Compressible Flow Systems

Chapter 87
87.1 Resistance to Flow
87.2 Volumetric Capacitance
87.3 Pressure Control
87.4 Worked Example
87.5 Boiler Dynamics
87.6 Nomenclature

The gas law relationships between flow, pressure pipework is of steel since its thermal capacity acts
and, to a lesser extent, temperature are fundamen- as a heat sink and tends to average out any varia-
tal to the modelling of the dynamics of compress- tions in temperature.
ible flow systems. Two typical examples are con- In general, the flow of gas through any resis-
sidered, first the dynamics of pressure control and tance is of the form:
second the dynamics of a boiler system. 
Throughout this chapter pressures are taken to (P1 − P0 )
Q∝
be absolute and volumetric flow rates are assumed 
to have been measured at 1 bar (abs).
This has been previously encountered in Equa-
tion 12.1, for example, used for orifice plate siz-
87.1 Resistance to Flow ing. For a gas, the density obviously depends upon
the pressure. It doesn’t particularly matter whether
Consider the flow of gas through a resistance as the upstream or downstream pressure is used, or
depicted in Figure 87.1. even an average value as per Equation 20.10 used
for valve sizing. Any discrepancy can be accom-
R modated by the coefficient used as the constant of
Q
proportionality. Suppose the downstream pressure
is used: 
P1 P0 Q ∝ P0 . (P1 − P0 )
Fig. 87.1 Flow of gas through a fixed resistance For turbulent flow, the requirement is that
P1 < 2P0.
If the downstream pressure is constant and the
It is assumed that flow is isothermal and that
upstream pressure varied,subject to the constraint,
any temperature effects are negligible. In reality,
the flow is approximately given by:
for the purpose of developing a model in devia-

tion form, it is not the absolute conditions up and Q = b (P1 − P0 )
down stream of the resistance that matter but the
variations about those conditions. The assumption As depicted in Figure 87.2, this relationship may be
of isothermal flow is thus not unreasonable if the linearised about normal conditions.
 722 87 Compressible Flow Systems

Q Q
ΔQ 1
1 Q slope =
slope = R
R
ΔP1
ΔQ
Q
Δ(P1 − P0 )
P1 − P0 0 P1
0 P0 2P 0 P1
P1 − P 0
Fig. 87.2 Linearisation of turbulent flow relationship Fig. 87.3 Sonic flow through the fixed resistance

Again, this may be linearised about normal condi-

In deviation form, the relationship becomes:
tions giving, in deviation form:
 
dQ  dQ 
Q=  . (P1 − P0 )
d (P1 − P0 ) Q Q= .P1
dP1 Q

The valve may be compared with an electrical re- In this case the electrical analogy is simpler be-
sistance and Ohm’s law applied in which flow is cause of the straight line relationship:
analogous to current and pressure drop is analo- 1
gous to voltage difference: Q= .P1 (87.3)
R
1 where: 
Q= . (P1 − P0 ) (87.1) P1  1 P1
R R= =  = (87.4)
Q Q dQ  Q
where: dP1  Q

 (P1 − P0 )  1
R=  = 
Q dQ 
d(P1 −P0 ) Q 87.2 Volumetric Capacitance
Q

However: Now consider the effect of capacity by attaching the

valve to a pressure vessel as depicted in Figure 87.4.
dQ b Q
= √ = Q
d (P1 − P0 ) 2 (P1 − P0 ) 2 (P1 − P0 )
V,P
R
whence:
2 P1 − P0 Fig. 87.4 Capacity with a fixed resistance
R= (87.2)
Q
The volume of gas in the vessel at P = V m3 . The
If P1 > 2P0 then the flow is sonic and given ap- equivalent volume at 1 bar (abs) = P.V m−3 .
proximately by: Suppose that the pressure in the vessel falls by
Q = c.P1 an amount ıP0 over a period of time ıt.
A volume balance gives:
As discussed in Chapter 20, a maximum veloc-
ity through the valve is established and the flow −ıP.V = Q.ıt
rate depends upon the gas density, and hence the
In the limit:
upstream pressure, alone. This relationship is de- dP
picted in Figure 87.3. V = −Q
dt
 87.3 Pressure Control 723

