GENERATOR BASICS

In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that, when a conductor is moved through the flux
lines of a magnetic field, an electrical current is induced in that conductor. This current
creates a voltage potential that is directly proportional to the rate of movement of the
conductor and the strength of the magnetic field, also called the flux density.

Figure 1: Electrical Induction using Simple Magnets

After many years, the results of experimentation yielded a practical way to generate elec-
tricity. Early electric power generators, later simply known as generators, produced direct
current (dc). A brief but bitter controversy between Thomas Edison and George
Westinghouse resulted in alternating current (ac) being the standard choice, due to the
ease of transforming the voltage up and down to allow transmission of power over long
distances from remote power plants to the loads. The correct name for an ac generator is
actually an alternator, due to the fact that it actually generates ac, but our industry has
accepted the term generator, so we will use it here. There are different types of generators:
dc, induction, and synchronous. Each type is a variation of the basic generator discussed
below.

Figure 2: Magnetic Induction

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Figure 2 is closer to the practical way to generate power as compared to Figure 1. Figure 2
shows a permanent magnet mounted to a shaft which can be rotated by some means,
causing the poles of the magnet to move through a circle. From the north pole of the
magnet, imagine magnetic lines of flux moving through the air around the magnet and
returning to the magnet through the south pole. As the magnet is rotated, the flux lines cut
the coil of wire when the poles of the magnet line up vertically as illustrated in Figure 2. At
this position, the flux lines induce a current flow through the coil of wire causing a deflec-
tion of the ammeter. This method of generating current is not very efficient, because the air
is resistant to magnetic flux lines. Since the current is dependent on the number of lines of
flux cut by the coil, increasing the magnetic lines of flux increases the electric current.
Figure 3 shows the increase in lines of flux which results from using an iron or steel core
(less resistance to the magnetic field).

Figure 3: Induction with Core for Flux Travel

With an iron or steel core to provide a path from the north to the south pole, it is easier for
the magnetic lines of flux to travel around the magnetic circuit. A minimal air space (known
as generator air gap) in the magnetic circuit between the north pole of the rotating magnet
and the external magnetic path, and also between the south pole and the external mag-
netic path, helps make flux travel easier. This construction increases the lines of flux, result-
ing in a stronger field. Almost all the field flows from the magnet pole through the core and
back to the other end of the magnet. With more lines of flux cutting the coil, the electric
pressure or voltage increases. Note the relationships of voltage to the flux, speed of rota-
tion, air gap distance, and number of turns of the coil.

At this point, by looking at the effects of these parameters on voltage, we are moving from
the concept of induction of current into a coil to the concept that the generator produces
voltage. Load resistance under the force of the voltage causes current flow from the gen-
erator. This change in concept is the result of our decision to generate electric power at
constant voltage, allowing the current to vary with changes in load. In fact, either view of

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the generator operation is valid and can be used in conceptualizing the operation of a
generator. Examining the operation of the generator in terms of voltage generated is con-
venient when our generator magnetic flux source changes from the permanent magnet to
an electromagnet, which is able to have the magnetic flux density adjusted by changing
the amount of dc current flowing in the field winding.

Position A Position B

Figure 4: Generating an ac sine wave

The method by which the generator naturally produces an ac output is in the form of a sine
wave. How this happens is diagrammed in Figure 4. Position A has the poles of the mag-
net aligned with the core and with the coil. As the flux lines are being swept past the coil by
the rotating magnet, the maximum possible lines of flux cut the coil at this point in the
rotation. This results in the output voltage reaching a maximum value, as shown on the
sine wave at 90 degrees. By following the rotation of the magnet through 90 degrees
counterclockwise (position B), the magnetic pole is totally out of alignment with the core
and the coil. This results in minimal lines of flux cutting the coil and minimum voltage
induced into the coil as illustrated at 180 degrees on the sine wave. By continuing the
rotation of the rotor magnet, the generator continuously generates these sinusoidal waves,
at a frequency (number of cycles in each second, cycle equal to 360 electrical degrees)
determined by the number of revolutions of the magnet per unit time.

