Guidance and units

BTEC Short Courses

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma

in
Engineering (Aerospace)
Engineering (Applied Science)
Engineering (Automotive)
Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical)
Engineering (Manufacturing)
Engineering (Operations and Maintenance)

July 2008
Edexcel, a Pearson company, is the UK’s largest awarding body, offering academic
and vocational qualifications and testing to more than 25,000 schools, colleges,
employers and other places of learning in the UK and in over 100 countries
worldwide. Qualifications include GCSE, AS and A Level, NVQ and our BTEC suite of
vocational qualifications from entry level to BTEC Higher National Diplomas,
recognised by employers and higher education institutions worldwide.
We deliver 9.4 million exam scripts each year, with more than 90% of exam papers
marked onscreen annually. As part of Pearson, Edexcel continues to invest in cutting-
edge technology that has revolutionised the examinations and assessment system.
This includes the ability to provide detailed performance data to teachers and
students which helps to raise attainment.

References to third party material made in this specification are made in good faith.
Edexcel does not endorse, approve or accept responsibility for the content of
materials, which may be subject to change, or any opinions expressed therein.
(Material may include textbooks, journals, magazines and other publications and
websites.)

Authorised by Roger Beard

All the material in this publication is copyright
© Edexcel Limited 2008
Contents

Qualification titles covered by this specification 1

Introduction 2
BTEC Short Courses at Levels 1–3 3
Structure of the qualification 4
Key features 31
National Occupational Standards 31
Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications 32

Unit format 32
Assessment and grading 34
Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) 35

Quality assurance 35
Internal verification 35
External verification 35
Risk assessment 36
Approval 36

Programme design and delivery 36

Mode of delivery 36
Resources 37
Delivery approach 37

Access and recruitment 38

Restrictions on learner entry 38
Access arrangements and special considerations 39

Key skills 39
The wider curriculum 40
Spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues 40

Useful publications 41
How to obtain National Occupational Standards 41
Professional development and training 42
Further information 42
Units 43
Unit 1: Principles and Applications of Aircraft Physical Science 45
Unit 2: Aircraft Workshop Principles and Practice 57
Unit 3: Theory of Flight 69
Unit 4: Principles and Applications of Aerospace Mechanical Science 81
Unit 5: Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and Repair 93
Unit 6: Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair 105
Unit 7: Aircraft Maintenance Practices 117
Unit 8: Aircraft Hydraulic Systems 129
Unit 9: Aircraft Propulsion Systems 143
Unit 10: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines 153
Unit 11: Airframe Systems 163
Unit 12: Human Factors in Aerospace Engineering 175
Unit 13: Aerospace Electrical Devices and Circuits 185
Unit 14: Aerospace Electronic Devices and Circuits 197
Unit 15: Avionic Systems 207
Unit 16: Aircraft Electrical Systems 217
Unit 17: Aircraft Electrical Machines 225
Unit 18: Aircraft Radio and Radar Principles 235
Unit 19: Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems 247
Unit 20: Microprocessor Systems and Applications 257
Unit 21: Fundamentals of Science 269
Unit 22: Working in the Science Industry 281
Unit 23: Scientific Investigation 293
Unit 24: Scientific Practical Techniques 307
Unit 25: Perceptions of Science 317
Unit 26: Using Science in the Workplace 329
Unit 27: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications 339
Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions 351
Unit 29: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry 363
Unit 30: Basic Polymer Technology 375
Unit 31: ICT and MIS in the Polymer Industry 383
Unit 32: Engineering Studies for Polymer Technicians 393
Unit 33: Plastics Materials 401
Unit 34: Plastics Processing 409
Unit 35: Polymer Process Engineering 415
Unit 36: Polymer Science 423
Unit 37: Polymer Technology Investigations 431
Unit 38: Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers 443
Unit 39: Rubber Technology 451
Unit 40: Operation of Vehicle Systems 459
Unit 41: Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service and Repair 469
Unit 42: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification 481
Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines 493
Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition
Engines 503
Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems 513
Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems 525
Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics 533
Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems 543
Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles 551
Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems 563
Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems 573
Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems 583
Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems 595
Unit 54: Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems 607
Unit 55: Fabrication Processes and Technology 619
Unit 56: Applications of Welding Technology 631
Unit 57: Motorsport Workshop Practices 643
Unit 58: Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection 655
Unit 59: Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports 665
Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology 675
Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics 685
Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics 695
Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices 705
Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications 717
Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians 727
Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and
Circuits 737
Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing 747
Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment 759
Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics 767
Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems 777
Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic
Controllers 787
Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers 797
Unit 73: Electronic Fault-finding 809
Unit 74: Electrical Technology 821
Unit 75: Electrical Installation 831
Unit 76: Electrical Applications 843
Unit 77: Three-phase Systems 855
Unit 78: Three-phase Motors and Drives 865
Unit 79: Further Electrical Principles 875
Unit 80: Communication Workshop Practices 887
Unit 81: Telecommunications Principles 895
Unit 82: Access Network Techniques and Applications 905
Unit 83: Core Network Techniques 917
Unit 84: Telecommunications Systems 927
Unit 85: Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of Communications
Equipment 937
Unit 86: Communications Equipment Installation Techniques 949
Unit 87: Radio Communications Principles and Applications 961
Unit 88: Engineering Drawing for Technicians 971
Unit 89: Engineering Primary Forming Processes 983
Unit 90: Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes 993
Unit 91: Setting and Proving Secondary Processing Machines 1005
Unit 92: Welding Principles 1021
Unit 93: Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools 1031
Unit 94: Computer Aided Manufacturing 1043
 Unit 95: Manufacturing Planning 1055
Unit 96: Quality and Business Improvement 1063
Unit 97: Teamwork in a Continuous Improvement Environment 1075
Unit 98: Production System Design 1087
Unit 99: Six Sigma Quality 1099
Unit 100: Electronic Circuit Manufacture 1109
Unit 101: Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals 1121
Unit 102: Structure and Properties of Metals 1129
Unit 103: Industrial Alloys 1137
Unit 104: Metallurgical Techniques 1145
Unit 105: Extraction and Refining of Metals 1153
Unit 106: Liquid Metal Processing 1161
Unit 107: Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis of Engineering Systems 1171
Unit 108: Principles and Applications of Engineering Measurement
Systems 1183
Unit 109: Engineering and Process Plant Services and Operations 1193
Unit 110: Industrial Process Measurement 1201
Unit 111: Industrial Plant and Process Control 1211
Unit 112: Industrial Process Controllers 1221
Unit 113: Installing and Commissioning Engineering Equipment 1229
Unit 114: Function and Characteristics of Railway Signalling Systems 1241
Unit 115: Railway Infrastructure Construction and Maintenance 1251
Unit 116: Installing, Commissioning, Testing and Maintenance of
Railway Signalling Systems 1261
Unit 117: Stock Preparation and Mill Services for Paper Manufacture 1271
Unit 118: Paper Manufacturing Processes and Techniques 1279

Annexe A 1287
QCA codes 1287

Annexe B 1289
National Occupational Standards/mapping with NVQs 1289

Annexe C 1301
Key skills mapping — summary of opportunities suggested in each unit 1301
Qualification titles covered by this specification
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Aerospace)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Applied Science)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Automotive)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Electrical/ Mechanical)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Manufacturing)
Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
(Operations and Maintenance)
These qualifications have been accredited to the National Qualifications Framework
(NQF) and are eligible for public funding as determined by the DfES under Sections 96
and 97 of the Learning and Skills Act 2000.
The qualification titles listed above features in the funding lists published annually by
the DfES and the regularly updated website www.dfes.gov.uk/. The NQF
Qualifications Accreditation Number (QAN) should be used by centres when they wish
to seek public funding for their learners. The QANs for these qualifications are listed
in Annexe A.
These qualification titles are as they will appear on learners’ certificates. Learners
need to be made aware of this when they are recruited by the centre and registered
with Edexcel. Providing this happens, centres are able to describe the programme of
study leading to the award of the qualification in different ways to suit the medium
and the target audience.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Introduction
This document contains the units and associated guidance for the National
Qualifications Framework (NQF) Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended
Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications. Each unit sets out the required
outcomes and content and includes advice regarding appropriate delivery and
assessment strategies. This guidance contains further details of the assessment and
quality assurance of these qualifications. It includes advice about Edexcel’s policy
regarding access to its qualifications, the design of programmes of study and delivery
modes.
BTEC Short Courses are designed to meet a range of different needs. BTEC Short
Courses at Levels 1–3 offer:
• maximum flexibility with programmes of usually between 60 and 360 guided
learning hours (GLH) available across all levels of the NQF
• the opportunity to certificate smaller blocks of learning which are designed to
motivate learners and encourage widening participation in education and training
• courses that relate to the particular training and employment patterns in a sector
• courses that may offer preparation for specific jobs and subsequent achievement
of NVQs or Apprenticeships when in employment
• the opportunity to use a range of delivery methods
• opportunities for learners to develop skills that support career and professional
development
• underpinning knowledge, skills and understanding linked, where appropriate, to
named NVQs
• programmes that can enable progression either to higher levels of study or to
other courses at the same level of study.
These qualifications have been endorsed by the Engineering Diploma Development
Partnership (DDP) to be used as or within the Specialist Learning component of the
Advanced Diploma in Engineering.
These qualifications can also be used as stand alone qualifications in their own right.

