Week 8, 9 and 10 Ethical Aspects of ● The code stipulated the following as

essential requirements of ethical research

Nursing Research which are voluntary consent, withdrawal of
Topics subjects from study, protection of subjects
1. .Characteristics of Ethical research from physical and mental suffering, injury,
2. Code of Research Ethics disability and death, and balance of benefits
3. Ethical principles for protecting Study and risks.
Participants
a. Beneficence –TEN DIRECTIVES FOR HUMAN
b. Respect of human dignity EXPERIMENTATION–
c. Justice 1. Voluntary consent : absolutely essential
d. Right to self-determination 2. Generalizable knowledge: NO other way,
e. Right to fair treatment NOT random and UNNECESSARY in
f. Right to privacy nature
g. Right to privacy & anonymity of 3. Animal experimentation should PRECEDE
data h. Right to be protected from human experimentation
discomfort & harm 4. UNNECESSARY physical and mental
4. Vulnerable Subjects SUFFERING and INJURY should be
avoided
–ETHICAL ASPECTS OF NURSING 5. No experiment should be conducted if there
RESEARCH– is reason to believe that DEATH OR
● • The word “ethics” is Greek for “ethikos.” DISABLING injury will occur
It refers to ‘the rule of conduct recognized in 6. Degree Of Risk To Subjects should never
certain associations or departments of exceed the HUMANITARIAN
human life’ (Simpson, 2004). IMPORTANCE of the problem
● Nursing Research uses human beings as 7. Risks to the subjects should be minimized
subjects, hence, the researcher must exercise through PROPER PREPARATION
caution to protect the rights of the subjects 8. Experiments should only be conducted by
against undue impositions. The complex scientifically qualified investigators
nature of nursing research may place the 9. Subjects should always be at liberty to
researcher and the participants of the study withdraw from experiments
in a potentially compromising situation. 10. Investigators must be ready to end the
experiment at any stage if there is cause to
–BASIS FOR ETHICAL STANDARDS– believe that continuing the experiment is
Because of these unethical activities in the name of likely to result in injury, disability or death
science, several codes were developed, examples of to the subject
which are the Nuremberg Code, Declaration of
Helsinki, Council for International Organizations of B. Declaration of Helsinki
Medical Sciences (CIOMS), Belmont Report and ● This declaration was adopted by the World
Professional Code of Ethics for Nurses. Medical Association in 1964. It was last
updated in 2000. The main contribution of
A. Nuremberg Code this document was the introduction of the
● This code was developed in 1949 borne out distinction between therapeutic and
of the Nuremberg trials. This was done non-therapeutic research.
primarily due to sadistic treatment of ● In therapeutic research the patient could
subjects by Nazi experimenters. Hence, benefit from experimental treatment that
rules were formulated to guide investigators might have beneficial results.
in their conduct of research. ● In non-therapeutic research, the main goal is
the generation of new knowledge which
 might produce beneficial results to future ● Appropriate guidelines for the
patients but less likely to the actual research selection of human subjects for
subjects. participation in such research
● The nature and definition of
C. CIOMS informed consent in various
● The CIOMs Guidelines, formally known as research settings.
International Ethical Guidelines for
Biomedical Research Involving Human E. Code of Ethics for Nurses
Subjects, is a set of ethical principles ● The code revised in 2000 is a guide for
regarding human experimentation. It was action based on social values and needs. The
created in 1993 by the Council for code has served as the standard for nurses’
International Organizations of Medical performance worldwide since it was first
Science (CIOMS) and was updated in 2002. adopted in 1953. The new version, revised
● The 21 guidelines, fifteen of which were in for the first time in 27 years, responds to the
the original report, addressed issues realities of nursing and health care in a
including informed consent, standards for changing society.
external review, recruitment of participants
and so on. The guidelines are general –ETHICAL PRINCIPLES FOR PROTECTING
instructions and principles of ethical STUDY PARTICIPANTS–
biomedical research. Nurse researchers are bound to face issues with
ethical implications as they endeavor to contribute to
D. Belmont Report the betterment of patient care. At times, the need for
● On July 12, 1974, the National Research Act quality evidence in nursing research may not adhere
was signed into law thereby creating the to ethical principles and guidelines for nurse
National Commission for the Protection of researchers:
Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioural Research. The commission was 1. Informed Consent
to identify the basic ethical principles that ● The participants must be fully
should underlie the conduct of biomedical informed about the nature of
