables like

cucumbers and cabbage producing pickles and sauerkraut.
Fig 7.2.1

Some products of fermentation

Biotechnology
 Bacteria play an important role in biotechnology.

 Some of their uses include in the pharmaceutical industry, in

energy production and in the mining industry.

Pharmaceutical Industry
 A great number of antibiotics are obtained from bacteria.

 Recombinant bacteria are used to synthesize insulin growth

factors and other pharmaceutical products.

 Antibiotics such as streptomycin and terramycin are obtained

from bacteria.

Mining Industry
 Bacteria are used for the extraction of metals from mines.

 This is referred to as biomining or microbial mining.

 Biotechnology is applied in creating recombinant bacteria.

 These bacterial species are prepared and they can selectively

extract metals from raw ore.
Agriculture
 Bacteria are used to genetically modify plants.

 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, the cause of crown gall can

integrate some of its own DNA into the host genome.

 This unique mechanism is used as a tool for engineering desired

genes into plants.

 Thus genes that be transferred into plants so as to improve

certain characteristics in plants.

 For instance drought resistant plants can be made by transferring

genes using Agrobacterium tumefaciens.

Production Of Edible Vaccines

 Bacteria play a key role in biopharming.

 Biopharming involves use of transgenic microorganisms which

are genetically engineered to produce pharmaceutical
substances.

 For instance certain species of bacteria can be used in the

production of edible vaccines.

 Gene is isolated from a human pathogen and is inserted into a

bacterium that affects plants.

 Bacterium affects potato leaf segments which grow into whole

plants carrying the gene from human pathogen.

 Eating of raw potato triggers an immune response to the

pathogen.
Food Spoilage
 Bacteria are of importance in the spoilage of food.

 Bacillus species are responsible for the spoilage of bakery

products while Clostridium species contaminate refrigerated
vacuum-packed meats.

 They are also responsible for the contamination of milk products.

 Cottage cheese can be spoiled by bacteria such as Alcaligenes

sp.

Fig.7.2.1

Bacteria food spoilage

Decomposition
 Bacteria act as decomposers and are termed saprotrophs.

 Saprotrophs are organisms that feed on dead or decaying organic

matter.
  Bacteria feed on vegetation and weeds metabolizing the carbon
compounds.

 Decomposers are responsible for retaining nutrients preventing

loss through the roots.

 Bacteria species like Rhizobium are responsible for nitrogen

fixation

 Many species of bacteria play a key role in bioremediation.

 Bioremediation is defined as the use of microbes to clean up

contaminated environments.

 For instance Pseudomonas species can be used to clean oil spills.

Economic importance of kingdom Protista

 Plasmodium, Schistosoma and Trypanosoma represent Protista
which are of socio-economic importance.

Plasmodium sp
 Plasmodium is the cause of malaria which has a high mortality

rate globally.

 Mosquitoes are responsible for the transmission of Plasmodium

when they feed on an infected host.

 The Plasmodium has a sexual stage that occurs in mosquitoes

and asexual stage in humans.

 Malaria is also transmitted through blood transfusions and

passing on of Plasmodium from mother to foetus across the
placenta.

 Drug resistant forms of Plasmodium have increased and these

have greatly contributed negatively to the fight against malaria.
Schistosoma sp
 Schistosoma sp are responsible for the disease Schistosomiasis

also known as bilharzia.

 Schistomiasis is responsible for the infection of over 200 million

people worldwide.

 People are infected when they come into contact with larval
forms of the parasite in infected water.

 In the body, the larvae develop into adult schistosomes.

 These release eggs that are passed out of the body in the faeces
or urine to commence the lifecycle.

 Schistosomiasis is prevalent in poor communities with unclean

water supply.

 In children, it can cause anaemia and stunted growth.

 Chronic schistosomiasis may affect people’s ability to work and

may even cause death

Fig.7.2.2

Children playing in water running the risk of bilharzia

Trypanosoma
 Trypanosomes are protozoa that infect a number of vertebrates

causing Trypanosomiasis.

 They cause diseases that affect cattle and humans which hinders
agricultural development.

Human African Trypanosomiasis

 Human African Trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness occurs in
Sub-Sahara Africa.

 Wild and domestic animals can host Trypanosoma brucei

gambiense and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense which affect
human beings.

 These animals act as an important reservoir of infection for the

tsetse fly.

 Rural populations that are into domestication of animals and

hunting are more susceptible to infection.

Animal African Trypanosomiasis

 Animal African Trypanosomiasis is caused by different
trypanosome species except those affecting human beings.

 Trypanosoma equiperdum and Trypanosoma simiae are some of

the species causing diseases in wild and domestic animals.

 The diseases caused are nagana, dourine and surra.

 These diseases have a large impact on the development of

agriculture.

 Nagana affects cattle causing reduced milk and meat production.

Fig.7.2.3

Tsetse fly and tsetse fly bite

Kingdom Fungi
 Fungi are important in fermentation, Penicillin production,

decomposition and food spoilage.

Fermentation
 Fungi make use of fermentation in beer brewing, wine making
and in the baking industry.

 Beer brewing is carried out by Saccharomyces cerevisae.

 Saccharomyces cerevisae utilizes fermentable sugars such as

glucose and produces alcohol.

 In wine making, grapes are fermented into alcohol.

 Saccharomyces cerevisae is also utilised in bread making.

 The sugar in the dough is used to produce alcohol and carbon

dioxide.

 The carbon dioxide produces bubbles causing the bread to rise

while the alcohol evaporates due to the heat.
Penicillin Production
 Penicillin is made by the production of the fungus Penicillium in a
large fermenter (fig.7.2.4).

 In Zimbabwe, penicillin production is carried out by CAPS

pharmaceuticals.

 The fungus is grown in a culture medium containing

carbohydrates and amino acid.

 The contents are stirred and mixed with oxygen then rolled into
pellets.

 Fungus grows for the first 24 hours then begins to secrete

penicillin.

 Rate of penicillin is regulated by the concentration of sugar

present.

 High sugar concentration gives low yields of penicillin while no

sugar results in no penicillin production.