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 Figure 5: Mechanical/Electrical Degrees Relationship

In Figure 5 we have added two more poles to our magnet, oriented as shown, so the
output from our generator will be at two times the frequency if the speed of rotation of the
magnets is kept the same as before. This multiple pole generator field is very common in
actual designs, but generator frequencies need to be at the industry standards for all
machines. Thus, if the number of field magnetic poles is increased from 2 to 4 and the
rotation of the magnets is reduced to half speed, the frequency remains the same as the 2-
pole generator. This arrangement leads us to introduce the idea of mechanical vs. electri-
cal degrees. The electrical degrees used in power system analysis will always conform to
the definition of the sine wave, as shown in Figure 5. Mechanical degrees of rotation are
used to describe the position of the rotor (electromagnets) inside the stator core.

Figure 6: Cutaway View of Generator with Flux Paths

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Figure 6 shows the rotor with windings that are energized by a dc source to create an
electromagnetic field. As in previous diagrams, the flux lines go from one pole, across the
air gap, through the core (now called the stator), and back to the opposite pole. While the
rotor spins, voltage is induced on the armature (also called the stator) windings. These
windings are located in slots cut in the stator. The air gap is minimized to keep the flux
lines as high as possible. Typically, there are two types of rotor designs available. The one
used in Figure 6 is called a salient pole (below).

Figure 7: A Salient Pole

The term "salient" means to project from a surface, and these poles are attached to the
rotor's surface. The other style is a slotted cylindrical rotor. These, see Figure 8, are used
on high RPM multi-Megawatt generators.

Figure 8: Cylindrical Rotor with Field Winding Slots

Two more sets of windings can be included in this design. These are placed 60 mechani-
cal degrees (120 electrical degrees) away from each other to create an evenly distributed
voltage as shown in Figure 9. One advantage is the economy of using the same amount of
iron or steel stator core, with a minimal increase in cost of the added windings, but the
generator output power is tripled!

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 Figure 9: Three Phase Voltage Waveforms

This increased usage of the generator material to generate more power at little increase in
cost is half of the reason for three phase power generation to be the vast majority of the
power in the world. The second half of the reason is that the same benefits affect the
electric motor design, using three phase power to take advantage of the more efficient use
of the magnetic material to transform electric power to mechanical power.

If a generator is constructed using permanent magnet material for generating the magnetic
field, the field strength is fixed, and the output voltage cannot be changed except by
changing speed of rotation. Most ac generators use electromagnets for the source of the
magnetic field, allowing control of the dc field current (excitation) to control the generator’s
output voltage. Using an operator-adjusted dc power supply or an automatic control to
measure the generator output voltage, the dc current to the field may be controlled to
adjust the generator output voltage.

FREQUENCY

Frequency is the number of cycles in each second (a cycle equal to 360 degrees). If we
measure mechanical speed of rotation, the convention is to use revolutions per minute
(rpm), while frequency counts the number of revolutions per second (unit of measure is
Hertz, equal to cycles per second). The frequency is directly related to the speed and
number of pole pairs of the rotor. Prior to World War II, parts of North America used 25, 50
or 60 Hertz. Since then, the world uses either 50 or 60 Hertz for most applications.

The frequency of a generator is determined by the formula:

F = P X (RPM)
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Where: P = Number of poles

RPM = Revolutions per minutes
F = Frequency in Hertz or cycles per second

An example of the above is a two pole synchronous machine operating at 3600 RPM.

Frequency = 2 Pole X (3600 RPM)

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The nominal frequency calculates to be 60 Hertz. If the generator were to have four poles
and a nominal RPM of 1800, again the operating frequency is 60 Hertz.

F = 4 Pole X (1800 RPM)

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DISTORTIONS

Ideally, the output from an ac generator is a smooth sinusoidal waveform. Today users of
electric power expect a high level of power quality. Unfortunately, reality is far from perfec-
tion. In the above examples of simple generators, the winding of the stator is depicted as
located in only one slot in the stator. Such an actual generator design would generate
something far removed from a sine wave. It is necessary to spread out the winding around
the periphery of the stator to minimize the abrupt change in the field strength as the pole
rotates over the winding slot. This design technique is called distributed windings. Al-
though distributed windings decrease the waveform distortion from the ideal sine wave,
they do not eliminate it.

In practical generator designs, rotors and stators are not made of solid iron or steel. In-
stead, they are thin sheets of electrical grade steel which have been cut to provide the
round shape shown in Figure 6. The stator’s inner diameter is equipped with slots cut to
accept the generator winding. Generally, the rotor lamination is cut from the same sheet to
reduce cutting scrap.