and behavioral research involving human research, its purposes and potential
subjects and to develop guidelines to risks and benefits.
assure that such research of this sort is ● They must have the power of free
conducted in accordance with those choice to voluntarily consent to or
principles. The report was published by the decline participation in the study.
commission in 1979 titled The Belmont ● They must also be informed of the
Report. This report had the following anticipated results of the study and
considerations: how this would affect them and the
target population
● The boundaries between ● Informed consent is an essential
biomedical and behavioral research mechanism for ensuring that basic
and the accepted routine practice of ethical principles are observed
medicine; when research involves human
● The role of assessment of subjects.
risk-benefit criteria in the 2. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence
determination of the ● This is a fundamental ethical
appropriateness of research principle in research, which means
involving human subjects; “to do good’ and “to do no harm”
to study participants
 ● Beneficence is an action to do ➢ Moreover, the relationship
good.” This is done to benefit established during the research
others. Beneficent actions can be process must be beneficial to both
taken to mean merely preventing or the researcher and the participants
removing harm or to simply without any consequent risks that
improve the situation of others. It may arise from the outcome of the
imposes a duty on researchers to study. There should also be no
minimize harm and to maximize exploitation of self as researcher, as
benefits. A related principle is well as the research assistants
nonmaleficence. during the study period
● • Nonmaleficence means “to do no
harm.” The term nonmaleficence 3. Respect for human dignity
derives from the ancient Latin ● The rights of all involved in the
maxim primum non nocere. Nurse study must be protected and
researcher have a tradition of respected. These include the right
utilitarian approaches, meaning that to self-determination, right to
the greatest good should be remain anonymous or the right to
accomplished through any public confidentiality of personal
health action. information.
● The Right to Self Determination
These principles of beneficence and nonmaleficence ➢ This refers to the right of
require the researcher to assure participants of the prospective participants to
following issues: voluntarily participate or
● Freedom from any Physical and refuse to participate in the
Psychological Harm. study. There should be no
➢ The researcher should minimize all undue pressure or
kinds of harm or discomfort and coercion, such as threat of
provide safety measures to prevent penalty for failing to
potential injury, distress or participate or excessive
disability imposed on the study rewards for agreeing to
participants during the time of the participate.
study.
➢ This means that the researcher must ● The Right to Full Disclosure
guarantee safety and protection of ➢ The researcher must fully
the participants from any explain to the participants
detrimental effects of the study. the nature and purpose of
➢ The researcher should also the study, the right to
anticipate for any unforeseen refuse participation, the
eventualities and situations that researcher’s
were not previously accounted for responsibilities, and the
potential risks and benefits
● Freedom from Exploitation of the study.
➢ The participants must be safe from ➢ Deception and
situations that will expose them to concealment of
threats or liabilities. Any information which is
information provided by the deliberately withholding
participant must not be used against information about the
them. study or providing
participants with false
 information will interfere must likewise be provided
with the right of the to the participants if
participants to make truly needed, as well as giving
informed decisions about them due respect and
personal and professional courtesy at all times.
benefits of participation.
➢ Researchers must show ● Anonymity and Confidentiality
respect to study ➢ Research participants have
participants by cautiously the right to privacy and
attending to their confidentiality, consistent
emotional rights and the with respect for human
nature of their dignity, particularly when
interactions. anticipated results have
➢ Debriefing sessions after negative implications on
data collection is them. The researcher shall
completed will allow exercise prudence in
participants to ask making pronouncements
questions or air their regarding the results of the
complaints. Debriefing is study
a formal strategy that
researchers can use to –TREATMENT OF VULNERABLE GROUPS–
communicate their respect Vulnerable Populations may be incapable of giving
and concern for the fully informed consent (e.g. mentally retarded
participants especially people) or may be at risk of unintended side effects
when data collection has because of their circumstances (e.g. pregnant women)
been stressful or if ethical