2 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 BTEC Short Courses at Levels 1–3
NQF Level

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Certificate

Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award … Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma …
and Extended Certificate …

Edexcel Level 2 BTEC Certificate

Edexcel Level 2 BTEC Award … Edexcel Level 2 BTEC Diploma …
and Extended Certificate …

Edexcel Level 1 BTEC Certificate

Edexcel Level 1 BTEC Award … Edexcel Level 1 BTEC Diploma …
and Extended Certificate …

Guided
learning Normally up to 90 hours Usually up to 240 hours Usually up to 360 hours
hours

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 3

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Structure of the qualification
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Aerospace) is a 60-GLH qualification
consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass one specialist
unit from a choice of twenty.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Aerospace)
Specialist units
Unit 1 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Physical Science
Unit 2 Aircraft Workshop Principles and Practices
Unit 3 Theory of Flight
Unit 4 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science
Unit 5 Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and Repair
Unit 6 Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair
Unit 7 Aircraft Maintenance Practices
Unit 8 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems
Unit 9 Aircraft Propulsion Systems
Unit 10 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
Unit 11 Airframe Systems
Unit 12 Human Factors in Aerospace Engineering
Unit 13 Aerospace Electrical Devices and Circuits
Unit 14 Aerospace Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 15 Avionic Systems
Unit 16 Aircraft Electrical Systems
Unit 17 Aircraft Electrical Machines
Unit 18 Aircraft Radio and Radar Principles
Unit 19 Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications

4 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

1-20 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Aerospace 500/1855/3
Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 5

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Aerospace) is a
180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass three specialist
units from a choice of twenty.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Aerospace)

Specialist units
Unit 1 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Physical Science
Unit 2 Aircraft Workshop Principles and Practices
Unit 3 Theory of Flight
Unit 4 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science
Unit 5 Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and Repair
Unit 6 Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair
Unit 7 Aircraft Maintenance Practices
Unit 8 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems
Unit 9 Aircraft Propulsion Systems
Unit 10 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
Unit 11 Airframe Systems
Unit 12 Human Factors in Aerospace Engineering
Unit 13 Aerospace Electrical Devices and Circuits
Unit 14 Aerospace Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 15 Avionic Systems
Unit 16 Aircraft Electrical Systems
Unit 17 Aircraft Electrical Machines
Unit 18 Aircraft Radio and Radar Principles
Unit 19 Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications

6 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

1-20 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Aerospace 500/1855/3
Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 7

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Aerospace) is a 360-GLH
qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of twenty.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Aerospace)

Specialist units
Unit 1 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Physical Science
Unit 2 Aircraft Workshop Principles and Practices
Unit 3 Theory of Flight
Unit 4 Principles and Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science
Unit 5 Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and Repair
Unit 6 Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair
Unit 7 Aircraft Maintenance Practices
Unit 8 Aircraft Hydraulic Systems
Unit 9 Aircraft Propulsion Systems
Unit 10 Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines
Unit 11 Airframe Systems
Unit 12 Human Factors in Aerospace Engineering
Unit 13 Aerospace Electrical Devices and Circuits
Unit 14 Aerospace Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 15 Avionic Systems
Unit 16 Aircraft Electrical Systems
Unit 17 Aircraft Electrical Machines
Unit 18 Aircraft Radio and Radar Principles
Unit 19 Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications

8 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

1-20 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Aerospace 500/1855/3
Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 9

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Applied Science) is a 60-GLH
qualification consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass one specialist
unit from a choice of nineteen.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Applied Science)
Specialist units
Unit 21 Fundamentals of Science
Unit 22 Working in the Science Industry
Unit 23 Scientific Investigation
Unit 24 Scientific Practical Techniques
Unit 25 Perceptions of Science
Unit 26 Using Science in the Workplace
Unit 27 Energy Changes, Sources and Applications
Unit 28 Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions
Unit 29 Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
Unit 30 Basic Polymer Technology
Unit 31 ICT and MIS in the Polymer Industry
Unit 32 Engineering Studies for Polymer Technicians
Unit 33 Plastics Materials
Unit 34 Plastics Processing
Unit 35 Polymer Process Engineering
Unit 36 Polymer Science
Unit 37 Polymer Technology Investigations
Unit 38 Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers
Unit 39 Rubber Technology

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

21-29 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied 500/1496/1
Science
30-39 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National in Polymer Processing 100/2996/5
and Material Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

10 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Applied Science) is a
180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass three specialist
units from a choice of nineteen.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Applied
Science)
Specialist units
Unit 21 Fundamentals of Science
Unit 22 Working in the Science Industry
Unit 23 Scientific Investigation
Unit 24 Scientific Practical Techniques
Unit 25 Perceptions of Science
Unit 26 Using Science in the Workplace
Unit 27 Energy Changes, Sources and Applications
Unit 28 Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions
Unit 29 Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
Unit 30 Basic Polymer Technology
Unit 31 ICT and MIS in the Polymer Industry
Unit 32 Engineering Studies for Polymer Technicians
Unit 33 Plastics Materials
Unit 34 Plastics Processing
Unit 35 Polymer Process Engineering
Unit 36 Polymer Science
Unit 37 Polymer Technology Investigations
Unit 38 Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers
Unit 39 Rubber Technology

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

21-29 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied 500/1496/1
Science
30-39 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National in Polymer Processing 100/2996/5
and Material Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 11

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Applied Science) is a 360-GLH
qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of nineteen.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Applied Science)
Specialist units
Unit 21 Fundamentals of Science
Unit 22 Working in the Science Industry
Unit 23 Scientific Investigation
Unit 24 Scientific Practical Techniques
Unit 25 Perceptions of Science
Unit 26 Using Science in the Workplace
Unit 27 Energy Changes, Sources and Applications
Unit 28 Industrial Applications of Chemical Reactions
Unit 29 Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
Unit 30 Basic Polymer Technology
Unit 31 ICT and MIS in the Polymer Industry
Unit 32 Engineering Studies for Polymer Technicians
Unit 33 Plastics Materials
Unit 34 Plastics Processing
Unit 35 Polymer Process Engineering
Unit 36 Polymer Science
Unit 37 Polymer Technology Investigations
Unit 38 Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers
Unit 39 Rubber Technology

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

21-29 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Applied 500/1496/1
Science
30-39 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National in Polymer Processing 100/2996/5
and Material Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

12 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Automotive) is a 60-GLH
qualification consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must pass complete one specialist unit
from a choice of twenty.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Automotive)
Specialist units
Unit 40 Operation of Vehicle Systems
Unit 41 Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service and Repair
Unit 42 Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification
Unit 43 Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines
Unit 44 Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engine
Unit 45 Light Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 46 Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems
Unit 47 Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics
Unit 48 Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems
Unit 49 Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles
Unit 50 Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems
Unit 51 Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems
Unit 52 Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems
Unit 53 Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 54 Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 57 Motorsport Workshop Practices
Unit 58 Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection
Unit 59 Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

40-59 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 13

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Automotive) is a
180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must pass three specialist units from a
choice of twenty.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Automotive)
Specialist units
Unit 40 Operation of Vehicle Systems
Unit 41 Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service and Repair
Unit 42 Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification
Unit 43 Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines
Unit 44 Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engine
Unit 45 Light Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 46 Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems
Unit 47 Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics
Unit 48 Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems
Unit 49 Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles
Unit 50 Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems
Unit 51 Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems
Unit 52 Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems
Unit 53 Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 54 Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 57 Motorsport Workshop Practices
Unit 58 Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection
Unit 59 Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

40-59 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

14 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Automotive) is a 360-GLH
qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of twenty.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Automotive)
Specialist units
Unit 40 Operation of Vehicle Systems
Unit 41 Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service and Repair
Unit 42 Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification
Unit 43 Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines
Unit 44 Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engine
Unit 45 Light Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 46 Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems
Unit 47 Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics
Unit 48 Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems
Unit 49 Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles
Unit 50 Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems
Unit 51 Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems
Unit 52 Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems
Unit 53 Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems
Unit 54 Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 57 Motorsport Workshop Practices
Unit 58 Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection
Unit 59 Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

40-59 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 15

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical) is a 60-GLH
qualification consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass one specialist
unit from a choice of twenty-nine.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical)
Specialist units
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications
Unit 60 Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology
Unit 61 Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Unit 62 Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics
Unit 63 Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices
Unit 64 Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 66 Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 69 Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics
Unit 70 Construction and Applications of Digital Systems
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 72 Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers
Unit 73 Electronic Fault-finding
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 76 Electrical Applications
Unit 77 Three-phase Systems
Unit 78 Three-phase Motors and Drives
Unit 79 Further Electrical Principles
Unit 80 Communication Workshop Practices
Unit 81 Telecommunications Principles
Unit 82 Access Network Techniques and Applications
Unit 83 Core Network Techniques
Unit 84 Telecommunications Systems
Unit 85 Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of Communications Equipment
Unit 86 Communications Equipment Installation Techniques
Unit 87 Radio Communications Principles and Applications

16 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

60-67 and 69-79 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1749/4
Engineering
68 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1553/9
Operations and Maintenance Engineering
80-87 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1828/0
Communications Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 17

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical)
is a 180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass three specialist
units from a choice of twenty-nine.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Electrical/Mechanical)
Specialist units
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications
Unit 60 Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology
Unit 61 Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Unit 62 Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics
Unit 63 Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices
Unit 64 Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 66 Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 69 Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics
Unit 70 Construction and Applications of Digital Systems
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 72 Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers
Unit 73 Electronic Fault-finding
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 76 Electrical Applications
Unit 77 Three-phase Systems
Unit 78 Three-phase Motors and Drives
Unit 79 Further Electrical Principles
Unit 80 Communication Workshop Practices
Unit 81 Telecommunications Principles
Unit 82 Access Network Techniques and Applications
Unit 83 Core Network Techniques
Unit 84 Telecommunications Systems
Unit 85 Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of Communications Equipment
Unit 86 Communications Equipment Installation Techniques
Unit 87 Radio Communications Principles and Applications

18 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

60-67 and 69-79 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1749/4
Engineering
68 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1553/9
Operations and Maintenance Engineering
80-87 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1828/0
Communications Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical) is a
360-GLH qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of twenty-nine.
Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Electrical/Mechanical)
Specialist units
Unit 20 Microprocessor Systems and Applications
Unit 60 Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology
Unit 61 Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics
Unit 62 Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics
Unit 63 Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices
Unit 64 Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 66 Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 69 Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics
Unit 70 Construction and Applications of Digital Systems
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 72 Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers
Unit 73 Electronic Fault-finding
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 76 Electrical Applications
Unit 77 Three-phase Systems
Unit 78 Three-phase Motors and Drives
Unit 79 Further Electrical Principles
Unit 80 Communication Workshop Practices
Unit 81 Telecommunications Principles
Unit 82 Access Network Techniques and Applications
Unit 83 Core Network Techniques
Unit 84 Telecommunications Systems
Unit 85 Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of Communications Equipment
Unit 86 Communications Equipment Installation Techniques
Unit 87 Radio Communications Principles and Applications

