bbl 1.5 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE DEVICES e Graphics have different types such as 2D, 3p. 4 objects. It is used in both Realistic and symp formats. os ° There are two main types of graphics name interactive (Active) and passive graphics describ ‘i below : . = Active computer graphics (Interactive) e Images that include animation are known as interactive computer graphics. We frequently visit websites that include animation of images or buttons. e §6If we hover over any button or image then its shape or color is changed i.e. we interact naturally with users not feeling comfortable interacting. e Similarly, there are many other drawings that show animation when performing any action on it e.g. in the browser window that the image changes its size or location. t= An example of active computer graphics e Button animation or graphics in mouse movement. ¢ — Snapshot or explicit imagery in window or mobile screenshot. wedzo- 4 e Drawing on touch screens. e Display of weather forecasts and any other moving charts / graphs on the screen. e Animation or graphics in movies. e Animation in video games. ——— && passive computer graphics Images that do not change the shape of the display are known as Passive computer Graphics. Images or graphic elements are used through text messages, ebooks, pout the computer system ©.8, in websites, presentations, emails etc. e Empty computer graphics provide details in the text and make our reading more interesting. Also, be aware that some graphics make websites slow to load due to the high image quality.@ To solve the problem of large on websites. Another option ig versions of the images by reducing + So on tablets and mobile devices, are displayed on the website ang high quality images are used, This to load faster. BC size, we use {0 make different heir quality, low quality images On the big screen, enables the website 5 An example of Passive computer graphicg «Data representation with charts, 1M © Image objects Wed in presentati me ions, emails, captions, and pt « Standalone images used on websites and mobile applications * Graphics used in business e.g. photo used in booklet, business cards, hotel menus and more. © Difference between Active Graphics 1 UQ. Distinguish between Active and Passive Graphics | t devices. CYTES Active Graphics Passive Graphics Control - Dynamic Nature Control - No Control Communication - Two way|Communication - One Communication way Communication Interaction - High bandwidth user| Interaction - No interaction interaction _ between User and Hardware Modern Application Earlier Supported Motion and Updation- 2D, 3D]Motion and Updation - transformation No Facility oS —— DL 1.6 DISPLAY TECHNOLOGIES SSE ee Display of computer output and display system that displays text and images that are usually explicit to the Computer user, using a cathode ray (CRT) tube, liquid crystal display (LCD), light-emitting —diade, gas Plasma, or other techimoTogy. The display is generally considered to be a screen or location display and a device that generates ‘nformation on the screen. On some computers, the display is packed in a separate unil called a monitor 'n Some computers, the display is integrated into a Processor unit with other computer components. (Some Sources make the difference thal the monitor integrates With other signal capture devices and controls the “isplay or display device. ‘ However, these differences disappear when all these Components are combined into a complete unit, as inthe case of computer notes.) Templates (and monitors) are sometimes called terminals. e-video display (VDTs). Reflecting and monitoring terms are often used interchangeably. * Many computer displays use analog signals as inputs in the process of creating the displayed image. This requirement and the need to constantly update the displayed image means that the computer needs a display or video adapter. * The video adapter captures digital data sent by application programs, stores it in random video access memory (video RAM), and converts it to analog scanner data for display using a digital-to-analog converter (DAC) converter. ©" Displays can be characterized according to: © Color capability © Sharpness and viewability © The size of the screen © The projection technology (i) Color Capability © Today, many desktop displays many color. Notebooks and laptops sometimes have an inexpensive monochrome display. © Displays can usually work in one of the few display modes that determines,how many bit © The SuperVGA mode display can display up to 16,777,216 colors because it can process a long 24- bit pixel definition, © The number of bits used to define a pixel is known as its minimum depth. 24-bit-depth is also known as real color. © Itallows eight bits for cach of the three additional colors:- red, green, and blue. While people can't really distinguish those many colors, the 24-bit system is ideal for designers as it assigns one byte to each color. * Visual Graphies Array (VGA) mode is a standard low-density display of display modes. * Depending on the preparation setting, it can provide up to 256 colors. (ii) Sharpness and Viewabitity | Ae sol! * The perfect physical limit for the sharpness of @ potential screenshot is the dot height, which is the size of euch passing beam to illuminate the Phosphor point on the screen. (The shape of the metal can be round or vertical, rectangular in shape depending on the technology of the display.)