guidelines were ignored Among the groups that nurse researchers should
e.g. deception (Polit & consider vulnerable are the following:
Beck, 2008)
➢ The right to Children
self-determination and full ● Legally and ethically, children do not have
disclosure is embodied in competence to give informed consent, so the
informed consent. informed consent of children’s parents or
legal guardians must be obtained.
4. Justice and Fairness ● It is appropriate, however, especially if the
● Study participants deserve fair and child is at least 7 years old to obtain the
equitable treatment before, during child’s assent as well. Assent refers to the
and after the study period child’s affirmative agreement to participate.
● The Right to Fair Treatment ● If the child is mature enough (e.g. a
➢ The researcher should 12-year-old) to understand basic informed
provide all target consent information, it is advisable to obtain
participants equal chances written assent from the child as well as
in the selection process, evidence of respect for the child’s right to
must comply with self-determination.
agreements as regard to
procedures, techniques or Mentally or Emotionally disabled people
benefits due to the ● Individuals whose disability makes it
participants. Adequate impossible for them to weigh the risk and
orientation and training benefits of participation (e.g. people affected
 by cognitive impairment, coma and so on) Pregnant Women
also cannot legally or ethically provide ● The U.S. government has issued additional
informed consent. requirements governing research with
● In such cases, researchers should obtain the pregnant women and fetuses.
written consent of a legal guardian. To the ● These requirements reflect a desire to
extent possible, informed consent or assent safeguard both the pregnant woman, who
from participants themselves should be may be at heightened physical and
sought as a supplement to consent by a psychological risk and the fetus, who cannot
guardian. give informed consent.
● The regulations stipulate that a pregnant
Severely ill or physically disabled people woman cannot be involved in a study unless
● For patients who are very ill or undergoing its purpose is to meet the health needs of the
certain treatment, it might be necessary to pregnant woman, and risks to her and the
assess their ability to make reasoned fetus are minimized or there is only a
decisions about study participation. For minimal risk to the fetus.
example, with deaf participants, the entire
consent process may need to be in writing. Week 11 Collecting Research Data
● For people who have a physical impairment
preventing them from writing or for Interview
participants who cannot read and write, DATA COLLECTION
alternative procedures for documenting Data collection is a systematic process of gathering
information (such as videotaping or observations or measurements. Whether you are
videotaping consent proceedings) should be performing research for business, governmental or
used. academic purposes, data collection allows you to gain
first-hand knowledge and original insights into your
The Terminally Ill research problem.
● Terminally ill people who participate in
studies seldom expect to benefit personally –QUANTITATIVE STUDIES–
from the research, so the risk/benefit ratio Data collection vary along several dimensions
needs to be carefully assessed.
● Researchers must also take steps to ensure Types:
that the healthcare and comfort of terminally Original Data (Interview) vs. Existing Date (records)
ill participants are not compromised.
● Special procedures may be needed to obtain Example:
informed consent if they are physically or Example of a study using records Draughton Moret
mentally incapacitated. and colleagues (2016) explored factors associated
with patients’ acceptance of nonoccupational
Institutionalized People postexposure HIV prophylaxis following a sexual
● Particular care is required in recruiting assault. Data were obtained from forensic nursing
institutionalized people because they depend charts.
on healthcare personnel and may feel
pressured into participating, or may believe 3 TYPES OF COLLECTING ORIGINAL OR
that their treatment would be jeopardized by NEW DATA:
failure to cooperate. 1. Self-report data or patient reported outcome –
● Inmates of prisons and other correctional participants responses to researchers questions (e.g.
facilities, who have lost their autonomy in interview) – most common data collection approach
many spheres of activity, may similarly feel 2. Direct observation – for people’s behavior and
constrained in their ability to withhold characteristics
consent. 3. Bio physiologic measures – for clinical variables
 ● interactive
Self-Reports/Patient Reported Outcomes ● personal
● Collected with a formal, written document ● Approachable (cannot fill out questionnaire)
(an instrument) ● Questionnaires – less costly
● Interview schedule – face to face or via ● and advantageous
telephone ● to geographically dispersed samples ,
● Questionnaire- when respondents’ complete ● more anonymous
instrument themselves