 Small amounts of sugar have to be added to produce high yields

of penicillin.

Fig.7.2.4

Penicillin production
  After 7 days, growth is completed, pH rises to 8.0 and penicillin
production ceases.

 Filtration is carried out to remove biomass from the culture.

 Organic solvents are added to dissolve the penicillin present in

the filtrate.

 Centrifugal extraction follows to separate the solid component

from the penicillin.

Decomposition
 Fungi play a vital role in the ecosystem.

 They secrete digestive enzymes onto dead waste material and

absorb products of waste digestion.

 Fungi are essential for the breakdown of wood and any

lignocellulolytic material.

 They release a complex of cellulose enzymes that work

synergistically to break down the cellulose in the wood.

 This softens the wood allowing other organisms to penetrate and

continue the process of decomposition.

 This role of fungi as decomposers of lignocellulolytic material

can be used as a cost effective method in the production of
ethanol.

 Fungi are also used in sewerage processing as decomposers to

breakdown human waste.

Food Spoilage
 Moulds are responsible for spoilage and economic loss in the
food chain.

 They produce enzymes that break down the food resulting in

spoilage.
  Some moulds such as Aspegillus flavus produce mycotoxins onto
the food.

 Ingestion of mycotoxins can be fatal which has led to hundreds

of deaths in developing countries each year.

 These contaminations may occur in a range of foods such as

cereals, fruits, cocoa and beverages such as beer.

 Saccharomyces diastaticus causes spoilage in packaged beer

while Candida valida causes spoilage in wine.

 Mycotoxins can also be found in meat and dairy products.

Food
 Fungi are an ideal food because they have a fairly high content of
protein which contains all of the amino acids which are essential
to human and animal nutrition.

 Fungal foods are free of cholesterol.

 Mushrooms are examples of fungi.

 Fungi are also used in the processing of various food products.

 Cheese production relies on the action of enzymes for

coagulation of milk proteins forming solid curds from which
cheese is made.

 Fungi produce enzymes responsible for this stage in cheese

production.

 Mould ripening is also carried out by fungi.

Kingdom Plantae
 Plants are important producers in the ecosystem, timber,

medicine and tourism.

Producers
 Plants are known as producers due to their autotrophic nature.

 They produce their own food using light, carbon dioxide, water
or other chemicals.

 Plants use light energy and are known as photosynthetic or

phototrophic.

 Energy from the sun is used to covert water from soil and carbon
dioxide from air into glucose in a process called photosynthesis.

 Plants are the first trophic level in a food chain and provide food
for consumers

 Plants provide a source of food for animals which in turn provide

meat for human consumption.

 Maize provides for the food needs for farming communities and
also as a source of income through selling.

 Ground maize forms a staple diet in Sub-Sahara Africa while

cassava is a staple diet in tropical areas.

Carbon Sinks
 Carbon sinks are natural systems that suck up and store carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere.

 Plants act as carbon sinks by using carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere in photosynthesis.

 Some of the carbon is transferred to the soil as plants die or

decompose.

 Plants as carbon sinks are critical in the effort to soak up some of

the greenhouse gas emissions.

 Deforestation and inappropriate land till practices reduce the

number of carbon sinks.
  Carbon sinks can be increased by management of forest systems
through afforestation and reforestation.

Fig.7.2.5

Plants acting as carbon sinks

Timber
 Forests through timber provide significant benefits economically
to nations.

 Sales of timber and timber related products contribute positively

to the gross domestic product of many nations.

 Other economic benefits include employment in the timber

industry.

 In rural communities timber plays a crucial role as it is used as a

source of fuel.

 Timber can also be used in the construction of houses in cities

and cattle pens in rural areas.

Medicine
 Plants have long been used and are still used for medicinal
purposes

 Many different species of the kingdom Plantae are used to cure

diseases.

 Plants are referred to as herbal medicines.

  In India medicinal plants constitute 80% of total drugs used.

 Dependence on herbal medicines is less in developed nations.

 They are sources of ingredients which can be used in drug

development in the pharmaceutical industry.

 Medicinal plants are regarded as safe and natural with no side

effects.

 Ginger, aloe and turmeric are some of the plants used for
medicinal purposes.

 In African tradition, herbs are widely used to cure sicknesses and

snake bites.

 Herbs such as ginger and cloves are used in cough syrup.

 Chamomile and turmeric promote blood circulation.

Tourism
 Plants play an important and widespread role in tourism.

 They provide richness in ecosystems and habitats.

 Nature reserves comfort and relax people through tourism.

 Plant tourism is a large industry that contributes significantly to

the global economy.

 The big tree in Victoria Falls Zimbabwe is a popular tourist

attraction site (fig.7.2.6).

 It is believed to be one of the biggest trees in the Sub Sahara

region and over 1000 years in age.

 Tourism however, may threaten plant species through trampling

and clearing of land for construction of tourism infrastructure.
Fig.7.2.6

Big tree in Victoria Falls

Kingdom Animalia
 Animals are important in the community as a source of food, in

tourism, hunting, leather manufacturing and fishing.

Food
 Livestock are an important contributor to total food production.

 Food from rearing livestock ensures food security in farming

communities.

 In developed countries 60% of the dietary protein requirements

come from animal products.

 Animal products are primarily a source of proteins and essential

amino acids.

 Excessive consumption of fat from animals causes human health

problems such as obesity and coronary heart disease.
Leather
 Leather can be made from cows, pigs, goat and sheep.

 It can also be made from alligators, ostriches and kangaroos.

 Skins obtained from hunting and livestock breeding are used for
clothing.

 The leather manufacturing process can be divided into three

phases; tanning, re-tanning and finishing.

 Leather usually comes from developing countries where animal

welfare laws are not existent.

 In developed nations animal laws limit the killing of animals for

skin.

Fishing
 Fishing is important as it provides food for billions and livelihood
for millions of people worldwide.

 Inland fishing is important food and nutritional resources in rural

communities in developing countries.

 Fish provide essential nutrients and micro nutrients that address

related health issues.

 Fishing provides for subsistence living and economic security.

 In Zimbabwe, small fish known as kapenta sustain the economic

living of families.

