REPUBLIC OF KENYA MINISTRY OF WORKS ROADS DEPARTMENT ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS J P.O. Box 30260 NAIROBI P.O. Box 30260 NAIROBI CHIEF ENGINEER (ROADS) PERMANENT SECRETARY/ MINISTRY OF WORKS JANUARY 1979 ENGINEER - IN - CHIEFROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. conrenrs Page (4) Section Page 1a Introduction 1. 12 Unite of Measurement 2.2 1.3 Definitions and Abbreviations 1a ROAD S¥STEM 2a 2.2 2.2 cation 2.2 2.3 Control of Access 2.3 2.4 Road Reserves 2.5 HAPTER 3 ~ DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA General Bal Topography, Lane Use and Physical Features 3.2 Environmental Considerations 3.3 Road Safety Considerations 3.4 Road Function and Level of Access Control 3.6 3.7 3 3 3. Traffic Volume and Capacity Design Speed and Other Speed Controle Design Vehicles Economic Considerations CHAPTER 4 — THE CROSS-SECTION General . Standard Cross-Sections 4 ‘The Choice of Cross-Section 4 Side Ditches and Cut-off Ditches 4. 4 4 4 4 1 General 2 Expected Flow in Side Bitches 3 Capacity of Side Ditches 4 Scour Protection :5 Economics and Resthetice 4.16 crossfal2 4.47 Pavement Widening 4.18 Clearances 4,20 4.4, 4.4. a4. a4 4.4 CHAPTER 5 ~ THE ALIGNMENT 1 General 5.1 22 Sight Distance 5.2 Stopping Sight Distance 5.2 Meoting Sight Distance 5.4 Passing Sight Distance 5.4 Sight Distance at Junctions 5.4 Control of Sight Distance 5.6ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. conrenrs Page (ii) Section Page 5.3 Horizontal Alignment 5.8 5.3.1 The Straight 5.8 5.3.2 The Circular Curve 5.8 5.3.2 The Transition curve 5.10 5.3.4 Superelevation 5.15 5.3.5 Widening in Curves 5.18 5.4 Vertical Alignment 5.20 5.4.1 Gradients 5.20 5.4.2 Vertical Curves 5.21 5.5 Climbing Lanes 5.23 5.6 ‘The Co-ordination of Horizontal and Vertical Alignaents 5.28 CHAPTER 6 — AT-GRADE JUNCTIONS el General, 6.2 6.2 Definitions 6.2 6.2.1 A Sunetion 6.2 6.2.2 An Access 6.2 6.2.3 Junction Manoeuvres 6.2 6.2.4 Junction Design Speed 6.3 6.2.5 The Major Road 6.3 6.3 Design Requirements 6.4 6.3.1 Safety ana operational Comfort 6.4 6.3.2 Capacity 6.5 6.3.3 Economy 6.5 6.4 Junction Design Procedure 6.6 6.4.1 Data Collection 6.6 6.4.2 Basic Junction Layout and Capacity 6.7 6.5 Principles of Junction Design 6.12 6.5.1 Distance Between Adjoining Junctions 6.12 6.5.2 Visibility splays 6.12 6.5.3 Turning Lanes 6.12 6.5.4 Central Reserves 6.12 6.5.5 Traffic Islands and Minor Road Widening 6.20 6.5.6 Alignment of the Major Road 6.24 6.6 Roundabouts. 6.26 6.6.1 ‘The Use of Roundabouts 6.26 6.6.2 The General Layout. 6.26 6.6.3 Definitions 6.27 6.6.4 Design Requirements 6.27 6.8.5 Detailed Design 6.29Section ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER.7 ~ GRADE SEPARATED JUNCTIONS General Choice of Scheme Geometric standards 7.3.1 Design Speed 7.3.2 Visibility 3 Acceleration and Deceleration Lanes. 7.3.4 Horizontal Curves and Super- elevation Vertical Curves Widths of Slip Roads Gradients 1 Clearances Design Principles ‘Types of Junction 723s 7,30 ts CHAPTER 8 - ROAD FURNITURE General Traffic Islands Kerbs Marker Posts Safety Fences Other Fences and Gates Traffic Signs and Road Markings APPENDIX 1 ~ DEFINITIONSROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL INTRODUCTION ‘The Road Design Manual sets forth the policy and standards to be adopted for the design of roads in Kenya. The manual is divided into four parts: Part I Geometric Design of Rural Roads Part Ir : Geometric Design of Urban Roade* Part II: Pavenent Design* Part Iv: Bridge Design* (including other najor structures) This manual supersedes the Road Design Manual of Novenber, 1970, ‘The contents of the manual are partly guidelines and recommendations to be considered, and partly standards which as a general rule should be adhered to. In some instances speciel conditions may demand modi- fications to these standards. Such instances will usually be brought to the attention of the designer by the Chief Engineer (Roads). However, it is also the responsibility of the designer to put forward any proposals for modifications to the standards which he considers will result in a better and more economical design. The design engineer should also realise that the adoption of the guidelines and standards given in this manual does not automatically ensure a safe, economic and aesthetic road design. This can only be achieved through a careful consideration and balancing of the various controls, criteria and elements involved. Uncritical use of the manual Will, more often than not, produce an inadequate design. ‘The Road Design Manual forms a part of a set of manuals, some of which have a bearing on design. These are: - Manual on Traffic Control Devices Part I Road Markings** Part Ir : Traffic Signs Part IIT: Traffic Signals* Part vo: Other Traffic Control and Road Safety Devices* - Manual on Roadside Development and Control* > Highway Capacity Manual** - Manual on the Form and Layout of Road Design Plans and Reports* Background material and basic inputs for the policy, guidelines and Gesign criteria given in the Road Design Manual Part I are compiled in @ supplement and issued as a separate volume.* It is recommended that every design engineer familiarises himself with the basic ideas, principles and derivations contained in this accompanying volume. Wot yet available **Draft onlyROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1! GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 1 : GENERAL UNITS OF MEASUREMENT The standard units of measurement to be used are based on the International System (SI) units, However, the units applicable to xoad design also include some units which are not strictly part of st. Multiples and sub-multiples of St units are formed either by the use of indices or prefixes. Definitions of epplicable prefixes are given in Table 1.2.1, The basic units and the derived and supplementary units which will normally be required for road design are listed in Table 1.2.2. TABLE 2 DEFINITIONS OF PREFIXES PREFIX SYMBOL FACTOR BY WHICH THE UNIT IS MULTIPLIED nega s i0® kilo k a0? hecto h 10? deca aa do deci a aot centi © 10? milli 2 ao? micro rs aoe Page 1.2PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 1 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL GENERAL RECOMMENDED MULTIPLES celsius guanraey unr | simwot | Ap cue murswenes Lengta netre jon km, mm Mass kilogram | kg “a, gy mg ‘Sime second Jos dey (4), hour (h), minute (nin) hres square metre | n° kn, hectare (1has10,000n") Volune | (otis) cubic mecre | a? en’, on? Volune Qiguiay litre 1 al a 7 (1 liere=109 imt=ten?) Density kilogram per | kg/m? | 2 mg/m? = 1 kg/L g/ml cubic metre Force newton N MN, EN (N= 1 kgm/s%, Lkgf= 9.0m Pressure nevton per N/m? |v /m?, N/om™ and Stress | square metre Velocity | metre per m/s | ke/h (1 ka/n = 1 w/e) (speed) second née Angle decree ° minuge ("), second(”) oz (360° circle) grade s (oo! circle) Temperat- | degree ecROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1! GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. CHAPTER 1: Gi ERAT, Page 1.4 1.3 DEPINTTIONS AND ABB! RETONS, A list of definitions of highway engineering terms relevant to geometric design is given in appendix 1. For the cross-section the more important terms are shown in Figure 1.3.2. Standard symbols and abbreviations relating to horizontal and vertical curves are given in Figures 1.3.2. and 1.3.3. Existing ground 2] ]/seelei 2] 2 del] 2 jes = sifises}3/ =] = /3] s [edie i = Seg ;2] 2 ele z |Fals 3 wlel ots ia; & | & fa] & lae|s é (a) Single Carricgeway Roads Read with aH t ee Control resecre came | | | Shoulder Trattic tone Trattic lane ‘Shoulder Shoulder Traffic lone Traffic tone Shoulder (b} Dual Carriageway Roads FIGURE 1.3.1 CROSS-SECTION TERMINOLOGYROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 1: GENERAL Page HORIZONTAL CURVE Teagin ie Tiree Centre point M Centre point M ¢ of circular curve of circular curve § P ¢ EVATION Meo DEFINITION Bremer DEFINITION R Redivs of circular curve ar | shit Poremeter of ciothoid xm | Abeisso of centre point Te | Tangent 40 clothois (clothoia origin) || 7 Tengen tength BCC | Begining of circle trom clothoid end || PI | Point of intesection (horizontal) cc | End ot circle to clothoid & Deviation engie (gamma) CT | clothoid to tongent Xn Yn | Co-ordinates of stototion » st Station ~ chainage ee | Normat erossfai! Let | Length of elothoia « ‘Superelevation Lei | Length of circle AS | Rate of change of superelevation kee | Total curve tength (circle eelothoids) || ¢ Centre = tine of road FIGURE 1.3.2 STANDARD SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES AND SUPERELEVATIONROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 1: GENERAL Page 1,6 VERTICAL CURVE FIGURE 1.3.3 STANDARD SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS FOR VERTICAL CURVESROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS Hee CHAPTER 2 : THE ROAD SYSTEM Page 2.1. 