Question Form and Wording

● In a totally structured instrument, –QUALITATIVE STUDIES–
respondents are asked to respond to the In-depth interviews are the most common
same questions in the same order. ➢ method of collecting qualitative data.
Closed-ended (or fixed-alternative) Observation is used in some qualitative
questions are ones in which the response studies as well. Physiologic data are rarely
options are prespecified. The options may collected in a constructivist inquiry
range from a simple yes or no to complex
expressions of opinion. Such questions
ensure comparability of responses and
facilitate analysis. Some examples of
closed-ended questions are presented in
Table 10.1.

Qualitative Interviews
1. Do not have set of questions that must be
asked in a specific order
2. Starts with general questions
3. Allow respondents to tell narratives in a
naturalistic fashion
4. Conversational
● Some structured instruments, however, also
include open-ended questions, which allow Types
participants to respond to questions in their 1. Unstructured interviews
own words (e.g., Why did you stop 2. Semi structured (or focused) interviews
smoking?). When open-ended questions are 3. focused group interviews
included in questionnaires, respondents must 4. Personal diaries
write out their responses. In interviews, the 5. Photo elicitation
interviewer records responses verbatim.
Qualitative Interview
Interview vs. Questionnaires ● 1. Unstructured interviews - no
● Interview – preconceived view of the information to be
● high response (worst case is to say no than gathered. Researchers begin by asking a
ignore) grand tour question
● uncontrolled and uninfluenced respond
 ex : “What happened when you first learned
that you had AIDS?”
Examples of focus group interviews Neville
and colleagues (2015) explored perceptions
of staff working in residential care homes
toward older lesbian, gay, and bisexual
people. A total of 47 care workers from
seven residential care facilities participated
in seven focus groups. The topic guide
included two vignettes highlighting the
stories of two hypothetical gay/lesbian older
● 2. Semi structured (or focused) interviews people.
- researchers have a list of topics or broad
questions that must be covered in an ● 4. Personal diaries - a standard data source
interview. in historical research. It is also possible to
- written topic guide generate new data for a study by asking
* The interviewers function is to encourage participants to maintain a diary over a
participants to talk freely about all the topics specified period.
on the guide. more intimate