 Lake Harvest in Zimbabwe produces fish for the nation and

region.

 A great number of people are employed by Lake Harvest

contributing heavily to the economy.
Tourism
 Wildlife tourism is an important sector in the economies of
nations.

 In Zimbabwe some land is reserved for wildlife tourism making

evident the importance of this industry to the nation.

 The unique and endangered species of the kingdom Animalia

attract people from different regions of the world.

 Hwange national park is Zimbabwe’s largest game reserve and

attracts a large number of tourists.

Hunting
 Hunting attracts interest from tourists and is a very profitable
sector in the wildlife based tourism.

 Hunting in the tourism sector is primarily for trophy hunting.

 Trophy hunting represents hunting wildlife for horns or skin

which are then kept as trophies.

 In rural communities, hunting is important in the livelihoods of

families.

 Hunting remains an important means of providing meat for

communities in remote areas.
13.0 Human Health and Diseases
13.1 Drug and Substance Abuse

Drug and substance abuse

 Substance or drug abuse is the misuse of a drug leading to
physical, social and mental consequences.

 It involves use of drugs outside the legal or medical guidelines.

 Misuse of substances such as alcohol, cough syrup (fig.8.1.1)

and illegal drugs such as marijuana amounts to substance abuse.

 Continued exposure and abuse of drugs can lead to drug

dependence.

Fig.8.1.1:

Cough syrup which is commonly abused by youths in Zimbabwe

1. Drug Tolerance
 Drug tolerance is a state when a person no longer responds to

the expected effect of drugs due to excessive intake of the drug.

 Higher and increased dosages are required to attain desired

effect of the drug.

 Marijuana tolerance leads the user to take higher doses or

stronger drugs to retain the drug influenced effect.

 Heroine tolerance occurs because more receptors are made at

the post-synaptic membranes so that an increased concentration
of heroine is needed to stimulate the first effect.

 Nicotine tolerance occurs when receptors for the

neurotransmitter acetylcholine decrease in sensitivity.

 The smoker increases the number of cigarettes to maintain the

same effect.

 Alcohol tolerance leads to increased production of enzymes by

the liver to metabolise the alcohol.

 The liver causes the oxidation of alcohol at a higher rate

resulting in larger quantities being required to maintain the same
concentration in the blood.

 Nerve cells become less sensitive to alcohol.

 Cough syrup contains codeine which attaches to the same

receptors targeted by heroine.

2. Drug dependence
 Drug dependence is a condition that occurs when a person

adapts to a repeated exposure to a drug leading to an individual

relying on the drug for normal functioning.

 When an individual stops using the drug, the person develops

physiological reactions known as withdrawal symptoms.
  Withdrawal symptoms are reactions that occur after
discontinuing use of drug.

 Dependence is recognised as psychological dependence and

physical dependence.

A. Psychological Dependence
o Psychological dependency is an emotional and mental
craving of the pleasurable effects of a drug by a user.

o The user may not physically depend on the drug but only
the mind is dependent.

o Users may enjoy taking drugs routinely or at certain times.

o People can also become psychologically dependent on

alcohol.

o Alcohol causes dependence by stimulating the production

of enkephalins in the brain.

B. Physical Dependence
o Physical dependence occurs when the body becomes
physically dependent on a drug that it cannot function
properly in the absence of the drug.

o This results in severe withdrawal symptoms.

o Physical dependence is experienced by smokers who

become dependent on nicotine.

o They experience severe withdrawal symptoms if they stop

smoking.

o Withdrawal symptoms only cease when they smoke again.

3. Addiction
 Addiction is dependence on an illegal or legal drug without

control over its intake.

 It involves not being able to control drug use or continued use

despite the harmful effects of the drug.

 Repeated seeking of the pleasurable effects of cough syrup can

lead to addiction.

 Dependence leads to the development of addiction.

 It is regarded as a chronic disease.

A. Tobacco
Effects of tobacco on gaseous exchange and cardiovascular systems
 Chemicals in cigarette smoke cause the cells that line the blood

vessels to become swollen and inflamed which can lead to

cardiovascular disease.

 Tar from smoke is responsible for the development of chronic

pulmonary disease and lung cancer.

 Effects of smoking may lead to atherosclerosis, coronary heart

disease, strokes and cancer.

Atherosclerosis
o Atherosclerosis is the main cause of coronary heart disease.

o Arteries become narrow due to build-up of fat, cholesterol,

fibrous tissue, dead muscle cell and blood platelets.

o This forms plaque in the lining of the artery, making them

less elastic.

o Blood pressure is increased by the narrowing of arteries

caused by atherosclerosis.
 o Smoking promotes atherosclerosis by decreasing the
concentration of antioxidants in the blood.

o This can lead to more damage on artery walls by free

radicals released by phagocytes.

o The number of platelets in the blood is raised by smoking

making them sticky which then stimulates the formation of
clots.

o Smoking also increases the concentration of cholesterol

and fat in the blood.

Coronary Heart Disease (CHD)

o Coronary heart disease (CHD) occurs when arteries
responsible for transport of blood back to the heart are
narrowed by plaque or blocked by clots.

o The combination of carbon monoxide and nicotine in

smoke leads to an increase in the risk of developing CHD.

o Carbon monoxide competes with oxygen for haemoglobin

to form carboxyhaemoglobin.

o Haemoglobin has a greater affinity for carbon monoxide

than oxygen.

o Carboxyhaemoglobin is a stable and permanent compound

which affects volume of oxygen transported in the blood.

o This strains the heart muscle which has to pump

oxygenated blood to tissues.

o Nicotine can stimulate the nervous system to reduce the

diameter of arterioles and to release adrenaline from
adrenal glands.

o This increases heart rate and blood pressure.

 o Nicotine also increases stickiness of platelets which
increases the risk of thrombosis.

o It decreases blood supply to the extremities.

Strokes
o Strokes occur when blood flow within the brain is
interrupted.

o Arteries in the brain burst causing blood leakage into brain

tissue.

o The damaged artery affects supply of oxygen in the

respective brain tissue.

o Smoking increases the risk for strokes.

o Blood pressure is increased due to smoking.

o Deaths from strokes are more likely among smokers than

non-smokers.

