Sensors and Transducers

Pressure Transducers and Manometers

A pressure transducer is a device that converts pressure into an analog electrical signal.

Measuring Pressure

Pressure is measured in three forms.

 Absolute pressure is a pressure that is relative to the zero pressure in a vacuum.

 Gage pressure is the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure.
 Differential pressure is the difference in pressure at two different points of the system.
Types of Pressure Transducers

Resistance Type Transducer

Transducer whose resistance varies with pressure applied is called resistance type pressure transducers.
Eg: Strain Gauges.

Inductance Type Transducer

Pressure can also be measured using transducers like LVDT.

Capacitance Type Transducer

Transducers whose capacitance value changes with applied pressure is called capacitance transducers. Capacitance
transducers are used for measuring very low pressures.

Piezoelectric Transducers

Transducers use piezoelectric sensing elements for measuring pressure is called piezoelectric transducers.

Manometer

There are many devices for measuring pressure. A manometer is an instrument that uses a column of liquid to
measure pressure. The measuring is done by balancing the fluid in a column against another column of fluid of
known specific gravity. Manometers are used for measuring low pressure, especially in hydraulic laboratories.

Manometers can be classified as

 Simple manometer
 U tube manometer
 Well type manometer
 Inclined manometer
 Barometer
U Tube Manometer

A manometer in which the manometric fluid is filled in a U shaped tube is called a U-tube manometer. Water and
mercury are commonly used manometric fluids.

An unknown pressure P1 is applied in one of the legs of the tube. It causes a movement of the manometric fluid in
the tube to the other leg which is kept open. The movement of the fluid is stopped when the height is sufficient to
balance the pressure exerted by the column of liquid. if P2 is the atmospheric pressure then h is a direct
measurement of P1 and is given by,

Then,

Where ρ is the density of manometric fluid and g is the acceleration due to gravity.

That is, the pressure applied can be measured by knowing the height of the column of the liquid and density of the
liquid.
 Well Type Manometer

A well-type manometer has a well of large crossectional area connected to a glass tube. Normally, mercury is used
as the manometric fluid.

The unknown pressure P is applied to the well. This applied pressure causes the liquid level in the well to fall and
the liquid in the tube to rise. A small change in the height of the well causes a large change in the liquid level of the
tube. The difference in height can be measured using a scale that is calibrated in terms of pressure.

Level Transducer
A level transducer is a device that produces an electric signal with respect to a liquid level.

Level transducers are classified based on following measurement methods

 Direct and indirect level measurements.

 Continuous and discrete level measurements.
In direct method of measurement, the liquid level is converted directly to electrical signal. This can be done with
the help of some indicators. In indirect method, liquid level is first converted to displacement and this
displacement is then converted to electrical signal.

Continuous Level Transducer

Continuous level transducers measure the exact position of liquid level. It can monitor the entire system. Different
types of continuous level transducers are

 Ultrasonic level transducers

 Float element type-level transducers
 Capacitive level transducers
 Pressure type-level transducers
 Inductive level transducers
 Resistive level transducers etc.
Float Element Type Level Transducers

A float element type liquid level transducer is the most common simple method to measure liquid levels.
 As the liquid level rises in the tank, the float rises. It causes to move the wiper over the potential divider. The output
terminals of the potential divider are connected to a voltmeter. The output voltage is increased as the float rises.
That is the voltage will be proportional to the liquid level.

Advantages

 Simple in construction.
 Easy to operate.
 Works at large temperature range.
Disadvantages

 Not suitable in moderate pressure.

 Design of float should be selected properly.
Ultrasonic Level Transducers

The ultrasonic level transducers work by the time-of-flight principle. It is a method used for measuring the distance
between a sensor and an object.
 The ultrasonic transmitter emits an ultrasonic pulse beam towards the liquid. This pulse is reflected back to the
ultrasonic receiver by the liquid surface. The time difference between the transmission and reception is measured
and is calibrated to distance.

It can be used for both continuous and discrete level measurements.

Advantages

 Reliable.
 There are no moving parts.
 Can be used in high humidity.
 Material density or conductivity is not affected.
Disadvantages

 Dust particle may create distortion.

 Vibration or high noise will affect result.
Manometer Type Level Transducers

Pressure Type Level Transducers

Capacitive Level Transducers

Capacitive transducers can also be used to measure liquid levels.