Example of a semi structured interview Example of diaries Curtis and colleagues

Duck and colleagues (2015) studied the (2014) explored responses to stress among
perceptions and experiences of patients with Irish women with breast cancer. Thirty
idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Semi women with newly diagnosed breast cancer
structured interviews lasting about an hour maintained diaries during their participation
were conducted with 17 patients. The topic in a clinical trial. They were asked to write
guide covered topics suggested in the regularly about their experiences and
literature and from a patient/carer support feelings. A facilitator reminded them weekly
group. The researcher posed broad, about the diaries over a 5-week period but
open-ended questions that “gave participants gave no further instructions.
the opportunity to tell their story” (p. 1057).
● Photo elicitation - involves an interview
● 3. Focused group interviews -involve guided by photographic images. This
groups of about 5 to 10 people whose procedure, most often used in ethnographies
opinions and experiences are solicited and participatory action research, can help to
simultaneously promote a collaborative discussion
+ photovoice
Moderator
Example of a photovoice study
Evans-Agnew (2016) used photovoice to
explore disparities in asthma management
with African American youth. Adolescents
participated in a three-session photovoice
project; their photo texts were analyzed and
compared to youth-related asthma policies
in the state of Washington.
 Week 11 Computation of Samples - Sampling saves the sources of data from
being all consumed.
Sample and Sampling Technique
➢ In Chapter 3 – this component explains the –GENERAL TYPES OF SAMPLING –
target population, sampling procedure, and ● PROBABILITY SAMPLING – the sample
sample size of the study is a proportion (a certain percent) of the
➢ There is a need to show the number of population and such sample is selected from
respondents the population by means of some systematic
● Sampling – measuring a small way in which every element of the
portion of something and then population has a chance of being included in
making a general statement about the sample.
the whole thing. ● NON- PROBABILITY SAMPLING – the
● Sample – these are the elements sample is not a proportion of the population
(people) who are actually selected and there is no system in selecting the
to participate or to be the subject of sample. The selection depends upon the
the study. situation.
● Population – is the theoretically
specific aggregation of the –TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING –
elements. This is also called the 1. Accidental Sampling – only those whom
universe. the researcher or interviewer meet by chance
- the complete set of people are included in the sample. It is used only
in the study when there is no other alternative.
- e.g. Registered Nurses, 2. Quota Sampling – specified number of
Filipinos, Older children persons of certain types are included in the
● Study Population – is the sample. It is used only when any of the more
aggregation of elements from desirable types of sampling will not do.
which the sample is actually 3. Convenience Sampling – is a process of
selected. picking out people in the most convenient
● Sample Size or target population and fastest way to immediately get their
- is a subset of the reactions to a certain hot and controversial
individual with specific issue.
clinical and demographic 4. Universal Sampling - is a process of
characteristics which the picking out the entire population
researcher will include in
the study –TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING –
- part of the population Pure Random Sampling
chosen for the study ➢ Type of sampling in which every one in the
population of the inquiry has an equal
–PURPOSES/ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING – chance of being selected to be included in
- Sampling makes possible the study of a the sample.
large, heterogeneous population. ➢ This is also called the lottery or raffle type
- Sampling is for the economy. Research of sampling; or unrestricted random
without sampling may be too costly. sampling.
- Sampling is for speed. Research without ➢ Maybe used if the population has no
sampling might be too time-consuming. differentiated levels, sections, or classes.
- Sampling is for accuracy. The research must
be finished within a reasonable period of Cluster Sampling
time so that the data are still true, valid, and ➢ Multistage cluster sampling or simply
reliable. multistage sampling is used when the
 population is so big or the geographical area 100% sure that your statistics are a complete
of the research is large. and accurate representation of the
population.
Systematic Sampling ● This uncertainty is called sampling error and
➢ This is a technique of sampling in which is usually measured by a confidence
every nth name in a list may be selected to interval.
be included in a sample. ● For example, you might state that your
➢ This is used when the subjects or results are at a 90% confidence level. That
respondents in the study are arrayed or means if you were to repeat your survey
arranged in some systematic or logical over and over, 90% of the time you would
manner such as alphabetical arrangement, get the same results.
residential or house arrays, geographical
placement, etc. Power of the study
➢ It is a restricted random sampling. ● Power is the probability of rejecting the null
Stratified Sampling hypothesis when, in fact, it is false.
➢ Is a process of selecting randomly, samples ● Power is the probability of making a correct
from the different strata of the population decision (to reject the null hypothesis) when
used in the study. the null hypothesis is false.
➢ It is used when the population of inquiry has ● Power is the probability that a test of
class stratifications or groupings. significance will pick up on an effect that is
present.
Purposive Sampling ● Power is the probability that a test of
➢ is determining the target population, those to significance will detect a deviation from the
be involved in the study. null hypothesis, should such a deviation
➢ The respondents are chosen on the basis of exist.
their knowledge of the information needed ● Power is the probability of avoiding a Type
II error.
Generally, the sample size for any study depends
on the: There are four primary factors affecting power:
● Acceptable level of significance ● Significance level (or alpha)
● Power of the study • Expected effect size ● Sample size
● Underlying event rate in the population ● Variability, or variance, in the measured
● Standard deviation in the population response variable
● Magnitude of the effect of the variable
–LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE –
● The significance level is the probability of Expected effect size
rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. ● Effect size is a quantitative measure of the
For example, a significance level of 0.05 magnitude of the experimental effect. The
indicates a 5% risk of concluding that a larger the effect size the stronger the
difference exists when there is no actual relationship between two variables.
difference.
● Lower significance levels indicate that you How to calculate the effect size:
require stronger evidence before you will ● Cohen’s d
reject the null hypothesis. - is an appropriate effect size for the
● When you only survey a small sample of the comparison between two means
population, uncertainty creeps into your ● Pearson r correlation
statistics. - -this parameter summarizes the strength of
● If you can only survey a certain percentage the bivariate relationship
of the true population, you can never be
Experimental Event Rate (EER) Slovin’s Formula
● In epidemiology and biostatistics, the ● is used to calculate the sample size (n) given
experimental event rate (EER) is a measure the population size (N) and a margin of error
of how often a particular statistical event (e).
(such as response to a drug, adverse event or
death) occurs within the experimental group n = N / (1+Ne2)
(non-control group) of an experiment. where:
● n = no. of samples
Standard Deviation ● N = total population
● The standard deviation is a statistic that ● e = error margin / margin of error
measures the dispersion of a dataset relative
to its mean and is calculated as the square –COCHRAN FORMULA –
root of the variance. ● The Cochran formula allows you to
● The standard deviation is calculated as the calculate an ideal sample size given a
square root of variance by determining each desired level of precision, desired
data point's deviation relative to the mean. confidence level, and the estimated
proportion of the attribute present in the
General Tips population.
Step 1: Conduct a census ● Cochran’s formula is considered especially
Step 2: Use a sample size from a similar study. appropriate in situations with large
Step 3: Use a table to find a sample size, e.g. Machin populations.
et. al’s Sample size table for Clinical Studies, 3rd ● A sample of any given size provides more
Edition information about a smaller population than
Step 4: Use of sample size calculator. These are a larger one, so there’s a ‘correction’
available online. through which the number given by
Step 5: Use a formula. Like Slovin’s Formula and Cochran’s formula can be reduced if the
Cochran’s Formula. whole population is relatively small.
● The Cochran formula is:
Cochran’s Formula and Slovin’s Formula
Cohran’s Formula
● Calculate ideal size in a given desired level
of precision, desired confidence level, and
the estimated proportion of the attribute
present in population. ● Cochran’s Formula Example:

where: ● Suppose we are doing a study on the

● e is the desired level of precision (i.e. inhabitants of a large town and want to find
margin of error) out how many households serve breakfast in
● p is the (estimated) proportion of the the mornings.
population which has the attribute in ● We don’t have much information on the
questions subject to begin with, so we’re going to
● q is 1 – p assume that half of the families serve
● The z-value is found in a Z table. breakfast: this gives us maximum variability.
 ● So, p = 0.5. Now let’s say we want 95% Step 3: Use the formula n = N / (1 + N e2 )
confidence, and at least 5 percent—plus or In which n = the size of the sample;
minus—precision. N = the size of the population
● A 95 % confidence level gives us Z values e = margin of error
of 1.96, per the normal tables, so we get:
● ((1.96)2 (0.5) (0.5)) / (0.05)2 = 385. Step 4: Round your answer to a whole number
● So, a random sample of 385 households in
our target population should be enough to When Slovin’s formula is used - If you have no idea
give us the confidence levels we need. about a population’s behavior, use Slovin’s formula
to find the sample size.
–MODIFICATION FOR THE COCHRAN
FORMULA FOR SAMPLE SIZE Sample Computation
CALCULATION IN SMALLER ● 1. The population is 4,641
POPULATIONS– ● 2. The margin of error to be used is 3%
● 3. Using the formula:
● If the population we’re studying is small, we n = 4641 / (1 + 4641 (0.03)2
can modify the sample size we calculated in n = 4641 / 5.1769
the above formula by using this equation: n = 896.48 0r rounded as 900

–HOW TO FIND A SAMPLE SIZE IN EXCEL–

● If you have a set of data and you know your
sample size, you can use Excel’s Data
Analysis toolpak to select either a periodic
sample or a random sample.
● Cochran Formula for Sample Size ● A random sample is just that — randomly
Calculation In Smaller Populations selected from your data set.
● Here n0 is Cochran’s sample size ● A periodic sample (also called a systematic
recommendation, N is the population size, sample) is where Excel chooses the nth data
and n is the new, adjusted sample size. item to include in your sample.
● Example, if there were just 1000 households ● For example, if you wanted to choose every
in the target population, we would calculate 5th number from the following list: 4, 5, 6,
● 385 / (1 + ( 384 / 1000 )) = 278 • So, for this 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, Excel would
smaller population, all we need are 278 return 8 and 13 (the 5th and 10th numbers in
households in our sample; a substantially order).
smaller sample size. ● Step 1: Enter your data items into Excel.
You can enter your data into rows or
Steps in Computing The Size of a Sample columns. Ensure the rows and columns are
Step 1: Determine first the size of the study even; for example, enter data into column A
population to cell 12 and column B to cell 12.
● Step 2: Click “Data” and then click “Data
Step 2: Decide on the margin of error or confidence Analysis.” If you don’t see Data Analysis on
level to be. your toolbar, load the Data Analysis
Toolpak.
For example, you might want a confidence level of ● Step 3: Click “Sampling” and then click
95 percent (which will give you a margin of error of “OK.”
0.05), or you might need better accuracy at the 98 ● Step 4: Click in the Input Range box and
percent confidence level (which produces a margin of then select your entire data set.
error of 0.02). ● Step 5: Click either “Periodic Sampling” or
“Random Sampling.” If you choose
 periodic, enter the nth number (i.e. every 5)
and if you choose random sampling, enter The exclusion criteria include factors or
the sample size. characteristics that make the recruited
● Step 6: Choose an output range. For population ineligible for the study. These
example, click the “New Worksheet” button factors may be confounders for the outcome
and Excel will return the sample in a new parameter.
worksheet.
● Step 7: Click “OK” 4. Sampling:
✔ In most cases, it's not feasible to study an
Week 11 EMPIRICAL PHASE entire population, so you'll need to use
sampling techniques to select a
Identifying The Population To Be Studied representative subset.
- This involves defining the specific group of ✔ Common sampling methods include
individuals or subjects from which data will random sampling, stratified sampling, or
be collected to address the research question convenience sampling, depending on your
or hypothesis. research design and resources.