Cancer
o Tar from cigarette smoke is carcinogenic.

o Carcinogens react with DNA in the epithelial cells causing

mutations that lead to the formation of a malignant
tumour.

o Uncontrollable growth of cell spreads from bronchial

epithelium into the lymphoid tissues in the lungs.

o Tumour cells continue growing and spread to other organs

such as the liver, adrenal glands and brain.

o Affected individuals remain symptomless even though the

tumour continues to grow.

o When cancer is detected, it is usually in an advanced state.

B. Alcohol
 Alcohol consumption can have both short term and long term
consequences on the brain function.

 Alcohol slows down or blocks many of the brain’s functions.

1. Effects Of Alcohol On The Brain

Short-term effects
o The effect of alcohol on the brain is dependent on the
blood alcohol concentration.

o The preliminary effect might be a decrease in tension or

inhibitions making the drinker more relaxed.

o Alcohol hinders the reticular activating system (RAS), which

regulates the cerebral cortex affecting intellectual facilities.

o Continued disruption of the cerebral cortex leads to loss of

balance, judgement and slow reaction times.

o Initial effects of alcohol include:

 Drowsiness

 Loss of balance

 Slurred speech

 Nausea

 Vomiting

 Reduced visual ability in driving

o As more alcohol is consumed other centres of the brain are

affected leading to change in mental ability and behaviour.
Long term effects
o Alcohol causes shrinkage of brain cells by alcohol-induced
dehydration.

o Ant diuretic Hormone (ADH) is restricted by alcohol causing

kidneys to remove more water than normal.

o Cells are damaged by hypoxia which is the shortage of

oxygen.

o Damage of brain by alcohol may be acute or chronic.

2. Social Effects Of Alcohol

o Alcohol affects the consuming individual, the family and
the individual’s work.

o Effects on the individual include aggressive behaviour,

neglect of personal behaviour, uncontrolled anger,
selfishness and irritability.

o Alcohol abuse has serious effects such as:

 Child neglect

 Family disputes

 Marital break down

 Absenteeism from work

 Work accidents

 Productivity

 Unemployment
Effects Of Alcohol On The Peripheral Nervous System
o Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome is vitamin B1 deficiency and
occurs as a result of excessive drinking.

o This results in the damage of nerves in the peripheral

nervous system.

o It is characterised by lack of co-ordination leading to loss

of sensory awareness in hands, feet and movement.

o Alcohol polyneutritis is another long-term effect and

results from breakdown of the myelin sheath and the
impairment of the peripheral nervous system.

Effects Of Alcohol Misuse On The Liver

o The liver is responsible for alcohol metabolism therefore is
the worst affected body organ by alcohol abuse.

o Alcohol liver disease (ALD) results from alcohol abuse.

o ALD progresses from fatty liver to hepatitis and finally

cirrhosis.

1. Fatty Liver
 The earliest stage of alcohol liver disease.

 It involves an accumulation of fat inside liver cells

which makes it hard for the liver to function.

 This affects almost everyone with moderate to high

alcohol intake.

 It is reversible if drinking stops.

2. Hepatitis
 This stage involves the inflammation of the liver and
damage of the cells.

 The effects of hepatitis can give rise to jaundice which

is the yellowing of eyes.
  Nausea, loss of appetite and abdominal pain are
symptoms that follow.

 If drinking persists hepatitis develops into cirrhosis.

3. Cirrhosis
 This stage represents the gradual replacement of liver
cells by fibrous tissue.

 Fibrosis is the first stage that results in build-up of

scar tissue leading to cirrhosis.

 Liver function deteriorates and jaundice worsens.

 Cirrhosis is irreversible though progress of disease

can be stopped if drinking stops.

 Symptoms include accumulation of fluid in the

abdomen, high blood pressure in the liver, bleeding
from veins in the oesophagus and enlarged spleen.

Fig.8.1.1:

Stages of liver alcohol disease

Experiment 8.1.1: Effects of alcohol on liver tissue
Materials/Apparatus:
 Cow liver

 95% Ethanol

 40% Ethanol

 15% Ethanol

 Beakers

Procedure:
1. Cut liver into three equal pieces and place in three
different beakers.

2. Add different concentrations of ethanol in each

beaker.

3. Leave for 30 minutes and then observe the change.

Expected Results:
 Colour change in all the beakers with ethanol.

 Different intensities in colour in all the beakers.

13.2 Global Distribution of Diseases

Diseases
 A disease is an abnormal condition that leads to impaired normal
functions of an organism.

 Diseases can be classified into communicable or infectious

disease and non-communica555ble (non-infectious diseases).

 Any of these types of diseases may be acute or chronic.

 Acute diseases can last a short time and appear suddenly with
very visible symptoms.

 Chronic diseases develop slowly and persist for a long time.

1. Infectious diseases
 Infectious diseases are communicable diseases caused by living

organisms and can be passed from one person to another.

 They are usually caused by pathogens that invade the body.

 Pathogens are parasitic and they depend on the body for survival.

 Pathogens gain entry into the host, resist the host's defences and
cause damage to the tissues.

 The extent of tissue damage caused by the pathogen is called

virulence.

 Pathogens can be viruses, bacteria, fungi or any other organism

passed from one organism to another.

 Malaria and Tuberculosis (TB) are examples of infectious

diseases.
  Infectious disease distribution is described as epidemic, endemic
and pandemic.

Endemic Disease
o An endemic disease is a disease caused by pathogens that
reside or exist within particular region or population.

o An endemic is an increased rate of disease in a particular

population over time.

o For instance, malaria is endemic in parts of Africa and other

tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world.

Epidemic Disease
o An epidemic disease is a disease that appears and spreads
suddenly in a specific area or within a population for a
time.

o An epidemic is an increase in the observed rates of disease

in a particular population.

o An example is cholera.

Pandemic Disease
o A pandemic disease is an epidemic that spreads globally.

o It involves a huge number of populations which could be a

continent or the world.

o Infectious diseases such as malaria are still common in the

developing world and rare in developed countries.

o In developing countries death from infectious diseases have

ceased and have given way to heart disease, cancer or
accidents.