Figure 10: Laminated Stator Core

The purpose of using thin sheets of steel and stacking the sheets side by side to assemble
the stator and rotor cores is the reduction of losses in the core due to current induced in
the steel by the same magnetic induction which generates electricity in the coil windings.
Steel is a conductor being cut by a magnetic field. Current flowing in the steel generates
heat in the steel core and causes increased torque to be required to force the rotor to spin.
By treating the steel to develop some insulation on the surface of each sheet, the conduc-
tivity of the steel is reduced and the losses resulting from current flow in the steel are
reduced. Losses are further reduced in the steel by addition of other metals to form an
alloy. In general, the thinner the sheets (called laminations), the lower the losses, and the
more expensive the core. Overheating of the steel due to high losses breaks down the
insulating layer between laminations and can result in the destruction of the generator. For
this same reason, laminating the core of transformers is also the standard design tech-
nique.

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Another distortion called “slot noise” can be reduced by the way these laminations are
assembled. Slot noise results from the rotor passing by the coil slots and suddenly in-
creases the effective air gap. A method of reducing the effect of this sudden change is to
apply a skew to the slots. Instead of the slots running in line axially as illustrated in Figure
10, each sheet of lamination may be displaced a small amount from the sheet before,
causing the slot to be skewed in a manner similar to rifling in a rifle barrel. This skew eases
the sudden change in air gap, distributing it over a few degrees and improving the wave-
form to something closer to sinusoidal.

HARMONICS

Fourier’s Theorem states that any waveform can be broken down into a summation of a
fundamental frequency and harmonics of the fundamental frequency. If the waveform is a
pure sine wave, the fundamental frequency is 100% of the waveform and the harmonic
frequency content is zero. A square wave is a waveform made up of a fundamental fre-
quency and all odd order harmonics (e.g. 3rd, 5th, 7th, ...). This graph shows the relation
of the lower odd order harmonics and generator pitch.

FIgure 11: Harmonics vs. Generator Pitch

Increasing harmonics add to distortion of the sine wave. Sources of harmonics include the
design of the generator and the type of load. All synchronous generators are a source of
harmonics, but a generator can be designed to eliminate some harmonics, minimize total
harmonic distortion, or to allow a substantial level of harmonics. Harmonics between
dissimilar generators operating in parallel will cause circulating currents between ma-
chines that, if high enough in magnitude, can destroy a generator. By selecting generators
with identical pitch, the difference in harmonic content can be reduced.

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 Figure 12: Winding Pitch

If a coil of wire is distributed in the stator slots such that the coil sides are 180 electrical
degrees apart, this would be called a full pitch winding. To eliminate the effects of the third
harmonic, plus the other triplen (9,15, etc.) harmonics, a two thirds pitch is often selected
by the generator designer. In Figure 12, a winding that has its sides at noon and 2:00 by
clock positioning, would be at 2/3 of the full pitch winding of 180 electrical degrees. This is
called a fractional pitch winding. Other pitches have been made by generator designers to
meet their design objectives.

TYPES OF GENERATORS

At the beginning of this paper, three types of generators were identified. The first, the dc
generator, is an inverted form of the typical generator discussed above. The term "Inverted"
meaning that the field is stationary and the coils of the “stator” winding are rotated inside
the field poles by the prime mover (source of mechanical energy). As the windings rotate
within the magnetic field, the lines of flux induce alternating current. But the dc generator is
equipped with a commutator, actually a mechanical rectifier, which reverses the load con-
nection before the current induced in the rotating winding can become negative, and
connects the load to another phase which is supplying positive current as the rotor turns.
Each segment pair of a commutator represents a phase of the polyphase generator used
to generate dc current.

Figure 13: Rotor with commutator of a dc generator

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The second type of generator is the synchronous generator. A synchronous generator and
a synchronous motor have very similar construction. The characteristic making them
“synchronous” is the use of a rotating electromagnet for the source of magnetic flux to
generate electric power. The magnetic flux in the generator rotor causes the stator output
voltage of the synchronous generator to vary in phase angle and frequency in synchro-
nism with the rotor. In addition, if the synchronous generator is connected to another
source of
ac power, such as another synchronous generator, the synchronous generators become
locked in step with their rotors at the same angle and rotating in synchronism, locked by
the magnetic attraction between the rotor poles and the stator windings. In a synchronous
motor, the effect of the rotating electromagnetic field is to lock the motor speed phase
angle in step with the power system frequency.

