JANUARY 2001

Online
Geo file 394

Alison Rae

Impact of cities on their surrounding

area
The rural–urban fringe is a subject Figure 1: Cloke’s model of urban/rural transition
you may well have studied. An area small village turned 1/2 hour's drive 1 hour's drive 11/2 hour's
of rapid change, it warrants close into a new or
overspill town
small suburbanised drive
village with old core
and regular attention. In MEDCs it
is becoming increasingly difficult to urban motorway
'A' road

identify a boundary between the sprawl

2 hours'
drive
‘urban’ and the ‘rural’. Effectively
green belt (farming
the two merge, and there is a gradual declining village

Zone 5
and recreation with
transition across this rural–urban large city or development strictly more remote abandoned farms
conurbation controlled) village with
zone. small suburbanised
little change National
village with its old core
linear Park
development 'A' roads
Cloke’s model 'B' roads
'B' road
village with mainly
In 1979 Cloke devised his ‘index of urban sprawl with car-based suburbs second homes
rurality’, a method of measuring how Zone 1 Zone 2
Zone
Zone 4
3
urban or rural an area is. Sixteen
categories of census data, including Source: adapted from Waugh (1990), p.339
employment structure, population
density, distance from a large town, edge of the model is never reached. enough for nowhere to be remote.
and percentage of commuters, are Large towns are too common in the One effect of London’s high degree of
used to categorise a settlement into South East for this to be so, and lines urbanisation is large extent of its
one of four classifications: of fast communication too numerous. commuter zone. The need to work in
Contrastingly, for Glasgow, more the city, but the desire to live in the
• extreme non-rural urban surrounded as it is by upland areas, countryside, simply applies to more
• intermediate non-rural extreme rurality is soon reached. people, and so over a wider region.
• intermediate rural Manchester shows both patterns,
• extreme rural rural with other major settlements close by Two counties illustrate these
to the north, west and south, but with contentions, Essex and East Sussex.
A model of these ideas is shown in the more remote Pennines to the east (Figure 2). They are indicative of the
Figure 1. Up to one hour’s journey (see later in the unit). Obviously, as general pattern in all directions from
time from the city, the landscape is with all models, application in the London, where urban living has
shown to be highly developed, with real world varies from one example to sprawled outwards over time. In
some villages suburbanised and another. 1914, for example, the eastern edge of
others developed into small overspill London was seven miles from St
towns. Development close to the city Paul’s Cathedral. In the 1920s Ilford
has been restricted by means of a London was still a village, totally separate
green belt, forcing new building to As the largest city in the UK it would from, and really uninfluenced by, the
‘jump’ over this area. Beyond one seem logical that London should city. But by the 1950s it was
hour’s journey time the pattern have an influence over a completely integrated within the
changes much more rapidly. The correspondingly greater area than do suburban sprawl.
second hour of travelling time other, smaller, cities. Moving out
generally represents less distance from London one never reaches areas To achieve the ideal of many – to
covered than during the first hour of more remote than Zone 4 in Figure 1, work in the city but live in the
travel from the city, due to decreasing where some villages are ‘off the country – suburbanisation of villages
quality of transport routes. In a short beaten track’ and have seen little has occurred further and further from
distance, the model shows declining change. However, they are certainly the city edge. Villages lying close to
villages and abandoned farms. not in decline. Zone 5 is not reached major routes have obviously been
Gradation of change over distance because the influence of other large affected most; some have grown to
therefore becomes more rapid further towns and cities is encountered first. become towns. Places where these
away from the city. Those settlements on the edge of two processes have occurred can be
London’s influence are well within classified as Zones 1 and 2 of Cloke’s
A factor not taken into account in the catchments of other settlements. model. In Essex, examples would
Figure 1 is variation in accessibility, Moreover, in the South East, the include suburbanised villages like
i.e. proximity to main road and rail UK’s wealthiest region, Great Dunmow and towns such as
routes, within any of the zones. abandonment of farms and villages Braintree. Villages off the A12 dual
Accessibility is paramount in degree has probably not occurred for many carriageway have been particularly
of development, as the later case years. Vacant farms are usually affected. Villages which lie further
studies show. Moreover, the bought up quickly, either by a from arterial routes, like Thaxted and
application of Cloke’s model is not neighbour or an agricultural Earl’s Colne, with a longer journey
the same in all areas. If London is the management company, and time to the city and fewer changes to
city, the extreme rural zone on the communications are generally good settlements, are less accessible and