2. Non-infectious diseases
 Non-infectious diseases are non-communicable diseases that are

not transmitted from one person to another.

  These diseases occur due to poor lifestyle choices or
environmental conditions.

 They are not caused by pathogens but in some cases are passed
from person to person genetically.

 An example is sickle cell anaemia.

 Causes of non-communicable diseases may be due to heavy

smoking, high energy diets, high alcohol consumption and
exposure to radiation.

 Non-communicable diseases can be degenerative which result

from degeneration of tissue or old age.

 They can also be caused by mental illnesses that affect normal

mental functions.

Global patterns of diseases

 Epidemiology refers to the study of patterns of disease and

factors that affect the spread of disease.

 In epidemiology the study of the spread, causes and

consequences of diseases are used to describe disease
distribution.

 Data is collected on the number of ill people which is called

morbidity and on the numbers who have died which is called
mortality.

 Incidence is the number of new cases in a population occurring

per given time.

 Prevalence is the number of people with a disease within a given

time.

 Poverty of developing nations restricts them from eradicating

infectious diseases.
  Poor healthcare, lack of health education, clean water and
communications all contribute negatively to efforts by developing
countries to eradicate infectious diseases.

 Developed nations because of their high standard of living and

health have brought these diseases under control.

 When a country goes through a change from communicable to

non-communicable disease it is called epidemiological transition.

 In developed nations where children are immunized or well fed,

resistance to disease is higher than in developing nations.

 The global distribution of malaria, TB, cholera, Human

immunodeficiency virus (HIV) / Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome (AIDS), Ebola, coronary heart disease and sickle cell
anaemia are of interest worldwide.

Malaria
 Malaria is a disease whose geography is determined mostly by

environmental conditions.

 Malaria depends on climate factors such as temperature,

humidity and rainfall.

 It is caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium through the

female anopheles mosquito.

 At temperatures below 20oC Plasmodium falciparum cannot grow

and cannot be transmitted.

 In endemic areas fatality rates from malaria are increased in

children who have not developed immunity.
Global Distribution
 Malaria is endemic in 106 countries.

 The highest transmission rates of malaria are found in the sub-

Saharan Africa and parts of Oceania such as Papua New Guinea
(fig.8.2.1).

 These areas have environments that allow multiplication of the

vector for malaria and transmission of Plasmodium.

 Transmission in endemic areas might not occur in all parts of the

country due to high altitudes, winter seasons and desert
conditions.

 In warmer regions malaria is spread all year round and is intense.

 Developed nations such as Western Europe and the United States

of America (USA) have cooler climates that do not promote
growth of Plasmodium falciparum.

 Developed nations also have technological advancements that

have contributed to the elimination of malaria.

 It has been a challenge to develop a malaria vaccine because the

antigen of the parasite change over time such that antibodies fail
to recognise the new antigen.

 Also there are different malaria strains and species.

Incidence And Prevalence

 There were 212 million cases of malaria worldwide in 2015 and
423000 deaths.

 Global malaria incidence between 2005 and 2010 fell by 21%

while mortality fell by 29%.

 Mortality decreases in areas where people are constantly re-

infected because they become immune to malaria.
  Malaria transmission occurs in five World Health Organisation
(WHO) regions.

 About 90% of all malaria deaths occur in the WHO Africa region
and mostly in children under 5 years.

 Sub-Sahara Africa accounts for 73% of malaria cases and 75% of

global deaths.

 In areas where malaria occurs in short seasons, it is most likely

to be fatal to all ages.

Fig. 8.2.1: Global distribution of malaria

Tuberculosis (TB)
 TB is an infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium

tuberculosis.

 It is spread from person to another through the air.

 TB is one of the top causes of death worldwide.

Global Distribution
 TB is distributed all over the world (fig.8.2.2).

 Six countries account for 60% of the total TB cases.

Fig.8.2. 1: Global distribution of TB

 India leads in cases of TB followed by Indonesia, China, Nigeria,
Pakistan and South Africa.

 One third of the world's population is currently infected with TB

Bacillus in an inactive form and this strain cannot be transmitted.

Incidence And Prevalence

 TB incidence declined in 2015 by 1.5%.

 There were an estimated 10.4 million cases of TB in 2015

including 1.2 million among HIV positive people.

 There were also 3.5 million cases in women and 1 million cases
in children.
 There are 45% of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) negative
people with TB on average and nearly all HIV positive people with
TB will die.

 Adults in their productive stage are most at risk to TB.

 Developing countries are the most affected by TB though TB

occurs in every part of the world.

 Over 95% of cases of TB occur in developing countries.

 Risk is increased in these countries due to an increased number

of people infected with HIV.

 HIV positive people are 20-30 times more likely to develop TB.

 In 2015, largest new cases were in Asia with 61% of total cases
followed by Africa with 26% new cases.

 Tobacco use increases risk of TB as 20% of cases are attributed

to smoking.

 In developed countries TB is relatively rare.

 In the United Kingdom (UK) incidences of Bovine TB were

eradicated through pasteurisation of milk and slaughter of
infected animal.

 Prevention through vaccination has been a major cause for a fall

of cases.

 Better housing, less overcrowding, less damp conditions and

better nutrition are some of the factors contributing to less cases
of TB in developed nations.
Ebola
 Ebola is transmitted through direct contact with blood, tissues

and secretions.

 Humans acquire infection from non-primates through bush meat

and then human to human transmission follows.

 Infection can be through sharing of needles, contact with fluids

of infected person and contact with semen of a person who was
once infected but is still a carrier.

 There is no vaccine for Ebola and symptoms are treated as they

appear.

Global Distribution
 Ebola haemorrhagic fever appears in humid rain forests in central
and West Africa.

 Marburg haemorrhagic fever is found in the drier central and

eastern Africa.

 Since March 2014, West Africa has experienced the worst

outbreak in history.

 Isolated cases of Ebola have been recorded in developed nations

such as the USA and Spain.

Incidence And Prevalence

 In 2017, 8 cases were reported with 4 deaths in Democratic
Republic of Congo.