20 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

60-67 and 69-79 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1749/4
Engineering
68 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1553/9
Operations and Maintenance Engineering
80-87 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1828/0
Communications Technology

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 21

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The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Manufacturing) is a 60-GLH
qualification consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass one specialist
unit from a choice of twenty-three.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Manufacturing)

Specialist units
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 88 Engineering Drawing for Technicians
Unit 89 Engineering Primary Forming Processes
Unit 90 Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes
Unit 91 Setting and Proving Secondary Processing Machines
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 93 Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools
Unit 94 Computer Aided Manufacturing
Unit 95 Manufacturing Planning
Unit 96 Quality and Business Improvement
Unit 97 Teamwork in a Continuous Improvement Environment
Unit 98 Production System Design
Unit 99 Six Sigma Quality
Unit 100 Electronic Circuit Manufacture
Unit 101 Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals
Unit 102 Structure and Properties of Metals
Unit 103 Industrial Alloys
Unit 104 Metallurgical Techniques
Unit 105 Extraction and Refining of Metals
Unit 106 Liquid Metal Processing

22 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

55-56 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology
65, 88-90 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Engineering 500/1749/4
91-106 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1555/2
Manufacturing Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 23

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The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Manufacturing) is a
180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass three specialist
units from a choice of twenty-three.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Manufacturing)

Specialist units
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 88 Engineering Drawing for Technicians
Unit 89 Engineering Primary Forming Processes
Unit 90 Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes
Unit 91 Setting and Proving Secondary Processing Machines
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 93 Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools
Unit 94 Computer Aided Manufacturing
Unit 95 Manufacturing Planning
Unit 96 Quality and Business Improvement
Unit 97 Teamwork in a Continuous Improvement Environment
Unit 98 Production System Design
Unit 99 Six Sigma Quality
Unit 100 Electronic Circuit Manufacture
Unit 101 Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals
Unit 102 Structure and Properties of Metals
Unit 103 Industrial Alloys
Unit 104 Metallurgical Techniques
Unit 105 Extraction and Refining of Metals
Unit 106 Liquid Metal Processing

24 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

55-56 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology
65, 88-90 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Engineering 500/1749/4
91-106 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1555/2
Manufacturing Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

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The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Manufacturing) is a 360-GLH
qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of twenty-three.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Manufacturing)

Specialist units
Unit 55 Fabrication Processes and Technology
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 65 Further Mathematics for Technicians
Unit 71 Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers
Unit 88 Engineering Drawing for Technicians
Unit 89 Engineering Primary Forming Processes
Unit 90 Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes
Unit 91 Setting and Proving Secondary Processing Machines
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 93 Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools
Unit 94 Computer Aided Manufacturing
Unit 95 Manufacturing Planning
Unit 96 Quality and Business Improvement
Unit 97 Teamwork in a Continuous Improvement Environment
Unit 98 Production System Design
Unit 99 Six Sigma Quality
Unit 100 Electronic Circuit Manufacture
Unit 101 Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals
Unit 102 Structure and Properties of Metals
Unit 103 Industrial Alloys
Unit 104 Metallurgical Techniques
Unit 105 Extraction and Refining of Metals
Unit 106 Liquid Metal Processing

26 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

55-56 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Vehicle 500/2321/4
Technology
65, 88-90 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Engineering 500/1749/4
91-106 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in 500/1555/2
Manufacturing Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

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The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Operations and Maintenance) is a
60-GLH qualification consisting of one 60-GLH unit.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass one specialist
unit from a choice of eighteen.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Operations and Maintenance)

Specialist units
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 107 Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis of Engineering Systems
Unit 108 Principles and Applications of Engineering Measurement Systems
Unit 109 Engineering and Process Plant Services and Operations
Unit 110 Industrial Process Measurement
Unit 111 Industrial Plant and Process Control
Unit 112 Industrial Process Controllers
Unit 113 Installing and Commissioning Engineering Equipment
Unit 114 Function and Characteristics of Railway Signalling Systems
Unit 115 Railway Infrastructure Construction and Maintenance
Unit 116 Installing, Commissioning, Testing and Maintenance of Railway
Signalling Systems
Unit 117 Stock Preparation and Mill Services for Paper Manufacture
Unit 118 Paper Manufacturing Processes and Techniques

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

107-118 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Operations 500/1553/9
and Maintenance Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

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The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Operations and
Maintenance) is a 180-GLH qualification consisting of three 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass three specialist
units from a choice of eighteen.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering (Operations and

Maintenance)
Specialist units
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 107 Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis of Engineering Systems
Unit 108 Principles and Applications of Engineering Measurement Systems
Unit 109 Engineering and Process Plant Services and Operations
Unit 110 Industrial Process Measurement
Unit 111 Industrial Plant and Process Control
Unit 112 Industrial Process Controllers
Unit 113 Installing and Commissioning Engineering Equipment
Unit 114 Function and Characteristics of Railway Signalling Systems
Unit 115 Railway Infrastructure Construction and Maintenance
Unit 116 Installing, Commissioning, Testing and Maintenance of Railway
Signalling Systems
Unit 117 Stock Preparation and Mill Services for Paper Manufacture
Unit 118 Paper Manufacturing Processes and Techniques

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

107-118 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Operations 500/1553/9
and Maintenance Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Operations and Maintenance) is a
360-GLH qualification consisting of six 60-GLH units.
To achieve the whole qualification, a learner must successfully pass six specialist
units from a choice of eighteen.

Structure of the Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Operations and

Maintenance)
Specialist units
Unit 56 Applications of Welding Technology
Unit 67 Electronic Measurement and Testing
Unit 68 Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment
Unit 74 Electrical Technology
Unit 75 Electrical Installation
Unit 92 Welding Principles
Unit 107 Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis of Engineering Systems
Unit 108 Principles and Applications of Engineering Measurement Systems
Unit 109 Engineering and Process Plant Services and Operations
Unit 110 Industrial Process Measurement
Unit 111 Industrial Plant and Process Control
Unit 112 Industrial Process Controllers
Unit 113 Installing and Commissioning Engineering Equipment
Unit 114 Function and Characteristics of Railway Signalling Systems
Unit 115 Railway Infrastructure Construction and Maintenance
Unit 116 Installing, Commissioning, Testing and Maintenance of Railway
Signalling Systems
Unit 117 Stock Preparation and Mill Services for Paper Manufacture
Unit 118 Paper Manufacturing Processes and Techniques

Note: The units in these qualifications are drawn from other qualifications without
any change as noted in the table below.

Unit Source specification QAN

107-118 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC National Diploma in Operations 500/1553/9
and Maintenance Engineering

Note: references to links to other units within any of the above units relate to the
source specification and not this qualification.

30 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Key features
BTEC Short Course Awards, Certificates, Extended Certificates and Diplomas are
designed to provide focused and specialist work-related qualifications in a range of
sectors. The qualifications can provide a specialist emphasis for learners following a
general vocational programme of study. BTEC Short Courses offer focused
qualifications for learners, particularly more mature learners, who wish to follow a
short programme of study directly related to their work experience or to an aspect of
employment that they wish to move into.
On successful completion of these qualifications, learners may progress into or within
employment and/or continue their study in the vocational area.
These qualifications have been designed to match the requirements of Specialist
Learning in the Advanced Diploma in Engineering. The qualification content will
complement the content of the Principal Learning and further progression to
employment, apprenticeships or other learning.
These qualifications can also be used as stand alone qualifications in their own right.

National Occupational Standards

Where appropriate, BTEC Short Courses are designed to relate to the National
Occupational Standards in the relevant sector which, in turn, form the basis of
National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs). They do not purport to deliver
occupational competence in the sector, which should be demonstrated in a work
context. However, the qualifications can provide areas of underpinning knowledge
for the National Occupational Standards, as well as developing practical skills in
preparation for work and possible achievement of NVQs in due course.
These Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications relate to the National Occupational Standards for:
• Level 3 in Aeronautical Engineering
• Level 3 in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering
• Level 3 in Electrical and Electronic Engineering
• Level 3 in Business Improvement Techniques
• Level 3 in Engineering Leadership
• Level 3 in Project Management
• Level 3 in Engineering Maintenance
• Level 3 in Materials Processing and Finishing
• Level 3 in Engineering Technical Support
• Level 3 in Fabrication and Welding Engineering
• Level 3 in Installing and Commissioning
• Level 3 in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair

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• Level 3 in Automotive Engineering
• Level 3 for Communications Technology Professionals
• Level 3 for IT Professionals.

Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering

qualifications
These Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications are designed to provide:
• education and training for employees in the engineering industries
• providing opportunities for engineering employees to achieve a nationally
recognised Level 3 vocationally specific qualification
• giving learners the opportunity to gain a nationally recognised vocationally
specific qualification, to enter employment in the engineering sector or to
progress to higher education vocational qualifications such as the Edexcel Level 5
BTEC Higher Nationals in Mechanical Engineering or Electrical/Electronic
Engineering
• giving learners the opportunity to develop a range of skills and techniques,
personal skills and attitudes essential for successful performance in working life.

Unit format
All units in Edexcel BTEC Short Courses have a standard format which is designed to
provide clear guidance on the requirements of the qualification for learners, tutors,
assessors and those responsible for monitoring national standards.
Each unit is set out in the following way.
Unit title
The unit title is accredited by QCA and this form of words will appear on the
learner’s Notification of Performance (NOP).
NQF level
This is the level of study of the qualification as determined by the National
Qualifications Framework (NQF).
Guided learning hours
Guided learning hours is ‘a notional measure of the substance of a unit’. It includes
an estimate of time that might be allocated to direct teaching, instruction and
assessment, together with other structured learning time such as directed
assignments or supported individual study. It excludes learner-initiated private study.
Centres are advised to consider this definition when planning the programme of study
associated with this specification.

