Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Complete
Physics
Fourth edition

n t m a t e r i a l
S ample stude
Stephen Pople
Anna Harris
Naseemunissa Azam
Elliot Sarkodie-Addo
Helen Roff

Oxford excellence for Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level

Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level Cambridge IGCSE® & O Level
Complete Physics Student Book Complete Physics resources
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1
Measurements An astronomical clock in Prague, in
the Czech Republic. As well as giving

and units the time, the clock also shows the

positions of the Sun and Moon relative
to the constellations of the zodiac.
● PHYSICAL QUANTITIES Until about fifty years ago, scientists
● UNITS AND PREFIXES had to rely on mechanical clocks,
such as the one above, to measure
● S C I E N T I F I C N O TAT I O N
time. Today, they have access to
● SI UNITS atomic clocks whose timekeeping
● MASS varies by less than a second in a
● TIME million years.
● LENGTH
● VOLUME
● DENSITY

Related topics: atoms and electrons 8.01; the Earth’s magnetism 9.02; electromagnets 9.04; transformers 9.10–9.11 chapter 1 11
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.1 Numbers and units Bigger and smaller

You can make a unit bigger or smaller by putting an extra symbol, called a
Objectives: to know that a physical quantity is a number and unit - to use prefixes prefix, in front. (Below, W stands for watt, a unit of power.)
to make units bigger or smaller - to understand scientific notation.
prefix meaning example Powers of 10

G (giga) 1 000 000 000 (109) GW (gigawatt) 1000  10 3 10 3 10  103

100  10 3 10  102
M (mega) 1 000 000 (106) MW (megawatt) 1
0.1  ___  1021
10
k (kilo) 1000 (103) km (kilometre) 1 1
0.01  ____  ____2  1022
100 10
1
___
d (deci) (1021) dm (decimetre) 1 1
10 0.001  _____  ____3  1023
1000 10
1
____
c (centi) (1022) cm (centimetre)
10 m
100
1
_____ ‘milli’ means ‘thousandth’,
number unit (m is the symbol for metre) m (milli) (1023) mm (millimetre)
1000 not ‘millionth’
1
_________
When you make a measurement, you might get a result like the one above: a µ (micro) (1026) µW (microwatt)
1 000 000 * You would not normally be
distance of 10 m. The complete measurement is called a physical quantity. 1
_____________ tested on micro, nano or giga
n (nano) (1029) nm (nanometre)
It is made up of two parts: a number and a unit. 1 000 000 000 in a Cambridge IGCSE
examination (see also yellow
10 m really means 10 3 m (ten times metre), just as in algebra, 10x means
Scientific notation panel at the start of the next
10 3 x (ten times x). You can treat the m just like a symbol in an algebraic
An atlas says that the population of Iceland is this: spread, 1.2).
equation. This is important when combining units.
320 000
Combining units There are two problems with giving the number in this form. Writing lots
Advanced units
! In the diagram above, the girl cycles 10 metres in 2 s. So she travels of zeros isn’t very convenient. Also, you don’t know which zeros are
5 m/s is a space-saving way of 5 metres every second. Her speed is 5 metres per second. To work out the accurate. Most are only there to show you that it is a six-figure number.
m
writing 5 __. speed, you divide the distance travelled by the time taken, like this: These problems are avoided if the number is written using powers of ten: decimal fraction scientific
s
m 1 3.2 3 10 5 5
(10  10 3 10 3 10 3 10 3 10  100 000) notation
But 5 equals 5 m __ .
__
10 m
s s speed  _____ (s is the symbol for second) 5 500 5 3 102
1 2s ‘3.2 3 10 ’ tells you that the figures 3 and 2 are important. The number is
Also, __ can be written as s21.
s 5
___
As m and s can be treated as algebraic symbols: being given to two significant figures. If the population were known more 0.5 5 3 1021
So the speed can be written as 10
10 m m accurately, to three significant figures, it might be written like this:
5 m s21. speed  ___ . ___  5 ___ 5
____
2 s s
3.20 3 105 0.05 5 3 1022
This method of showing units is more m 100
___
To save space, 5 s is usually written as 5m/s.
common in advanced work. Numbers written using powers of ten are in scientific notation or 0.005
5
_____ 5 3 1023
So m/s is the unit of speed. standard form. The examples on the right are to one significant figure. 1000