Again, by analogy with an electrical capacitance, Suppose that the valve in the outlet stream is the
capacity may be defined by: control valve in a pressure control loop, as shown
in Figure 87.6,which is consistent with the pressure
dP
C = −Q (87.5) vessel being used for anti-surge purposes.
dt
where C = V. Note that although C and V are nu- PC
merically equal their units are different.
P1 Q1 X Q0
C, P0
R1 R0
87.3 Pressure Control Fig. 87.6 Pressure vessel with variable outlet resistance
Next consider the pressure vessel to have both an
inlet and outlet resistance, the outlet discharging The unsteady state balance needs to be modified to
into the atmosphere as depicted in Figure 87.5. take into account the installed characteristic of the
valve, as established by Equation 84.4. Remember-
P1 Q1 Q0 ing that the balance is already in deviation form,
C, P0
R1 R0 this gives:

Fig. 87.5 Pressure vessel with inlet and outlet resistances dP0 P1 − P0 P0 ∂Q0 
C = − − .X
dt R1 R0 ∂X P0 ,X
From Equation 87.5, an unsteady state volume bal-
ance for the pressure vessel gives: This may be transformed, assuming zero initial
conditions, to give:
Rate of Accumulation = Input − Output
dP0 1
C = Q1 − Q0 CsP0 (s) = (P1 (s) − P0 (s))
R1
dt 
1 ∂Q0 
Note that this equation is the same in deviation − P0 (s) − .X(s)
form. R0 ∂X P0 ,X
For sake of argument, assume that the inlet Rearranging:
flow is turbulent and the outlet flow is sonic, i.e.
 
P1 < 2P0 and P0 > 2 bar. Substituting from Equa- R0 R1 C
tions 87.1 and 87.3 gives: s + 1 .P0 (s)
R0 + R1

dP0 P1 − P0 P0 R0 R0 R1 ∂Q0 
= .P1 (s) − . .X(s)
C
dt
=
R1
−
R0 R0 + R1 R0 + R1 ∂X P0 ,X

P1 (s) KL
TP s + 1
+
r (s ) e (s ) u (s) X (s) − KP + P0 (s)
C(s) V(s)
+ TP s + 1
-
m (s )
M(s)

Fig. 87.7 Block diagram of pressure control system

 724 87 Compressible Flow Systems

which is of the form: Substitute the normal conditions gives Q̄0 ≈

0.05 m3 s−1 . Hence:
(TP s + 1) P0 (s) = KL P1 (s) − KP X(s) (87.6)
2 P0 − PV
These transfer functions may be incorporated in R0 = = 4 bar s m−3 .
the block diagram of the pressure control loop as Q0
shown in Figure 87.7.
However, C = 5.0 m3 bar−1 which, from Equa-
tion 87.7, gives TP = R0 .C = 20 s.
The process gain comes from the slope of the
87.4 Worked Example valve’s characteristic:

A vacuum control system is as depicted in Fig- ∂Q0  
 = 0.014 (P0 − PV ).4.1.e4.1X = 4.1Q0
ure 87.6. Air is drawn into a process vessel through ∂X P0 ,PV
a manually set needle valve across which the pres-
sure is reduced from atmospheric to P0 . A vacuum Under normal conditions:
of variable pressure PV is applied to the vessel by 
∂Q0 
means of a control valve. The pressure P0 is con- = 4.1.Q 0 = 0.205 m3 s−1 .
trolled by manipulating the suction flow rate Q0 . ∂X P0 ,PV ,X
The following data may be assumed:
Whence, from Equation 87.7:
3
P0 = 0.3bar, PV = 0.2 bar, X = 0.59, V = 5.0 m 
∂Q0 
KP = R0 . = 0.82 bar.
Inspection of the normal conditions indicates ∂X P0 ,PV ,X
sonic flow across R1 and turbulent flow across R0 .
An unsteady state volume balance across the pres-
sure vessel gives:
87.5 Boiler Dynamics
dP0
C = Q1 − Q0 As was seen in Chapter 33, the control of boiler
dt plant can be quite complicated. Their dynamics are
which, from Equations 87.1 and 87.3, yields in de- complex too. This example shows how, by making
viation form: a few assumptions, a simple but nevertheless effec-
 tive model of a boiler’s dynamics can be developed.
dP0 P0 − PV ∂Q0 
C =0− − .X Consider the boiler system depicted in Fig-
dt R0 ∂X P0 ,PV ,X ure 87.8 in which a single riser tube is shown
Transform and rearrange gives: for simplicity. The feed water passes through an
 economiser but there is no superheater. The steam
∂Q0  produced is dry saturated but, because the outlet
(R0 Cs + 1) .P0 (s) = PV (s) − R0 . .X(s)
∂X P0 ,PV ,X steam pipework is exposed to heat transfer with
the flue gases above the drum, it can be presumed
which is of the form: that the steam discharged into the steam main is
slightly superheated.
(TP s + 1) .P0 (s) = KL PV (s) − KP X(s) (87.7) The boiler is controlled by simple feedback.
By inspection, KL = 1.0. Thus, the steam pressure is controlled by manip-
Assume that the valve’s installed characteristic ulating the rate of combustion, the air flow being
is as follows: ratioed to the fuel flow rate, and the drum level
 is controlled by manipulating the water feed rate.
Q0 = 0.014 (P0 − PV ).e4.1X For the purposes of this model any cascade control
 87.5 Boiler Dynamics 725