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Unit abstract
The unit abstract is designed to give the reader an appreciation of the value of the
unit in the vocational setting of the qualification as well as highlighting the focus of
the unit. It provides the reader with a snapshot of the aims of the unit and the key
knowledge, skills and understanding developed while studying the unit. The unit
abstract also emphasises links to the sector by describing what the unit offers the
sector.
Learning outcomes
Learning outcomes state exactly what a learner should ‘know, understand or be able
to do’ as a result of completing the unit.
Unit content
The unit content identifies the depth and breadth of knowledge, skills and
understanding needed to design and deliver a programme of learning sufficient to
achieve each of the learning outcomes. This is informed by the underpinning
knowledge and understanding requirements of the related National Occupational
Standards (NOS). The content provides the range of subject material for the
programme of learning and specifies the skills, knowledge and understanding
required for achievement of the pass grading criteria.
Each learning outcome is stated in full and then the prescribed key phrases or
concepts related to that learning outcome are listed in italics followed by the
subsequent range of related topics.
The unit content section will often have lists of topics that provide the range of the
subject material required to be covered in order to meet the grading criteria.
Subject material may be further detailed by lists enclosed within brackets or an
elongated dash which provide the defined elements of the specific topic item. Where
the subject material list includes an ‘eg’, it should be noted that this provides an
indicative range of material to support the specific topic item.
The content of this qualification does not overlap significantly with the content of
the Principal Learning component of the Advanced Diploma in Engineering.
Grading grid
Each Grading grid section contains statements of the criteria used to determine the
evidence that each learner must produce in order to receive a pass, merit or
distinction grade. It is important to note that the merit and distinction grading
criteria refer to a qualitative improvement in the learner’s evidence.
Essential guidance for tutors
This section is designed to give tutors additional guidance and amplification on the
unit in order to provide for a coherence of understanding and a consistency of
delivery and assessment. It is divided into the following sections.
• Delivery — explains the content and its relationship with the learning outcomes
and offers guidance about possible approaches to delivery. This advice is based on
the more usual delivery modes but is not intended to rule out alternative
approaches.
• Assessment — provides amplification about the nature and type of evidence that
learners need to produce in order to pass the unit or achieve the higher grades.
This section should be read in conjunction with the grading criteria.

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• Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications — sets out links with
other units within the qualification. These could be used to ensure that learners
can relate different aspects within the qualification and offer opportunities for
integration of learning, delivery and assessment. Links to the Occupational
Standards will be highlighted here.
• Essential resources — identifies any specialist resources needed to allow learners
to generate the evidence required for each unit. The centre will be asked to
ensure that any requirements are in place when it seeks approval from Edexcel to
offer the qualification.
• Indicative reading for learners — provides a short list of learner resource material
that benchmark the level of study.
Key skills
This section identifies where there may be opportunities within the unit for the
generation of evidence to meet the requirements of key skills units. Assessors should
take care to become familiar with the key skills specifications and evidence
requirements and not to rely on the contents of this section when presenting key
skills evidence for moderation. Centres should refer to the QCA website
(www.qca.org.uk) for the latest version of the key skills standards.
When these qualifications are used as Additional or Specialist Learning within the
Advanced Diploma in Engineering, key skills references should be ignored.

Assessment and grading

The assessment for the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering qualifications is criterion referenced, based on the achievement of
specified criteria. Each unit contains contextualised pass, merit and distinction
criteria for unit assessment and grading.
In the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications all units are internally assessed. Centre assessment will be externally
verified through the National Standards Sampling process.
The overall grading for the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering qualifications is a pass, based upon the successful completion of all
units. Learners must pass units as described in the qualification structure to
achieve any of the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering qualifications.

34 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL)
Edexcel encourages centres to recognise learners’ previous achievements and
experience through APL. Learners may have evidence that has been generated during
previous study or in their previous or current employment or whilst undertaking
voluntary work that relates to one or more of the units in the qualification. Assessors
should assess this evidence against the national standards in the specifications in the
normal way. As with all evidence, assessors should be satisfied about the authenticity
and currency of the material when considering whether or not the outcomes of the
unit have been met.
Full guidance about Edexcel’s policy on APL is provided on our website:
www.edexcel.com.

Quality assurance
Edexcel’s qualification specifications clearly set out the standard to be achieved by
each learner in order to achieve the award of the qualification. This is given in the
statement of outcomes and assessment criteria in each unit. Further guidance on
assessment is given in the Essential guidance for tutors section of each unit.
Edexcel operates a quality assurance process, which is designed to ensure that these
standards are maintained by all assessors and verifiers. It achieves this through the
following activities.

Internal verification
Centres are required to have processes in place that ensure that each assessor’s
decisions are reviewed so that they are correctly interpreting and applying the
standards set out in the specifications. Choice and application of an appropriate
system is a matter for individual centres. Edexcel fully supports the use of the
centre’s own quality assurance systems where this ensures robust internal
standardisation. Centres should refer to the NQF BTEC Levels 2/3 (including Short
Courses Levels 1–3) Handbook (updated annually).

External verification
Edexcel will sample assessors’ decisions using subject-specialist external verifiers.
This process will follow the National Standards Sampling (NSS) protocol as set out in
the NQF BTEC Levels 2/3 (including Short Courses Levels 1–3) Handbook (updated
annually).
The external verifier assigned to the centre will identify, through negotiation with
the programme coordinator, the unit (or units) which will be subject to NSS. Centres
will be required to make available work produced by four learners which provides
evidence for the assessment (in whole or in part) of the identified unit (or units). The
assignment brief (or briefs) on which the work is based must have been internally
verified. The learner work must have been internally assessed, and at least 50 per
cent of it must have been internally verified.
Centres should refer to the NQF BTEC Levels 2/3 (including Short Courses Levels 1–3)
Handbook (updated annually).

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Risk assessment
Edexcel has an approval process which creates a quality profile of each qualification
programme in each centre and for the centre as a whole. This profile contributes to
the determination of the nature of external verification activity for each programme
and will also be used to initiate other quality control measures by Edexcel.

Approval
Where a centre already has approval for a programme that is being replaced by a
new programme, the centre will be given ‘accelerated approval’ for the new
programme. Other centres wishing to offer a programme in a vocational area for the
first time will need to apply for approval to offer the programme.
Centres that have not previously offered any BTEC qualifications will first need to
apply for, and be granted, centre approval.
When a centre applies for approval to offer a BTEC qualification they will be required
to enter into an approvals contract.
The approvals contract is a formal commitment by the head or principal of a centre
to meet all the requirements of the specification and linked codes or regulations.
Sanctions and tariffs will be applied if centres do not comply with the contract. This
could ultimately result in the suspension of certification or withdrawal of approval.

Programme design and delivery

The qualification consists of a choice of specialist units, which are designed to
provide a specific focus to the qualification.
In the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications, each unit consists of 60/180/360 guided learning hours. The definition
of guided learning hours is ‘a notional measure of the substance of a qualification’. It
includes an estimate of time that might be allocated to direct teaching, instruction
and assessment, together with other structured learning time such as directed
assignments or supported individual study. It excludes learner-initiated private study.
Centres are advised to consider this definition when planning the programme of study
associated with this specification.

Mode of delivery
Edexcel does not define the mode of study for BTEC qualifications. Centres are free
to offer the qualifications using any mode of delivery that meets the needs of their
learners. This may be through traditional classroom teaching, open learning, distance
learning or a combination of these. Whatever mode of delivery is used, centres must
ensure that learners have appropriate access to the resources identified in the
specifications and to the subject specialists delivering the units. This is particularly
important for learners studying for the qualifications through open or distance
learning.

36 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Learners studying for the qualifications on a part-time basis bring with them a wealth
of experience that should be utilised to maximum effect by tutors and assessors.
Assessment instruments based on the learner’s work environment should be
encouraged. Those planning the programme should aim to enhance the vocational
nature of the BTEC qualifications by:
• liaising with employers to ensure a course relevant to the specific needs of the
learners
• accessing and using non-confidential data and documents from learners’
workplaces
• including sponsoring employers in the delivery of the programme and, where
appropriate, in the assessment
• linking with company-based/workplace training programmes
• making full use of the variety of experience of work and life that learners bring to
the programme.

Resources
BTEC qualifications are designed to prepare learners for employment in specific
sectors. Physical resources need to support the delivery of the programme and the
proper assessment of the outcomes and therefore should normally be of industry
standard. Staff delivering programmes and conducting the assessments should be
fully familiar with current practice and standards in the sector concerned. Centres
will need to meet any specialist resource requirements when they seek approval from
Edexcel.
Resources for the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications should include research facilities such as the internet and relevant
trade publications
To add currency and vocational relevance visiting guest speakers, radio and video
recordings, video for role play, leaflets, forms, letters, notices, instructions, and
extracts from books, journals and handouts should also be available.

Delivery approach
It is important that centres develop an approach to teaching and learning that
supports the specialist vocational nature of the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended
Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications. The specifications contain a
balance of practical skill development and knowledge requirements, some of which
can be theoretical in nature. Tutors and assessors need to ensure that appropriate
links are made between theory and practice and that the knowledge base is applied
to the sector. This will require the development of relevant and up-to-date teaching
materials that allow learners to apply their learning to actual events and activity
within the sector. Maximum use should be made of the learner’s experience.

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Centres should note that the qualification set out in this specification has been
developed in consultation with centres and employers, particularly SEMTA. The units
are designed to meet the skill needs of the sector and to lead to or support
employment within the sector. Centres should make use of the choice available to
them within the specialist units in these specifications to meet the needs of their
learners, and the local skills and training needs identified by organisations such as
the Regional Development Agency and the local Learning and Skills Council.