2.1 GENERAL Roads have two basic traffic service functions which, from a design standpoint, are incompatible. These functions are: For roads whose major function is to provide mobility, i.e. to cater for through and long-distance traffic, high and uniform speeds and uninterrupted traffic flows are desirable. For roads whose major function is to provide land access, high speeds are unnecessary and, for safety reasons, undesirable, Thus, the function of a particular road in the national, regional and local road network has a signifi- cant impact on the design criteria to be chosen, and the design engineer has to give careful consideration to this aspect in the early stages of the design process. The following steps are requirea:— hen the functional classification and level of access control are given, design standards can be applied which will encourage the use of the road as intended. Design features that can convey the level of functional classification to the driver include carriageway width, continuity of alignment, spacing of junctions, frequency of accesses, standards of alignment and grades, traffic controls and road reserve widths.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN| OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 2 : THE ROAD SYSTEM Page 2.2 ROAD CLASSIFICATION The roads in Kenya are divided into the following 5 classes according to their major function in the road network: Class A ~ International Trunk Roads: Roads linking centres of international importance and crossing international boundaries or terminating at international ports. Class B ~ National Trunk Roads: Roads linking nationally important centres. (Principal Town: Urban centres). Class C ~ Primary Roads: Roads linking provincially important centres to each other or to higher class roads, (Urban/Rural centres) Class D - Secondary Road: Roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more important centre, or to higher class roads. (Rural/Market centres) Class E ~ Minor Roade: Any road link to a minor centre (Market/Zocal centres). Roads of the highest Classes, A and B, have as their major function to provide mobility, while the function of Class B roads is to provide access. The roads of Classes C and D have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access, with emphasis on mobility for Primary Roads and on access for Secondary Roads, These roads are generally the most difficult to design as far as traffic safety and operation are coficerned. This classification system is basically a system for rural roads as fax as function is concerned, although for administrative and financing purposes it is also carried through townships and municipalities. Within urban areas the road network should, in addition, be function- ally classified according to the guidelines given in Part 1 of this Manual (Design of Roads in Urban Areas).ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 2 : THE ROAD SYSTEM Geert 2.3 CONTROL oF AccESS Uncontrolled access to roadside development along function is 4 jor roads as hizh standard traffic facilities it is necessary to exercise access control, whereby the right of owners or occupants of land to access is controlled by the Highway Authority. Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the efficiency and road safety of major roads, roads with- out access control are equally essential as land service facilities. The following three levels of access control are applicable: (2) Pull access control ~ means that the authority to control access is exer (2) Partial access control ~ means that the authority to control access is exercised to give preference to through traffic to (3) Unrestricted access ~ means that preference is given to local traffic, with the road serving the adjoining areas through direct access” conn Road function determines the level of access control needed (see Section 2.2). Motorways should always have full control of access. For all-purpose roads the following ceneral guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the functional road classification: LEVEL OF ACCESS CONTROL, FUNCTIONAL CLASS DESIRABLE REDUCED aA Full Partial B Full Partial c Full or Partial | Partial D Partial Unrestricted E Partial or Unrestricted Unrestricted| @ ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 2: THE ROAD SYSTEN Page 2.4 The reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects because of practical and financial constraints. Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of accesses, by grouping accesses to reduce the number of separate con- nections to the thy case the location and layout of ail accesses, service roads and junctions should be carefully considered at the design stage and included in the final design for the project.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS ROAD RESERVES Road xeserves are provided in order to accommodate future road con- nections or changes in alignment, road width or junction layout for existing roags and to enhance the! ‘The road reserve should always be determined and shown on the final design plans for road projects. The following road reserve widths are applicable for the different road classes: ROAD RESERVE WIDTH (m) FUNCTIONAL CLASS DESIRABLE REDUCED 2B 60 40 B 60 40 © 40 40 > 25 25 E 20 20 ‘The reduced widths should be adopted only when this is found necessary for economic, financial or environmental reasons in order to preserve valuable land, resources or existing development or when provision of the desirable width would incur unreasonably high costs because of physical constraints. For dual carriageway roads it may be necessary to increase the road —ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3 DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.1 GENERAL ‘The geometric form of a road consists of a number of geometric design elements. Appropriate standards ané combinations of these elements should be determined on the basis of the following controls ana criteria: ‘The design engineer should consider all these controls and criteria, in order to arrive at a final design which ie in balance with the physical and social environment, which meets future traffic require ments and which encourages consistency and uniformity of operation. In this way it is possible to eliminate at the design stage any environmental and operational problems which would otherwise increase accident potential and other detrimental effects and incur costs for remedial measures in the future.