FS Steam

PC P
h
LC
FW

Fuel FF
Air Water

FFC

Fig. 87.8 Schematic of boiler featuring drum and single riser

on the drum level, signal selection or ratio trim- termined empirically or by further modelling and
ming are ignored. The objective is to simultane- simplification. Suppose:
ously control the steam pressure and drum level
against a variable steam demand. K
E(s) = FF (s) (87.9)
Assuming that the drum is always about half (T1 s + 1) (T2 s + 1)
full, such that its cross sectional area is approx-
An unsteady state mass balance for the steam in the
imately constant, an unsteady state mass balance
for the water in the drum gives: drum and steam main, as far as the first reducing
valve in the main, gives:
dh
A = FW − E dM
dt = E − FS
dt
where E is the rate of evaporation. Noting that
which,again,is the same in deviation as in absolute
this equation is the same in deviation as in ab-
form.
solute form, and assuming zero conditions, it may
Assuming that some superheating occurs, the
be transformed:
steam may be treated as a gas which obeys the ideal
Ash(s) = FW (s) − E(s) (87.8) gas law rather than as a vapour: this is not unrea-
sonable provided the pipework is well insulated.
The rate of evaporation in the drum depends on the The gas law may be expressed in the form:
rate of heat transfer in the riser tubes,which in turn
depends on the turbulence in the tubes and on the PV = kMT
combustion process. It is probably good enough to
Assuming that the temperature is approximately
assume that there is some second order transfer
constant:
function that describes this. The parameters of the dP dM
transfer function would themselves either be de- V = kT
dt dt
 726 87 Compressible Flow Systems

whence: ing system in Chapter 86. Adequate control can be

V dP achieved using independent feedback loops, sup-
= E − FS
kT dt plemented with cascade control, signal selection
Assuming zero initial conditions, this may be and ratio trimming as in Chapter 33. Multivariable
transformed: compensation, or even model predictive control,
V is only necessary for tight control where several
sP(s) = E(s) − FS (s) (87.10) boilers are feeding into the same steam main.
kT
The transfer functions represented by Equa-
tions 87.8–87.10 are shown in block diagram form
in Figure 87.9. 87.6 Nomenclature
C capacity m3 bar−1
FW (s) 1 h (s )
E rate of evaporation kg s−1
+ Aρs
- F mass flow rate kg s−1
FF (s) K M mass kg
E (s)
(T1s + 1)(T2s + 1) P pressure bar (abs)
FS (s) -
+ kT P (s ) Q volumetric flow rate m3 s−1
Vs R resistance bar s m−3
t time s
Fig. 87.9 Block diagram of simplified boiler model
T temperature K
Note, in particular, that the dynamics are domi- V volume m3
nated by two integrator terms. These are classic for X fractional valve opening –
boiler dynamics. Typically, all other things being  density kg/m3
equal, a small step increase in fuel flow will lead to
a slow ramp increase in pressure. Subscripts
There are many refinements that could be F fuel
made to the model.For example,the effects of swell S steam
in the drum, i.e. the increase in level due to boil-up W water
following a decrease in pressure, can be significant. 0 outlet
It is nevertheless good enough for most purposes. 1 inlet
The interactions between the pressure and level
loops are not as severe as in the case of the blend-