 As of December 2015, West Africa reported more than 28000

cases of Ebola virus disease.

 More than 2500 deaths were reported in Guinea.

 Ebola persists in developing nations due to poor functioning

healthcare, underdeveloped waste management, lack of medical
 personal, population movement, local cultural beliefs that forbid
medical treatment and poverty.

 Ebola was contained in Nigeria and Senegal.

HIV/AIDS
 AIDS is caused by HIV and the infected person is said to be HIV

positive.

 HIV replicates in the body for years until it becomes AIDS.

 It is mainly transmitted through semen and vaginal fluids during

sexual intercourse.

 Transmission is also through infected blood or through mother

to child transmission.

Global Distribution
 AIDS is distributed worldwide.

 The majority of infected people are in low and middle income

countries.

 Sub-Sahara Africa is the most affected region.

Incidence And Prevalence

 Global estimates put HIV positive people at 36.7 million at the
end of 2016.

 Sub-Sahara Africa had an estimated 25.6 million people living

with HIV in 2015 with 66% of new infections.

 High numbers are due to no access to preventative methods,

access to care and treatment.

 The El Nino induced drought of 2015 affected efforts by the

region to fight HIV.

 Zimbabwe is one of the worst affected countries in sub-Sahara

Africa (fig.8.2.3).
 HIV prevalence among adults between 15 and 49 years was
14.7%.

 Women accounted for 59% of adults living with HIV.

 Women are affected due to spousal sexual violence.

 Inter-generational relationships contribute to the spread of HIV

in young females who fail to dictate condom use to older
partners.

 In Zimbabwe and Botswana, prevalence in sex workers was

reported to be above 50% by end of 2014.

 Prevalence is higher in sex workers due to lack of condoms and

sexual violence through rape or forced unprotected sex.

 Children are affected by HIV through mother to child

transmission and child marriages.

 However, there has been progress in prevention of mother to

child transmission.

 Forced child marriages increase rate of HIV in children.

 Also some African cultures such as polygamy, kugara nhaka,

genital mutilation, unsafe circumcisions cause an increase in
prevalence.

 Poverty causes young girls to resort to prostitution.

 Lack of jobs and entertainment also results in young couples

resorting to casual sex to entertain them.

 HIV is the leading cause of death among 25- 45 year old men in
the USA.

 An estimated 70% of the world's deaths from AIDS occur in

Africa.

 Around 25% of Botswana's adult population is infected with HIV.

Fig.8.2.3: Global distribution of HIV prevalence

Cholera
 Cholera is transmitted by ingestion of water or food

contaminated with faecal material containing the pathogen Vibrio

Cholerae.

 Cholera occurs where there is no access to clean water and

contamination of food sources.

 Improper waste water management systems contribute to a rapid

spread of cholera as faecal matter finds its way into the drinking
water supply.

Global Distribution
 The highest cases of cholera are found in Asia, Africa and Latin
America.

 Cholera is endemic in West and East Africa and Afghanistan.

 In these developing nations, rapid growth of cities with no proper

sewerage systems creates a conducive environment for the
spread of cholera.
Fig.8.2.4: Global distribution of cholera
 The highest distribution of cholera is in developing nations
(fig.8.2.4).

 Erratic water supply in developing nations, may lead to watering

of vegetables with raw human sewerage which increases
contamination and risk of disease occurrence.

 The high rates of cholera in developing countries have a close

link to the economies of the respective countries.

 Lack of financing for better access to clean water contributes to

transmission of cholera.

 Cholera is almost non-existent in the developed nations.

 Access to clean piped water due to proper sewerage systems and

chlorination of water kill bacteria eradicated the risk of cholera.
Incidence And Prevalence
 In 2016, 132121 cases of cholera were recorded worldwide with
2420 deaths.

 Overall, 54% of cases were reported in Africa, 14% in Asia and

32% in Americas.

 In 2008 the cholera epidemic resulted in 11735 cases with 484

deaths.

 Transmission may be attributed contaminated water and food.

 Inadequate waste water management and overcrowding may

have also contributed to the epidemic.

Coronary Heart disease (CHD)

 Coronary heart disease may occur as a result of smoking.

 This is because smoking increases the likelihood of fatty deposits

arising on the inner lining of the arteries which narrows the
lumen and restricts blood flow.
Fig.8.2.5 Coronary heart disease
 Narrowing of the coronary artery may lead to heart attacks while
narrowing of carotid artery may lead to a stroke.

 Coronary heart disease is the leading cause of mortality in

developed countries and a rising tendency in developing
countries.

Global Distribution
 Deaths rates from CHD are highest in Northern Europe and
Japan.

 Low and middle income countries are the most affected

contributing to three quarters of deaths due to coronary heart
disease.

 Higher fatalities from coronary heart disease are found in men

more than women in middle ages.

 This could be attributed to increased smoking in men.

 However, at an older age more women are affected by coronary

heart disease than men.

 Women at an older age have higher triglycerides and have

increased risk factors from intake of contraceptives.

 Developing countries are most affected because of high rates of

urbanisation and adoption of western lifestyles that increase the
risks of coronary heart disease.

 There is also lack of early detection systems and proper

healthcare facilities as compared to developed countries.

 Awareness of the effects of smoking and healthy eating

campaigns lack in developing nations leading to reckless
lifestyles.
  Developed nations have shown a marked decrease in coronary
heart disease deaths.

 This may be attributed to a decrease in smoking and a

consciousness of health.

 The availability of diagnostic and therapeutic machines

accompanied by surgeries has contributed significantly to a
decrease in coronary heart disease fatalities.

Incidence And Prevalence

 Coronary heart disease accounts for one third of all deaths in the
world with 25 -50% according to level of economic development.

 An estimated 17.7 million deaths were attributed to coronary

heart disease worldwide in 2015.

Sickle cell anaemia

 Occurrence of sickle cell anaemia is attributed to a specific

mutation in the gene producing haemoglobin.

 The altered haemoglobin causes the red blood cells to become

sickle shaped which results in anaemia or even death.
Fig.8.2.6: Sickle shaped cells

Global Distribution
 The distribution of sickle cell anaemia closely follows the global
distribution of malaria.