Here's a brief discussion of this process: 5. Sample Size:

1. Research Question and Objectives: ✔ Determine the appropriate sample size to
✔ Start by clearly defining your research ensure the study's results are statistically
question or objectives significant.
✔ What aspect of nursing are you ✔ This involves considering factors like the
investigating? desired level of confidence and the expected
✔ What do you want to learn or effect size.
understand?
This will guide your population selection 6. Data Collection:
✔ Decide on the methods and tools you'll
2. Target Population use to collect data from the selected
✔ Determine the broader group of population.
individuals that your research aims to study. ✔ This could involve surveys, interviews,
✔ This is often referred to as the target observations, or the analysis of medical
population. records, depending on your research design.
✔ For example, if you're studying the
impact of a specific nursing intervention on 7. Ethical Considerations:
patients with a certain condition, the target ✔ Ensure that your research adheres to
population would be patients with that ethical guidelines and obtains the necessary
condition. approvals, especially if your study involves
vulnerable populations or sensitive
3. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria: information.
✔ Develop specific criteria for including
and excluding individuals from your study. 8. Pilot Testing:
✔ These criteria should be based on the ✔ Before implementing the study on the
research question and objectives. entire population, consider conducting a
✔ They may include age, gender, medical pilot study with a smaller group to refine
history, or other relevant factors. your data collection methods and identify
any potential issues.
The inclusion criteria identify the study
population in a consistent, reliable, uniform 9. Recruitment and Informed Consent:
and objective manner.
 ✔ If human subjects are involved, establish - It is a more focused and defined
a recruitment plan and obtain informed subset of the total population.
consent from participants, explaining the - The target population is chosen
study's purpose, risks, and benefits. based on the research question or
objectives and is the group to
10. Data Analysis: which the study's findings will be
✔ Once data is collected, analyze it to draw applied or generalized
conclusions and make inferences about the
broader population based on your sample. Imagine you're conducting a study on the use of a
new medication for diabetes management here in
Identifying the population to be studied is the Philippines:
foundational to the research process in
nursing, as it shapes the validity and - The total population would be all individuals
generalizability of your findings. with diabetes here in the Philippines.
Careful consideration at this stage ensures ● This includes every person who has
that your research effectively addresses the been diagnosed with diabetes in the
research question and contributes to country.
evidence-based nursing practice.
- The target population might be a more
The total population and target population are specific group, such as adults aged 40-70
two distinct concepts in research, and they serve with type 2 diabetes who reside in urban
different purposes: areas of the Philippines.
● This narrower group is your focus
1. Total Population: because your research question
- The total population refers to the may be particularly relevant to
entire group of individuals or them.
elements that meet the criteria for
inclusion in a study. It represents In summary, the total population encompasses
every possible member of the everyone who meets the inclusion criteria for a study,
group under consideration. while the target population is a subset of that total
- In practical terms, it's often not population that is specifically relevant to the research
feasible or practical to study the objectives.
entire total population, especially in
large or diverse groups. Researchers often work with a target population
- Researchers use sampling because it allows for more manageable and
techniques to select a subset meaningful research, even though it represents a
(sample) from the total population, smaller portion of the total population.
which is more manageable and
cost-effective for research Determining the appropriate sample for your research
purposes. study involves a systematic process to ensure that
your results are representative and reliable.
2. Target Population:
- The target population, on the other Here are steps to help you determine the sample size
hand, is a specific subgroup within and composition:
the total population that the
researcher is interested in studying 1. Define Your Research Objectives:
or making inferences about. - Clearly articulate your research
objectives and the specific
questions you want to answer.
 ● Understanding your - If possible, gather information
research goals is about the variability of the
fundamental to characteristic you're studying
determining the sample within the population.
● This helps in sample size
2. Identify Your Target Population: calculation
- Define the group of individuals or
elements that your study aims to 7. Use Sample Size Formulas:
investigate. - Depending on your sampling
● This is your target method and the statistical analysis
population. you plan to use, there are specific
● Be precise about the sample size formulas you can use.
criteria that define this
group 8. Calculate Sample Size:
- Plug the values from the previous
3. Choose a Sampling Method: steps into the appropriate sample
- Select an appropriate sampling size formula to calculate the
method based on your research required sample size.
design and objectives. ● Make sure to round up to
● Common methods include the nearest whole number.
random sampling,
stratified sampling, cluster 9. Consider Practical Constraints:
sampling, or convenience - Take into account practical
sampling limitations, such as budget, time,
and available resources, when
4. Determine the Level of Confidence: determining your sample size.
- Decide on the level of confidence ● In some cases, you may
you want in your results. need to balance statistical
● This is typically expressed precision with feasibility.
as a percentage (e.g.95%
confidence level). 10. Pilot Testing:
● It represents how sure you - Before implementing your research
want to be that your with the full sample, consider
sample accurately conducting a pilot study with a
represents the population smaller group.
● This can help identify any
5. Specify the Margin of Error: issues with your data
- Determine the acceptable margin of collection instruments or
error, which is the degree of procedures.
uncertainty you're willing to
tolerate. 11. Sampling Continuity:
● For example, if you want a - Maintain consistency in your
±5% margin of error, your sampling procedures throughout
results may be within 5% the study to ensure the validity of
of the true population your results.
values.
12. Sampling Bias and Randomization:
6. Estimate Population Variability: - Be aware of potential biases and
take steps to minimize them.
 ● Ensure that your sample is ● Limited resources can be allocated
as representative as more effectively when studying a
possible, and if using sample. Researchers can focus their
random sampling, ensure efforts and resources on collecting
that it is truly random. high-quality data from a smaller
● Remember that the sample group.
size you determine should
be sufficient to meet your 5. Risk reduction:
research objectives and ● Sampling can help mitigate risks
provide results with the associated with large-scale data
desired level of confidence collection.
and margin of error. ● Errors, complications, or issues that
● It's a balance between arise during data collection in a
statistical rigor and small sample are easier to manage
practical constraints. than in a large population