Access and recruitment

Edexcel’s policy regarding access to its qualifications is that:
• the qualifications should be available to everyone who is capable of reaching the
required standards
• the qualifications should be free from any barriers that restrict access and
progression
• there should be equal opportunities for all wishing to access the qualifications.
Centres are required to recruit learners to BTEC qualifications with integrity. This
will include ensuring that applicants have appropriate information and advice about
the qualifications and that the qualification will meet their needs. Centres should
take appropriate steps to assess each applicant’s potential and make a professional
judgement about their ability to successfully complete the programme of study and
achieve the qualification. This assessment will need to take account of the support
available to the learner within the centre during their programme of study and any
specific support that might be necessary to allow the learner to access the
assessment for the qualification. Centres should also show regard for Edexcel’s policy
on learners with particular requirements.
Centres will need to review the profile of qualifications and/or experience held by
applicants, considering whether this profile shows an ability to progress to a Level 3
qualification. For learners who have recently been in education, the profile is likely
to include one of the following qualifications and/or experiences:
• Level 3:
- a standard of literacy and numeracy supported by a general education
equivalent to GCSEs at grade A*–C
- have Level 2 Principal Learning in Engineering.
More mature learners may present a more varied profile of achievement that is likely
to include experience of paid and/or unpaid employment.

Restrictions on learner entry

This qualification is accredited on the NQF for learners aged 14 and over.

38 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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Access arrangements and special considerations
Edexcel’s policy on access arrangements and special considerations for BTEC and
Edexcel NVQ qualifications aims to enhance access to the qualifications for learners
with disabilities and other difficulties (as defined by the Disability Discrimination Act
1995 and the amendments to the Act) without compromising the assessment of skills,
knowledge, understanding or competence.
Further details are given in the policy Access Arrangements and Special
Considerations for BTEC and Edexcel NVQ Qualifications, which is on the Edexcel
website (www.edexcel.com). This policy replaces the previous Edexcel policy
(Assessment of Vocationally Related Qualification: Regulations and Guidance Relating
to Learners with Special Requirements, 2002) concerning learners with particular
requirements.

Key skills
All BTEC Short Courses include signposting of key skills. These are transferable skills
which play an essential role in developing personal effectiveness for adult and
working life and in the application of specific vocational skills.
When these qualifications are used as Additional or Specialist Learning within the
Advanced Diploma in Engineering, key skills references should be ignored.
In each unit, the opportunities for the generation of evidence for key skills are
signposted. These are indicative links only. Staff will need to become familiar with
key skills specifications and their evidence requirements and they are advised not to
rely on the signposting in the units when presenting key skills evidence for
moderation. Centres should refer to the QCA website (www.qca.org.uk) for the latest
key skills standards.
Key skills provide a foundation for continual learning. They enable and empower
individuals who inevitably face a series of choices in work, education and training
throughout their lives. Current and future initiatives such as learndirect, lifelong
learning, and widening participation all require a more flexible population in the
workplace and key skills play a role in setting the framework.
Learners need the chance to show current and future employers that they can:
• communicate effectively, in a variety of situations, using a wide range of
techniques
• work well with others — individuals or teams — so that work can be properly
planned and targets met
• manage their own development, so that they are always ready to take on the
challenges of change and diversification
• use numeracy, not just within routine tasks and functions but to help them be
more effective and efficient in all they do
• use ICT in a range of applications to support all aspects of their role
• solve problems in a variety of circumstances.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
The wider curriculum
The study of the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications provides opportunities for the learner to develop an understanding of
spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues and an awareness of environmental
issues, health and safety considerations, and European developments. These wider
curriculum opportunities are indicated in the units as appropriate.

Spiritual, moral, ethical, social and cultural issues

The specification gives learners opportunities to develop an understanding of:
Moral, ethical, social and cultural issues
Especially when learners are dealing with colleagues and customers. Examples of
moral and ethical issues can be seen in Unit 25: Perceptions of Science.
Environmental issues
Learners are led to appreciate the importance of environmental issues throughout
the engineering sector. Many of the units allow learners to consider the influence
that engineering processes have on the environment and the ways that this impact
can be reduced.
Health and Safety issues
The Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering
qualifications are practically based and health and safety issues are encouraged
throughout the units. Learners will develop awareness of the safety of others as well
as themselves in all practical activities.
European developments
Much of the content of the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended
Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications apply throughout Europe, even
though the delivery is in the UK context.

40 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Useful publications
Further copies of this document and related publications can be obtained from:
Edexcel Publications
Adamsway
Mansfield
Nottinghamshire NG18 4FN
Telephone: 01623 467 467
Fax: 01623 450 481
Email: publications@linneydirect.com
Related publications include:
• the current Edexcel publications catalogue and update catalogue
• key skills publications — specifications, tutor support materials and question
papers
• Accreditation of Prior Learning — available on our website: www.edexcel.com
• The Statutory Regulation of External Qualifications in England, Wales and
Northern Ireland (QCA, 2004).
Edexcel publications on the Quality Assurance System and the internal and external
verification of vocationally-related programmes can be found on the Edexcel website
and in the Edexcel publications catalogue.
NB: Most of our publications are priced. There is also a charge for postage and
packing. Please check the cost when you order.

How to obtain National Occupational Standards

National Occupational Standards for Engineering are available from:
SEMTA
14 Upton Road
Watford
Hertfordshire WD18 0JT
Telephone: 01923 238441
Fax: 01923 652391
Website: www.semta.org.uk
National Occupational Standards Polymer Processing and Materials Technology are
available from:
Polymer NTO
Coppice House
Halesfield 7
Telford
Shropshire TF7 4NA
Telephone: 01952 587020
Fax: 01952 586523
Website: www.polymernto.org.uk

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 41

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Professional development and training
Edexcel supports UK and international customers with training related to BTEC
qualifications. This support is available through a choice of training options offered in
our published training directory or through customised training at your centre.
The support we offer focuses on a range of issues including:
• planning for the delivery of a new programme
• planning for assessment and grading
• developing effective assignments
• building your team and teamwork skills
• developing student-centred learning and teaching approaches
• building key skills into your programme
• building in effective and efficient quality assurance systems.
The national programme of training we offer can be viewed on our website
(www.edexcel.com/training). You can request customised training through the
website or by contacting one of our Business Solutions Consultants in the Training
from Edexcel team via Customer Services or email trainingbookings@edexcel.com to
discuss your training needs.
Our customer service numbers are:
BTEC and NVQ 0844 576 0026
GCSE 0844 576 0027
GCE 0844 576 0025
The Diploma 0844 576 0028
DIDA and other qualifications 0844 576 0031
Calls may be recorded for training purposes.
The training we provide:
• is active — ideas are developed and applied
• is designed to be supportive and thought provoking
• builds on best practice.
Our training will also underpin many areas of the LLUK standards for teachers working
towards them.

Further information
Edexcel produces regular policy statements on Edexcel qualifications and
accompanying procedures. Please check our website for current information.
For further information please call Customer Services on 0844 576 0026 (calls may be
recorded for training purposes) or visit our website at www.edexcel.com.

42 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Units
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44 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Unit 1: Principles and Applications of

Aircraft Physical Science
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The study of physical science is essential for anyone who wishes to understand the
underlying principles of aircraft avionic systems and the way that they function. This
unit has been designed to give learners an understanding of the structure of matter,
light, sound and gyroscopic principles. The unit will be useful for those engaged in
the manufacture and maintenance of aircraft electronic and avionic systems.
Learners will develop an understanding of the affects that microstructure has on the
properties of aerospace metallic and non-metallic materials. The nature of light and
geometrical optics is covered, and learners will apply these principles to aircraft
optical systems. The unit will also cover longitudinal and transverse waves and these
are applied to aircraft sound and radio transmission systems. Finally, the dynamic
principles of gyroscopic motion are covered and are applied to the operation and
behaviour of aircraft gyroscopic instruments such as the attitude indicator, turn and
slip indicator and the turn coordinator.
This unit will be of benefit not only to learners studying at BTEC National level but
also those following an apprenticeship in aircraft manufacture or maintenance, as
well as those undergoing aircraft engineering training with the armed forces. The
unit also provides some of the underpinning knowledge required for those taking the
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 examination.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the microstructure of matter and how chemical bonding affects the
properties of aerospace metallic and non-metallic materials
2 Understand the characteristics of light and the laws and definitions of optics and
be able to apply them to mirrors, lenses and aircraft fibre and laser optic systems
3 Know the characteristics of transverse and longitudinal waves and be able to
apply them to aircraft sound and radio communication systems
4 Understand the dynamic principles that govern the behaviour of gyroscopes and
apply these principles to the operation of aircraft basic gyroscopic instruments.

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UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Unit content

1 Understand the microstructure of matter and how chemical bonding affects

the properties of aerospace metallic and non-metallic materials

Structure: atoms (such as nucleus, electrons, electron shells, atomic number,

atomic mass); molecules and mixtures; states (solid, liquid and gas), changes
between states (observable, latent); continuous heat addition
Chemistry bonding and material properties: molecular bonding eg covalent,
metallic, electrovalent, van der Waals, elements, relationship to periodic table;
materials eg thermosetting, thermoplastics, metals, carbon; properties eg
strength, hardness, moulding, re-working, resistance, electro-magnetic,
conductivity, thermal capacity

2 Understand the characteristics of light and the laws and definitions of optics
and be able to apply them to mirrors, lenses and aircraft fibre and laser optic
systems

Characteristics of light: light as electromagnetic energy; light travel (rays,

beams, bending); speed of light through different mediums
Laws and definitions of optics: laws (reflection, refraction, Snell’s); optical
definitions (angle of incidence, angle of reflection, angle of refraction, refractive
index), mirrors and lenses (such as focal length, normal, centre of curvature,
principle axis, concave, convex)
Mirrors, lenses, fibre and laser optic systems: curved mirrors eg nature and
1 1 1 hi v
height of image, use of formulae + = , = ; convex lenses eg nature of
u v f ho u
image (inverted, real, virtual), ray diagrams, formula, focal length, centre of
curvature; fibre optic light propagation (critical angle, total internal reflection);
fibre and laser optic systems eg fibre cable cladding and core, ring laser
gyroscope operation and construction

3 Know the characteristics of transverse and longitudinal waves and are able to
apply them to aircraft sound and radio communication systems