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001

January 2001 no.394 Impact of cities on their surrounding area

Figure 2: Cloke’s model applied to Essex and East Sussex that housing in Wadhurst is in great
demand. Inevitable consequences of
this include a higher volume of new
Ipswich
Halstead
Hulstead house building than in surrounding
Earl's Colne
Earls Colne villages, a greater proportion being
Thaxted ‘executive housing’ (Figure 3). These
KEY: new developments cost more per unit
Braintree Colchester area than similar property elsewhere.
Great Zone 2/3
Dunmow
Chelmsford
boundary in Older property, too, is in demand,
Harlow key counties including farm property such as barns
A12 motorway
E S SE X and oasthouses which can be
Basildon major roads renovated. Indeed, few now remain in
LO N D O N Ilford
A13 Hastings- an unaltered state.
Southend Charing
Cross line In some commuter villages local
M25
urban area shopping declines because residents
Medway Towns
Tows
key county shop where they work, or at edge of
M2 boundary town supermarkets on their way
M20
M23 A22 A21 home. Wadhurst shopping, in
Tunbridge Wells
Crawley
A26 Dover contrast, has benefited from the
Wadhurst
Folkestone
Folkstone village’s growth; recently there has
Mayfield been serious discussion regarding
A23 EAST
SUS SE X
supermarket development. Other
A27 services exist at a higher level than
Hastings would be expected for the size of the
Worthing Brighton
East bourne
Eastbourne village, including a comprehensive
school with a wide catchment area.

Transport networks have, however,

tend to be smaller. Figure 2 therefore national railway network was severely changed little for Wadhurst. It
places them in Zone 3. But very few cut back, Mayfield station was closed. remains accessible by B roads at best,
parts of Essex could be categorised as Wadhurst station lies a little outside which carry too much, and often too
Zone 4 – perhaps only some marsh the village, on the Charing fast, traffic. If this network was to be
and coastal areas in the east and south Cross–Hastings line, and, as stated improved, development consequences
east of the county. above, has a commuting time of one would be considerable.
hour. Add on to this some driving or
A similar pattern can be observed in cycling time to the station, and a walk Mayfield, no longer considered as
East Sussex. Two main axial routes or tube at the London end, and the much a commuter village, has less new
from London cross the county, the total journey time is still within the housing development. In a way this
A21 and A22; both are busy tolerance level for South East region also maintains prices at a high level,
commuter routes, as are the railways. commuters. The station car park has due to the supply and demand
Just as the main routes affect the recently been extended, so demand imbalance, as it is a particularly
shape of the Zone 2/3 boundary in has obviously increased. attractive village. Nevertheless, the
Essex, so both the roads and railways Nevertheless, the nearer one lives to property market in Wadhurst is more
distort the boundary in East Sussex. the station the better, which means buoyant and active. Shopping
Many commute to London from the
south coast. Almost every settlement Figure 3: Land use in Wadhurst
is within easy reach of a main road or
station, though as commuting goes,
some of these are long journeys. Middle level
Wadhurst is one hour out of Charing recent development
Cross, a crucial journey time in
Station
people’s perception, but the presence
of both railways and major roads Key:
distort the shape of the Zone 2/3 all pre-C20 property
boundary here. This imaginary
boundary line has been placed mixed age property
between the villages of Wadhurst and 1980s/90s council housing
Mayfield, two villages which will now executive
be used to highlight differences in housing 1980s and 1990s
London’s influence even over a property
High development
distance of only a few miles. The key Street
factor here is the presence or absence
of a commuter railway station. 1990s development
Mixed age 1950s
executive mostly executive
Both villages once had stations with housing Comprehensive
housing School
direct access to London, but in the
Beeching cuts of the 1960s, when the
Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001
 January 2001 no.394 Impact of cities on their surrounding area