[ae ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3 : DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 2.2 3.2 BOPOGRAPHY, LAND Us AND PHYSICAL FEATURES Road design is an exercise in three-dimensional planning whose success will be measured not only by the efficiency of the road but by its appearance and impact upon the adjoining area. cally pleasing alignment, but in general. is also necessary in order to obtain the most economic solution and the best possible service to the traversed area with the least detrimental effects. Topography is a major factor in determining the physical location, alignment, gradients, sight distances, cross-section and other design elements of a rural road. In flat terrain the topography may have little influence on location, but it may cause difficulties in some design elements, e.g. drainage. Furthermore, it may encourage monotonous straight alignments with abrupt changes in direction which may be surprising and difficult to recognise by drivers because the topo graphy gives no indication of what to expect. In mountainous terrain the route location and certain design features may be almost. entirely governed by the topography. Geological, soil, climatic and drainage conditions also affect the location and geometrics of a road. Of particular importance és the prevention of soil erosion. Man-made features such as agricultural, industrial, commercial, resid- ential and recreational developments are important controls for the route location and final design. Care should be taken to avoid unnecessary destruction, demolition or severance of valuable properties. Information regarding topography, land use and physical features are essential and should be obtained in the early stages ofROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. 3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS No road project is without both positive and negative effects on the environment, ‘The location and design of a road should aim at maxin~ ising the favourable effects of the project, such as providing or removing undesirable traffic fron environmentally vulnerable areas, while at the same time minimising the adverse effects of the project as much as possible. ‘The following factors, related to the road as a physical feature in the environment, have to be considered in the location and design of @ road project: (1) The preservation of the natural beauty of the countryside. (2) The preservation of areas and land use of particular value, including: ~ national parks and other recreational areas; ~ wildlife and bird sanctuaries; ~ forests end other important natural resources; = land of high agricultural value or potential; = other land use of great economic or employment importance; and ~ historic sites and other man-made features of outstanding value. (3) © Prevention of soil erosion and sedimentation. (4) The prevention of health hazards by ponding of water leading to the formation of swamps. (5) The avoidance or reduction of visval intrusion. (6) The prevention of undesirable roadside development. Other considerations are mainly related to the operation of the road as a facility for moving traffic and include the following detrimentad effect: - Noise pollution, ~ Air pollution. ~ Vibration. ~ Severance of areas (barrier effect). These operational effects are mainly a problem of urban roads and traffic, but in some cases are also relevant to the design of roads in rural areas. Some of the adverse environmental effects are fairly easy to quantity (e.g. noise levels and air quality), whilst others are more difficult (e.g. visual impact]. In many cases it is necessary to seek tho advice and services of other professions to reach a proper evaluation of the Problems and establish adequate remedial measures.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3: SIGN CONTROLS AND CRETERIA Page 3.4 ROAD SAP! 'Y CONSIDERATIONS Designing safety into roads is one of the main objectives of geometric design. Safety features applicable to a given type of road should be built into the road during its initial construction. Safety considerations in road design have two diff mt objectives (1) To provide design features aimed at preventing ac: jents, and (44) To provide design features aimed at reducing their seriousness when they occur. For the prevention of accidents the following points are of particular importance: (2) Provision of physical separation between notor vehicles and non-motorised traffic (pedestrians, cyclists, animals); and Separate facilities for these two road user types. (2) Provision of a balanced design, i.e. compatibility between the various design elements. (3) Avoidance of surprise elements for the drivers; i.e. no abrupt changes in standard, adequate visibility conditions and proper phasing of horizontal and vertical alignment. (4) Avoidance of situations where érivers must make more than one decision at a time, (5) Provision of design features that reduce speed differentials between vehicles; o.g. flat grades and speed change lanes. (6) Proper location and design of junctions with particular emphasis on sufficient sight distances, a minimum of conflict points, and clearly defined and controlled traffic movements. (7) Proper design, application and location of traffic signs, road markings. and other traffic control devices. (8) Provision of design elements compatible with traffic volumes and type of traffic (long-distance, through, local, ete.) . (9) Provision of proper drainage of the road surface. Because of the human element involved, some accidents will happen even on roads designed to high safety standards. Therefore, a hasic consid- eration in road design is to minimise injuries and damage when accidents do occur. Important points in this respect are:ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3. DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.5 (b) Road sign and Lighting Road safety considerations and features are built into the principles, criteria and values for the various design elements given in the Road Design Manual. However, this does not necessarily ensure that the completed road will be of a safe design unless the design engineer is fully aware of, and takes into account, the road safety aspects through- out all phases of the design work.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | — PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS I CHAPTER 3 + DESIGN COMDNOLS AND CRITERIA 3.5 ROAD FUNCTION AND LEVEL OF ACCESS conTROL ‘ROAD FUNCRION AND LEVEL OF ACCESS CONTROL ‘Tae function of a particular road, as defined by the majority of the road users (long-distance traffic, through traffic, local traffic, etc.) has to be taken into account in the determination of design standards for the project and in particular in the selection of the design speed (Section 3.7) and cross-section (Chapter 4). in particular, careful consideration must be given to the choice of Gesign standards for roads whose major function is to cater for long- distance regional traffic (generally A and B Class roads). Because of the long distances involved, traffic tends to move at high speeds on sone of these roads, and it may therefore be necessary to adopt higher standards than are warranted by traffic volumes in order to provide an acceptable level of road safety. Guidelines for the selection of design standards in relation to road function are given in subsequent chapters for a number of design elenents. Depending on the function of a road, various levels of access control should be imposed as described in Section 2.3, All points of access should be carefully considered and planned at the design stage. Access should not be allowed at locations where entering and leaving vehicles will create a hazard, particularly where sight distances are restricted oF at points too close to other junctions. The proper location and design of access points may in some cases necessitate adjustments to the initial alignment. More comprehensive guidelines and standards for access control and the location and layout of accesses and other roadside features are given in the Manual on Roadside Development and Control.* Not yet availableROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.7 TRAFFIC VOLUME AND CAPACTTY the design of a road should be based upon factual data on the traffi ‘The general neasures of vehicular traffic on a road are: ‘The most adequate design control for low-volume roads is AADT in year 10 after opening, estimated from historical AADT data and the envis~ aged socic-economical development pattern. For routes with large seasonal variations but still moderate traffic volumes, it may be sufficient to Getermine the Design Volume in year 10 after openingas ADT during the Peak months of the year, On tajor roads caxtying relatively heavy traffic volumes throughowt the year (current AAD? > 1000), féUsly Eeasie hes to be wood’ soe determination of the Design Volumes However it would ebvicecty be wasteful to design the road for the maxim peak hour teeftic tf ene design year, since tnte traffic volune would occur only acing ene of a very fow hours of the year. As a general rule, heavily eeeteicked vural roads should be designed to acconmoda’ hourly velume in year 10 after opening depending on economic considerations. Although most new roads in Kenya will carry traffic volumes far below capacity, the designer must be aware of the Basic and Design Capacities of the naw road. (RRURRBSEIEIIS: «cons te we nesimennunber ot vencies ent, Elon. (oF in both sisvetions fore twoviane sugieegyy Mirinaee geese Period (one hour nese otheruise spestfied) ereey prevaiting aeteay tha trattie conditions, ‘Ihe traffic flow av ous loool te wee gana minor disturbances in the traffic streams may cause stop-go operations.