 This is because the Plasmodium, cannot easily invade sickle cells

such that individuals with sickle cell condition are more resistant
to malaria attacks.

 This has led to a positive selection for the gene mutation.

 The sickle cell gene is co-dominant.

 People heterozygous for the sickle cell allele are more immune to
malaria than people who are homozygous for the allele.

 The amount of plasmodium in heterozygous people is one third

that of people who are homozygous.

 In east Africa, 50% of births involve babies that carry the sickle
cell allele of which 14% are homozygous and suffer from sickle
cell anaemia.

Incidence And Prevalence

 Prevalence is 10 – 30% in Sub-Saharan Africa.

 Around 30% of new-borns in western Africa are carriers of the

sickle cell trait.

 High prevalence in Southeast Asia and the Mediterranean.

 Sickle cell trait is most commonly found in people of African

descent.

 In South Africa, sickle cell may be found in white people due

interracial relationships over many years.
13.3 Immunity

Introduction
 Immunity is the body's defence or ability to resist disease
through the body's internal defence system.

 There are two types of immunity namely natural immunity and

adaptive immunity.

A. Natural immunity
 Natural immunity is inborn, non-specific and non-adaptive.

 It is inborn because the immune response is programmed

genetically and is not acquired.

 Natural immunity is non-specific because the cells responsible

such as the phagocytes engulf any foreign cell they encounter.

 It is non-adaptive because the response does not change no-

matter how many times the body is infected.

Phagocytes
 Phagocytes are white cells produced in the bone marrow that

carry out phagocytosis.

 There are two main types namely, neutrophils and macrophages.

1. Neutrophils
o Neutrophils have an irregular, many lobed nucleus and
granular cytoplasm.

o They form about 60% of white cells in the blood.

o Neutrophils travel in the bloodstream in contact with the

endothelium of blood vessels where they ingest bacteria.
 o During an infection, they squeeze through the walls of the
capillaries to the site of infection and are attracted by
chemotaxis.

o They only survive for a few days.

2. Macrophages
o Macrophages are larger cells with non-granular cytoplasm
and an irregular, horseshoe shaped nucleus.(Fig.8.3.1)

o They are found in the lungs, liver, spleen, kidney and lymph
nodes rather than remaining in the blood.

o Macrophages develop from monocytes, which are a type of

white cells that make 6% of all white cells.

o Monocytes squeeze through cells lining the capillaries and

move to the tissues where they become macrophages.

o Macrophages live longer in the cells and initiate immune

responses by displaying antigens on pathogens that can be
recognised by lymphocytes.

Fig.8.3.1:

Phagocyte and lymphocyte

Experiment 8.3.1: Observing phagocytes and lymphocytes
Materials/Apparatus:
 Microscope

 Prepared slides

Procedure
1. Mount and prepare the microscope.

2. Mount the prepared slide and adjust to magnification of 200

times.

3. Observe and identify the cells present.

Expected Observations
 Neutrophils have a nucleus divided into lobes

 Lymphocytes have a round and large nucleus which occupies

almost all the cell.

Fig.8.3.2:

White blood cells under high power magnification

Phagocytosis
 Phagocytosis is the mechanism by which specialised white blood

cells called phagocytes engulf foreign material such as

pathogens and dead cells (Fig.8.3.2).

 Histamines are released by cells under attack by pathogens.

 These histamines attract passing neutrophils to the site of

infection.

 The process by which cells are attracted to bacteria is

chemotaxis.

 This may be caused by materials released by bacteria or

opsonisation.

 Opsonin is a type of antibody that renders bacteria more

susceptible to phagocytosis.

 Attachment of phagocyte and pathogen leads to endocytosis.

 Endocytosis involves the invagination of the cell membrane that

results in the foreign body being engulfed.

 A phagocytic vacuole or phagosome forms around the foreign

body.

 Lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes attach to the

phagosome releasing the enzymes that digest the bacteria to
useful amino acids and respiratory substrates.

 These are taken up by the cell for future use.

Fig.8.3.3:

Phagocytosis

B. Adaptive immunity
 Adaptive immunity is a type that is acquired over the course of
an individual's life.

 It is specific in that the cells responsible for it can distinguish

between microorganisms.

 The cells of adaptive immunity are able to produce a different

and more effective response to repeated infection.

 Lymphocytes are responsible for this type of response.

Lymphocytes
 Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells that make up 24% of

the total white cells in the blood.

 They contain a large nucleus that fills up the whole cell and are
smaller than phagocytes.

 There are two types of lymphocytes namely, B-lymphocytes and

T-lymphocytes which are all produced in the bone marrow.
1. B-Lymphocytes
o B-lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells that develop
from stem cells in the bone marrow.

o They remain in the bone marrow until maturation then

spread throughout the body, concentrating in lymph nodes
and the spleen.

o B-lymphocytes produce antibodies in the presence of an

antigen.

o They mediate a humoral immune response.

2. T-Lymphocytes
o T-lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow and pass
through the thymus for maturation.

o T-lymphocytes mediate a cell-mediated immune response.

o They mature into 3 distinct types namely: Helper T cells,

Suppressor T cells and Killer T cells.

o Helper T cells play a large role in activating other cells to

carry out their function.

o They help B-lymphocytes divide into antibody producing

cells and also assist in the action of phagocytes.

o Suppressor T cells act as a regulator in the immune system.

o They stop B-lymphocytes from producing antibodies and

limit the action of phagocytes.

o Killer T cells destroy infected body cells and pathogens.

o They are regulated by both Suppressor and Helper T cells.

Mode of action of B- lymphocytes
 Every individual's cells have a marker of glycoprotein on the cell

surface membrane known as the major histocompatibility

complex (MHC) antigens.

 Lymphocytes have antigen receptors that are able to differentiate

between the body's MHC antigens and pathogenic antigens.

 The role of B-cells is humoral immunity.

 This involves detecting of foreign antigen, binding to the antigen

and secretion of antibodies to counter pathogenic invasion.