provision in Mayfield has changed in – there is less tolerance of long region. In Latin America, the main
character over the 1990s, with the loss commutes than in the South East. link between city and environs is
of convenience shops, these being Zone 4, and even Zone 5, of Cloke’s through rural to urban migration.
replaced by ‘non-local’ services such as model are therefore soon reached on People have long moved from the
gift shops, bric-a-brac etc. this side of Manchester. countryside to the towns, because
urban living conditions are superior.
The above case study is on a very local Glasgow shows a similar pattern, if Figures on poverty in rural and urban
scale, but the impact of London on its anything to a greater extent. The areas show clearly that city dwellers
region cannot be underestimated. The urban M8 and its offshoots provide live better. About 60% of all Latin
sphere of influence of a city is the city with one of the most efficient American rural dwellers are poor, but
proportional to its population size and urban motorway systems in the UK. only 36% of urban dwellers. 58% of
number of high order services. Travel within the city is relatively Brazil’s poorest (living on incomes of
London will therefore obviously have easy. However, apart from to the east, less than one quarter of the minimum
the largest sphere of influence in the Glasgow is surrounded by hilly land. wage) are in rural areas –
UK; it is the hub of the wealthiest Main arterial routes soon become disproportionately high, as only 27%
region with the fastest-growing winding and slow. Villages just north of that nation’s population is rural.
regional economy in the country. of the city, like Torrance and The pattern is similar across most of
Population density, transport network Strathblane, are the end of South America. For instance, UN
density, and number and level of settlement, apart from isolated farms figures show that rural households in
services are all greater over a larger and hamlets in the Campsie Hills. Colombia and Peru are three times as
area in the South East than anywhere This, this can be classified as Zone 4, likely to be poor as are urban
else in the UK. As a consequence the if not partially Zone 5, and only a few families.
region is being asked to take one kilometres beyond the urban edge.
million of the 4.4 million new homes Differences between Latin American
estimated to be needed in the country cities and their environs are indicated
between 1996 and 2016 – a
Beyond the UK by other social and economic
disproportionately high amount in UK examples have been used in this indicators, such as infant mortality,
terms of the area concerned, though unit to illustrate the different degrees nutrition levels and degree of
not of the population. It has been of influence of cities over their overcrowding. For instance, the
suggested that the character of the hinterland in terms of housing and number of infant deaths per 1000 live
region will change dramatically by transport. To add further perspective, births in rural Mexico is 79,
2020 due to the extra infrastructure a selection of cities from elsewhere in contrasting with only 29 in urban
and services required; in the view of the world will now be examined. Mexico. For Peru the figures are
many, a negative consequence of 101/1000 and 54/1000 respectively.
London’s proximity. (a) France Malnutrition is about 2.5 times as
French attitudes to land use have common outside the city as in it.
Other UK cities similarities with those found in the Persons per room in the Colombian
US. Countries with plenty of land countryside at 2.3 shows over-
Physical factors are crucial in relation and lower population densities tend crowding is much more serious than
to the impact of a city on its to be more careless with its use. They in the city, where the figure is 1.6.
surroundings. London is in a have fewer planning regulations.
relatively low-lying region; Toulouse is a case in point. A The consequence of such marked
Manchester and Glasgow both have beautiful city in many ways, with an differentials is migration. However, it
areas of more varied relief in their interesting historical centre, is not the poorest or the most needy
immediate environs, and so a different suburban sprawl surrounds it. But who migrate, but almost always the
pattern emerges. The areas to the this is particularly so with regard to more educated. Some move citywards
north-west, west, and south-west of retail land use. It has long been the to acquire education, because there
Manchester are very similar in levels norm in France to locate retail outlets are so few secondary schools in rural
of development to London’s in retail parks, usually on axial routes areas. Those migrating tend to be
hinterland. The motorway ring (the on the edge or just outside the town between 15 and 40 years of age. This
M6, M61, M62, M63 and M56) and or city. As disposable incomes have has a severe impact on the rural area,
links form a dense and highly used increased, retailing outlets have accentuating its existing problems
network. Many villages and towns are grown both in number and scale. (see Geofile unit 389). The ageing
commuterised, for example Mobberly, They have even extended and merged rural population cannot work as hard,
Wilmslow and Alderley Edge. All along axial routes. The N20 between has lower energy levels, and needs
have a large proportion of expensive Toulouse and Muret, a small town 10 care, but these problems cannot be
recent dwellings. The majority of km south-west of the edge of the city, solved without the presence of young
people commute by road rather than is an example of massive linear retail adults. The gender ratio is also
rail, as the latter is a less development. affected in Latin America in the
comprehensive system. rural, and consequently in the urban,
(b) Third World experience areas. Within the age group
However, to the east of Manchester lie The impact of LEDC cities on their mentioned, women are more likely to
the Pennines. Building is dense up to hinterlands is somewhat different move than men. The number of
the foothills, but then density rapidly from that of MEDC urban areas, and migrant males per 100 migrant
decreases. Roads do not lend this unit would not give a balanced females in the 1990s varies from as
themselves to easy commuting, and picture if it did not include some low as 81 in the Bogota area, up to 97
around Manchester – as around such examples. Around LEDC cities in Guadalajara’s region. In general,
northern and midland cities in general there is less integration of the whole over the last 20 years, this
Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001
January 2001 no.394 Impact of cities on their surrounding area