Rights and wrongs

Tables and graphs
! This equation is correct:
10 m
speed  _____  5 m/s
You may see table headings or graph 2s
10
axes labelled like this: This equation is incorrect: speed  ___  5 m/s
2
distance
m
or distance/m
It is incorrect because the m and s have been left out. 10 divided by 2 Q
1 How many grams are there in 1 kilogram? 5 Write down the following in km:
That is because the values shown are equals 5, and not 5 m/s.
2 How many millimetres are there in 1 metre? 2000 m 200 m 2 3 104 m
just numbers, without units. So:
Strictly speaking, units should be included at all stages of a calculation, 3 How many microseconds are there in 1 second? 6 Write down the following in s:
If distance  10 m
not just at the end. However, in this book, the ‘incorrect’ type of equation 4 This equation is used to work out the area of a rectangle: 5000 ms 5 3 107µs
distance
Then m  10 will sometimes be used so that you can follow the arithmetic without area  length 3 width. 7 Using scientific notation, write down the following to
If a rectangle measures 3 m by 2 m, calculate its area, and two significant figures:
units which make the calculation look more complicated.
include the units in your calculation. 1500 m 1 500 000 m 0.15 m 0.015 m

Related topics: SI units 1.2; speed 2.1

12 13
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.2 A system of units Time

The SI base unit of time is the second (symbol s). Here are some shorter The second was originally defined
!
1
Objectives: - to know what SI units are – to know the units used for mass, length, units based on the second: as _____________ of a day, one day
60 3 60 3 24
and time. 1 being the time it takes the Earth to
1 millisecond (ms)  _____ s  1023 s
1000 rotate once. But the Earth’s rotation is
1
_________ not quite constant. So, for accuracy,
Mass Length Time 1 microsecond (µs)  s  1026 s
1 000 000 the second is now defined in terms
oz cm hour
lb yd s 1
_____________
of something that never changes:
m 1 nanosecond (ns)  s  1029 s the frequency of an oscillation
1 000 000 000
A line down the side of the text
g kg mile day month To keep time, clocks and watches need something that beats at a steady
which can occur in the nucleus of a
means that the material is only caesium atom.
ft rate. Some old clocks used the swings of a pendulum. Modern digital
required for Extended Level. ton mm
cwt km year ms watches count the vibrations made by a tiny quartz crystal.
* An asterisk indicates extension
material, provided to set physics
Length
in a broader context. You would There are many different units – including those above. But in scientific work, The SI base unit of length is the metre (symbol m). At one time, the
not normally be tested on this in life is much easier if everyone uses a common system of units. standard metre was the distance between two marks on a metal bar kept
By definition, one metre is the
!
a CIE IGCSE examination. at the Office of Weights and Measures in Paris. A more accurate standard
SI units is now used, based on the speed of light, as explained on the right.
distance travelled by light in a vacuum
1
Most scientists use SI units (full name: Le Système International d’Unités). in ____________ of a second.
299 792 458
The basic SI units for measuring mass, time, and length are the kilogram, the There are larger and smaller units of length based on the metre:
second, and the metre. From these base units come a whole range of units for
measuring volume, speed, force, energy, and other quantities. distance comparison with scientific approximate size
base unit notation
Other SI base units include the ampere (for measuring electric current) and
the kelvin (for measuring temperature). 1 kilometre (km) 1 000 m 103 m
10 football pitches