Measurement of non-conductive material

The two concentric cylinders act as electrodes and the non-conducting liquid act as the dielectric medium.

Non contacting Measurement

One plate is kept fixed as other plate moves with the liquid level.

Point (Discrete) Level Transducer

Discrete level transducers are used to detect a single discrete liquid height. It is normally used for detecting
overflow or below the required level conditions.
Bernoulli’s Principle and The Continuity Equation
Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. They work on Bernoulli’s
principle and continuity equation.

The Continuity equation

The continuity equation represents that the product of the cross-sectional area of the pipe and the velocity of the
fluid at any point is always a constant.

Consider the fluid flows from end A, having a cross-sectional area A 1, to end B with a cross-sectional area A 2 in the
pipe. Then we can write,In general form, we can say

Bernoulli’s Principle

Bernoulli’s principle states that,

The total mechanical energy of the moving fluid comprising the gravitational potential energy of elevation, the
energy associated with the fluid pressure and the kinetic energy of the fluid motion, remains constant.

The formula for Bernoulli’s principle is given by

Where,
P – Pressure exerted by the fluid.
v – Velocity of the fluid.
ρ – Density of the fluid.
h – Height of the container.

Flow Meters
 Flow meters are the devices used for measuring the flow rate of liquids or gases. Flow rate can be defined as
the volume of fluid flowing through an area in unit time. In a pipe, the flow rate can be expressed in terms of speed
of the fluid and the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

Obstruction Type Flow meter

Different types of flow measuring techniques are used based on the requirements and depending upon the situation.
Common types of flow meters include

 Obstruction type.
 Inferential.
 Electromagnetic.
 Anemometer.
In an obstruction type flow meter, an obstruction is created in the flow passage and the pressure drop across the
obstruction is measured. This change in pressure is calibrated in terms of flow rate.

Depending upon the type of obstruction, different types of obstruction flow meters such as Orifice meter,
Venturimeter, Flow nozzle, etc. are available.

Orifice meter

In an orifice type flow meter, an orifice plate is placed in the pipe as shown in the figure. The pressure is dropped
suddenly when the fluid passes the orifice and continues to drop until ‘vena contracta‘ is reached. It is a result of
the increase in velocity of the fluid passing through the reduced area.

Vena contracta is the point in a fluid stream where the diameter of the stream is the least.

After vena contracta, the pressure increases gradually until a maximum pressure point is reached that will be lower
than the pressure P1. The flow rate can be obtained by measuring the pressure difference (P1-P2).

The major advantages of the orifice plate that it is simple in construction, low-cost device and easy to install. The
main disadvantage of using the orifice plate is the permanent pressure drop occurred in the orifice plate. This
problem can be overcome by using Venturimeter or Flow nozzles.
Venturimeter

A venturimeter is constructed in such a way that change in the flow path is gradual. As a result, no permanent
pressure drop has occurred in the flow path.

The middle portion of the venturimeter is called the throat. The crossectional area of this area is too small. Here
pressure decreases and velocity increases.

The starting section of venturimeter where the crossectional area starts to decrease is called converging section.
The end of the converging section is attached with the throat.

The last part of the venturimeter is called the diverging part. The crossectional area of this section increases
continually.

Venturimeter works on Bernoulli’ equation. That is pressure decreases with increasing velocity. Since the
crossectional area of the throat section is smaller, the velocity of flow will be higher in this area. This happens
according to the continuity equation. This increase in velocity results in a decrease in pressure. This change in
pressure is measured to calculate the flow rate of the fluid.

The main disadvantage of venturimeter is that the cost of making is high.

Flow nozzle

Flow nozzles are a compromise between the orifice plate and venturimeter both in cost and performance. Typical
construction of a flow nozzle is shown in the figure.

The shape of the flow nozzle provides lesser resistance to flow when compared to an orifice meter. It has no
divergent cone for pressure recovery as in a venturimeter.
Flow nozzles are compact, cheaper and easy install as compared to venturimeter. Since there is no divergent cone
pressure recovery is low when compared to venturimeter.