Sampling is widely used in research projects for 6. Practicality and Manageability:

several compelling reasons: ● Working with a smaller sample is
more manageable in terms of data
1. Resource Efficiency: collection, analysis, and
● Conducting research on an entire interpretation.
population can be impractical or ● Researchers can maintain better
prohibitively expensive. control over the research process
● Sampling allows researchers to
study a subset of the population, 7. Ethical Considerations:
which is more cost-effective and ● In some cases, it may be unethical
efficient. to involve the entire population in a
study, particularly if the research
2. Logistical Feasibility: involves potentially harmful
● Some populations are interventions or sensitive topics.
geographically dispersed or hard to ● Sampling allows for ethical
access. research practices
● Sampling makes it feasible to
gather data from diverse locations 8. Testing Hypotheses:
or hard-to-reach groups ● Researchers often want to test
specific hypotheses or research
3. Statistical Validity: questions.
● When done correctly, sampling ● Sampling can provide a
provides a representative subset of manageable way to gather data and
the population, allowing draw conclusions about these
researchers to make valid specific inquiries
inferences about the entire
population. 9. Budget Constraints:
● Statistical techniques are used to ● Budget limitations can restrict the
ensure the sample accurately ability to study an entire
reflects the population's population.
characteristics. ● Sampling helps researchers work
within budget constraints while still
4. Resource Allocation: producing meaningful results
10. Generalizability:
● Well-designed sampling procedures
and statistical techniques allow
researchers to generalize findings
from a sample to the broader
population.
● This enhances the external validity
of the study

11. Practical Application:

● Research results are often used to
inform real-world decision-making.
● Sampling studies can provide
actionable insights and
recommendations more quickly
than studies involving the entire
population
● In summary, sampling is a practical
and efficient approach to research
that balances the need for reliable
data with practical constraints,
enabling researchers to draw
meaningful conclusions about
populations while optimizing the
use of resources.
● Properly executed sampling
procedures are essential to ensure
that the results accurately reflect
the characteristics of the population
under study