DESIGN OF AEROSPACE STRUCTURES LECTURE SERIES AIRCRAFT LOADINGS BY: DR. JAY JACK R. MANZANO. LOAD CATEGORIES: List of major loads categories experienced by aircraft. For civil and military specifications: + FAR Vol. III (Part 23 and 25) + Mil-A-8860/8870 Lifting surfaces are almost always critical under the high-g maneuver conditions. —. Y Atreraft Loads: Y Leen toad tancing other Vertical load factor Towing Spineup Iaecking Controldefiection __Spring-back Pressurization Componentinteraction raed Sr ste Datter ‘ne wheel ‘Acwation arrested crash Braking ° a ew Oo KY” VY VY Y/Y EE ae ‘Acceleration Catapult Thrust Rotation Aborted Torque tering Dynamic Gyroscople Vibration Vibration Flutter Duct pressure Y ~Y Gg o JY Y A pieat Fighter tite toads: ~ w : J Limit or Applied load = the largest load being expected during operation Design or Ultimate load = for Margin of Safety, the highest load the aircraft structure is always designed to withstand without breaking Factor of Safety = suitable for aircraft materials, the multiplier used on limit load to determine the design load. FS= 1.5 derived from the ratio of ultimate tensile load and yield load of 24ST aluminum alloy. Limitation of 12-g maneuver = for fighter aircraft specifically wing structure above which the wing would break Air Loads: Maneuver Loads The greatest air loads on an aircraft usually comes from the generation of lift during high-g maneuvers. Even the fuselage is almost always structurally sized by the lift of the wing rather than by the air pressure produced directly on the fuselage. Load factor n expresses the maneuvering of an aircraft as a multiple of the standard acceleration due to gravity (g = 32.2 ft/s*). At lower speeds the highest load factor an aircraft may experience is limited by the maximum lift available.— VY Latin ~ ies Lee Generaavistion-normal 25038 to-15 Generation ty “4 18 Cerin brohati9'6 a Romebuit 5 2 Transport 304 Awa Strategic bomber 3 1 Tactical bomber ‘ 2 Fighter 65109 B56 YF “UG 4 SF - Vv _ Aoeieed 1-101 Critical loads: wo Y ~ Z 4 VY Ven diagram depicts the aircraft limit load factor as a function of airspeed:Ww Ww \ Artng ed cretion tangle of atc Oo => ) “YO ¢ ) The aircraft maximum speed, or dive speed represents the maximum dynamic pressure q. For subsonic aircraft, maximum or dive speed is typically 50% higher than the level flight cruise speed For supersonic aircraft the maximum speed is typically Mach 0.2 faster than the maximum level-flight speed, although many fighters have enough thrust to accelerate past their maximum structural speed The aircraft speed loads calculation are in “equivalent” airspeed Vs. Aircraft airspeed indicator uses a pitot probe to determine the airspeed from the dynamic pressure. Thus, the airspeed measured by a pitot probe is based upon the dynamic pressure at the aircraft's velocity and altitude, and not the actual velocity. The dynamic pressure-based equivalent airspeed will be less than the actual airspeed at altitude due to the reduction in air density. Ve = (p/psi)'/? (Vactuat) Ve = (6)}/2 (Vaca!) Ve is a convenient measure of velocity because it is constant with respect to q regardless of altitude. Pilot must convert Ve to actual velocity to determine how fast they are really flying. The “indicated” airspeed V as displayed to the pilot must be corrected for compressibility to produce the equivalent airspeed Ve, which the be converted to actual airspeed. ww Y Ass toads: Gust encounter bac= tan? (UM) 2U/) AL = (1/2)VS (Cae) = (1/2)VSC a ‘n= (AL/W) = (0UVC)/(2W/S)“% ~ For subsonic: K=(0.86)9/(53 40) For supersonic: K= (ui /(695 + 8%) Mass Ratio: w= (2W/S)/(PRCCia) Y 7, derived equivalent Gust Velocities Transport: Y a diagram gu U= gustvelocity K = gustalleviation factor = mass ratio Use = standard vertical gust (# 30 ft/s), for most aierat this produces roughly a 3: positive n. Ti is still a suitable gust Uy for normal, utility, and aerobatic civil alrcrat at speed up to ruise speed. For higher speeds itmay be assumed that Uy, drops linearly to 15{t/sat maximum dive speed “YU o ON ° It is assumed that the aircraft Is in 1-g level flight when the gust is experienced. Pilots wil “pull a's" in severe turbulence conditions. The load factor Inetween Vin Venaw ad Vy AS assumed to follow straight lines: y XWY Ww ama re | The Vin diagram are combined to determine the, most eel Toad factor a each ped, ice the gut loads are greater than the asumed iit load at all velocities (Goted ine). Remember that the structural design too factors wl bo 50% Higher to provide margin 2 otsary. - Y “YG « Y Ww Air Loads on Lifting Surfaces: Spanwise Lin Distribution For wing theory, the spanwise lift Aistribution fs proportional to the ‘dreulation at each span station. A vortex. ltingline calculation will yield the spanwise lift distribution. For an elliptical planform wing, the if ‘and Toad distribution is of elliptical shape. For a non elliptical wing, a good sem-empirical method for spanwise load estimation is known as Schrenk’s Approximation. This method assumes that the load distribution on an untwisted wing or tail has a shape that is the average ofthe actual planform shape and an elliptical shape ofthe same span ~ ‘and area. The total area under the lift load curve must sum to the required _/ total it °UDQ wy YY Ww Ar veadson ining Surfaces: Choris if Distribution L Chord Distribution of a Trapezoidal and Elliptical Wing runesus omar cvreo-u-i safourn upiat chs: cor= 45. fi (3B) Y “VO MDWJ Ya 7 sere prensa Soest ti to bay song pn smpytenens reese Vortex flow tends to greatly increase the loads at the wingtips. Loads for such a planform must be estimated using computers and wind tunnels. “UR o, YY. ~~