The third type of generator is the induction generator. It also has similar construction to the
induction motor. Instead of a rotating electromagnet, the induction machine has a steel-
cored rotor with a set of short-circuited windings connected across the pole faces, com-
monly called squirrel cage windings, or more officially known as amortisseur windings. An
induction generator cannot, by itself, generate any power. It must be connected to an ac
supply to provide the magnetic field necessary to generate power. As a result, the induc-
tion generator cannot control voltage like a synchronous generator. It must be run slightly
faster than a synchronous machine would be, or the induction generator will act like a
motor and absorb watts. Applications for this type of generator include wind and water
turbines which are connected to a utility network, depending on the utility to maintain the
system voltage.

Figure 14: Synchronous and Induction Generator power flows

WATTS, VARS, VOLT-AMPERES, AND POWER FACTOR

To understand the operation of electric power generators and the power system, it is
necessary to understand the measured parameters used to monitor the power system.
Our meters normally monitor voltage and current, in addition to frequency, to give us the
fundamental operating conditions of a generator. The voltage, we know, should be main-
tained at a constant value by adjusting the excitation current. The excitation current must
be changed in response to changes in the load. Load current and the generator voltage
represent loading on the prime mover, providing resistance to the turning energy or torque
to the rotor of the generator. How can we measure the demand the electrical load is plac-

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ing on the prime mover? This demand is measured by measuring the “real” power de-
manded by the load. Real power has been determined to be the resistive current or current
which is in phase with the voltage of the generator. A wattmeter measures the current and
voltage and displays the product of volts and in-phase amps.

Figure 15: Current in Phase With Voltage

If we measure volts and amps, ignoring the phase of the current, multiplying volts times
amps gets us the value of “apparent” power or volt-amperes. One of the limits on a
generator’s capacity is the current being delivered from the stator winding. Current pro-
duces heat, and the alternator stator is designed to deliver its rated stator current and to
maintain the stator windings at less than maximum temperature. Apparent power is equal
to or greater than “real” power. Power factor is the ratio of Real Power to Apparent Power:

PF = W
VA

Where: W = Watts (Real Power)

VA = Volts Amperes (Apparent Power)

Generators are commonly designed for the NEMA standard of 0.8 power factor.

If apparent power is always greater than real power, what is this other power, and why
does it exist? This power is called reactive power, and it exists whenever a load includes
some inductance or capacitance. In other words, current which is not in phase with voltage
is
reactive power, measured in VARs or volt-amperes reactive. VARs come in two flavors,
leading (or capacitive) or lagging (or inductive).

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 Figure 16: Current Lags Voltage in Inductive Circuit

To make the calculations easy, the current which is measured by the ammeter is divided
into two parts using mathematics; each part can be viewed as the sides of a right triangle.
In other words, the real current and the reactive current are 90 degrees apart. When
viewed in this manner using vector analysis, the apparent power becomes the third side of
the right triangle or the hypotenuse, and the calculations of the lengths of the sides and
the angles of the triangle are easily made. Note that capacitive volt-amperes reactive and
inductive volt-amperes reactive are opposite in direction and in polarity, causing them to
subtract. This fact explains why power factor correction capacitors can be used to improve
an excessive lagging power factor.

Figure 17: Power Right Triangle

When rated resistive load such as electric heaters, electric stoves and incandescent lights
is applied to generators, the terminal voltage on the generator will typically drop 8 to 20
percent below the no-load value. For a lagging power factor load such as an induction
motor, the voltage may drop 25 to 50 percent of the no-load value. When the power factor
is leading, such as capacitor loading, the terminal voltage will increase from the no-load
value.

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 Figure 18: Typical voltage vs. kilowatt output characteristics of a generator

This is caused by the various flux patterns generated due to specific types of load. When a
generator has lagging power factor, the flux that is created by the armature directly op-
poses the main field flux in such a manner as to reduce the net total lines of flux and
hence, produce a lower generator terminal voltage.

Figure 19: Directions of currents and armature flux for Zero Power Factor lagging

When a leading power factor load is applied to the machine, the armature flux reacts with
the main pole field flux in a positive manner. This causes an aiding to take place which
produces a larger terminal voltage.