@ The displays usually come with a dot pitch of 0.28 mm (millimeters) or less. The smaller of the dots, the greater the clarity of the image. (ili) The Size of the Screen «On desktop computers, the screen width displayed in relation to the length, known as aspect ratio, 1S usually rated to 4 to 3 (usually displayed as na: 31). © Screen sizes are measured in millimeters or inches by diagonal from one corner to another. Popular desktop screen sizes are 12-inch, 13-inch, 15-inch, and 17-inch. (iv) The Projection Technology © Many indicators in current use cathode ray tube (CRT) technology similar to that used in most televisions. CRT technology requires a certain distance from the frame display device to the screen to work. * By using other technologies, the displays can become much thinner and are known as flat panel displays. Flat panel display technology includes light-emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal display (LCD), and plasma gas. * LED and plasma gas work by illuminating the display screen areas based on the energy intensity at different grid intersections. LCDs work by blocking light rather than creating. ¢ LCDs require much less power than LED technology and plasma gas and are currently the main technology for notebooks and oth UQ. List and Explain Graphics devices used Computer Graphics. Ore Display device is an output device that is used to represent information in the form of images (visual form). Display systems are often called video monitor or Video display unit (VDU). Display devices are designed to model, display, view, or display information. The purpose of display technology is to facilitate information sharing. . Now a days increasing. » the demand for high quality displays is ‘& There are some display devices given below 1. Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) 2. Color CRT Monitor 3, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) 4, Light Emitting Diode (LED)Tobe DR o19) 5. Direct View Storage Tubes (DVST) = 6. Plasma Display 7. 3D Display 11.7 | STORAGE TUBE GRAPHICS DISPLAY The Direct View Storage Tube (DVST) is q CRT as it uses an electron gun to draw an ima, Phosphor-coated screen to display it. Phosphors this case is high persistence. DVST does not use buffer or frame buffer to store image deseri ficscription is stored within CRT in the form of 8 good billing distribution. For this reason DVST ig known as Crp Storage Type. In DVST no refresh is required os the effect I appear a few minutes before ilar tg ie and g S Used jn ‘Use the refresh tion. The image *S Various components of DvsT Mette Gis «0 dlncoon gry gee used in the DVST: The Primary Gun and the Flood Gun The first Shot is used to store the image pattern, The floodgun is used {0 store the image display on a phosphor-bound screen, 2. Phosphor Coated Screen : In DVST the interior of the CRT coated with phosphor erystals has a high density that emits light when the electron beam strikes them. 3. Store Mesh : A small and high quality dielectric coating is located behind the phosphor-covered screen, The main gun incorporates a fine charging pattern into the grid and is transmitted to the phosphor-covered screen by the continuous flow of electrons produced by the trigger gun. Storage Mesh therefore saves the image to be displayed in the form of a good charging distribution, 4. Collector : This grid is located behind the last mesh and the purpose of this poorly charged grid is to smooth the flow of flood electrons. Flood Screen electrons Focusing and deflection system Primary gun Writing beam collector Storage Colectér stra (aayFig. 1.7.1 ee© Working of DVST a (2) (3) (ay (2) @) 1 1.8 CALLIGRAPHIC REFRESH GRAPHIC "= Vector Scan/ Random Scan In DVST it is the same as the CRT electron gun and the combined phosphor method is used But in this no electron beam is used to directly writing pictures on screen, but instead of this we can used Storage mesh wire grid is used it is just located behind phosphor coated screen Their is also another grid located just behind storage mesh is called Collector and this goal is to smooth the flow of flood electrons. The flood gun produces a large number of electrons, a poorly charged grid reduces the speed of these electrons Electrons then pass through the collector at low speeds and are attracted by the well-charged parts of the storage space and striking parts of the phosphor- covered screen to reflect the image. Some electrons are fired by other badly charged parts of the mesh. 7 As the collector slowly lowers the electrons, in this way he is unable to produce sharp images. Therefore, in order to reduce this problem, the screen itself is maintained at a high level by using the electrical energy applied to the small aluminum cable between the surface of the tube and the phosphor. Advantages of DVST To display an image you do not need to update or refreshing, Display complex images with high resolution without blinking. No use of frame buffer and refresh buffer. Disadvantages of DVST tis not used for dynamic imagery like animation. ‘These programs do not display colors. To delete a selected part of an image, the entire screen needs to be erased and the edited images need to be redrawn, DISPLAY In this process, the electron beam is directed only to the part of the screen where the image will be drawn rather than scanning from left to right and upwards as if scanning in a raster.Oren terrrrrreeereeeeeene eee © Also called a vector, stroke-writing display, or calligraphic display 1 UQ. Write short notes on Vector Display of Computer 1 Graphics. (eet Tee © The image description is stored as a set of command line drawings in memory location called the refresh display file. To display the specified image, the system rotates a set of commands to the displayed file, drawing each component in sequence. © After all the line drawing commands have been processed, the system rotates back to the first line command in the list. * Random scanning displays are designed to draw all linés~of the image component 30 to 60 times per second, (1AS)Fig. 1.8.1 °S° Advantages of Random Scan (1) CRT has an electron