Mass
Mass is a measure of the quantity of matter in an object. It has two effects:
1 metre (m) 1m
l All objects are attracted to the Earth. The greater the mass of an object, the
stronger is the Earth’s gravitational pull on it.
l All objects resist being made to go faster, slower, or in a different direction. 1
m 10–2 m cm 1 2 3 4
 The mass of an object can be 1 centimetre (cm) 100
The greater the mass, the greater the resistance to change in motion. mm 10 20 30 40
found using a balance like this. 1 3
The balance really detects the The SI base unit of mass is the kilogram (symbol kg). At one time, the 1 millimetre (mm) 1 000
m 10 m

gravitational pull on the object on standard kilogram was a block of platinum alloy stored in Paris. However,
bacteria
the pan, but the scale is marked to there is now a more accurate but more complicated definition involving an 1 micrometre (µm) 1
1 000 000
m –6
10 m
show the mass. electromagnetic balance. Other units based on the kilogram are shown below.
atoms
1 –9
mass comparison with scientific approximate size 1 nanometre (nm) 1 000 000 000
m 10 m
base unit notation

1 tonne (t) 1000 kg 103 kg

Q
1 What is the SI unit of length? 7 km µg µm t nm kg m
medium-sized car
2 What is the SI unit of mass? ms s mg ns µs g mm
3 What is the SI unit of time? Arrange the above units in three columns as below.
1 kilogram (kg) 1 kg bag of sugar 4 What do the following symbols stand for? The units in each column should be in order, with the
g mg t µm ms largest at the top.
5 Write down the value of
a 1564 mm in m b 1750 g in kg
1 -3
1 gram (g) 1g
1 000
kg 10 kg banknote c 26 t in kg d 62 µs in s largest
e 3.65 3 104 g in kg f 6.16 3 1027 mm in m unit
6 The 500 pages of a book have a mass of 2.50 kg.
What is the mass of each page a in kg b in mg?
1 1
1 milligram (mg) 1 000
g 1 000 000
kg 10-6 kg

Note: the SI base unit of mass is the kilogram, not the gram human hair Related topics: numbers and units 1.1; mass 2.7
14 15
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.3 Measuring length and time Measuring time

Time intervals of many seconds or minutes can be measured using a Zero error
!
Objectives: to know how to measure length with a rule and time with a stopwatch stopclock or a stopwatch. Some instruments have an analogue display, You have to allow for this on many
– t o d e s c r i b e s o m e m e t h o d s o f i m p r o v i n g a c c u r a c y. with a needle (‘hand’) moving round a circular scale. Others have a digital measuring instruments. For example,
display, which shows a number. There are buttons for starting the timing, bathroom scales might give a reading
of 46.2 kg when someone stands on
Measuring length stopping it, and resetting the instrument to zero.
them, but 0.1 kg when they step off
With a hand-operated stopclock or stopwatch, making accurate
and the expected reading is zero. In
measurements of short time intervals (a few seconds or less) can be this case, the zero error is 0.1 kg and
difficult. This is because of the time it takes you to react when you have to the corrected measurement
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
press the button. Fortunately, in some experiments, there is an simple way is 46.1 kg.
mm
of overcoming the problem. Here is an example: To find the zero error on a micrometer
or vernier calipers, you take a reading
Lengths from a few millmetres up to a metre can be measured using a rule, rigid support when the gap is fully closed.
as shown above. When using the rule, the scale should be placed right next to
the object being measured. If this is not possible, calipers can be used, as
shown on the left. The calipers are set so that their points exactly match the
A pendulum can be set up to
ends of the object. Then they are moved across to a rule to make the
investigate the time taken for
measurement. a single swing.
Lengths of several metres can be measured using a tape with a scale on it. electromagnet
to release ball
Accurately measuring small objects is more difficult, but there are ways around
the problem. Say, for example, you wanted to find the thickness of a sheet of light
string one complete sensor
calipers A4 paper. swing to start
 Measuring the timer
Use a ruler to measure the thickness of a 500 sheet pack: 49 mm simple
pendulum time t it takes for a
Dividing 49 mm by 500 gives the thickness of one sheet: 0.098 mm bob steel ball to fall a
(small
mass)
distance h.