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 Figure 20: Directions of currents and armature flux for Zero Power Factor leading

ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF A GENERATOR

We have already shown that a generator consists of the stationary part (stator) that in-
cludes the armature windings, and the rotor that includes the field windings.

A dc current is fed into the revolving field by means of slip rings from a brush type rotary or
static exciter or, more commonly today, a directly coupled rotating brushless exciter. The
revolving field is designed for standard dc voltages of 63, 125, 250 and, on very large
machines, 375 volts.

Figure 21: Three Phase Four Pole Alternator

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 Figure 22: DC exciter commutator and brushes, rotor slip rings and brushes

Brush type exciters are small dc generators whose ac output is rectified to dc by commuta-
tors and fed to the generator field by brushes and slip rings. Brushless exciters are ac
synchronous generators whose ac output is rectified to dc by a three or six diode full wave
rectifier bridge. The brushless exciter stator and rectifier is mounted on the shaft of the
generator and directly connected to the rotating field of the generator.

Figure 23: Brushless Rotor Assembly

Another type of generator, used in many applications to supply excitation power for the
brushless exciter field, consists of a stator with ac output windings and a rotating perma-
nent magnet assembly to supply the magnetic flux for the stator. This type of machine is
known as a permanent magnet generator (PMG). This additional generator mounted on
the end of the generator shaft offers advantages through providing a reliable source of
excitation power under all conditions of generator operation.

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 Figure 24: Generator with Brushless Exciter and PMG

Each generator design needs to be tested to determine the relationship between the
excitation current applied and the stator output voltage. Excitation current is determined by
running the rotor at rated speed and measuring at no load, at rated load, and sometimes
at "zero" power factor. In addition, sometimes the short circuit current is measured by
shorting all three phases together and applying excitation until rated generator current is
reached.

The no load curve in Figure 25 shows that the voltage from the generator is dependent on
field excitation current. From the curve, to generate rated voltage requires excitation cur-
rent of about 1 ampere. If the current increases, the voltage increases, but the bending of
the curve starting about 80% indicates the voltage does not increase in direct proportion to
the excitation current. This curve means the generator stator output voltage is non-linear
caused by stator core lamination becoming saturated with magnetic lines of flux. To keep a
generator operating on the straight line (linear) portion of the curve, the cost and size of
the generator would increase dramatically, and the benefits of keeping the steel operating
in its linear region are not sufficient. Motors, generators, and transformers all operate with
their laminated cores operating in saturation to some degree. Since saturation increases
core temperature, core temperature limits the degree of saturation allowed.

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 Figure 25: Typical Generator Saturation Curves

Observe also along the 100% voltage line, that the excitation current must increase with
increasing load, and with increasing lagging power factor load (zero power factor curve).
One reason for this increase in excitation is the internal losses of the generator causing
voltage drop. Losses include resistance of the stator coils, losses in the core, and a resis-
tance to any change in generator current caused by the self-inductance of the stator wind-
ing. A model of the generator’s equivalent circuit is shown in Figure 26 in the single phase
version.

Figure 26: Generator Equivalent Circuit

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The generator shown in this equivalent circuit, Figure 26, is an imaginary “perfect genera-
tor” which always remains at 60 Hertz (cycles per second) and at constant output voltage,
E. If a load is connected to this series circuit, the current which flows to the load will cause
voltage drops across the inductance, the resistance, and the load. The relative amount of
drop across each element of the circuit is dependent on the amount each resists the flow
of the current. Another way to look at this circuit is to see that the current I which will flow
from the generator through each element will be determined by the sum of the imped-
ances. If we know the values of impedance for each of the elements in the circuit, it would
be possible to calculate all the voltage drops and the current.

TYPICAL CONNECTIONS ON SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

The majority of three phase synchronous generators have their windings connected in a
wye connection.

Figure 27: Series Wye Generator Connection

A wye connection may result in:

A. A reduction in insulation cost since the phase voltage will be 58% of the terminal
voltage. The turns per phase needed will be 58% of a delta connected machine.
B. A wye connected generator can be supplied with a neutral which may be grounded
if desired.
C. The third harmonic and all multiples of the third are eliminated from the line-to-line
terminal voltage.

Generators are designed for voltages in accordance with NEMA Standard MG1-22 for
synchronous machines. Low voltage machines are commonly ten or twelve lead, and
typically wye or delta connected. On larger generators and medium (5 KV ) or higher
voltage classes, four or six lead machines are more common.