Rotameter

The orifice meter, Venturimeter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant area variable pressure drop. Here
the pressure drop changes with flow rate and the area of obstruction are always constant. The rotameter works as a
constant pressure drop variable area meter. That is the pressure drop is always constant and the area of obstruction
is changed.

Typical construction of a rotameter is shown in the figure. It consists of a tapered pipe and a floating element. The
float has specific gravity higher than the fluid. When the fluid starts to flow through the pipe, the float rises due to
the buoyancy, increasing the area for passage of the fluid. The movement of the float will directly proportional to
the flow rate of the fluid. Flow rate can be measured when the float reaches a stable position where the force
exerted by the fluid equals the gravitational force exerted by the float.

Rotometers are simple to operate, easy to handle and the cost of making is low. It doesn’t require external power or
energy for its operation.

Anemometer
A hot wire anemometer is a temperature transducer used for measuring flow rate.
 When the electrically heated temperature sensor is placed in a flowing fluid, heat is transferred from the sensor to
the fluid. Hence the temperature of the sensor reduces resulting in a change in resistance of the wire. The amount of
cooling of the wire depends on the flow velocity and hence the resistance variation can be used to measure the flow
rate of the fluid.

Hot wire anemometer are connected in two methods for measuring flow rate.

 Constant current method

 Constant temperature method.

In the constant current method, the current of the wire is kept fixed and is exposed to flow velocity. Then the
change in temperature of the wire becomes a measure of flow velocity.

In constant temperature method we maintain the temperature and resistance of the wire at a constant level. So the
current through the wire is increased and it is a measure of flow velocity.

Advantages

 Can be used for fluids with rapidly fluctuating velocity.

 Relatively low cost.

Electromagnetic Flow Meter
Electromagnetic flow meters are suitable for measuring the flow of electrically conducting liquid.
 Schematic diagram of an electromagnetic flowmeter is shown in the figure. It consists of a pair of electrodes fixed
in the opposite sides of a pipe carrying the fluid whose flow is to be measured. A pipe with non-conducting and
non-magnetic property is used. The pipe is surrounded by some material to produce a magnetic field.

An electromagnetic flowmeter works on the Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic induction. A voltage is produced
inside the pipe which is proportional to the velocity of the medium and it is captured by electrodes. The voltage is
given by

Where B=Magnetic flux * Density, l=Length of the conductor and v= Velocity of the conductor.

That is if the magnetic field is kept constant then voltage produced across the pipe will be proportional to the
velocity of the fluid.

Radiation Sensors
Radiation is the emission of energy from matter in the form of rays or high-speed particles. Broadly, it can be
thought of as either electromagnetic radiation (like radio waves or visible light) or particle radiation (like alpha
particles or beta particles).

Radiation Sensors or Radiation Detectors are devices that can sense and measure radiation. The radiation sensors
discussed here are mostly based on the photoelectric effect. The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a
material when electromagnetic radiation, such as a photon of visible light, falls on them is called the photoelectric
effect.

Common Types of Radiation Sensors are

 Gas-filled radiation detectors.

 Scintillation radiation detectors.
 Solid-state radiation detector.
Gas-filled radiation sensors

A chamber filled with air or special gas is given a high voltage potential difference which causes ionization and as a
result, positive ions gets collected to the cathode and free electrons to the anode which in turn causes a small
current flow. The level of current indicates the level of radiation. A common type of gas-filled radiation detector is
Geiger-Muller Detector, filled with helium, neon, or argon.
Scintillation radiation sensors

Solid or liquid material is hit with radiation which releases photons into a photomultiplier tube. The tube consists of
multiple dynodes each one having higher electrical potential than the previous one. The released photon strikes the
first dynode and an electron is emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect. The electron freed hits the next higher
potential dynode and more electrons are emitted and are repeated forward. Hence, the output pulse from the tube is
proportional to the light entering the tube.

Solid-state radiation sensors

A semiconductor device that contains two materials, n-type and p-type, are used in this detector. The n-type
semiconductor material has electrons as majority carriers and the p-type has holes(positively charged) as majority
carriers. When these two are joined, electrons from the n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region
between them. When radiation hits the depletion region, free electron-hole pairs are created. These charge carriers
travel within the detector and the current pulse they cause is proportional to the level of radiation.