 If the rule cannot be placed next Measuring length with light

! time t

to the object being measured, Surveyors don’t need a tape to measure the dimensions of a room. They can use a laser The pendulum above takes about two seconds to make one complete h
calipers can be used. tape measure instead. Despite its name, no tape is involved. The surveyor places the swing. Provided the swings are small, every swing takes the same time.
timer
instrument against one wall, points it at the opposite wall, presses a button, and reads the This time is called its period. You can find it accurately by measuring the
distance on the display. time for 25 swings, and then dividing the result by 25. For example:
There are various systems, but in one type, the instrument fires a pulse of laser light at the Time for 25 swings  55 seconds
opposite wall, picks up the reflection, measures the time delay between the outgoing and
So: time for 1 swing  55/25 seconds  2.2 seconds
returning pulses and uses this to calculate the distance.
Light travels at a speed close to 300 000 000 metres per second. So, for example, if the Another method of improving accuracy is to use automatic timing, as
light
pulse had to travel 30 metres out and back, it would take 100 nanoseconds. If this were shown in the example on the right. Here, the time taken for a small object sensor
the time measured, the display would show a distance of 15 metres. (In this example, the to fall a short distance is being measured. The timer is started automatically steel to stop
ball timer
numbers have been simplified. Typically, the instrument is accurate to within 3 mm.) when the ball cuts one light beam and stopped when it cuts another.

Q
1 On the opposite page, there is a diagram of a rule. 3 A student wants to find the thickness of one page of
a What is the reading on its scale? this book.
b The rule has not be drawn to its true size. a Explain how she might do this accurately.
What is the length of the red line as printed? b Measure this book and then find your own value
2 A student measures the time taken for 20 swings of a for the thickness of one page.
pendulum. He finds that the time taken in 46 seconds. 4 a What is meant by zero error?
a What time does the pendulum take for one swing? b Give an example of when you would have to
b How could the student have found the time for one allow for it.
swing more accurately?

Related topics: units of length and time 1.2; timing a falling object 2.4
16 17
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.4 Volume and density substance density

________ density
________ substance density
________ density
________ The densities of solids and
kg/m3 g/cm3 kg/m3 g/cm3
liquids vary slightly with
air 1.3 0.0013 granite 2700 2.7 temperature. Most substances
O b j e c t i v e s : t o k n o w t h e e q u a t i o n l i n k i n g m a s s , v o l u m e , a n d d e n s i t y, a n d h o w t o
use the equation to solve problems. expanded polystyrene 14 0.014 aluminium 2700 2.7 get a little bigger when heated.
wood (beech) 750 0.75 steel (stainless) 7800 7.8 The increase in volume reduces
the density.
Volume petrol 800 0.80 copper 8900 8.9
The densities of gases can vary
The quantity of space an object takes up is called its volume. ice (0 °C) 920 0.92 lead 11 400 11.4 enormously depending on how
The SI unit of volume is the cubic metre (m3). However, this is rather large polythene 950 0.95 mercury 13 600 13.6 compressed they are.
for everyday work, so other units are often used for convenience, as shown in
water (4 °C) 1000 1.0 gold 19 300 19.3
the diagrams below: The rare metal osmium is the
concrete 2400 2.4 platinum 21 500 21.5 densest substance found on
Cubic metre (m3) Cubic centimetre (cm3) glass (varies) 2500 2.5 osmium 22 600 22.6 Earth. If this book were made of
Litre (l or L) or millilitre (ml or mL) osmium, it would weigh as
much as a heavy suitcase.
Density calculations
Note: the symbol The equation linking density, mass, and volume can be written in symbols:
l for litre can be
m
confused with a   __ where   density, m  mass, and V  volume
1m 1 (one). V
1m m
1 litre (L)  1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) This equation can be rearranged to give: V  __
 and m  V
 1000 millilitres (ml) m
1m
These are useful if the density is known, but the volume or mass is to be
1 cubic metre (m3)  1000 litres (l)
calculated. On the right is a method of finding all three equations. V x

Example Using density data from the table above, calculate the mass of
3
1 cubic centimetre (cm ) is steel having the same volume as 5400 kg of aluminium.
the volume of a cube  Cover V in the triangle and you
measuring 1 cm 3 1 cm 3 1cm.
First, calculate the volume of 5400 kg of aluminium. In this case, can see what V is equal to. It works
1 cubic metre (m3) is the volume of a 1 litre is the same volume as 1 cubic It is the same volume as
cube measuring 1 m 3 1 m 3 1 m. decimetre (dm3) 1 millilitre (ml)  is 2700 kg/m3, m is 5400 kg, and V is to be found. So: for m and  as well.