Transverse and Longitudinal wave characteristics: fundamental characteristics

(wave length, amplitude, frequency, velocity, speed of sound, compression,
rarefaction); other characteristics eg constructive and destructive interference
effects, reflection, refraction, diffraction, speed of sound and radio waves, use of
v = f λ , SofS  20 T
Aircraft sound and radio communication systems: sound eg harmonics (such as
pitch, intensity, quality) Doppler affect, flaw detection (such as principles,
equipment, method); radio communication methods eg carrier waves, modulation
and demodulation, aircraft communication wave bands and frequencies,
communication equipment (such as transmitter, receiver, microphone, digitiser)

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

4 Understand the dynamic principles that govern the behaviour of gyroscopes

and apply these principles to the operation of aircraft basic gyroscopic
instruments

Dynamic principles: Newton’s second and third laws; momentum; inertia and
gyroscopic rigidity; application of torque and gyroscopic precession; Sperry’s rule
of precession
Basic gyroscopic instruments: behaviour eg real wander, apparent wander and
transport wander; operation of instruments eg attitude indicator, turn and slip
indicator, turn coordinator, heading indicator

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UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 with the aid of a diagram describe the M1 explain how the position of the elements D1 explain the principles of speech
sub-atomic nature of the atom and state in the periodic table dictates the transmission via a radio carrier wave and
the essential difference between bonding method used for their explain the form and function of the
molecules and mixtures combination and explain why the equipment needed to transmit and
metallic bond enables metals to be good receive this kind of transmission
P2 define the three states of matter and
conductors of electricity and heat
explain the observable and latent D2 compare and contrast the operation of a
changes that take place with continuous 1 1 1 h v turn and slip indicator and a modern turn
heat addition M2 use the formulae + = and i = coordinator with one another.
u v f ho u
P3 explain how covalent and van der Waals to determine the nature and height of
bonding give thermosetting and the image when the object is placed in
thermoplastic materials their distinct front of a curved mirror and a convex
properties including their ability to be lens, of known focal length and at a
reworked or moulded known distance
P4 explain the electromagnetic nature of
light, how light travels and the effect on
the velocity and direction of light as it
passes through different mediums

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 state the laws of reflection, refraction M3 solve a problem related to the speed of
and Snell’s law and, with the aid of sound and one related to the speed of
sketches, show the normal angles of electromagnetic waves using the
reflection and refraction and how the equations SofS  20 T and v = f λ
refractive index affects the angle of
refraction M4 explain the principle of operation of a
ring laser gyroscope.
P6 with respect to mirrors and convex
lenses define focal length, centre of
curvature and principal axis and explain
the use of ray diagrams to determine the
nature of the image
P7 define critical angle and total internal
reflection and explain how these
phenomena enable light to travel down a
fibre optic cable and why it is necessary
to clad these cables
P8 define the fundamental characteristics
of both transverse and longitudinal
waves and explain what is meant by
constructive and destructive
interference

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UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P9 with respect to sound and radio
communication define the pitch,
intensity and quality of sound,
modulation and demodulation and
explain what is meant by the Doppler
affect
P10 explain how Newton’s laws and the
concept of momentum and inertia
determine the rigidity of a rotating
gyroscope and explain, using Sperry’s
rule, the nature of precession when a
gyroscope is acted upon by an external
torque
P11 with respect to a gyroscopic instrument
explain the terms ‘apparent wander’ and
‘real wander’ and explain the operation
of an attitude indicator.

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be taught as a stand-alone unit, particularly for those who are already
working or aim to work in avionics manufacture or maintenance. Alternatively the
unit may be taught along side Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Aircraft
Mechanical Science. This combination has been designed to provide all the necessary
scientific background for learners wishing to pursue a career in any area of aerospace
engineering.
The unit focuses on the aircraft engineering applications of physical science
principles and therefore would best be delivered by science tutors that have an
aerospace engineering background.
Learners often find the concepts presented in this unit difficult, particularly the
learning outcomes associated with light, geometric optics and gyroscopic principles.
Therefore, tutors should be aware of the additional time that may be necessary to
successfully deliver learning outcomes 2 and 4.
The order in which the outcomes are written suggests the order in which they might
best be taught.
Delivery of learning outcome 1 should emphasise the nature of the atom, the states
of matter and the changes that take place between these states. The effects that the
different types of chemical bond have on the macroscopic properties of aerospace
materials should also be highlighted. Experimental work involving latent heat and
change of state would prove to be a particularly useful way to aid understanding.
When delivering learning outcome 2 an initial introduction should emphasise light as
electromagnetic energy and the way in which it travels through free space and
various mediums.
The relationship between wavelength, frequency and velocity could be mentioned
when studying the electromagnetic spectrum, but calculations using mathematical
formula might best be left until the study of transverse and longitudinal waves in
learning outcome 3. In this way, most of the delivery time for learning outcome 2 can
be spent on aspects of geometric optics, which learners often find difficult. This can
especially be the case when dealing with mirrors and lenses, where, particularly for
lenses, the nature of the image other than when defined using formulae is often
difficult to visualise. A lot of practice in the construction of ray diagrams and the use
of formulae, together with possible experiments involving mirrors, lenses and prisms
is therefore recommended.
When looking at and using the laws of reflection and refraction, the concept of the
critical angle and total internal reflection should be emphasised. This will enable
learners to understand the application of these laws to light propagation in fibre
optic cables and the reflection of light in prisms and ring laser gyroscopes.

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UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

In delivering learning outcome 3, the differences and characteristics of both

longitudinal waves and electromagnetic transverse waves should be emphasised. This
should include the speed of sound for longitudinal waves and their dependence on
the density and temperature of the medium through which they pass. The use of a
long length of rope and a slinky spring would be particularly appropriate aids for an
understanding of wave energy and motion.
Although learners will need to fully understand the way in which electromagnetic
radio waves are used as a carrier wave for sound, this should not include any
involvement with wave mathematics, other than the simple relation v = f λ . The
ideas associated with the Doppler effect should also be fully understood.
Pictorial representations of the equipment necessary for transmission of sound and
radio communication between earth and aircraft, aircraft to aircraft and the use of
satellites should be taught and the frequency bands for the more common aircraft
communication systems should also be known.
When delivering learning outcome 4 the concept of momentum and inertia should be
highlighted. Their relationship to gyroscopic rigidity and precession will need to be
emphasised, as will the use of Sperry’s rule. The classic bicycle wheel or similar
should be used to aid understanding of gyroscopic precession. When applying
gyroscopic principles to aircraft instruments, cut away models of these instruments
would prove particularly useful in aiding learners’ understanding.

Assessment

The criteria for learning outcome 1 might best be assessed using a mixed practical
and theoretical assignment.
For P1 and P3, written questions could be used that require learners to produce well-
labelled accurate diagrams to aid their description and explanation.
Evidence for P2 could be obtained through an experiment that, for example, involved
the changes in state of ice to steam for successive heat addition. A graphical
representation of results would need to be presented, along with the definitions for
the three states of matter.
Further theoretical questions enabling learners to attain M1 could form part of this
same assignment, with a copy of the periodic table being given to learners to aid
their explanation.
Learning outcome 2 could be assessed through one theoretical assignment, with
perhaps some form of experimental work being carried out with mirrors and lenses to
enhance learning.
The assignment would need to include a question that tested learners’ understanding
of the electromagnetic nature of light and the way in which it travels through free
space and through various mediums. Other questions would need to cover the nature
and laws of reflection and refraction, the definitions of the stated parameters
concerning mirrors and lenses and the nature and use of ray diagrams. In answering
these questions learners will need to clearly identify the circumstances under which
light bends towards and away from what is normal and how this is related to the
refractive index of the mediums through which the light travels.

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Numerical questions, that involve the use of formulae to obtain distance, nature and
height of the image, will need to be set for M2. P7 would best be achieved from the
answers provided to theoretical questions.
The grading criteria for learning outcome 3 are probably best achieved from written
theoretical questions. This is particularly relevant as criteria P8 and P9 require
evidence to be provided for quite complex topics.
Questions will need to be set that test learners understanding of the characteristics
of longitudinal and transverse waves, the nature of destructive and constructive
interference, definitions of pitch, intensity and quality of sound, modulation and
demodulation as well as an explanation of the Doppler affect.
M3 and D1 are best assessed using a separate assignment, again in the form of
written theoretical questions. At least one numerical question needs to be set
relating to finding the speed of sound under given circumstances. Another would then
require learners to find the velocity, frequency or wave length of electromagnetic
waves, given any two of these parameters (M3). Questions set to cover D1 will
require learners to demonstrate an understanding of speech transmission and the
form and function of the microphone, modulating equipment, carrier wave,
transmitter, receiver, demodulator and loud speaker/headphone.
Finally, a further theoretical assignment, requiring answers to written questions
would best cover learning outcome 4. This will require learners to demonstrate their
understanding of the relationship between momentum, inertia and the rigidity of the
gyroscopic rotor, in addition to being able to explain, using Sperry’s rule, the action
of the gyroscope when acted upon by an external torque (P10). An understanding of
apparent wander, related to instrument deficiencies and real wander, due to global
travel must also be clearly demonstrated (P11).
In answering questions that cover D2, learners must demonstrate an in depth
knowledge of the operation of both instruments so that comparisons can then be
made. Cursory, minimal answers should not be accepted as evidence of achievement.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has strong links with Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Aircraft
Mechanical Science. It can also be linked to Unit 84: Aircraft Electrical Systems and
Unit 88: Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems, as well as acting as a sound
foundation for the further study of avionics in higher education programmes.
The unit, together with Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and Applications, Unit 72:
Principles and Application of Aerospace Mechanical Science and elements of Unit 71:
Theory of Flight, covers all the knowledge and understanding associated with the
EASA Part 66 module 2 examination.
In addition this unit will provides some of the underpinning knowledge and
understanding associated with the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in
Aeronautical Engineering.