beam aimed only at the Parts of the screen where the image will be drawn. (2) Produce smooth line drawings. (3) High Resolution "= Disadvantages of Random Scan Random scanning monitors cannot display real shadow scenes. > py _1.9 RASTER REFRESH GRAPHIC DISPLAY SSS SSS ES ELAS * dna raster scanning system, the electron b eam is swept across the ser " en, one line at a time from top to bottom. As a electron beam moves between each line, the inclal thickness is opened and closed to form a pattern of luminous dots, * The mage description is stored in a memory location calle ein all a esh Buffer or Frame Buffer. This memory Screen @ Set Of firm values for all points on the r Stored values are then returned to the and "painted" refresh buffer Painted” on the screen one fineI scanline © — Scanline on time as shown in the following ee : «Each screen point is called a pixel, part of an image pel. © At the end of ea returns to the left of the screen to begin next scan line. i Jectron beam ch scanning line, the electron displaying the Scan line Horizontal retrace (1A6)Fig. 1.9.1 { Types of Scanning or trav g of beam in Raster Scan 1. Interlaced Scanning 2. Non-Interlaced Scanning * In interlaced Scanning, each horizontal line of the screen is traced from top to bottom. * Because it is possible to blur the display of the object. This problem can be solved by Non- interlaced scanning. «In the first row the odd number lines are followed or visited by the electron beam, and then at the next circle, even the number of lines is found. * With non-interlaced display refresh rate of 30 frames per second used. * But it does offer flickers. For a refresh rate of 60 frames per second is used. ©" Advantages of Raster Scan (1) Realistic image (2) Million different colors to be produced (3) Shadow scenes are possible "S Disadvantages of Raster Scan (1) Low Adjustment (2) It's expensiveor re Distinguish between Raster scan and Random Scan display device, 'S Differentiate between Random an id Raste, Scan Display Sr. Random Scan Raster Scan No. 1._| Ithas high Resolution | Its resolution is low. 2._| Itis more expensive _| Itis less expensive 3. | Any modification if ] Modification is tough needed is easy Solid pattem is tough | Solid pattern is easy to to fill fill 5. | Refresh rate depends | Refresh rate does not or resolution depend on the picture. 6. | Only screen with view | Whole screen is scanned, on an area is displayed. 7. | Beam Penetration | Shadow mark technology come | technology came under under it. this, 8. | It does not use | It uses interlacing interlacing method. 9. | It is restricted to line | It is suitable for realistic drawing applications _ | display. bbl_1.10 CATHODE RAY TUBEBASICS 'UQ. Explain Operation of CRT with neat labelled : diagram. CEES © CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube. CRT is a technology used in traditional computer and television monitors. The CRT screen imagery is made by shooting electrons from the back of the phosphorus tube found at the front of the screen. * When an electron burns phosphorus, it illuminates, and is displayed on the screen. The color you see on the screen is produced by a combination of red, blue, and green light * CRT stands for Cathode Ray Tube, CRT is a technology used in traditional computer and television monitors. The CRT screen imagery is made by shooting electrons from the back of the phosphorus tube found at the front of the screen. * When an electron burns phosphorus, it illuminates, and is displayed on the screen, The color you see on the screen is produced by a combination of red, blue, and green light.Connector PINS Electron COntrol grid aan voltage (A7)Fig. 1.10.1 The main components of CRT are: 1. Electron gun : An electron gun that combines a series of elements, primarily a heat filament (heater) and a cathode. The electron gun creates a source of electrons focused on a small beam directed at the CRT surface. 2. Electrode control : Used to turn on and off the electron beam. 3. Concentration system : Used to create a clear image by focusing electrons into a narrow beam. 4. Deviation yoke : ed to control the direction of the electron beam. It creates an electric or magnetic field that will bend the electron beam as it passes through the surface. In standard CRT, the yoke is connected to a sweep or scanner generator. The twisting yoke connected to the sweep generator creates a dynamic electrical or magnetic field. 5. Phosphorus-coated screen : The front of the entire CRT is covered with phosphorus. Phosphor glows when a powerful electron hits them. Phosphorescence is a term used to describe the light emitted by phosphor after exposure to an electron beam. "Working of Cathode Ray Tube * The electron gun generates an arrow beam of electrons, * The anodes accelerate the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low frequency electromagnetic field that allows for constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. * There are two sets of deflecting coils: horizontal and vertical.(In the illustration, only one set of coils is shown for simplicity.) * The intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam produces a tiny, bright visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. = Advantages of CRT (1) It produces high resolution. (2) Provides color and accuracy of gray scale.