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS Consequently i In Table 3.6.1, guide values for capacities are given, These values are based on data from other countries and should be used only as a rough guide to capacity until more reliable values for Kenya roads have been established. TABLE 3.6.1. : BASIC AND DESIGN CAPACITIES FOR 2-LANE RURAL ROADS (Bxcluding the effects of reduced lane widthe and lateral obstructions) Basic capacity | operating | Design | Proportion | design for a 2ntane Speed Speed | of road | capacity single carriage~ with pase. way sight dist greater (peu/h) (km/h) (cm/h) than (peu/h) minimum requirenent 2000 95 10-120 loot 400 08 360 608 300 | 2000 80 90-100 | 1008 800 aot 00 | sot 600 408 490 2000 6 eo | tock «| aaz0 | pos 1060 | 608 940 doe 760 208 360 2000 | 55 70 2008 1340 208 1240 cot 1140 got | 1040 208 280 The capacity values in Table 3.6.1 above are expressed in Passenger Car Units in order to take into account the influence on capacity of different vehicle mixes on different gradients.|Z ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1! GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS I CBAPTER 3 : DESIGN CONPROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.9 ‘The following guide valuvs are given for the conversion factors applicable to different vehicle types in different types of terrain:- Rolling | Mountainous terrain | terrain hicle Type Level terrain Passenger care | topew, | to pew] 1.5 pew, Light goods vehicles jlo [1s ae Neaiun goods venictess | 2.5 " | 5.0 * fro.0 * Buses 20 * | &o * |6o * otor cycles, scooters | 10" fo * | is Pedai cycles os os * | na Also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles and buses. ‘The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table: Example: An hourly traffic volume of 40 passenger cars, 20 light goods vehicles, 10 medium goods vehicles, 5 heavy goods vehicles and 5 buses totalling 80 vehicles, in mountainous terrain represents 60 + 60 + 100 + 100 + 30 = 350 Passenger Car Units per hour. On roads with two or more lanes in each direction, and on 2-lane single carriageway roads where important junctions are encountered or where additional lanes are to be provided later, knowledge of the hourly traffic volume in each direction of travel is essential for design.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3 : DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.10 For @ more comprehensive treatment of capacity values and methods for calculating capacity, reference is made to the Highway Capacity Manual for Kenya.* it is emphasised here that pavement design requires a different vehicle type classification te that used for determining pou factors which refers to payload, tare weight or number of axles, and further, a Gifferent definition of "design year" may be used, e.g. 5 years, 10 years oz 15 years after opening of the new road.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3: DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.11 2.7 DESIGN SPEED AND OTHER SPEED CONTROLS ‘The Design Speed is a speed determined for the design and correlation of the physical features of a road that influence vehicle operation. it is the maximum safe speed that can be maintained over a specified section of road when conditions are so favourable that the design features of the road govern. Some design elements, e.g. curvature, superelevation, sight distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary appreciably with, Gesign speed. Other features, like carriageway and shoulder widths are less directly related to design speed, but because they can affect vehicle speeds, higher standards for them should be used on roads with higher design speeds. thus, nearly all the geometric design elements of the road are affected by the selected design speed. Economic and environmental considerations should determine the select= jon of design speed, which is influenced by the following factors: (a) The classification and function of the road (b) The nature of the terrain. (©) The density and character of the adjoining land use. (@) The traffic volumes expected to use the road. As these factors usually vary along a route of some length, the design speed does not have to be constant for the whole length of a road.” on the contrary, changes in the design spzed are usually required in order to obtain proper correlation between the road layout and the above factors, whilst maintaining construction costs at realistic levels, Guiding values for the selection of design speed are given in Table 3-7.1. The following general guidelines should also be considered: (4) Drivers on long-distance journeys are apt to travel at higher speeds than local traffic. ‘This should be taken into account when selecting design speed for major trunk roads. (34) On local roads whose major function is te provide access, high speeds are undesirable and the design speed should be selected accordingly. Drivers do not usually adjust their speeds to the importance of a road, but to the physical limitations and prevailing traffic conditions. Where a difficult location is obvious to the driver, he is more apt to accept a lower speed of oper- ation than where there is no apparent xeason for it. A low. design speed should not be assumed for a road where the top- ography is such that drivers are apt to travel at high speeds.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3 : DESIGN cont! AND CRITERIA Page 3.12 Xt is important to note that the design of a road in accordance with @ chosen design speed does not necessarily ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way, avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at @ particular location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements. As a general rule, speeds selected by the road users are determined more by the horizontal than by the vertical alignment. TABLE 3.7.1 : GUIDE VALUES FOR SELECTION OF DESIGN SPEED (km/h) TABLE 3.7.1 : GUIDE VALUES FOR SELECTION OF DESIGN SPEED (km/h) a ROAD CLASSIFICATION wes] DEE | Level 100-126 | 90-200 80 Rolling ye-100 | 60-90 | 50-80 Wountadnous so-to | 40-60 30-50 i ‘The following definitions apply to the different types of terrain referred to in the above table: ‘evel Terrain: Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road having continuous alignment, Rolling Terral: Rolling, hilly or foot~hill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently ana where occasional steep slopes may be encountered. Xt will offer some restrictions in horizontal andROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS ¢ § CHAPTER 3 : DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Mountainous | Terrain: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtain- able and often involves ie oa — “ Page 3.13ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3 : DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.14 VERICLES The physical characteristics of vehicles and the proportions of the various sizes of vehicles using the in geonetric design, ie principal design elements affected are the cross-section of the road, road widening in horizontal curves and junction lay-out, Until detailed information on the different vehicle types using the roads in Kenya becomes available, the follow- ing three design vehicles should be used as controls in geometric design: Design Vehicle | Wheelbase | Front | Rear | over- | over- | Height] over~ | over- | all | all hang j hang | lengen | width Passenger car 2.9m 0.9m | 1.2m | S.om |i.om | - Single unit truck (Lin overall) 6.5m | 1.5m | 3.0m |ii.om |2.sm | 3.8m 2.5m | 3.8m Dimensions and turning radii for these design vehicles are presented on pages 3.14, 3,15 and 3.16 in 1:200 scale diagrams.