Steps That Occur During Humoral Immunity

1. Non-activated B-lymphocytes recognise a foreign antigen and
bind to complementary antigens using cell surface receptors
called antibodies.

2. Endocytosis takes in the antigen into the cytoplasm and presents

it on the surface membrane of the B-lymphocytes.

3. T-helper cells bind to the B-lymphocytes with the expressed

antigen activating the B-lymphocytes through secretion of
cytokines.

4. Activated B-lymphocytes divide rapidly by mitosis leading to a

clone of cells called plasma cells.

5. The plasma cells produce mass antibodies which are then

secreted by exocytosis.

6. Antibodies bind to the antigen to which they are specific leading

to destruction of the antigen through neutralisation by clumping
together of cells and by precipitation of soluble antigens.
Fig.8.3.4:

Humoral Immunity
Mode of action of T-lymphocytes
 The role of T- lymphocytes is cell mediated immunity.

 Cell mediated immunity is the body's response to infection

without the use of antibodies but involves activation of B-cells
and release of cytokines.

Steps Involved In Cell Mediated Immunity

1. Macrophages detect an antigen and engulf it.

2. The antigen is then presented to the MHC antigens of

macrophages on the surface membranes in a process called
antigen presentation.

3. T-helper cells detect the antigen on the cell surface of the

macrophages, binding to the antigen and they become activated
helper T-lymphocytes.

4. Activation of helper T-lymphocytes occurs due to cytokines.

 5. Activated helper T-lymphocytes bind to B-lymphocytes forming
activated B-lymphocytes.

6. B-lymphocytes form antibodies which destroy the foreign

pathogen.

7. A number of activated T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes remain

in the body in order to quickly respond in the event of re-
infection.

 These are known as memory cells.

Fig.8.3.5:

Cell mediated immune response

Memory Cells
 Memory cells are formed from B and T lymphocytes to produce a
faster response when the body is infected.

 When the body is re-infected by the same pathogen, B and T

lymphocytes which form memory cells that stay in the body a
long time are able to quickly recognise or remember a pathogen.
  Memory cells produced during a previous infection respond by
dividing to form antibody producing plasma cells.

 The required levels of antibodies are quickly produced and an

invading pathogen is destroyed.

 Adaptive immunity is said to have a memory because of its ability

to remember in the event of re-infection.

 Long-life immunity is attained of diseases such as mumps and

chicken pox.

 The primary response differs from the next response in 3 ways:

 A rapid production of antibodies

 Large amounts of antibodies are produced in the secondary

response

 The secondary response is long-lived

Effects of HIV on T-lymphocytes

 HIV is the virus that causes AIDS.

 It consists of RNA genes surrounded by a lipid coat.

 The RNA codes for a specific protein called reverse transcriptase

that can cause the conversion of viral RNA to DNA upon viral
entry into cell.

 Viral DNA is spliced into human DNA allowing viral genes to be

incorporated into the host cell.

 The viral genes then issue instructions to the cell to make

thousands of viruses causing infection.

 HIV affects cell mediated immunity.

 HIV results in a low number of helper T-lymphocytes because the

viral genes code for a glycoprotein called gp120 on the viral coat
which targets the T cells of the immune system.
  T-lymphocytes have a molecule on the cell surface membrane
called CD4 responsible for communication between cells of the
immune system.

 The gp120 binds to the CD4 on T-lymphocytes, which causes

opening up of a second binding site.

 The virus binds to the second binding site allowing viral RNA to
enter the host cell.

 Infected helper T-lymphocytes can lead to infection and

eventually death.

 Decline in CD4+ T cells due to HIV leads to an individual being

diagnosed with AIDS.

 Killer cells may also contribute to death as they try to eliminate

the infected cells.

 Macrophages can no longer be properly activated to kill

pathogens.

C. Passive artificial immunity

 Passive artificial immunity involves an individual being induced
with antibody containing serum or immunoglobulin from a
person or an animal.

 It is short term and its effects are short lived.

 Passive artificial immunity is used only in emergencies when

active immunity is not able to work.

D. Active artificial immunity

 Active artificial immunity can be achieved by the introduction of a
small quantity of antigen known as a vaccine into the body to
prevent specific diseases.

 Vaccination is a form of active artificial immunity.

  This activates the antibody producing cells and immune response
systems of the body to prepare in case that particular pathogen
is detected.

 Vaccination is carried out using an attenuated or weakened form

of the virus or bacterium.

 Small pox eradication was attained by vaccination.

Eradication Of Smallpox
o Variola virus was responsible for small pox.

o Smallpox was eradicated by vaccination and the World

health Organisation (WHO) declared the world free of
smallpox.

Reasons For Smallpox Eradication

o The variola virus did not change its antigens or mutate.

o There was no increased spread through animals as they

were not infected.

o Identification of infected people was easy.

o Preservation of the virus was easy as it could be freeze-

dried and kept for long months.

o The smallpox vaccine was easy to administer and the

disease did not remain in the body.

o It was made from an attenuated strain of the virus that kept

eliciting an immune response leading to enough antibodies
to kill off the virus.

Failure of eradication of other diseases through vaccination

 Vaccination programmes have not always been successful.

 There has been failure in eradication of measles, TB, malaria and

cholera.
Reasons For Failure Of Measles Eradication
o High birth rates and shifting populations make monitoring
and tracking cases difficult.

o Migration may contribute to spread of disease.

o The success rate of the vaccine is 95%.

o Low vaccination effectiveness in children below 9 months

due to maternal antibodies that interfere with the vaccine.

Reasons For TB Failure

o TB bacteria become resistant to vaccines due to high
mutation rates.

o The immunity compromising nature of AIDS allows for the

spread of TB in infected people.

o TB is caused by two different bacteria with different

antigens making it hard to eradicate.

o It can be spread from cattle.

o Low standards of living and poor housing contribute to

spread by lowering natural resistance.

Reasons For Malaria Failure

o Malaria is caused by Plasmodium which has multiple
antigens.

o The complex life cycle of the Plasmodium makes it difficult

to eradicate malaria.

Reasons For Cholera Failure

o Vibrio Cholerae is found in the intestines where antibodies
produced by a vaccine cannot reach.