Chapter 3: Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the degree of variation of all life on Earth within species and habitats. It is
essential for Earth to function effectively.

Spread of Biodiversity
Biodiversity changes over space and time.
- Spatial variation of terrestrial biodiversity:
- Highest biodiversity is around the equator and the tropics.
- Has fewer limiting factors.
- Lower biodiversity towards the poles.

There are different levels of biodiversity across different terrestrial biomes.

- Tropical rainforest biomes are the most diverse terrestrial ecosystems while deserts are
the most sparse.
- Tropical coral reefs have favorable conditions and thus a wide variety of life. The oceanic
abyssal zone has low diversity due to cold dark conditions.

Factors Affecting Biodiversity

Factor Affect

Climate Climatic conditions around the equator and the tropics.

Has an equitable climate with plentiful precipitation, high
insolation, and suitable temperatures.
- Levels of primary productivity will be higher and plant
growth is more abundant.
- More vegetation increases the number of habitats, food,
water, and shelter for animals, thus decreasing
competition and increasing the variety of species that can
live in the same area.

Range of Climates The range of climates seen on Earth provide diverse habitats,
niches and food sources, all of which contribute to evolution
through natural selection high biodiversity.

Age of the Area Older areas tends to have higher biodiversity.

- A longer time span allows organisms to diversify more
and drive greater speciation.

Environmental Stability Environmental disturbances (volcanic eruptions, earthquakes,

or floods) and/or climatic disturbances (glaciations or drought)
can destroy large numbers of species.
 - These areas provide less time for colonization and
species adaptation.

Range of Habitats Allows the organisms to move into new habitats and ecological
niches.
- Thus, habitat diversity drives speciation and evolution.

Causes of Habitat Diversity

- A greater vertical extent of the vegetation (layered
forests).
- Altitudinal variation (mountain ranges provide different
climates at different heights).
- Latitudinal ranges
- Variation in rock and soil types causes changes in the
biotic environment.

Benefits of Biodiversity
1. Humans benefit financially from biodiversity. Natural capital gives us goods that can be
extracted, processed, and sold.
2. The global ecosystems provide invaluable services. [Ex. clean air, climate regulation,
pollution breakdown and absorption]
3. Natural areas provide us with stress-relieving recreational activities.
4. Biodiversity maintains genetic diversity and thus is important to the continuation of
evolution.
5. Biodiversity enables the existence of certain biomes, thus providing us with numerous
research and educational opportunities.
6. Humans are part of the web of life. Damaging that web is going to affect our lives.
[Positive feedback].

Reasons to put a price on nature Reasons not to put a price on nature

It gives an actual monetary value that people can Putting a monetary value on something means
understand and evaluate through comparison. that it can be “sold”.

Putting a high price on something can make This may create a bias towards protecting areas
people realize its true value and importance. that are worth more and ignoring less beneficial
areas.

Biodiversity Hotspots
A biogeographic region that is both a significant reservoir of biodiversity and is under threat.
 - Contains large numbers of endemic species (species that cannot be found anywhere else)
and so measures of biodiversity are essential in identifying areas that should be protected
against damaging human activities.
- 34 hotspots in the world have been identified.

Qualifications/Indicators of Biodiversity Hotspots

- It must have at least 1500 vascular plants as endemics.
- It must have 30% or less of its original natural vegetation.
- It must be threatened.
- A region must have lost at least 70% of its original natural vegetation due to human
activity.

Method of Assessing
- The number of total species
- The number of endemic
- The number of species at risk

Species Diversity
Species diversity is the number of different species in a given area, taking into account the
richness and the evenness of the species.
- Richness is a measure of the number of different species in an area. More species mean a
richer environment.
- Evenness is at the relative abundance of the species. It looks at the abundance/scarcity of
each species.

Importance:
1. Species diversity in any ecosystem is the culmination of evolution that happens in
association with other living organisms.
a. The result is an ecosystem in balance; species interact with each other and the
abiotic environment and have niches.
b. Thus, the loss of just one species causes the system to go out of balance.
2. Humans also rely on many species; modern pharmaceuticals are derived from plants.
3. High species diversity of plants leads to higher habitat diversity.