5400 kg
m ___________
Density V  __  2700 kg/m3  2 m
3

Is lead heavier than water? Not necessarily. It depends on the volumes of lead This is also the volume of the steel. Therefore, for the steel,  is 7800 kg/m3,
and water being compared. However, lead is more dense than water: it has
more kilograms packed into every cubic metre.
V is 2 m3, and m is to be found. So:
In the density equation, the
!
m  V  7800 kg/m3 3 2 m3  15 600 kg
The density of a material is calculated like this: symbol  is the Greek letter ‘rho’.
So the mass of steel is 15 600 kg.
mass
density  _______
volume

In the case of water:

a mass of 1000 kg of water has a volume of 1 m3
a mass of 2000 kg of water has a volume of 2 m3 Q
a mass of 3000 kg of water has a volume of 3 m3, and so on. 1 How many cm3 are there in 1 m3? Use the information in the table of densities at the top of the
2 How many cm3 are there in 1 litre? page to answer the following:
Using any of these sets of figures in the above equation, the density of water
3 How many ml are there in 1 m3? 6 What material, of mass 39 g, has a volume of 5 cm3?
works out to be 1000 kg/m3.
4 A tankful of liquid has a volume of 0.2 m3. What is the 7 What is the mass of air in a room measuring
If masses are measured in grams (g) and volumes in cubic centimetres (cm3), volume in a litres b cm3 c ml? 5 m 3 2 m 3 3 m?
 The glowing gas in the tail of a it is simpler to calculate densities in g/cm3. Converting to kg/m3 is easy: 5 Aluminium has a density of 2700 kg/m3. 8 What is the volume of a storage tank which will hold
comet stretches for millions of 1 g/cm3  1000 kg/m3 a What is the density in g/cm3? 3200 kg of petrol?
kilometres behind the comet’s core. b What is the mass of 20 cm3 of aluminium? 9 What mass of lead has the same volume as 1600 kg of
The density of water is 1 g/cm3. This simple value is no accident. The kilogram
The density of the gas is less than a c What is the volume of 27 g of aluminium? petrol?
(1000 g) was originally supposed to be the mass of 1000 cm3 of water (pure,
kilogram per cubic kilometre.
and at 4 °C). However, a very slight error was made in the early measurement,
Related topics: pressure in liquids 3.6
18 so this is no longer used as a definition of the kilogram. 19
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.5 Measuring volume and density Checking the density of a liquid*

A quick method of finding the density of a liquid it to use a small float called a
Objectives: to know how to measure the volume of a solid or liquid – to know how hydrometer. There is an example on the right. It is based on the idea that a 1.05

to measure the density of a solid or liquid. floating object floats higher up in a denser liquid. You can read more about
floating, sinking, and the link with density in the next spread, 1.6.