Photoconductive cells(LDR), Photovoltaic cells, Photo emissive cells are all transducers that work on the basis of
the photoelectric effect. They all can convert light energy into electrical energy.

LDR (Light Dependent Resistor)

A light dependent resistor(LDR) is used to detect the presence or level of light. They work on the basic principle of
photo-conductivity. It is also called a photoresistor, photoconductor or photocell. The circuit symbol of an LDR is
shown in the figure.

LDR Circuit Symbol

LDR consist of a resistor made up of semiconductor material. Cadmium sulphide and cadmium selenide are the
most commonly used materials for constructing these resistors. They have high resistivity and their resistance value
varies according to light intensity. Photons from the fallen light are absorbed by the material lattice and some
electrons gain this energy to break the bond and be free. As a more light strike, more free electrons are emitted that
can conduct electricity thereby decreasing the resistance.

A snake-like track is formed using cadmium sulphide on the surface as shown in the figure. This structure provides
maximum surface and reduces resistance.
 Structure of LDR

Internal Structure of LDR

Advantages of LDR

 Low cost.
 Ease of manufacture.
 Ease of use.
Disadvantages of LDR

 High response time.

Applications

 Automatic Street Lighting.

 Burglar Circuits.
 Cameras, Alarm Clocks.

Photovoltaic Cell
A photovoltaic cell is a device that generates an electric current when exposed to light. The basic principle behind
its working is the photovoltaic effect.
 Construction

Layers – Conducting material on top surface and backside collects produced electricity. The material on the top
doesn’t cover the surface fully to allow penetration of radiation to the depletion region on the p-n semiconductor.
The anti-reflection layer traps maximum light rays to be occupied by the p-n semiconductor.

Materials Used : Silicon, Gallium Arsenide, Cadmium Telluride, Gallium Selenide.

Working of Photovoltaic cell

The photoelectric cell is formed of a p-type and an n-type semiconductor. The n-type semiconductor material has
electrons as majority carriers and the p-type has holes(positively charged) as majority carriers. When these two are
joined, electrons from the n-region migrate to the p-region creating a depletion region between them. When light
falls on the depletion region, the energy from photon is transferred to electrons, creating free electron-hole pairs
that can move freely and conduct electricity.

Advantages

 Fast response.
 High efficiency.
 Generate voltage without any bias.
Disadvantages

 Powe generation depends on weather conditions.

 Easily damaged.
Applications

 Solar farms.
 Telecommunication and Signalling.
 Standalone systems including solar lamps, parking meters, trash compactors.

Photodiode
 The photodiode is a p-n junction diode that converts light energy into electrical energy. It is also known as a
photodetector, photosensor or light detector.

Photodiode circuit symbol

Working

A photodiode always works in reverse biased condition. That is the n region of the semiconductor is connected to
the battery’s positive terminal and the p region of the semiconductor is connected to the negative terminal of the
battery.

When the photodiode is exposed to light, the electrons from n region moves towards the positive terminal and holes
from the p region move towards the negative terminal. Thus a photocurrent is produced which is proportional to the
intensity of light. It is called the photoelectric effect.

Types

1. PN Junction Diode
It is formed with a p-type and an n-type semiconductor and creates a depletion region where the incidence of
photons generates free electrons that can conduct electricity.

2. PIN Diode
It has a thin layer of intrinsic(pure form of semiconductor)material between two extrinsic(n-type and p-type)
materials. The added layer has high resistivity and electric field strength. It also increases the depletion region
thereby increasing the possibility of a larger amount of photons hitting the region.

3. Avalanche Photodiode(APD)
 High reverse biased voltage is applied to create an avalanche effect, which is the rapid increase of current when
enough electric force is applied to the material. This happens because photoexcited electrons have high energy to
excite other atoms and free more electrons.

Modes of Operation

1. Photovoltaic modes
Also known as a zero-bias mode. It is forward biased, i.e., the positive terminal is connected to the p-region and the
negative terminal to the n-region. This arrangement decreases the width of the depletion region and the voltage
produced when photon hits will have a small dynamic range.

2. Photoconductive mode
It works on reverse biased condition, increases the width of the depletion region and therefore is fast by having a
low response time.

3. Avalanche Mode
Under the high reverse biased condition, the avalanche effect is initiated which produces internal gain which in turn
increases device response by producing a larger current per photon.