— ———— (3) Itis a cost-effective device. (4) Ithas high resolution and aspect ratio which provides a large amount of good performance. "Disadvantages of CRT (1) Itis ‘ht but not as bright as LED. (2) They are very big, bulky and heavy. Electricity consumption is very high which leads to excessive heat production. (3) CRT provides disturbing patterns on the screen. (4) Their posture is also a problem. Some are spherical and round in Shape while the new one is flat which makes it easy to carry and handle. bbl_1.11 COLOR CRT RASTER SCAN BASICS ¢ CRT ie. Cathode Ray Tubes is used to produce color displays. © The basic premise or goal of producing color displays is to combine three basic colors: red, blue, and green. © By choosing a different combination of these three basic colors we can produce more colors in reality, all colors will be displayed. © The basic premise or concept of this should be the method and knowledge of combining these colors in perfect measure to produce the required colors. Two basic methods for producing color displays are: Beam Penetration Method © Shadow-Mask Method « Beam penetration method This CRT is similar to the basic CRT, the only difference being that it uses multi Colored phosphorus which includes a number of layers. Each layer of phosphorus is responsible for only one Color. ‘All other arrangements are like basic or simple CRT. But the thing is that it can only produce 4 to 5 colors. Soreen Green phosphor ovat Electron beam Red phosphor oat (1A8)Fig. 11.1ie ee es * Random scanning monitors use the beam penetration method to display a color image. In this case, the inside of the CRT screen is covered with two layers of phosphorus namely red and green. * The slow-moving electron frame only appeals to the red outer layer, while the fast-moving electron ray penetrates the red layer and flatters the green inner layer. * At medium light speeds, a combination of red and green light is emitted to reflect two additional colors - orange and yellow. "= Advantages of Beam Penetration Method Less expensive "Disadvantages of Beam Penetration Method (1) Quality of images are not good as compare with other methods (2) Only four colors are display. = Shadow mask method * CRT shadow mask, as in basic CRT instead of using a single electron gun, uses 3 different guns mounted next to each other to form a triangle or Delta. © Each pixel point displayed on the screen is also made up of 3 different phosphorus to produce the basic Colors of red, blue and green. Just before the phosphor screen becomes a metal screen, it is called a shadow mask. * Structure : It has three phosphorus color dots at each position of the pixel. 0 First Dot : Red color © Second Dot : Green color © Third Dot : Blue color © Ithas three different guns. Each in one color. * It has a metal screen or plate just before the Phosphorus screen, named “Shadow-Mask.” * It also has a shadow grid just behind the phosphorus- covered screen with small triangular holes. * The Raster scanning system uses shadow masks to produce a range of colors than the beam penetration method. In this case, CRT has three phosphor-colored dots. * One dot of phosphorus emits red light, the second emits green light and the third emits blue light. This ‘ype of CRT consists of three electron guns and a Shadow mask grid as shown in Fig. 1.11.2.a) QQ) @) a @Q) @) (1A9)Fig. 1.11.2 In this image, the three electron beams rotate and grouped together in a shadow mask containing a ser of holes. When the three beams pass through ‘he opening of the shadow mask activate the dot triangle s shown in the diagram below : oe eee OSSOe Phosphor-dot pattern (ato)Fig. 1.11.3 The colors we can see depend on the amount of excitation of red, green and blue phosphor. A white area is a result of all three dots with equal intens while yellow is produced with green and red dots and so on. Advantages of Shadow mask method Produced realistic images. Produced different shades of color. Shadows scenes. Disadvantages of Shadow mask method Low resolution It’s expensive Electron beam directed to whole screenDAaAnGWiIthh. >b| 1.14 RANDOM SCAN DISPLAY PROCESSOR [= Random Scan Display Processors e — System input is stored in the system memory and the Graphics package. Graphics package translates image commands into an application program into a visual file stored in the system memory. e This display file is then accessed by the display processor to restart the screen. The display processor rotates each command in the display file system. © Sometimes the display processor at random scanning is called the Display Processing Unit / Graphics Controller. The structure of a simple random scan is shown below: VO devices (1A11)Fig. 1.14.1 tS Advantages (1) High resolution compared to raster scan indicator. (2) Produces a smooth line drawing. (3) Little Memory Needed.Disadvantages Realistic images with different shades cannot be painted, Color limitations. Dol 1.15 LCD DISPLAYS The LCD represents the Liquid Crystal display. It is a flat panel display technology, widely used in TVs and computer monitors, today used in mobile phones as well. A HY i iH I ie (1at2)Fig. 1.15.1 ‘These LCDs are completely different from older CRTS, which use liquid crystals instead of cathode ray for their primary function In the LCD display, it co pixels and is arranged in a On the LCD it has rear lights that give Tight to each pixel. Bach pixel has a red, green, and blue pixel (RGB) that can be turned on or off ns millions of crystalline rectangular grid. When all sub-pixels are turned off, it is dark and when all sub-pixels are 100% on, it becomes white.| 13° How does the LCD wort <8) + On LCD the display is made up of various display a picture or video on the screen in gon tha Display level depends on the number of pixelg (ily. the display. 