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UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Essential resources

As a minimum, centres will need to provide access to suitable equipment that would
allow learners to demonstrate:
• latent heat and changes of state
• nature of longitudinal and transverse waves
• pitch of sound
• momentum and inertia of rotating bodies.
Examples of aircraft fibre optic cables and connectors and gyroscopic instruments
should also be provided.
Access to aircraft radio communications equipment and an ultra sound non-
destructive test set would be of benefit. Alternatively a visit to a live aircraft or
simulator where modern radio communications equipment can be seen could be used.

Indicative reading for learners

Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Engineering Principles (Elsevier, 2004)

ISBN 075065015X
Tooley M and Wyatt D — Aircraft Communication and Navigation Systems: Principles,
Operation and Maintenance (Elsevier, 2007) ISBN 0750681373

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 UNIT 1: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF AIRCRAFT PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the sub-atomic C3.3 Write two different types of documents
nature of the atom and the each one giving different information
difference between about complex subjects.
molecules and mixtures One document must be at least 1000
• defining the three states of words long.
matter and explaining the
observable and latent
changes that take place with
continuous heat addition
• explaining how covalent and
van der Waals bonding give
thermosetting and
thermoplastic materials their
distinct properties
• explaining the
electromagnetic nature of
light, how light travels and
the effect on the velocity
and direction of light as it
passes through different
mediums
• explaining what is meant by
constructive and destructive
interference
• explaining how Newton’s
laws and the concept of
momentum and inertia
determine the rigidity of a
rotating gyroscope.

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Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the sub-atomic ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
nature of the atom and the text with image, text with number,
difference between image with number.
molecules and mixtures
• showing with the aid of
sketches the normal, angles
of reflection and refraction
and how the refractive index
affects the angle of
refraction.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the sub-atomic PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
nature of the atom and the ways of tackling it.
difference between
molecules and mixtures
• showing the normal, angles
of reflection and refraction
and how the refractive index
affects the angle of
refraction.

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 UNIT 2: AIRCRAFT WORKSHOP PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Unit 2: Aircraft Workshop Principles

and Practice
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
In order to practice as an aircraft engineer a range of basic engineering skills are
needed, regardless of where in the industry individuals wish to be employed. These
skills will be beneficial to all personnel no matter whether they are in the field of
aircraft structures, systems or component manufacture, fabrication, repair or
maintenance.
This unit aims to provide learners with the key knowledge required to work in the
aerospace engineering sector and will provide opportunities to practice these skills in
a safe aircraft workshop environment. It been designed to provide some of the
knowledge required for learners wishing to progress on to the European Aviation
Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements. It will also benefit those
seeking employment within the armed forces or the aircraft manufacturing industry.
The aircraft engineering industry is highly regulated and safety in all aspects of
engineering practice is given the highest priority. The first part of this unit will
provide learners with a thorough understanding of the safety issues associated with
the care, control and use of the tools and equipment found in a typical aircraft
workshop environment.
The range of skills that will be taught and practised in this unit fall into two broad
areas. Those associated with typical mechanical and electrical bench fitting activities
and those involving dismantling/assembly techniques for a variety of aircraft
components and equipment. Learners therefore need to be able to read and interpret
a range of engineering drawings and circuit diagrams so that they can successfully
complete practical activities by following diagrammatic and written information to
required standards.
Familiarity with the aircraft hardware associated with the practical activities is also
emphasised in this unit. The unit also provides opportunities to put the theoretical
aspects of workshop fitting and dismantling/assembly activities into practice.

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UNIT 2: AIRCRAFT WORKSHOP PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the safe working practices associated with the care, control and use
of aircraft workshop tools and equipment
2 Be able to read and interpret aircraft engineering drawings and diagrams
3 Understand the characteristics, identification methods and function of aircraft
hardware
4 Be able to carry out workshop fitting, dismantling and assembly exercises.

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Unit content

1 Understand the safe working practices associated with the care, control and
use of aircraft workshop tools and equipment

Safe working practices: procedures and actions to be followed eg electricity

(shock), high-pressure and low-pressure gases, oxygen and cryogenic substances,
oils and chemicals in a workshop environment, fire, soldering irons; layout and
nature of workshop firefighting equipment and first-aid provision
Care and use of tools and equipment: tool control methods eg shadow boards,
portable servicing kits, toolboxes, tool tags, booking out/in systems; awareness
and observation of safety procedures for the care and use of workshop tools and
equipment eg
- marking out and work holding tools (engineer’s rule, key seat rule, callipers,
scribe, centre punch, dividers, fitters square, combination set, surface plate,
surface gauge V-blocks, clamps, vices)
- cutting and metal removal tools (guillotines, hacksaws, files, pillar drills,
electric and pneumatic drills, drill bits, taps and dies, reamers, grinding
machines, countersinks)
- assembly/dismantling tools (hammers, pliers, crimping tools, screwdrivers,
spanners, strap wrenches, torque wrenches, sockets, circlip pliers, soldering
irons, hand riveting tools)
- precision measuring tools (calibration and control, bevel protractors,
micrometers, Vernier callipers, Vernier height and depth gauges)
- soldering and welding equipment (gas bottles, regulators, welding torches,
soldering irons, fluxes, solders)
- electrical test/measurement equipment (oscilloscopes, power supplies, wave
generators, analogue and digital meters, continuity testers, bonding testers)

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2 Be able to read and interpret aircraft engineering drawings and diagrams

Drawing types and conventions: types eg schematic diagrams, block diagrams,

circuit diagrams, assembly and single-part diagrams, sketches, charts, tables;
conventional methods of projection eg isometric, oblique, orthographic first or
third angle, additional and auxiliary views; symbol conventions eg hydraulic,
pneumatic British Standards (BS) 2917, International Standards Organisation (ISO)
1219, electrical BS 3939, BS 7845, BS EN 60617, limits and fits BS EN 20286, ISO
286, standard symbols and abbreviations (BS 8888); dimensioning and tolerances
eg BS 8888
Read and interpret aircraft engineering drawings: key information from aircraft
engineering drawings and circuit diagrams drawn to current national and
international engineering standards eg BS 8888, BS 2917, ISO 1219, BS 3939, Air
Transport Association (ATA) 100, Aerospace Industries Association (AIA), American
National (AN), aircraft Air Publications (APs); retrieve key information from
hardcopy or computer-based aircraft engineering publication drawings and
diagrams
Aircraft engineering standards and presentation: relevant civil or military
standards eg ATA 100, APs, BS, ISO, AN, Military Specifications (MS), AIA;
presentation methods, eg printed manuals, microfilm, microfiche, posters, wall
charts, tables, computerised methods; drawing amendment and control actions

3 Understand the characteristics, identification methods and function of aircraft

hardware

Aircraft general hardware: characteristics and function of fasteners eg screws,

nuts, bolts, studs (type, thread form, identification codes, dimensions); locking
devices eg spring and tab washers, lock nuts, wire locking, friction devices,
adhesives; other fasteners eg wing nuts, quick release fasteners, toggle fasteners,
bayonet fasteners
Aircraft specialist hardware: characteristics and functions of specialist
applications eg
- fluid plumbing hardware (solid and flexible pipes, unions, fittings and
connectors, fitting procedures)
- transmission and motion hardware (springs, bearings, belts, chains, pulleys,
sprockets, flexible control cables, bowden cables, teleflex cables, end
fittings, handling, specific functions)
- rivets (types, materials, identification codes and numbers, dimensions, fitting
tolerances, allowances and handling)
- electrical cables (types, materials, construction, limitations, securing devices,
cable connectors, swaged end fittings, swaging methods, correct swaging
identification methods, cable protection, insulation, bonding methods, cable
handling)

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4 Be able to carry out aircraft workshop fitting, dismantling and assembly

exercises

Aircraft workshop fitting principles and practice: correct procedures for carrying
out a range of mechanical fitting exercises eg rivet fit and removal, precision
measuring and marking out, metal removal, metal joining by riveting and bolting,
sheet metal bending, thread tapping, thread die cutting, panel fastener
replacement, solid and rigid pipe removal and fit, lock wiring, cleaning and
repacking bearings; correct procedures for carrying out a range of electrical
fitting exercises eg removing and fitting flexible control cables, cable tensioning
and adjustment, electrical cable crimping, fitting and removing electrical
terminations, plugs and sockets, cable sheathing and looming, soldering joints,
de-soldering, use of fluxes and heat sinks, bonding checks, earthing checks and
continuity checks; associated safety precautions eg equipment pre-use checks,
correct care and handling of cutting tools, welding equipment, metallic
materials, measuring instruments, crimping tools, soldering irons, heat sinks,
electrostatic hazards
Aircraft component dismantling and assembly principles and practice:
dismantling, inspection and assembly observing correct procedures eg hydraulic
and pneumatic pumps, motors, linear actuators, wheel and brake assemblies,
accumulators, reservoirs, aircraft engine components, electric motors, electric
pumps, electrical actuators, solenoids, switches, basic instruments; associated
safety precautions eg care with fluids under pressure, ensure cleanliness, care
with seals and seals handling, use of barrier creams, protective clothing,
prevention of electric shock hazard, use of correct tools

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the different procedures to be M1 carry out a detailed fitting exercise D1 prepare a serviceability report having
followed in the event of a workshop fire, observing all relevant safety precautions, interpreted and used appropriate
an electric shock to human operator and using a range of aircraft specialist maintenance information to dismantle,
a chemical spillage hardware, in accordance with laid down inspect, assess for serviceability and
aircraft industry standards. reassemble a complex aircraft
P2 explain the precautions that must be
component or assembly, in accordance
observed for the control, care and use of M2 use appropriate precision measurement
with laid down industry standards.
tools needed for two different workshop or test equipment on a mechanical or
fitting activities electrical assembly to establish whether
dimensional accuracy or output
P3 use drawing types and conventions to
characteristics conform to laid down
read and interpret key information from
aircraft industry standards.
a basic engineering drawing and a circuit
diagram that conform to relevant
standards and presentation
P4 retrieve appropriate information from a
hardcopy or computer-based aircraft
engineering publication