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3- DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.15 ry OVERHANG OUTER FRONT WHEEL INNER REAR WHEEL, oe DIMENSIONS AND TURNING RADIUS FOR A PAS: SCALE 1:200 NGER CARROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL_ROADS CHAPTER 3 - DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.16 OVERHANG. OUTER FRONT WHEEL —_. DIMENSIONS AND TURNING RADIUS FOR A SINGLE UNIT TRUCK (tim, OVERALL) SCALE 1:200ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3- DESIGN CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.17 OVERHANGS OUTER FRONT WHEEL. INNER REAR WHEEL —— | | | 1 DIMENSIONS AND TURNING RADIUS FOR A SEMI- TRAILER COMBINATION {18m OVERALL) ALSO APPLICABLE FOR TRUCK (TANKER) PLUS TRAILER SCALE 1:200ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 3: DESIGY CONTROLS AND CRITERIA Page 3.18 ‘The relationship between costs and henefits is a measure of justif- ication, and often a deciding factor in determinin features of design ‘The general value ting from an improved road link includes services and benefits to the country, community and road users. A high geometric design standard is warranted where there are sufficient benefits to road users to justify the additional costs above that of a low design standard. Particularly in the stages of planning the preliminary design when decisions regarding location and general design parameters re made, the relationship between costs and benefits for different alternatives is of great importance. Preliminary or approximate cost estimates should be made for each alternative plan. All major items should be included; road reserve acquisition, site clearance, earthworks, drainage, pavement, structures and, where significant, relocation of utility services and the cost of maintaining traffic during construction, Estimated annual costs of maintaining and operating the roadways, roadsides (ditches)and strue~ fures should also be included if there appear to be significant differences between alternatives. To complete @ monetary analysis of alternative plans, the total road user costs should be determined for each alternative, Road user costs axe the drivers' vehicular operating costs and, where relevant, the value of (gained) time. The total of the road user costs for each alternative plan can be a good factor for comparison as they reflect speed, distance (directness) and operating cunditions. A computer model called the "Road Transport Investment Model" (or the "Highway Cost Model")", which estimates the costs of different investment strategies for rural roads in developing countries, is operational in Kenya. It is based on research carried out mainly in Kenya by the Britieh Transport and Road Research Laboratory, and it can Provide useful assistance to the design engineer, as long as up-to-date and reliable input data, especially on maintenance (procedures and Productivity) and vehicle operation, are readily availeble. * Sec FRaL Reports 672, 673 and O74, Overseas Unit, Transport and Road Research Laboratory Crowthorne, Berkshire, England,ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.1 GENERAL aro the SESEMGURYINENS GRSGGSEREAGMEEMIEENES anc, for cual Cerrlagenay roads, the BOREL EESHWS. The carriagevey includes the travelled way, any auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, Clinbing lanes, passing and bus bays and lay-bys « Also related to the cross-section are cycle tracks and footpaths. Many roads in Kenya, particularly those providing access as their major function, carry a considerable number of pedestrians and cyclists who make use of the shoulders and carriageway edges because separate facilities for them are not provided. From a traffic safety point of view this is an undesizable situation and cycle tracks and/or footpaths should be included in the cross-section where appropriate (at the cost of the width of the shoulders). The selection of standards for the cross-section is dependent on the controls and criteria described in Chapter 3. Lane and shoulder widths, (@itch) slopes etc, should be adjusted to traffic requirements (traffic volume, traffic composition, vehicle speeds) and characteristics of the terrain. This means that the cross-section may vary over a part~ icular route because the controlling factors are varying. The besic requirements are, however, that changes in cross-section standards shall not be made unnecessarily, that the cross-section standards shall be uniform within each sub-section cf the route and that any changes of the cross-section shall be effected gradually and logically over a transition length. abrupt or isolated changes in cross-section standards lead to increased hazards and reduced traffic capacity and complicate construction operations. signs and road markings is required to warn motorists of the discon- tinuity in the road. in specific cases it may be economic to select a stage-construction, i.e. to construct a road to a gravel standard in a fizet stage and improve traffic. In order to simplify the selection and design of the cross-section elements and promote uniformity in standards, a set of standard cross~ sections has been laid down, and guidelines are presented for the selection of the appropriate cross-sectionROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4: THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.2 4.2 STANDARD Cros: SECTIONS Type 1 The Standard cross-section applicable to rural dual carriageway roads is shown in Figure 4.2.1. FIGURE 4.2.1 CROSS-SECTION TYPE I - DUAL CARRIAGE WAY TQURE 4.2.1 CROSS"SECTION TYPE I ~ DUAL CARRIAGE WAY Notes on Figure 4.2.1 (2) Type of aiten: see Section 4.4ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER @ : BE CROSS-SE Page 4.3 ‘Types II-VIII The standard cross-sections isplicable to rural single carriageway roads are shown in Figure 4.2.2 and Table 4.2.1 FIGURE 4.2.2 CROSS-SECTION TYPES I] ~ VIII - SINGLE CARRIAGEWAY Notes on Figure 4.2.2: (2) The slope of £111: nf < in im 3n (2) Pype of ditcn: see Section 4.4 (3) Widen the shoulder by 0.50m where guardrail is required. TABLE 4.2.2 : SIANDARD CROSS-SECTIONS FOR SINGLE CARRIAGEWAY RURAL ROADS For notes see next pageROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS | CenPreR 4 + THE cnoss-secrroN Page 4.4 Notes on Table 4.2.1: (1) Widen by 0.5m where guardrail required. (2) Wide shoulders required to accommodate later upgrading to type Iv. (3) @.0m width required to acconmodate later upgrading to Type IV or Vv. (4) Single lane road to be provided with 6m wide paved meeting bays every 300 to 500m depending upon intervisibility, and 6m wide end 250m long paved overtaking sections every 5 to 10km depending upon average travelling speed.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4:5 THE CHOICE OF CROs: SECTION The choice of the cross-section elements depends on a number of factors, the most important of which are: TABLE 4.2.2 RECOMMENDED CROSS-SECTION TYPES FOR TWO-LANE RURAL ROADS (58 o- (Baw in year 10 (peu) Cross-Section type AADT <150 V, VI, VIL or VEIE (1) 150< AADT-< 500 IV, V or VIE @) 500 4000 or Ir DEV > 500 Notes on Table 4.2. (1) Selection of cross-section depends upon the classification of the road. (2) Types V and VII are only interim solutions (stage construction) . (3) For A and B Class roads with design speeds greater than 90 km/h the higher standard of cross-section should be chosen For the selected cross-section, the most appropriate types of side ditches and cut-off ditches are to be chosen in accordance with the guidelines given in Section 4.4.