'S Used by * On the LCD there are millions of pixels that o the display quality so that most people prefer instead of the CRT option. Thaney the Ley * The process of LCD is not difficult to understang RGB is used to display different types of colors, "4 © There are three small pixels that display og combinations and provide millions of color variation, per image or video. The technology is also used LCD projector. in Polarizing film Polarizing filter (B) Negative electrode (C) Liquid crystal layer(D) positive Glass Displayed electrode filter (E) image (1a19)Fig. 1.15.2 © The principle of LCDs is that when electrical energy is applied to a liquid crystal molecule, the molecule tends to be non-abrasive. © This causes the light angle to pass through the bright glass molecule and causes a change in the angle of the upper polarizing filter. © Asa result, less light is allowed to pass through the polarized glass at a specific location of the LCD. © That way the area will be darker than others. The LCD works with the goal of blocking light. While LCDs were being built, the display screen was adjusted in the background. * The electrode plane is made of indium-tin-oxide which is stored on top and a polarized glass with polarizing film is also added to the bottom of the device.a) @ @) The entire LCD surface should be covered with a standard electrode and above it should be a liquid crystal case Next comes the second piece of glass with an electrode in the form of the rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film. It must be considered that both the pieces are kept at the right angles. When there is no current, the light passes through the front of the LCD it will be reflected by the mirror and bounced back. As the electrode is connected to a battery the current from it will cause the liquid crystals between the common-plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle to untwist. ‘Thus the light is blocked from passing through. That particular rectangular area appears blank. Advantages of LCD The main advantage of LCD is, it has low cost and energy efficiency and less power consumption. LCD is thinner, lighter and flexible display. LCD provides excellent contrast, brightness and resolution, so the picture quality is very clear like a crystal oy (5) 6) we a Q) i) @ () ©. a Radiation of LCD monitors are less than CRT ‘monitors, LCDs can be suitable with CMOS integrated circuits so that making of LCD is very easy. It gives perfect sharpness at the native resolution. Disadvantages of LCD LCD require additional light sources for lighting the pixels, so if the light source is destroyed then the LCD is not providing any image on the display. LCD is less reliable display. The image visibility depends on light intensity. ‘The aspect ratio and resolution are fixed for LCD. LCD has an irregular intensity scale and it produce lower than 256 discrete intensity levels In LCD color saturation is reduced at the low intensity level due to poor black-level LCD provide limited viewing angle, it effects the brightness. if we are watching the screen by an angle then the color of the image is changed in our eyes.CHAPTER 2 ees University Prescribed Syllabus. Sean Conversion : Digital Ditferential Analyzer (ODA) algorithm, Bresenhams Line drawing algorithm. Breseran method of Circle drawing, Midpoint Circle Algorithm, Midpoint Elipse Algorithm, Mid-point criteria, Problems of is end-point ordering and clipping lines, Scan Converting Circles, Clipping Lines algorithms - Cyusaa, Cohen-Sutherland and Liang-Barsky, Clipping Polygons, problem with multiple components. Scan Conversion ——— "¥ Introduction It is a process for representing graphic objects as a collection of pixels. Graphic objects are continuous. The pixels used are discrete. Each pixel can have an on or off. position. The rotation of the computer video display device is capable of converting binary values (0, 1) into on pixels and off pixel information. 0 represents a pixel tum off. 1 must use pixels on. Using this computer image capability represents an image with different dots. Any image model can be redesigned with a dense matrix of dots or points. Most people think of graphic elements like points, lines, circles, ellipses. To produce an image, many algorithms have been developed. Some Examples of scan converted objects We can apply the conversion to the following objects. © Line © Point * Polygon * Rectangle * Filled Region © Are © Character © Sector * Ellipse The process of conversion is also called rasterization, The implementation of algorithms varies from ong computer system to another computer system. Some algorithms are implemented using software. Some are made using hardware or firmware. Some are made using a combination of hardware, firmware, and software. 5 pixel or Pel © The word pixel is a short form of image element, Also called a point or dot. The smallest image unit adopted by display devices. The image is made up of hundreds of pixels. Pixels are generated using commands. Lines, circles, ares, letters. curves drawn in closely pixels. To display the digit or letter matrix ofp used. The closer the dots or pixels, the better the i quality. Next to the dots, the image will be crisper Tt image will not look sharp and blurred when tei are too close. So image quality is directly props! to the pixel density on the screen. Pixels are also defined as a small adjustable unitorts of a screen. Each pixel can be assigned an address as shom= Fig. (A). (6, 5) is address of pixel : rc Coo 3 : (CCeeee (181)Fig. (A). ci} Different graphies objects can be generated) et the different intensity of pixels and diferent Ope Each pixel has some co-ordinate ¥ presented using row and coli pixels. coordinate is6 Advantages of Scan Conversion ‘The scan conversion is used for various purposes, such as Video Projectors, TV, HDTY, video recording card, LCD monitor, ete. 2, Scan Conversion has a wide range of applications. 3, We can successfully scan conversion using high-speed integrated circuits. 1. 1 pisadvantages of Scan Conversion 1. We can only use scanning with LSI and integrated VLSI circuit. 