1000 cm3 measuring Measuring volume The scale on a hydrometer normally indicates the relative density (or ‘specific stem
with scale
cylinder Liquid A volume of about a litre or so can be measured using a gravity’) of the liquid: that is the density compared with water (1000 kg/m3).
hydrometer
measuring cylinder. When the liquid is poured into the cylinder, A reading of 1.05 means that the density of the liquid is 1050 kg/m3. liquid
under test
the level on the scale gives the volume. Density checks like this are important in some production processes. For
Most measuring cylinders have scales marked in millilitres (ml), or example, creamy milk is slightly less dense than skimmed milk, and strong weighted
bulb
cubic centimetres (cm3). beer is slightly less dense than weak beer.
level on scale
gives volume Regular solid If an object has a simple shape, its volume can be
of liquid calculated. For example:
Archimedes and the crown
volume of a rectangular block  length 3 width 3 height Archimedes, a Greek mathematician, lived in Syracuse
volume of a cylinder  π 3 radius2 3 height (now in Sicily) around 250 bce. He made important discoveries
 Measuring the volume of a liquid about levers and liquids, but is probably best remembered for his
Irregular solid If the shape is too awkward for the volume to be
clever solution to a problem set him by the King of Syracuse.
calculated, the solid can be lowered into a partly filled measuring
cylinder as shown on the left. The rise in level on the volume scale The King had given his goldsmith some gold to make a
1000 cm3 1000 cm3 crown. But when the crown was delivered, the King
gives the volume of the solid.
was suspicious. Perhaps the goldsmith had stolen
If the solid floats, it can be weighed down with a lump of metal. The some of the gold and mixed in cheaper silver
total volume is found. The volume of the metal is measured in a instead. The King asked Archimedes to test the crown.
increase
in level separate experiment and then subtracted from this total.
gives Archimedes knew that the crown was the correct mass. He also knew that silver
volume Using a displacement can If the solid is too big for a measuring was less dense than gold. So a crown with silver in it would have a greater volume
of solid
cylinder, its volume can be found using a displacement can, shown than it should have. But how could he measure the volume? Stepping into his bath
below left. First, the can is filled up to the level of the spout (this is one day, so the story goes, Archimedes noticed the rise in water level. Here was the
done by overfilling it, and then waiting for the surplus water to run answer! He was so excited that he lept from his bath and ran naked through the
out). Then the solid is slowly lowered into the water. The solid is now streets, shouting “Eureka!”, which means “I have found it!”.
taking up space once occupied by the water – in other words, it has Later, Archimedes put the crown in a container of water and measured the rise in
 Measuring the volume of a small level. Then he did the same with an equal mass of pure gold. The rise in level was
displaced its own volume of water. The displaced water is collected in
solid different. So the crown could not have been pure gold.
a beaker and emptied into a measuring cylinder.
The displacement method, so the story goes, was discovered by
accident, by Archimedes. You can find out how on the opposite page.

Measuring density
The density of a material can be found by calculation, once the Q empty liquid added stone added
volume and mass have been measured. The mass of a small solid or
148
of a liquid can be measured using a balance. However, in the case of cm3
a liquid, you must remember to allow for the mass of its container. 100
crown A crown B crown C cm3
Here are some readings from an experiment to find the density of
mass/g 3750 3750 3750
a liquid:
volume/cm3 357 194 315

volume of liquid in measuring cylinder = 400 cm3 (A)

density: gold 19.3 g/cm3; silver 10.5 g/cm3 90 g 170 g 290 g
mass of measuring cylinder = 240 g (B)
 Using a displacement can. Provided mass of measuring cylinder with liquid in = 560 g (C) 1 Use the information above to decide which crown is gold, 2 Use the information above to calculate:
the can is filled to the spout at the which is silver, and which is a mixture. a the mass, volume, and density of the liquid
start, the volume of water collected b the mass, volume, and density of the stone.
Therefore: mass of liquid  560 g 2 240 g  320 g (C – B)
in the beaker is equal to the volume
mass 320 g
of the object lowered into the can. Therefore density of liquid  _______  ________3  0.8 g/cm3
volume 400 cm Related topics: volume and density 1.4
20 21
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

1.6 More about mass and density

Planet density
The density of a planet increases towards the centre. However, the average
Objectives: to describe what a beam balance is used for – to predict, by comparing density can be found by dividing the total mass by the total volume. The mass
densities, whether something will float or sink in a liquid (or gas). of a planet affects its gravitational pull and, therefore, the orbit of any moon
circling it. The mass can be calculated from this. The volume can be calculated
Comparing masses once the diameter is known.
Density essentials
! The average density gives clues about a planet’s structure:
mass
density 
volume
beam

unknown mass standard masses

Earth Jupiter
200 g Average density 5520 kg/m3 Average density 1330 kg/m3
500 g The low average density is one reason
pan
This is about double the density of the
pan
500 g rocks near the surface, so the Earth why scientists think that Jupiter is a
must have a high density core – sphere mostly of hydrogen and helium
probably mainly iron. gas, with a small, rocky core. not to scale
 A simple beam balance