Applications

 Optical communication system

 Used in solar cell panels
 Smoke detectors, Remote controls in VCR , Street lights

Photoemissive cell
A photoemissive cell is also known as a phototube that operates on the photoelectric effect. It consists of a
photosensitive cathode(negative) from which electrons are emitted when hit by light. It also contains an
anode(positive) that attracts these free electrons. Both cathode and anode are enclosed in glass or quartz. When the
electrons are drawn from cathode to anode, an electric current is generated proportional to the fallen light.

Types of Photoemissive cell

Vacuum type cell

In a vacuum phototube, a rod anode and curvature cathode are housed in a vacuum glass. The current is generated
immediately on light incidence and is proportional to the brightness of the light.

Gas-filled cell

A similar arrangement as the vacuum tube except, inert gas like argon is filled in the tube and emitted electrons by
the light are accelerated by the electric field and cause ionization thereby increasing the current due to high
collision.

Photomultiplier cell

It contains evacuated glass which is occupied by multiple dynodes in addition to anode and cathode. Each dynode
has a higher electrical potential than the previous one. Electrons emitted from the cathode strike the first dynode
that emits multiple electrons which in turn hits the next higher potential dynode and more electrons are emitted and
is repeated forward. The anode is placed at the end and a large number of electrons reaching the anode results in a
current pulse which is detected easily. It is highly sensitive and has a high-frequency response.
Sound Transducers
Sound is a type of energy generated from vibrations and can propagate as acoustic waves through a medium. Sound
transducers convert sound energy into electrical energy or vice versa. Generally, the transducers that convert sound
energy to electrical energy are input sound transducers such as microphone and those that transform electrical
energy to sound are output sound transducers such as loudspeakers.

Sound Level Meter

Sound Level Meter

It is a device that is used to display sound levels and expressed in decibels. A microphone is used to intercept the
sound to be measured. The electrical signal produced by the microphone is very low and is made stronger by a pre-
amplifier. The amplified signal is processed by a weighting network so as to be compatible with the perception of
the human ear when exposed to certain frequencies. It is further boosted through another amplifier. The rectifier
then converts the AC signal to DC signal so that the meter can display the sound pressure level in decibels.
An output jack may exist so that the measured signal can be recorded or analysed whenever desired.

Microphone

A microphone is a transducer that picks up sound and coverts into electrical energy. A microphone may use
electromagnetic induction, capacitance variation or piezoelectricity to produce electrical energy from air pressure
variations.

Moving Coil Microphone

The moving coil microphone or the dynamic microphone works on the principle that if a coil is moved which is
placed in a magnetic field, and electric current is induced.

Moving Coil Microphone

A moving coil microphone has a diaphragm to which a coil is attached which is surrounded by a magnet. When
sound waves hit the diaphragm, the coil moves in the magnetic field to produce voltage.
 Other types of microphones include condenser microphones, which has a capacitor with one plate acting as a
diaphragm and changes the capacitance according to vibrations. On the other hand, a ribbon microphone has a thin
ribbon of sensing element to which sound waves are applied. Th ribbon is suspended between poles of a magnet.
When the ribbon vibrates a voltage is induced due to magnetic induction proportional to the sound energy.

Hall effect Transducers

Hall effect transducers can measure the magnetic field strength. Direct measurement of magnetic field intensity is
impracticable and hence, this kind of transducer uses the Hall effect for this purpose. Hall effect is the production of
e.m.f or voltage difference across a current-carrying conductor in the presence of a magnetic field, which is
perpendicular to both the current and magnetic field.

Hall effect Transducer

The magnitude of voltage depends on the strength of the magnetic field, current and properties of the conductor
material used. A voltmeter can be used to measure the magnitude of the produced voltage.

The voltage developed due to Hall effect or the Hall Effect e.m.f is given as

Where,
KH is a constant of proportionality known as the Hall Effect Coefficient.
B is the magnetic field intensity.
I is the current through the conductor.
T is the thickness of the conductor.

Advantages

 Long life.
 High-speed operation.
Disadvantages

 May be affected by an external magnetic field.

 High temperature affects the sensitivity of the transducer.
Applications

 Position sensing.
 Magnetometer.
 Automotive fuel level indicator.
 Encoded Switches.