2. Inconverting digital scanning, analog video signal has been converted to digital data. “Line drawing algorithm is a graphical algorithm used to represent line segment on discrete graphical media, that is printer and pixel-based media.” The line consists of two points. The point is an important part of the line. [& Algorithms of Line Drawing There are following algorithms used for drawing a line: © DDA (Digital Differential Analyzer) Line Drawing Algorithm © Bresenham’s Line Drawing Algorithm eee D1 2.1 DIGITAL DIFFERENTIAL ANALYZER (DDA) ALGORITHM Tn computer graphics, the DDA algorithm is the simplest algorithm among all other line production algorithms. Here, DDA is an acronym for “Digital Differential Analyzer”. It is a growth method, that is, it works by increasing the connection points of the source according to the values of the generated slope. Therefore, we can define DDA as follows, “DDA stands for Digital Differential Analyzer. This algorithm is scalable and is used for rearrangement of lines, triangles, and polygons.” 5S DDA Algorithm > Step 1: Start. > Step 2: Declare x1, yl, x2, y2. > Step 3 : Calculate the following, dx =x2-xl dy=y2-yl > Step 4: Calculate slope as follows, ___m=dy/dx>» vv > Step 5 : Calculate the number of points (n) between x1 and x2 as follows, n= abs ( max (dx , dy) ) Step 6 : Calculate xjne and ying a8 follows, Xine = (dx /n) and Ying = (dy /n) Step 7 : Now, Initialize x = x1 and y = yl. Step 8: while (x <= x2) =X+ Xing Y=¥+Yine Step 9: Now, Plot (x,y) on the graph, and hence we get our required line between the given points > Step 10: End. Formula In every DDA algorithm, there are three conditions and in these cases, the formula for calculating the links is changed. cases Three Xp 4 = round off (1+ X,) Yps1= round off (1 +Y,) Xp 44 = round off (1 + X,) Yp+1= round off (M+Y,) Yp +1 = found off (1 +Y,) —————_ Ge Xp+1 = found off (1/M + X,) (1B2)Fig. 2.1.1 Ifm<1: Ifm>1: Ifm=1: 1 xine= (Im) Xing = 1 mm Yine = 1 Vine = 1 Advantages of DDA algorithm A simple algorithm for making a line, Implementing the DDA algorithm is much easier compared to other line production algorithms. It does not use repetition which reduces the complexity of the execution time, It is a faster and better way than using the Straightforward line arithmetic method: i.e. y = mx +c2 ee "= Disadvantages of DDA algorithm 1. The DDA algorithm uses a floating point arithmetic as it involves the use of partitions in the calculation of Xinc aNd Yjnc. This floating point arithmetic makes the algorithm time consuming. 2. The use of a floating point arithmetic reduces the accuracy of the points produced. So the points we get are inaccurate, i.e. they may not lie in line. As the points we find in the DDA algorithm are inaccurate, the lines produced by this algorithm are not smooth, i.e. certain cuts and curved nature can usually be seen in the lines drawn by this algorithm.problem Solving ™~ Iculate the points b Ex. 2.1.1: Cal etween the statis (1, Tyand ending point (11, 17) by using pp. typ, Algorig,. ith M1 Soin. : Given > Starting coordinates = (Xp, Yo) = (1,7) Ending coordinates = (X,, Y,,) = (11, 17) Step 1: Calculate AX, AY and M from the given input, AX =X, -Xp=11-1=10 AY =Y, - Yo =17-7=10 M=AY/AX=10/10=1 Step 2: Calculate the number of steps. As IAX! = IAYI = 10 = 10, so number of steps = AX = AY = 10 Step 3: ASM = I, so case-02 is satisfied. il atis! Now, Step-03 is executed until Step-4 **Xp | ¥p | Xoet | Your | Round off (Xp41, Your) 1 [7 [2 [8 |/as 3 |9 |e 4 10 (4, 10) s ju [om 6 [12 |é12) 7 [23 | a1) Sia ne 9 [45 | @,15) 10 [16 | (10,16) maz fain Output 18 16 14 = 10 8 6 4 2 0 oO 7 4 6 8 10 12 (189)Fig. Ex. 2.1.1 Ex. 2.1.2: Calculate the points between the starting point (5, 6) and ending point (8, 12) by using DDA algorithm. Y son. : Given * Starting coordinates = (Xo, Yo) = (5, 6) * Ending coordinates = (Xj, Y,) = (8, 12) > Step1: Calculate AX, AY and M from the given input, AX =X, -X AY =Y,-Y, M=AY/AX=6/3=2> Step 2: Calculate the number of steps. As IAXI< IAYI = 3 <6, so number of steps = AY = 6 » Step3: As M > 1, so case-03 is satisfied. Now, Step 3 is executed until Step 4 is s; tisfied. Xp | ¥p | Xoer | You | Round off (Xpy1s Ypur) 5 6 5.5 7 (6,7) G1 |GE Ge) 65 [9 |.9) 7 10 (7, 10) 75: (al | @ib aes) Output 14 12 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 (184)Fig. Ex. 2.1.2 Ex. 2.1.3: Calculate the points between the starting point (5, 6) and ending point (13, 10) by using DDA algorithm. © som. : Given * Starting coordinates = (Xp, Yq) = (5, 6) * Ending coordinates = (X,, Y,) = (13, 10) > Step1: Calculate AX, AY and M from the given input. AX=X,-Xy=13-5=8 AY =Y,~Yo=10-6=4 M=AY/AX =4/8=050> Step 2: Calculate the number of steps. As IAXI > IAYI = 8 > 4, so number of steps = AX = 8 > Step3: As M < 1, so case-01 is satisfied. Now, Step-03 is executed until Step-04 is satisfied. Xp | ¥p | Xou | You | Round off (pit, Yper) 5 [6 |6 6.5 | (6,7) 7 7 (7,7) 8 7.5 | (8,8) 9 8 (9, 8) 10 8.5 | (10,9) re 9 (11,9) 12 | 9.5 | (12, 10) 13 10 (13, 10) Output 1% oO 2 4 6 8 10 12014 (185)Fig. Ex. 2.1.3 > 2.2 BRESENHAMS’ LINE DRAWING ALGORITHM Bresenham Line Drawing Algorithm is one of the simplest and most powerful line drawing algorithm in computer graphics. This algorithm disadvantages of DDA algorithm. Algorithm for Bresenham Line Drawing : overcomes the Given Starting coordinates = (Xo, Y) Ending coordinates = (X,, Y,)ae —-- 29€ no, (2. 5) The points generation using Bresenham, Algorithm involves the following steps- > Step 1: Calculate AX and AY from the given input, ‘These parameters are calculated as- me Drawing AX=X,-Xo AY =Y,-Yo > Step 2: Calculate the decision parameter Py. Itis calculated as- Py, = 2AY - AX P Step3: Suppose the current point is (Xj, Y,) and the ney, point is (Xt, Yuet)» Find the next point depending on the value of decision parameter P.. Follow the below two cases- Py = Pye 2aY X,tt (186)Fig. 2.2.1 D> Step 4: Keep repeating Step-03 until the end point is reached or number of iterations equals to (AX-1) times. "= Advantages of the Bresenham Line Drawing Algorithm Easy to use, 1 2. Itis fast and growing. 