Three phase ac synchronous generators may also be reconnected for single phase appli-
cations.

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 Figure 28: Three Phase Generator Connected in Single Phase Zig-Zag

In this configuration, the stator coils are connected in a commonly termed zigzag or dog
leg connection. A three phase synchronous generator reconnected for single phase opera-
tion will have its output capacity reduced by 33%.

GENERATOR OUTPUT CONTROL

Commonly accepted assumptions of generator operation are that the generator is produc-
ing a constant output voltage and a constant frequency. Deviations from these two as-
sumptions are generally considered abnormal, so controlling feedback loops were devised
to avoid abnormal condition. Controlling frequency through a speed governor type control
loop and controlling output voltage through a voltage regulator are covered in detail in
other papers. However, some of the characteristics of the generator are significant to
controlling the voltage output of the generator.

The inherent voltage regulation of a generator is dependent upon the design factors of the
machine. The factors involved in voltage regulation can be divided into transient and
steady state factors. In the steady state condition, all changes in load have been acted
upon by the control systems, and the voltage and frequency of the generator are constant.
Under this condition, the model seen in Figure 26 can be used. The resistor represents the
armature resistance. For machines designed to operate at high temperators, this resis-
tance is usually higher than for machines designed to operate at low temperature rise.
Lower armature resistance is achieved using larger wire size to wind the armature winding,
producing a more costly generator. The inductor shown in Figure 26 is referred to as the
synchronous reactance of the generator. The internal generator maintains voltage in direct
proportion to the excitation current. With fixed excitation current, the voltage of the genera-
tor may be calculated for any load current. The control system designed to maintain gen-
erator terminal voltage constant will measure the terminal voltage and adjust the field
current to maintain the terminal voltage constant. To apply an automatic control system,

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the requirements of the field at no load and at rated load, along with the field resistance,
are necessary parameters to correctly select the ratings of the automatic control system,
known as the automative voltage regulator or AVR. Of course, the same factors would be
necessary to specify a proper manual voltage control, a dc power supply with adjustable
output allowing an operator to observe the generator terminal voltage and adjust the
excitation current to maintain the terminal voltage constant.

Time Constant in seconds = L

R

Where: L = Inductance in Henrys

R = Resistance in ohms

More complex is the transient performance of the generator. To obtain the best perfor-
mance from the generator during changing load conditions, the AVR must deal with the
nature of the generator field. It is a coil wound on a steel core, by definition an inductor.
The character of an inductor is to oppose any change in dc current flow. Increases in
current are opposed by a large back-emf, a voltage of opposite polarity to the excitation
voltage. The inductor is said to have a time constant, defined by the ratio of inductance to
resistance. One time constant is the time for current to change to two thirds of its final
value. Because the generator terminal voltage is proportional to field CURRENT, an AVR
attempting to raise generator voltage applies field voltage and must wait until the current in
the field increases before the generator terminal voltage responds. This time lag in the
generator response during a change in load produces a voltage transient which can be
fast to diminish to the final steady state value, or it can be slow to diminish depending on
the AVR. If the AVR is to produce optimal transient response, it is necessary to know the
time constant of the generator field plus the time constant of an exciter field, if a rotating
exciter, brush type or brushless type is used.

Voltage regulation on a synchronous generator is expressed as the difference between the

no-load value of voltage as compared to the full-load value for fixed values of dc current
applied to the field. Mathematically, percent regulation is defined as:

VNL - VFL X 100

( VFL )
Where: VNL = Voltage No-Load
VFL = Voltage Full Load

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SUMMARY

A generator consists of armature windings, usually stationary, and a field winding, usually
rotating. Current is induced by the rotating electromagnetic field of the rotor. There are two
ways to get dc current to the field windings, through conductive brushes and slip rings or
with a brushless design. The power through the conductive brushes comes from an exter-
nal rotating exciter or a static exciter. There are various design methods used to limit the
distortion of the output of a generator: winding distribution, skewing, and fractional pitch
winding. Generators have an apparent power rating and a real power rating which deter-
mines its power factor. Generator output voltage is affected by the load, its magnitude and
its power factor. These characteristics of the generator have effects on the control of the
generator as it is operated as a single unit or as a paralleled unit, as the power system
requirement to supply constant voltage to the load must be met.

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