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL POADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.6 Elements complementary to the normal cross-section include bus bays, parking bays, cycle tracks and footpaths. wherever possible the In flat and Zevement widening required in horizontal curves is covered in Section 3-6. Climbing lanes are dealt with in Section 5.5, The design of Speed change (deceleration and acceleration) lanes is included in Chapters 6 and 7 under "At grade" and "Grade separated” Junctions respectively. fusbays and parking bays are provided in order to prevent vehicles (rom Stopping and standing on the carriageway. The siting of bushays (which will also be used by matatus) and parking bays will depend greatly upon local conditions. The long established habits of public service and other vehicle drivers and their passengers shall noe be disregarded. Bus and parking bays shall not be sited where visibility is restricted. Typical layouts for these facilities aro shown in Figures 4.3.2, 4.3.3 and 4.3.4, R=b0m Re4om 30m VARIABLE 18m (3m minimum) FIGURE 4.3.2 SIMPLE BUS BAY (length dependent on number of buses my teem tee Seem ntainam FIGURE 4.3.4 PARKING BAY (length dependent on number of cars [N] or L trucks (7N)likely to park at the same time)ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4: : THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.7 —L 4.4 SIDE DITCHES AND CUT-OFF DITCHES 4.4.1 General The types of side ditches and cut-off ditches which will generally be used are shown on Figure 4.4.1 whilst Table 4.4.1 gives quidelines regarding the choice of each particular type. ‘The guidelines given in Table 4.4.1 are based upon general economic and aesthetic considerations. However, the type of side ditch selected must be checked to ensure that it will carry the expected flow with- out running so deep as to wet the road pavement nor so fast as to cause scour. Due to their location, cut-off ditches are usually difficult to maintain and should therefore, whenever possible, be constructed as "natural permanent depressions" with as gentle side slopes as possible. 4.4.2 Expected Plow in The side ditches must be designed to carry the stormwater run-off originating from the carriageway, shoulder, drain and cut slope. Where cut-off ditches are not provided, any run-off from beyond the cut slope must also be included. ‘The expected flow, or run-off, should be estimated using the formula: Q = 0.278 C.T.A, where Q is the expected flow (m/s) € is the run-off coefficient (suggested value 0.9 for Pavement, shoulder, drain and cut slope) is the intensity of rainfall (mm/h) for a 5 minute storm with a return period of 2 years (determined in accordance with an approved method) Ais the area drained (xm?) 4.4.3 Capacity of Side Ditches The capacity of a side ditch should be estimated using the |Manning= Strikler formula (metric): 2 = eaaget/3.6 or Ve K.R/3 s# is the capacity (m/s) i is the cross-sectional area of water (n”) is the velocity of flow (m/s) 5 the Roughness Coefficient is the hydraulic radivs, a/P where P is the wetted perimeter is the longitudinal slope (n/m) where wReroROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4: THE CROSS-SECTION TYPE AA TYPE A2 TYPE B2 TYPE B3 Cut - off ditch type 19) Cut - off ditch Type 20) Height of cut [Slope (tin) of cutting in Distance d between edge of he earth 0) cutting dnd cut - off ditch he < 1.00 V3 d = 1.0 1.00 3.00 121,52) 4 5-0 (1) In rock the slope 1: will vary from 1:0-33 to 1; 0.10 (2) If earth not stable at 1: 1.5, the slope maybe decreased to 1:2 it natural slope steeper than 1:15, then the natural slope may be used as the cul slope. (3) The slopes into the ditch should be as indicated or flatter, FIGURE 4.3.1 SIDE DITCHES ANO CUT - OFF DITCHES EIGURE 4.3.1 SIDE DITCHES ANO CUT - OFF DITCHESROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 ‘THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.9 TABLE 4.4.1 : GUIDELINES FOR THE SELECTION OF SIDE DITCH AND CUT-OFF DITCH TYPES “side= | freee To be used under the following nenarke condition ‘Type Al | Hilly to mountainous terrain with | -Back slope to be varied heavy earthwork. according to stability of cut material. Slope should be stable end enable veget- ation to establish. a2 | Rolling terrain with moderate earth work. Billy to mountainous terrain where flatter ditch than Al is required due to capacity and/or velocity Limitations. Rolling terrain with moderate earthwork where a flatter ditch than A2 is required due to cap- acity and/or velocity limitation. “As for AL. “As for BL B3 Flat terrain with little earthwork. Rolling terrain with moderate earthwork where a flatter ditch than B2 is required to capacity and/or velocity limitations. “As for B2 cutest ditch | Type To be used under the following conditions Remarks Moderate catchment area and little chance of siltation. Large catchment area and in areas Liable to silting and/or damage to the ditch profile by pedest- rians, cattle etc.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION Page at ae: Limiting values for the velocity of flow (v) to prevent scour, together with the corresponding Roughness Coefficients, are given in Table 4.4.2 for the different types of ditch material which will normally be encountered TABLE 4.4.2: MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLZ VOLOCITIES IN ERODIBLE DITCHES ‘AND CORRESPONDING ROUGENESS COEFFICIENTS eee eee velseity a/e) | Coefticlent clay Lat | 50 Course gravel 1s } 40 Conglomerate, hard shale, | soft rock 2.0 | 25 Hard rock 3.0 | 25 Masonry 3.0 40 concrete 3.0 6o In areas where good crass cover is guaranteed, these values may be increased up to a maximum of 1.5 m/s; in such cases a Roughness Coefficient of 30 should be used. Where grass cover is expected but not guaranteed a maximum velocity of 1.1 m/s should be used with a Roughness Coefficient of 30. To facilitate the rapid calculation of side ditch capacities, Figures 4.4.2 ~ 4.4.6 are given, These figures show, for each side ditch type, how the capacity varies for different ditch gradients, Roughness Coefficients, velocities and depths of flow. Scour Protection Tt is important to note that a side ditch will only perform as designed if the design cross-section is maintained, i.e. excessive scour must be prevented. In practice, due to local inconsistencies in roughness and surface level, no side drain in any but the hardest of materials will be inmune from scour. Thus, for long lengths of side ditch at gradients in /XG@SS/G£ 4-58) scour checks should be considered. Scour checks should be designed as control sections and will thus match the side ditch cross-section so as not to cause an obstruction which would raise the water level. Careful consideration must be given to the spacing of scour checks; such spacing will not be constant but should reduce as the flow increases.Page 4.11 THE CROSS - SECTION ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 wg: gh te sbi Depth of water DB ALIOvdv>. 0.004. 0.003 0.001 VELOCITY IDE DITCH TyPE A. OF CAPACIT:PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS. | & | CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS Depth of water | ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | | - SECTION Page 4.12 % Volues on Figure 4.4.2 Teter to typical b 0 feriations in n will ead to insignificant changes Im volves a K CAPACITY VELOCITY y K FIGURE 4.4.3 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE A.2ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS - SECTION Page 4.13 Depth of water # Values on Figure 4.4.6 reler to typical backslepe with wets. Small varietions in n wil bony lead to insignificant changes in values, Q CAPACITY FIGURE 4.3.4 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE 8.2 EIGURE 4.3.4 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE 8.2ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART1:GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4: THE CROSS - SECTION Page 4.14 EE Jeg Depth of water— i q 77 7 Eger cieansist Esier 12 plcal backsiope leer Enal{etistions in» iad tovtaign fiat Choe oe 3 g é & bed 0.007 0.005 0.004414 0.0034 0.001 VELOCITY Vv « FIGURE 4.4.5 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE B.2 FIGURE 4.4.5 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE 8.2ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART i: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS - SECTION Page 4.15 Depth of water 7 7 x Values on Figure 4.6.6 7 pe FS rs meee sid with az3) ‘Smait vari 0 ‘ations inn will lead to fnsigniticant changes in values a he CAPACITY VELOCITY v K 4.6 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE 8.3 FISURE 4.4.6 CAPACITY OF SIDE DITCH TYPE 8.3ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS 4.4.5 Boonomics and AestheticsROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 (CROSS-SECTION Page 4.27 CROSSFALL Undivided pavements with two or more lanes on tangents or flat curves shall have a high point, or crown, along the centreline with uniform downward slopes towards each edge in order to facilitate surface Water run-off and to prevent mud from the verge fom spreading over the carriageway. This downward slope is termed crossfall. Por rural roads with bituminous pavements the minimum crossfail shall be 2.5% and for rural roads with gravel pavements 4.0%, Auxiliary janes shall have a crossfall of the same direction and rate as the adjacent lane. ‘The crossfall on gravel or grass shoulders shall in all cases be 4.08, ‘The relationships A Design Speed, curvature and superelevation are described in Section 5.3.4,ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION Page 4.18 4.6 PAVEMENT WIDENING curves is required for two reasons: Pavenent widening is costly but very Little is gained from a small amount of widening; a minimum anount of/O,Si has therefore been adopted, ‘The amounts of pavement widening for 2-lane (one-way or two-way) pave- ments with widths on tangents of 7.00m, 650m and 6.00m are given in Table 4.6.1, For single-lane pavements, one half of the amount of widening quoted in Table 4.6.1 for a 7.00m wide pavement shall be used. One half of the amount of widening required shall be applied to each side of the pavement and should be introduced at a uniform rate along the transition length from normal camber to £ull superelevation.— 00] oso oquinodu 7 il] 005 2 osofoso ONINBaim | on ; pine aly oor $ [| scoloso ose] aim] on aguipoau oot . z suo] sco] 080] os-0| oso oso] os-0 7 window Jon} ose zs z sv-o{ oso | 05-0 [oso oso | bor aad a oot} sz-0 | se-0 | suo 05'0} 05-0 |os-0| oso ost Saye) 7 do] 001 [sro 080 [oso foro ost 25 g a = 001} 004 Joo $40 | suo seo oso|osaloso} sz 33 Z|] | ahavortaay) son] sea] ser] afevarfaay [lon | oul sco | a7javorjadv [ion Jos‘ oso | oor ie ne ee EE [oo oor | osoloso] oe z of g - [seu [se oor | 0s See] Pelwlel@leloLerLee] Le [oso [eal oe [oye La] or] Tol s iu NI G23d5 NOIS3G 4/unt NI GaadS NOISga yin NI aaads_Naoisza | w NT w00°9 wos-9 00° Isniavel & -20 INBONVL NO HLGIM INSWBAVE 8Od ‘SINAWAYd BN] - Z NOs SARILBM NI ONINGOIN | eas S3AUND NI ONINSOIM INSW3AVd 197 S1aVLROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS 47 CLEARANCES ‘The standard minimum headroom or clearance under bridges or tunnels shall be 5.00m for Class A and B roads and 4.50m for Class C, D and E roads and unclassified roads. This clearance should be maintained over the carriageway (s) and shoulders. Where future maintenance of the carriageway is likely to lead to a raising of the road level, then an additional clearance of up to 0.1m may be provided. where the existing headroon exceeds the standard minimum, and a reduction would affect jocal industry, then a greater clearance may exceptionally be justified. The minimum headroom or clearance over cycle tracks and footpaths shall be 2,50m, ‘The minimum horizontal clearance between the edge of a cycle track or footpath and the face of a structure shall be 0.25m. No reduction in cross-sectional standard shall be made to the carriage~ way or shoulders over pipe or box culverts. Standard bridge cross-sections are given in Figure 4.7.1ROAD DESIGN MANUAL | PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 4 : THE CROSS-SECTION eee Beery tp C2. x 0-25) te BR2 nae a BRB BRS a a Where © isthe carriageway - as for the approach roads (seelion’s.2) S isthe shoulder — - for cross-section type T 250m = tor cross-section type I 10.75 m = for all other cross-section types : 0.5m fpis the combined footpath and cycle track - varying trom 0.75 to 3.0m depending upon amount of trettic FIGURE STANDARD BRIDGE CROSS-SECTIONS Notes on Figure 4.7.1: a BRL to be applied for roads with little or no pedestrian and cycle traffic. For bridges longer than 15m. BR2 (BR2a) should be applied even for little pedestrian and cycle traffic. @) BR2 (2a) to be applied for roads with moderate pedestrian and cycle traffic {1,000 persons per day) and moderate vehicle traffic (4,000 p.c.u. per day). a BR3 (3a) to be applied for roads with heavy pedestrian and cycle traffic and moderate to heavy vehicle traffic. « The design of the bridge shall allow for the removal, if required at a later date, of the footpath and its conversion into a traffic lane.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL &) PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 5 : THE ALIGNMENT Page 5.1 5.1 GENERAL ‘The geometric form of a road is a three-dimensional alignment which is presented in two project: Other elements of the alignment are sight distance and supereievation. ‘The standarés and values to be chosen for these aligament elements are dependent on the controls and criteria described in Chapter 3, all of which have to be considered in the design of the alignment. Further- moze, the horizontal and vertical alignments have to be combined in such a way that a safe and aesthetically pleasing design ts. A road alignment is judged by it: sand a good three-dimensional design and encourage a uniform speed and ii ways without additional costs. Good optical guidance is important for safety and traffic operation. ‘This is achieved when the road alignment ahead has a continuous and flowing appearance, and the course of the carriageway is clear ana Gistinct and can be readily percieved. The guidance is further enhanced by proper application of road markings and traffic signs, which should always be treated as integral parts of road design. Zt is important to note that the use of the minimum criteria and guide values given in this chapter will not ensure a proper alignuent design. it is the task of the design engineer to make the right choice, with gue consideration of the controls and criteria described in Chapter 3 and of the prope: and to ically More detailed guidelines and principles for the three-dimensional road design are given in the supplementary volume to this Manual.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS | CHAPTER S ; THE ALIGNMENT Panetiees 5.2 SIGHT DISTANCE Throughout the length of any road sight distances must be provided that are sufficient to enable drivers to absorb all relevant features of the road and the traffic conditions ahead and take the necessary actions to avoid hazards and proceed in a safe, efficient and orderly way. The following sight distance concepts are applicable to geometric design: Stopping Sight Distance is applicable tof@lleYESOE NOME meeting Sight Distance is applicable to two-way single carriageway roads with ‘The minimum values for sight distances axe generally determined by the design speed. However, on road sections where it has to be expected that actual vehicle speeds will be considerably above the design speed, sight distances should be determined by this expected speed rather than the design speed in order to ensure safe operation of vehicles. Stopping Sight Distance Stopping Sight Distance is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given speed to bring his vehicle safely to a stop before reaching an object that becomes visible on the carriageway ahead. It includes the distance travelled during the perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking distance. Values for Stopping Sight Distance for various design speeds and gradi~ ents are given in Table 5.2.1. The desirable values should generally be applied. The miniman values are applicable in areas where it can be assumed that the drivers reaction time is less than average (e.g. in built-up areas). Further, the minimum values can be used in arid and semi-arid areas where dry road