discrepancy has lessened, but the means of which just as much is money and ideas, and many complex
reason for it is that there are simply produced from less land. Some interrelationships exist. The cities
more economic opportunities for farmers are, in fact, urban dwellers, largely remain the centres of power
women in cities, e.g. domestic who have involved themselves in and wealth, and therefore could be
service, office cleaning, shop work part-time agriculture as a means to seen as parasitic on their surrounding
and prostitution. Some women are supplement both food supply and areas. Certainly the farmers usually
even recruited directly from the income. On a larger scale, earn poor prices for crops; the main
countryside by potential employers. commercial farmers have moved in, profits go to the middle men, who are
bought up land along roads so as to based in the cities.
An increasing trend in Latin acquire fast access to the urban
America over the last 20 years has market, and farm using hired labour. Conclusion
been people moving directly to a In the dry season, when less farm
large city without stepwise migration work needs to be done, they commute It is important that African urban
to smaller towns first. Also, the into the cities to temporary jobs. planners take account of all these
majority make the shortest journey urban–rural relationships in future
possible, so each city has its most Dar es Salaam, in Tanzania, with developments. Perhaps some of these
pronounced influence on its own over 1.3 million population, is a city ideas from tropical Africa can be
immediate hinterland. Networks with an important and extensive peri- applied to Latin American cities to
have developed that channel urban agricultural zone. The zone improve the economies of their rural
migration from particular households starts about 20 km from the city surroundings, and to make the
and communities to particular centre. Farming expanded relationship between rural and urban
destinations. Such a system provides considerably in the 1980s to areas less parasitic and one-way. As
social support both for the migrants supplement urban dwellers’ restricted LEDC economies continue to
and for their families in the sending incomes. However, since that time develop it seems likely that urban
community. agriculture has expanded on a influence will be much more
commercial basis. Over 93% of dominant in the surrounding areas,
Such high levels of migration leave farmers grow cassava, bananas, maize, forcing them to become decreasingly
the rural environs dependent on pawpaw, and other fruits and rural, as is the case around many
migratory income, i.e. money sent vegetables that are popular in the MEDC cities.
back by those in the city to their city. Average farm size is just 1.6ha,
families. In many ways such but yields per unit area are high. Bibliography
dependency must be negative, Farming around Dar es Salaam,
because the rural economy is though profitable, is now under Binns, T. (1994) Tropical Africa,
increasingly dependent. However, threat from rising land prices and Routledge.
positive development for rural pressure from urban expansion. Gilbert, A. (1994) The Latin American
communities can also occur. Regional City, Latin American Bureau.
associations collect funds from the Other tropical African cities with Waugh, D. (1995; 1st edn 1990)
migrant workers to pay for projects important peri-urban agricultural Geography; an Integrated Approach,
such as the installation of electricity zones are Freetown (Sierra Leone), Nelson.
or for a new school in the sending with its nearby mountain villages
community. Perhaps in the long term practising intensive horticulture,
this will increase rural opportunity Banjul (the Gambia) and Kano
and so decrease rural out-migration. (Nigeria). This last zone not only
provides food for the city, but also
The situation is by no means the crucial firewood.
same all over the Third World. The
nature of the relationship between These peri-urban zones show a wide
city and surrounding rural area in variety of production and exchange
Africa contrasts with the Latin between urban and rural areas. There
American pattern. Rural areas are two-way flows of goods, labour,
surrounding towns and cities in
tropical Africa are gradually being
incorporated into the urban system
Focus Questions
and consequently their character is 1. Attempt to apply Cloke’s model to a city not discussed in this unit.
changing. Binns, in his book Tropical Try to assess where the zonal boundaries will fall.
Africa (1994), calls these areas ‘peri-
urban’. They are zones of intensive 2. Discuss the usefulness of this model in analysing urban–rural
food production for the urban relationships.
market, so there is a close
relationship between rural producers 3. Draw two flow diagrams, one to represent the Latin American situation,
and urban consumers. Previously and the other for tropical Africa. Use proportional arrows to show the
these villages owned more land, and importance of as many flows, in either direction, as you can identify from
farmed more extensively, but urban the unit. Explain and compare your diagrams. Then you could try the same
growth has taken some of their land for London, or any other MEDC city.
for development, resulting in the
adoption of new, and often very 4. To what extent do you think LEDC urban–rural relationships will
successful, intensive methods, by develop in the same direction as those in MEDCs?

Geofile Online © Nelson Thornes 2001