14% of land species and 9% of aquatic species have been discovered.

50%-90% of the plant and animal species are in tropical rainforests.

Measuring Species Diversity

The Simpson Diversity Index:
 𝑁(𝑁−1)
𝐷 = Σ𝑛(𝑛−1)
- D is the Simpson diversity index
- The higher the value of D, the higher the diversity of the area
- N is the total number of organisms of all species found
- n is the number of individuals in each particular species

Areas with lower diversity may…

- Be close to a source of pollution.
- Be affected by agricultural spraying of herbicides.
- Have been subject to the harvesting of some of the species.
- Be closer to human habitation and so subject to degradation.

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the variation of genes within the genetic pool of a population of a species.
- It is the means by which that population can adapt to change.
- More adaptability = High probability that some individuals within the population
possess the genes that are best suited to any changes in the environment.
- High level of genetic diversity = More adaptability
- Low level of genetic diversity = Less adaptability

Genetic diversity in wild animal populations is crucial for their survival.

Widespread animals that are found in various areas have a higher chance of survival because…
- The removal of one population is not disastrous because there are other populations that
are unaffected. Thus, the species carries on.
- Each population has a different genetic makeup and so each will have different strengths
and adaptability.
- Example: The Vulpes vulpes (red fox) is a highly successful species with the ability to
adapt to and thrive in urban environments.

Importance
1. There is a better chance that some members of the species will be resilient and survive
environmental change (disease, climate change, pollution).
2. Low genetic diversity (caused by small populations) causes inbreeding which makes the
genetic makeup of the population more uniform. Flaws or disabilities within that
population become more common.
a. The Florida Panther has low genetic diversity and a high incidence of hearing
defects and weak immune systems.
3. Prevents extinction of species.
 4. Genetic diversity increases the chances of us finding alternatives to resources that we rely
on (wheat).
5. High genetic diversity increases species adaptability and can lead to speciation and thus
higher species diversity.

Habitat Diversity
Habitat diversity is the range of places where plants and animals can live.

Terrestrial Biomes
- The abiotic environment is important for plants; temperature range, soil type,
precipitation, and light all determine what species of plants can grow.
- The plants act as habitats for animals.
- A variety of vegetation communities in an area will mean a larger habitat range
for animals.
- Type of vegetation is relevant.
[Ex. woodland vegetation has many layers and thus more diversity of
accomodation].

Marine Biomes
- Are transient and changeable.
- Suitability of habitats is dependent on abiotic factors like dissolved gases, land run-off,
marine topography, nutrients, ocean gyres and currents, pH, salinity, sunlight,
temperature, and turbulence.
[Ex. Coral reefs have a wide range of habitats whereas pelagic zones have few
habitats].

Importance
1. High habitat diversity gives different areas for populations of species to spread into.
a. Separation prompts genetic diversity.
2. High habitat diversity gives a wide range of spaces for animals to adapt to and/or move
into,
a. Promotes species diversity.

3.2: Origins of Biodiversity

Evolution
Evolution is the change in the genetic composition and therefore the heritable traits of a
population over successive generations.
- Descent with modification.
Causes of Evolution
- Mutations: Change(s) in the DNA.
- Evolution is the result of an accumulation of mutations.
- Mutations are random and may be beneficial, harmful, or neutral.
- Natural Selection: The gene variation has survival advantages.
- Evolution through natural selection drives the slow increase in diversity.

Evidence of Evolution
- Artificial Selection: Humans have “evolved” species for particular characteristics that suit
our purposes.
- Convergent Evolution: Where similar structures have evolved independently in different
organisms without a common ancestor.
- Vestigial Structures: Parts of an animal that no longer serve any purpose but are inherited
from what the organism evolved from.
- Biogeographical Distribution: When species would spread into various niches, adapt to
different conditions, and evolve into a new species.
- Fossils: Shows changes in organisms over time.