surfaces are likely to be encountered.5.3 Page : THE ALIGNMENT CHAPTER 5 ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS | | | *soamno TeoTa zea 205 Sentea Suypzeiex quewofipn{ Buyxeouybue sn fumoys esoyz woaNyaq sIueTPeI zy sqeTOdTAT © — +9308 f - | oez | oz | ote | - - - - | oor | see } ose} - - | ovr 7 ~ | oo | ost} ser} ~ - - - | ove | ote | saz] - - | cet ~ | sot} oct | sot} sot | - - - | sez | oz | ose | oz] - - | ort oct | sst | spt | ont | set | - - | ssz | sez | ste | oo | sat] - = | oot Set | set | set} ozt | sit} ort | - | ooz | sat | oct | sor | sor} sot] - | os ozt | ott | sot} oot | oot | so - | set | sot | ser | ocr | set] ot] - | o8 oor | s6 | 06 | so | se | o8 ~ | oct | ott | sot | oot | oor] s6 - | op | se jo | om | ow | so - | 06 | se | os | os | on | se - | os ss | 09 | 09 j ss | ss | ss | os | so | so | o9 | 09 | os | o9 | cs | os se | sh | oF | ov | oF | op | oF | os | cv | sp | se | cp | op | op | o» se [ w- | ve | oo | te | a9 | we ft se | oo [ae | oo fae | aa | 6 a (ayer) (wwoa (an) (neioa) (an) peads, SUNETOWED Yor StNaTOWED wos ubtseq| () SONWESTa dHDTS ONTaOIS WoWINTA () someasta HOS OktasoLs sTEvETsHa SHONVISTO SHOTS ONTEIONS © Tes STEROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 5: 5.4 THE ALIGNMENT Page 5.2.2 Meoting Sight Distance Meeting Sight Distance is the distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in opposite directions, on a two-way road with insufficient width for passing to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after becoming visible to eac! Meeting Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance requirement for two-way, Inlane single carriageway roads and should generally be prov- ided for all roads with carriageway widths less than 5.0m. 5.2.3 Passing Sight Distance Passing Sight Distance is a desirable sight distance requirement for two-way single carriageway roads, Sufficient visibility for passing increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be provided for along as much of the road length as possible within financial Limitations. Values for minimum Passing Sight Distance at various design speeds are given in Table 5.2.2. In general it is sufficient to provide the Reduced Passing Sight Distance as given in the table. Table $.2.3 gives guide values for the extent to which passing sight distance should be provided. §.2.4 Sight Distance at Junctions Sight distance requirements at junctions are described in Chapter 6. These requirements may influence the location of junctions and the xoad alignment through the junction area.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1! GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER § : THE ALIGNMENT Page 5-5 TABLE 5.2.2 : PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE f — DESIGN NORMAL, REDUCED SPEED PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE | PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE (n/n) (=) a) 50 250 275 60 325 225 70 400 275 80 475 325, 90 525 350 100 575 375 aio 625 400 120 700 450 140 178 500 +2} -- 2-40 ! i AEOUCED PASSING SIGNT_DISTANCE NORwAL PASSING. sicHT_oIStANceE TABLE 5.2.3 + GUIDE VALUES FOR THE MINHA PROVISION OF PASSING SEGHD DISTANCE esta wmerMim PROPORTION OF ROAD WITH SPEED REDUCED PASSING SIGHT DISTANCE en (xm/ny ADT <1000peu ADT = 1000-3000pcu ADT > 3000pcu_ 50 Ys V/s Us 60 1/5 1/4 1/4 70-80 v/s 1/4 1/3 90-120 L/s 1/3 V2 [L.20-140 1/3 1/2 2/3ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 5 : THE ALIGNMENT | Paoe 58 -| Control of Sight Distan Available sight distances should be checked throughout the road length in the early stages of the design of the alignment, and any Recessary adjustments to the line should be made to meet the min- imum requirements for sight distance. The following guidelines for control of sight distances apply: 1. Available sight distance should be checked separately for each type of sight distance and for each direction of travel, The following values should be used for determination of sight Lines: and sight distances are given in Figure 5.2.1. Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level as the carr- iageway, and other obstructions should be removed. In cases where the provision of the sight area requires extensive earth~ works or costly removal of obstructions, it may be necessary to adjust the alignment. Sudden reductions of available sight distance should be avoided. Where reductions are necessary, they should be logical in velation to the physical surroundings. For control of sight distances at junctions (visibility splays) see Chapter 6.ROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 5: THE ALIGNMENT Page 5.7 RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE A(m) Centre-tine of road Sight distance 5, measured along centre-line of Inside tone OBSTRUCTION OF. CUT SLOPE 5000 4000 3000 2000 S rm 1500 1000 = 800 600 K 500 200 300 4 Ro 200 150 100 80 60 40 «5 6 8 10 15 20 30 ao DISTANCE M (mm) FIGURE 5.2.1 SIGHT DISTANCE FOR HORIZONTAL CURVESROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS CHAPTER 5 : THE ALIGNMENT Page 5.8 5.3 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT ‘The design elements of the horizontal alignment are the straight, the circular curve, the transitions curve [(@BEEAl) and the superelevation. 5.3.1 The Straight From an aesthetic point of view, the straight may often be beneficial in flat country but rarely in rolling or mountainous terrain. However, long straights increase the danger from headlight glare and usually lead to excessive speeding, But overtaking opportunities must be provided at reasonable intervals and straights are often the most appropriate solution. Short straights between curves in the same sense should be avoided ("broken back" effect). If such straights have to be used, the unfavourable appearance may be improved by the introduction o: a sag The following guidelines apply for the lengths of straights: 1, Straights should not have lengths greater han [25S setres (V, in kn/h). 2. Straights between circular curves following the same direction should have lengths greater than tres (V, in km/h). 8.3.2 The Circular Curve For calculation of the minimum horizontal radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used: 2 R min %p Ta eteT Design Speen (km/h) © = Maximum superelevation (%) = Side friction coefficientROAD DESIGN MANUAL PART 1: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RURAL ROADS HAPTER 5 : THE ALIGNMENT Page 5.9 TABLE $.3.1 + MINIMUM RADIT FOR HORIZONTAL CURVES | design Speed 40 60 | 70] 20 | 90 |100 }110] 220] 140 v,, (km/h) B | Min.hor. radius, | 60 1160 |250 } 350 | 450 | 600 | 750 [1000 i400 R mint) Note that the application of these minimum radii does not automatically ensure adequate sight distances. Control of sight distance as decribed in Section 5.2.5 is generally required. Short curves between long straights have an optical appearance of a kink and should be avoided. where the change of direction between two straights (intersection angle the length of the horizontal curve should be at the impression of a broken Line. The horizontal curvature over a particular road section should be as consistent as possible. The safety of a winding alignment is usually not seriously affected by a smaller curve, while isolated sharp curves on an otherwise flowing alignment are dangerous, When a reduction in the standard of horizontal curvature is necessary, this should be effected gradually. It is recoumended that the radii of consecutive curves should be within the limite given in Figure 5.3.1. Particular care should be taken to avoid sharp curves at the ends of long straights. The following guidelines shall be applied: If b < 500m, then R>L (nm) Ié L > 500m, then R > 500m where L length of straight, and R = horizontal radius. Very gentle curvature should be applied on hich, long fills as in the absence of cut slopes, shrubs, trees, etc. above the roadway, it is difficult for drivers to perceive the extent of curvature and adjust to the conditions. The same principle applies to the absence of physical features in very flat terrain, where small radii and short curves should be avoided.