The device above is called a beam balance. It is the simplest, and probably
the oldest, way of finding the mass of something. You put the object in one
pan, then add standard masses to the other pan until the beam balances in a Float or sink?
level position. If you have to add 1.2 kg of standard masses, as in the diagram, You can tell whether a material will float or sink by comparing its density with that of the
surrounding liquid (or gas). If it is less dense, it will float; if it is more dense, it will sink. For
then you know that the object also has a mass of 1.2 kg.
example, wood is less dense than water, so it floats; steel is more dense, so it sinks. Oil is
The balance is really comparing weights rather than masses. Weight is the less dense than water, so it floats on water.
downward pull of gravity. The beam balances when the downward pull on one Density differences aren’t the cause of floating or sinking, just a way of predicting which will
pan is equal to the downward pull on the other. However, masses can be occur. Floating is made possible by an upward force produced whenever an object is
compared because of the way gravity acts on them. If the objects in the two immersed in a liquid (or gas). To feel this force, try pushing an empty bottle down into water.
pans have the same weight, they must also have the same mass.
When using a balance like the one above, you might say that you were
‘weighing’ something. However, 1.2 kg is the mass of the object, not its weight.
 A more modern type of balance. It
Weight is a force, measured in force units called newtons. For more on this,
detects the gravitational pull on the
object on the pan, but gives its and the difference between mass and weight, see spreads 2.7 and 2.9.
reading in units of mass. A more modern type of balance is shown on the left.

Q
1 On the Moon, the force of gravity on an object is only about 2 A balloon like the one on the opposite page contains
one sixth of its value on Earth. Decide whether each of the 2000 m3 of air. When the air is cold, its density is  Hot air is less dense than cold
following would give an accurate measurement of mass if 1.3 kg/m3. When heated, the air expands so that some is air, so a hot-air balloon will rise
used on the Moon. pushed out of the hole at the bottom, and the density falls upwards – provided the fabric,
a A beam balance like the one in the diagram at the top of to 1.1 kg/m3. Calculate the following. gas cylinders, basket, and
the page. a The mass of air in the balloon when cold. passengers do not increase the
b A balance like the one in the photograph above. b The mass of air in the balloon when hot. average density by too much.
 Ice is less dense than water in its liquid form, so icebergs float.
c The mass of air lost from the balloon during heating.

Related topics: mass 1.2; volume and density 1.4–1.5; force 2.6; mass and weight 2.9; convection 5.6; densities of planets 11.2
22 23
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