Speciation & Natural Selection

Speciation is the formation of a new species through biological processes. It increases
biodiversity.
- Evolution drives speciation. Evolution can be caused by different types of isolation:
- Geographic Isolation: Physically separated populations that can no longer
interbreed.
- Temporal Isolation: Populations that function at different times of the day and so
do not meet.
- Behavioural Isolation: They have different mating rituals.

Natural selection is the gradual evolutionary change that results from genetic variation in each
generation.
- Heritable traits that increase the survivability of species are common.
- Environmental change gives challenges to species: those that are suited will
survive and the rest will die off.

Mechanism of Natural Selection:

1. Within a population of one species, there is genetic diversity (variation).
2. The offspring of fitter individuals can inherit the genes that give them that advantage.
a. The trait must be heritable and give an advantage in the competition for resources
to drive evolution.
3. Due to natural variation, some individuals will have a comparative advantage.
 a. Due to the large presence of r-strategists, competition for resources highlights the
individuals with the best characteristics.
4. Fitter individuals are more likely to survive and reproduce.

Variation is the range of genetic diversity among the individuals of a species.

- Variation can consist of physical or behavioral attributes.
- Caused by random genetic mutations.
- A low range of variation indicates low chances of a species’ survivability.
- Variations are beneficial because competition reduces for certain individuals.

Plate Tectonics
Earth is not static; new habitats are always being developed.
1. Tectonic plates move apart (divergent plate margins) to create new land.
a. Moves the continents into different climatic zones, forcing evolutionary change.
2. Tectonic plates come together (convergent margins) and destroy the oceanic crust.
3. The collision of continental plates makes mountain chains push upwards.
4. Volcanic activity forms new islands.
5. New land is formed where rivers enter water bodies and form deltas.
6. Lakes fill up with sediment and create new habitats over time.

Earth is dynamic and it changes constantly.

(a) Life can adapt and diversify to new conditions if the change is slow and progressive.
(b) Life can go extinct if the change is too rapid because evolution is too slow to keep pace.

Plate Boundaries & Volcanic Activity

1. Divergent Plate Margins: Plates move apart and create opportunities for diversification:
a. Ocean floors spreading creates underwater mountain chains.
b. Oceanic ridges can change water temperatures over a wide area and form the
basis for entire food chains based on chemosynthesis.
c. Ridges can create splits that protect new habitats.
2. Convergent Plate Margins: Plates move together and create mountains, volcanoes, land
bridges, and ocean trenches.
a. Mountains separate two regions and affect their climates, making them
biodiverse.
b. Land bridges create ocean currents that impact the climates of regions.
c. Ocean trenches are the deepest places on earth and are a new habitat for new life.
3. Volcanic Activity:
a. Land created by volcanic eruptions is subject to succession as species colonize the
area.
 b. Seamounts created by volcanic eruptions are the foundation for thriving coral
reefs, which is another habitat itself.

Mass Extinctions
Mass extinction is a sudden global decrease in the number of species over a short period of time.
- Background extinction is the standard rate of species extinction.
- Varies between taxonomic groups [mammals have the highest rates while
dinoflagellates have a very low rate].
- Current rate of extinction is 3 species per hour.
- Extinction is difficulty to estimate because of our lack of knowledge as to how many
species there actually are.

The Big Five

The Holocene Mass Extinction

- The man-made extinction event that is currently ongoing.
- Humans are killing off species at a rate that is faster than the natural creation of new
species.

Level of Danger Local Global

Critically Endangered species face a high risk of Komodo dragons Amur leopards
extinction. Sulawesi forest turtles Cross river gorillas
Endangered species are likely to go extinct. Bornean orangutans Indian elephants
Bornean elephants Bluefin tuna

Vulnerable species are in the process of going Bearded pigs

endangered if action is not taken. Marine iguanas

Extinct species mean that there are no known living Dodo birds West African black rhinos
members of the species. Bali tigers Pinta giant tortoise