3. Ituses faster but slower than the DDA Algorithm. 4, The scores generated by this algorithm are much more accurate than the DDA Algorithm = Disadvantages of the Bresenham Line Drawing Algorithm 1. Although it improves the accuracy of the points Produced yet the result line is not smooth. 2. This algorithm belongs to the basic line drawing. 3. Can't handle diminished jaooies.Ex. 2.2.1: Calculate the points between the starting coordinates (9, 18) and ending coordinates (14, 22). M son. Given ¢ — Starting coordinates = (Xg, Yo) = (9, 18) e Ending coordinates = (X,, Y,) = (14, 22) > Step1: Calculate AX and AY from the given input. AX =K,- Xp =14-9=5 AY = Y,-— Yo = 22-18 =4 > Step2: Calculate the decision parameter. Py, = 2AY - AX =2x4-5 =3 So, decision parameter P, = 3 > Step3: Ss Py >= 0, so case-02 is satisfied. Thus, Pua =P, + 2AY —-2AK =34(2*4)-(2x5)=1 Xi) =X, +1=94+1=10 Yigi = Yp¢ 121841219 Similarly, Step-03 is executed until the end point is reached or number of iterations equals to 4 times.aAd7 12. | 20 7 \5 13 | 21 5s [3 [ia [22 25 - 20 wae 15 — 10 | 5 0 o 5 10 15 Ex. 2.2.2: Calculate the points between the starting coordinates (20, 10) and ending coordinates (30, 18). M son. Given © Starting coordinates = (Xp, Yo) = (20, 10) © Ending coordinates = (X,, Y,) = (30, 18) > Step 1: Calculate AX and AY from the given input. AX = X,~—Xp=30-20=10 AY =Y,- Yo =18-10=8 > Step2: Calculate the decision parameter. Py =2AY - AX =2x8-10 =6 So, decision parameter Py = 6 > Step3: As Py >= 0, 50 case-02 is satisfied, Thus, Pitt =P +28 ~ 2X =64(2x8)—(2x 10) = |”reached or number of it 20 18 Xeer = Xe + 20+1=21 Vy eet elt tell Similarly, (Number of iterations = AX-1=10-1=9) erations equals to 9 times. Pic | Prot | Xiot | Yat 20 | 10 6 |}2 ja ju 2 }-2 |22 | 12 2414 [23 | 12 14] 10 | 24 | 13 1o}6 |25 | 14 6 12 26 =| 15 2 |-2 |27 | 16 2/14 |28 | 16 1 14/10 | 29 | 17 10 | 6 30: |-18 5 10 16) 00 (188)Fig. Ex. 2.2.2 25 Step-03 is executed until the end pojn, is 301 Difference between DDA Line Algorithm and Bresenham’s Line Algorithm Sr. | DDA Line Algorithm |” Bresenhamve ie No. Algorithm 1. | The DDA Algorithm | Bresenham’s 2 Line -_ fixed that is, Real | point, ie, Integer Arithmetic, Arithmetic, 2. | DDA Algorithms use | Bresenham Line’ FF DLUrC—OSCLCOr—OC | functionality to its functionality 3. | The DDA Algorithm is | The Bresenham slower than | Algorithm is faster than Bresenham’s Line | the DDA Algorithm in Algorithm in line | line because it only drawing because it uses involves addition and real numbers (Floating | subtraction in its Point function) calculation and only uses complete calculations, 4. | The DDA Algorithm is | Bresenham’s Line inaccurate and works | algorithm is very accurate as well as the | and works well in DDA Bresenham Line } Algorithm. Algorithm, 5. | The DDA Algorithm | The Bresenham's Line can draw circles and | algorithm can draw a curves but is not as | more accurate circle and accurate asthe | curve than the DDA Bresenham Line | Algorithm. Algorithm ee >| 2.3 BRESENHAM’S METHOD OF CIRCLE DRAWING Bresenham’s algorithm is also used to draw circles. Known as Bresenham's circle drawing algorithm. It helps us to draw a circle. Circular generation is much more complex than drawing a line. In this algorithm, we will select the nearest pixel location to complete the arc. We cannot Fepresent a continuous arc in the raster display system, The distinctive feature of this algorithm is that we use only the arithmetic number. We can do math faster than other algorithms. Algorithm > Step 1: Start. > Step 2 : First, we allot the starting coordinates (x1, y1) as follows- x1=0> y Step 3 : Now, we calculate the initial decision parameter a0 — d0=3-2xr Step 4 : Assume,the initial coordinates are (xk, yk) The next coordinates will be (xk+1, yk+1) Now, we will find the next point of the first octant according to the value of the decision parameter (dk). > — Step 5 : Now, we follow two cases- Case 1: If dk <0 then xk+] =xk +1 yk+l =yk dk+1 = dk + 4xk+1 +6 Case 2: If dk >=0 then xk+1 =xk +1 yk+l =yk-1 dk+1 = dk + 4(xk+1 — yk+1)+ 10 DP Step 6 : If the center coordinates (x1, y1) is not at the origin (0, 0), then we will draw the points as follow- X coordinate = xe + x1 y coordinate = ye + yl ...{xe and ye represents the current value of x and y coordinate} DP Step 7 : We repeat step 5 and 6 until we get x>=y. D> Step 8 : Stop. °& Advantages of Bresenham's Circle Drawing Algorithm 1. Itis simple and easy to use. 2. The algorithm is based on a simple equation x2 + y2 = 2, "Disadvantages of Bresenham's Circle Drawing Algorithm |. The points presented are slightly more accurate than the center diagram. 2 Not very good for complex graphics and high quality graphics,Ex. 2.3.1: The radius of a circle is 8, and center point coordinates are (0, 0). Apply bresenham’s circle drawing algorithm to plot all points of the circle. M1 solution: > Step 1: The given stating points of the circle (x1, y1) = (0, 0) Radius of the circle (r) = 8 > Step 2: Now, we will assign the starting point (x1, yl) as follows- xl=0 yl =r (radius) = 8 > Step 3: Now, we will calculate the initial decision parameter (d0) d0=3-2xr d0=3-2x8 dO = -13Computer Graphics & Animation Pm Step 4: 1 is satisfied. Thus, xk+l=xk+1=0+1=1 e value o| yk+l =yk =8 dk+1 =dk + 4xk+1 +6= > Step 6 : Follow step 4 until we get x >= nitial parameter dO < 0. So, case “134(4x 1) +623 b> Step 5 : The center coordinates are already (0, 0) so we will move to next step. ye Table for all points of octant 1 dk ak+1 | (kL yk) (0, 8) -13 | 3 (1,8) 3 ul 28) i 5 BD 5 a 4,6) 7 (5,5) Now, we will calculate the coordinates of the octant 2 by swapping the x and y coordinates. Coordinates of Octant 1 | Coordinates of Octant 2 (0, 8) (5, 5) (1,8) (6,4) (2,8) (7,3) BD (8,2) (4,6) (8, 1) (5, 5) (8, 0) Thus, we will calculate all points of the circle with Tespect to octant 1 Quadrant 1 | Quadrant | Quadrant 3 | Quadrant 4 & y) 2x, y) (x -y) (x -y) (0,8) 0,8) | @,-8) (0, -8) (1,8) 1, 8) G1, -8) (1, -8) 2,8) (2,8) (2, -8) (2-8) B72) 3,7) 3,-7) B.