Checkup on measurements and units 10 A plastic bag filled with air has a volume of
0.008 m3. When air in the bag is squeezed into a
13 The table shows the density of various substances.
substance density/ g/cm3
rigid container, the mass of the container (with copper 8.9
Questions 5 In each of the following pairs, which quantity is air) increases from 0.02 kg to 0.03 kg. Use the iron 7.9
1 Copy and complete the table shown below: the larger? formula
kerosene 0.87
mass
a 2 km or 2500 m? density  _______ mercury 13.6
volume
measurement unit symbol b 2 m or 1500 mm? water 1.0
c 2 tonnes or 3000 kg? to calculate the density of the air in the bag. [2]
length ? ?
d 2 litres or 300 cm3? [4] 11
? kilogram ?
Consider the following statements:
? ? s 6 Which of the following statements is/are correct? A 1 cm3 of mercury has a greater mass than 1 cm3
A One milligram equals one million grams. of any other substance in this table – true or
[6]
B One thousand milligrams equals one gram. false?
2 Write down the number of C One million milligrams equals one gram. B 1 cm3 of water has a smaller mass than 1 cm3
A mg in 1 g D One million milligrams equals one kilogram. [2] of any other substance in this table – true or
B g in 1 kg 0.4 m
7 m g/cm3 m3 km cm3 false?
C mg in 1 kg
C 1 g of iron has a smaller volume than 1 g of
D mm in 4 km kg ms ml kg/m3 s
0.5 m copper – true or false?
E cm in 5 km [5]
Which of the above are 0.5 m D 1 g of mercury has a greater mass than 1 g of
3 Write down the values of a units of mass? copper – true or false? [2]
liquid X
a 300 cm, in m b units of length mass 80 kg
14 A student decides to measure the period of a
b 500 g, in kg c units of volume?
pendulum (the period is the time taken for one
c 1500 m, in km d units of time?
complete swing). Using a stopwatch, he finds that
d 250 ms, in s e units of density? [10]
eight complete swings take 7.4 seconds. With his
e 0.5 s, in ms
8 Which block is made of the densest material? calculator, he then uses this data to work out the
f 0.75 km, in m
time for one swing. The number shown on his
g 2.5 kg, in g block mass/g length/cm breadth/cm height/cm
calculator is 0.925.
h 0.8 m, in mm [8] A 480 5 4 4 0.2 m
a Is it acceptable for the student to claim that the
4 The volume of a rectangular block can be B 360 10 4 3 period of the pendulum is 0.925 seconds?
calculated using this equation: C 800 10 5 2 Explain your answer. [2]
volume  length 3 width 3 height D 600 5 4 3 0.5 m b How could the student measure the period
Using this information, copy and complete the 0.5 m
more accurately? [2]
table below. [4] [1] liquid Y c Later, another student finds that 100 complete
9 The mass of a measuring cylinder and its contents mass 50 kg
swings take 92.8 seconds. From these
length/cm width/cm height/cm volume of are measured before and after putting a stone in it.
rectangular In the diagram above, the tanks contain two measurements, what is the period of the
block/cm3 different liquids, X and Y. pendulum? [2]
measuring
2 3 4 ? cylinder a What is the volume of each liquid in m3? [2]
5 5 ? 100 b If you had 1 m3 of the liquid X, what
same volume
6 ? 5 300 of water would its mass be? [2]
? 10 10 50 c What is the density of liquid X? [2]
stone d What is the density of liquid Y? [2]
balance 12 Use the table of data on page 17 (spread 1.4)
to answer the following:
Which of the following could you calculate using a Which of the solids or liquids in the
measurements taken from the apparatus above? table will float in water? Give a reason
A the density of the liquid only for your answer. [4]
B the density of the stone only b Which of the solids or liquids in the
C the densities of the liquid and the stone [2] table will float in petrol? [2]

© OUP: this may be reproduced for class use solely for the purchaser’s institute
24 25
 MEASUREMENTS AND UNITS

Use the list below when you revise for your IGCSE examination. The spread number, in brackets, tells you where to find
more information.

Revision checklist
Core Level
 How to use units. (1.1)
 Making bigger or smaller units using prefixes. (1.1)
 Writing numbers in scientific (standard) notation. (1.1)
 Significant figures. (1.1)
 SI units, including the metre, kilogram, and second. (1.2)
 The meaning of zero error. (1.3)
 How to measure short intervals of time. (1.3)
 How to find the period of a simple pendulum. (1.3)
 Units for measuring volume. (1.4)
 How density is defined. (1.4)
 Using the equation linking density, mass, and volume. (1.4)
 Finding the volume of a regular solid. (1.5)
 Using a measuring cylinder to find the volume of a liquid. (1.5)
 Measuring the density of liquid. (1.5)
 Measuring the density of a regular solid. (1.5)
 How to use a displacement can. (1.5)
 Measuring the density of an irregular solid. (1.5)
 How to compare masses with a beam balance. (1.6)
 Use density data to predict whether a material will sink or float. (1.6)
Extended Level
As for Core Level, plus the following:
 How to read a micrometer. (1.3)

26
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