-2) (4,6) (4, 6) (4, -6) (5, 5) (5,5) (5, -5) (6, 4) (6, 4) (6, -) (7,3) (7,3) (7,3) (8,2) (8,2) (8, -2) (8, 1) (8, 1) (8,-1D) (8, 0) (8,0) (8, 0)Output The mid-point circle drawing algorithm is an algorithm used to determine the points needed for rasterizing a circle. Algorithm Given © — Center point of Circle = (Xo, Yo) © — Radius of Circle =R The points generation using Mid Point Circle Drawing Algorithm involves the following steps- > Step1: Assign the starting point coordinates (Xo, Yo) as- Xp=0 Yo=R > Step2: Calculate the value of initial decision parameter Po as- Po=1-R > Step3: Suppose the current point is (Xj, Yj) and the next point is (X41, Yq41). Find the next point of the first octant depending on the value of decision parameter P,.Follow the below two cases- Case 01 FP, <0 Two cases Peat = Pe 2% Veet t2eXp eg td (189)Fig. 2.4.1 > Step4: If the given center point (Xp, Yo) is not (0, 0), then do the following and plot the point- | Xplot = Xe + Xo Yoptot = Yo + Yo Here, (X,, Y,) denotes the current value of K and Y coordinates. > Steps: Keep repeating Step-03 and Step-04 until Xptot >= Yplot- > Stepo: Step-05 generates all the points for one octant, To score seven more octants, follow the eight symmetry circle circuit. This is illustrated by the following image- Quadrant 2 Quadrant 1 (XY) (%Y) Octant8Ex. 2.4.1 : Given the center point coordinates (0, 0) and radius as 10, generate all the points to form a circle. 4 Soln. Given e Center Coordinates of Circle (X9, Yo) = (0, 0) e Radius of Circle = 10 > Step1: Assign the starting point coordinates (Xo, Y) as- Xp =0 Yo=R=10 > Step2: Calculate the value of initial decision parameter Po as- Py=1-R Py =1-10 Py=-9 > Step3: AS Pinitial < 9, 80 case-01 is satisfied. Thus, X= Xt 1s0+1=1 Yat = Ye = 10 Pray = Py t2X Xyy tl =-9+(2x1)+1=-6 >» Step4: This step is not applicable here as the given center point coordinates is (0, 0). > Step5: Step-03 is executed similarly until Xy4; >= Yuyy as follows-nversion)....Page no. (2-12) ne 1 | east Yaar | 110.10) > 2.5 MIDPOINT ELLIPSE ALGORITHM. © The Ellipse is defined as a geometric figure that is the set of all points in a plane the distance from two fixed points known as the foci remains constant © Itconsists of two axis: large and small axes where the main axis is the longest and the smallest axis is the shortest. © Unlike the circle, the ellipse has a four-dimensional symmetry which means that only quadrants are asymmetric while the octants are absent © In computer graphics, the mid-point ellipse algorithm. is a growing way to draw ellipse. It is very similar to the mid-point algorithm used in producing a circle. © The mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm is used to calculate all the points of an ellipse cycle. In this algorithm, a point between two pixels is calculated to help calculate the resolution parameter. The value of the resolution parameter determines whether the center line is inside, outside, or at the boundary of the ellipse and the position of the center point helps to draw the ellipse. Algorithm > Step 1: Start P Step 2: Declare rx..ty,x,y,m, dx, dy, P, P2. > Step 3 : Initialize initial Point of region! as ee ma aPa | Prt | Xtras Yau) (0, 10) 9 [6 | G,10) 6 [-1 | 210) -1 [6 [@,10 6 [3 [49 3/8 [69 3 [5 [68 Octant-1 Points | Octant-2 Points (0, 10) 8,6) (, 10) (0.5) (2, 10) (9,4) G3, 10) (10, 3) 4,9) (10, 2) 6,9) (10, 1) 6,8) (10, 0) > 2.5 MIDPOINT ELLIPSE ALGORITHM © The Ellipse is defined as a geometric figure that is the set of all points in a plane the distance from two fixed points known as the foci remains constant. © It consists of two axis: large and small axes where the main axis is the longest and the smallest axis is the shortest. © Unlike the circle, the ellipse has a four-dimensional symmetry which means that only quadrants are asymmetric while the octants are absent, * In computer graphics, the mid-point ellipse algorithm is a growing way to draw ellipse. It is very similar to the mid-point algorithm used in producing a circle. * The mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm is used to calculate all the points of an ellipse cycle. In this algorithm, a point between two pixels is calculated to help calculate the resolution parameter. The value of the resolution parameter determines whether the center line is inside, outside, or at the boundary of the ellipse and the position of the center point helps to draw the ellipse. Algorithm % Step 1: Start Ph Step 2: Declare rs sry,x,y,m,dx, dy, P.P2 > Step + Initialize initial point of region! asx=0, y=ry Step 4 : Calculate P= ty2 + rx2/ 4 ~ ry rx2 dx =2 ry2x dy =2rx2y Step 5 : Update values of dx and dy after each iteration. Step 6 : Repeat steps while (dx < dy): Plot (x,y) if(P <0) Update x = x+1 ; P += -ry2[2x+3] Else Update x=x+1 Yey-1 Step 7 : When dx 2 dy, plot region 2: Step 8 : Calculate P2 = ry2 ( x+1 / 2)2 + rx2 (y -1)2- rx2ry2 Step 9 : Repeat till (y > 0) If (P2 > 0) Update y = y-1 (x will remain same) P2 =- P2 -2 yrx2 + 1x2 else x=x+l yey P2 = P2+ 2 ry2 [2x] -2 y 1x2 + 1x2 Step 10 : End Advantage of Mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm The mid-point ellipse algorithm has simple and easy implementation as it only includes addition operations. Disadvantage of Mid-point ellipse drawing algorithm This algorithm is time consuming.