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the characteristics and
functions of aircraft general and
specialist hardware
P6 use aircraft workshop fitting principles
and practices to carry out four different
fitting exercises observing all relevant
safety precautions
P7 use aircraft component dismantling and
assembly procedures and practice to
carry out two dismantling, inspection
and assembly exercises observing all
relevant safety precautions.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit is essential for a full understanding of the health and safety issues
associated with aircraft workshop practice and acts as an introduction to the health
and safety requirements throughout other aerospace units. For this reason, it should
be delivered early in the qualification.
The unit has been designed to give learners a thorough understanding of aircraft
hardware and workshop practices appropriate for the mechanical and/or electrical
specialisations. Delivery will need to ensure the sound underpinning of knowledge
using both classroom and workshop environments as well as a strong emphasis being
placed on the practical aspects of the unit. Health and safety issues should be
emphasised throughout, in addition to the stand-alone delivery of health and safety
via learning outcome 1. Delivery could include input from qualified first aiders,
firefighters and other experienced staff, to reinforce these and other procedures.
Wherever possible a practical approach should be adopted. The range of practical
work has been detailed in the unit content and delivery of part or all of this range
will be dependent on the nature of the cohort (ie whether they are to be steered
towards the mechanical, electrical or both skills areas). However, no matter what
practical pathway has been chosen, all learners must be given a thorough
understanding of the safe working practices detailed in learning outcome 1.
Choice has been given with respect to the care, control and use of tools and
equipment. Where learners are following a mechanical option, they may concentrate
on the cutting, marking out and measuring tools directly associated with aircraft
sheet metal work. Alternatively, those following the electrical option might
concentrate on the use of soldering and electrical test and measuring tools and
equipment. Ideally, learners should be encouraged to carry out practical exercises
that require the care, use and control of all these tools and equipment. The range
and type of dismantling/assembly tools used will also be dependent on the nature of
the equipment and assemblies being worked on.
When delivering learning outcome 2 all learners are expected to gain familiarity with
drawing types, symbols and abbreviations as detailed in BS 8888. However, for those
following the mechanical option emphasis may well be placed on fluid power circuits
(BS 2917, ISO 1219), while for learners following the electrical option more emphasis
might be placed on BS 3939, BS 7845 and other appropriate standards.
The standards to be followed with respect to aircraft engineering manuals and
documentation will again depend on the nature of the cohort. For example, military
learners would be introduced to their Air Publication (AP) series, while those
concerned with civil aviation might concentrate on the Air Transport Association ATA
100 series of manuals. Learners would then be able to use these to read and interpret
engineering drawings and extract key information.
In learning outcome 3 learners are expected to gain familiarity with aircraft general
hardware but have a choice in the type of specialist hardware they wish to study.

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Finally, in learning outcome 4 a broad range of fitting and dismantling/assembly

exercises are detailed that are typically carried out in an aircraft engineering
workshop environment. The time dedicated to these exercises will vary from centre
to centre, as indeed will the skill level achieved by learners. However, to gain any
meaningful practical competence a substantial amount of time should be given over
to their delivery, with the remainder being used to deliver the theory that underpins
these practical activities. Some of the time needed to deliver aspects of the practical
work may be found during other work, for example during the delivery of appropriate
NVQs if applicable and appropriate.
Since the practical elements of the unit have been designed to utilise typical
workshop facilities that are commonly found in most centres, delivering the practical
content should pose few problems. However, it is expected that the hardware and
materials used are those typically found on aircraft, for example light alloy sheet
metal and rivets, aircraft structure and electrical cables and aircraft hydraulic,
pneumatic and electrical components.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Pass criterion P1 could be assessed through written or oral questioning, with role play
and/or practical demonstrations. P2 could also be assessed by written and/or oral
questioning. Evidence of what learners say in response to oral questions or do in role
play must be obtained and recorded as assessment evidence (witness
statement/observation record).
P3 and P4 could be assessed through an assignment or short formal test. For P3,
learners might be given a BS 8888 drawing of a relatively simple assembly and a
circuit diagram and asked questions that demonstrate their ability to read and
interpret information from the drawing. For P4, an aircraft parts or maintenance
manual in hard copy or electronic form could be made available and an exercise
given that requires learners to interpret and retrieve key information.
P5 requires learners to describe the characteristics and functions of two sets of
hardware. Appropriate hardware can be given to learners and their competence
assessed through oral questioning. Alternatively, drawings of appropriate hardware
could be given to learners who would then identify and describe the characteristics in
writing. Again, a witness statement/observation record may be needed to record
answers to oral questions.
For P6 and P7, learners need to demonstrate practical competence and ability to
understand and follow safety procedures relating to given practical tasks. Once
learners have been guided through several fitting and assembly/dismantling exercises
their competence could be assessed formally. This could be through learners
completing a relatively simple fitting and assembly/dismantling test, appropriate for
either the mechanical or electrical options or both. A marking guide could be
produced for each piece of assessed practical work that indicates the standards set
for the exercise in order to achieve P6 and P7 criteria.

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Assessment of M1 and M2 could be conducted in a similar manner to P6 and P7. For

the mechanical option, M1 will involve learners using a range of specialist hardware
such as rivets, bolts, fasteners, wire inserts, pulleys, bearings etc, to execute a
repair, or a similar fitting exercise, to aircraft panels, structure or airframe
components. Such exercises would involve learners in taking precision measurements
(M2) and correctly interpreting tolerances and allowances from engineering drawings,
in order to produce a piece of work to laid down industry standards.
For those following the electrical option, a cable crimping and looming exercise could
be developed involving the correct use of electrical hardware such as cable, cable
end fittings, crimps, looming tap and cable ties (M1). Learners would need to follow
an engineering drawing to achieve dimensional accuracy, correct cable rating and
successful cable crimps to laid down industry standards. They would then carry out
tests on the cable circuit for continuity, insulation and resistance using appropriate
test equipment (M2).
To meet D1, learners are not only required to read and interpret engineering
drawings but also to determine the correct information source, correct procedure/s
and establish the industry standards for wear, unservicability and dimensional
tolerances of component parts of a complex assembly. This could be an aircraft
generator, oleo strut assembly, electric or hydraulic motor or pump, powered flying
control unit, air cycle cooling machine, aircraft instruments or engine gearbox
assembly. Meaningful measurements will need to be taken to check geometric
tolerances and allowances of assembly components. Learners could also be involved
in writing a serviceability report of the assembly component parts, then after
reassembly (if possible) check correct output parameters. The choice of component
needs to be made with care to ensure that all relevant documentation is available to
the learner, when requested.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides the opportunity to practice some of the skills and understanding
associated with SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 39: Drilling and Finishing Holes in Aircraft Structure or Components
• Unit 62: Installing Aircraft Cable Forms/Looms
• Unit 76: Testing Aircraft Cable Forms/Looms.
Some of the skills used in this unit may also be practiced by completing appropriate
units from the Level 2 NVQ in Performing Engineering Operations, including the units
on measuring and marking out, shaping engineering products by material removal
using hand tools, assemble components to meet specifications, soldered joints etc.
Many of these units could act as precursor skills development units or be taught in
tandem with the skills developed in this unit. However, the emphasis in the Level 2
NVQ in Performing Engineering Operations is towards general engineering and
therefore the materials and standards differ.

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This unit has also been designed to act as a prerequisite for Unit 76: Aircraft
Maintenance Practices and is linked to Unit 74: Metallic Aircraft Materials,
Structures and Repair and Unit 75: Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and
Repair. Together these units cover the knowledge content of modules 6 and 7 of the
EASA Part 66 licence syllabus.

Essential resources

Those institutions currently offering mechanical, electrical and/or aeronautical

engineering programmes, will already have appropriately equipped workshops. A
selection of aircraft materials and parts (hardware) should be available, sufficient to
meet the needs of the practical exercises and the requirements of learning
outcome 3.
The equipment and components used for assembly/dismantling exercises should be
real aircraft components. For the purposes of assessment these components should
preferably be operational and must at least be accompanied by the appropriate
manuals and other documentation so that learners can follow procedures and adhere
to industry standards.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Black B — Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials (Newnes, 2004)
ISBN 0750660732
Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Maintenance Practice (Elsevier, 2007)
ISBN 9780750650168
Simmons C and Maguire D — Manual of Engineering Drawing: To British and
International Standards (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750651202

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• reading and interpreting key C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information from engineering least two documents about the same
drawings and retrieving and subject.
interpreting information from One document must be at least 1000
aircraft engineering words long.
publications.

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 UNIT 3: THEORY OF FLIGHT

Unit 3: Theory of Flight

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Large modern passenger aircraft can weigh in excess of six hundred thousand
kilograms when they fly with a full fuel and passenger load, yet this combined mass is
lifted into the air with apparent ease. Modern jet fighter aircraft can exceed the
speed of sound and are very manoeuvrable. This unit will help learners understand
how such aircraft fly and how they are controlled and stabilised.
This unit has been designed to provide learners with a basic understanding of aircraft
flight principles, including the means by which aircraft are controlled, manoeuvred
and stabilised. In addition, the particular problems associated with aircraft that fly
close to the speed of sound (transonic range) will also be investigated.
Learners will develop an understanding of the forces that act on an aircraft during
flight and use simple equations to calculate such forces. Experimental work using
wind tunnels or wind generators will form an essential part of the unit and will aid
learners’ understanding of the forces and airflows that act on an aircraft during
flight. How aircraft are controlled and stabilised is looked at in some depth. A range
of flight controls and life augmentation devices are considered and the way in which
they affect control about the aircraft axes is also covered.
A brief look at high-speed flight and the effects created by the air flowing over the
aircraft at high subsonic, transonic and supersonic speeds is also undertaken. A
qualitative treatment of static and dynamic stability, together with a brief look at
the design features that enhance stability, will provide learners with a suitable
introduction to the fundamental concepts associated with aircraft stability.
This unit will be of benefit not only to those studying at BTEC National level but also
to those following an apprenticeship in aircraft manufacture or maintenance, as well
as those currently undergoing aircraft engineering training with the armed forces. It
also covers some of the underpinning knowledge required for those taking the
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 examinations.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to explain the generation of lift and drag forces and determine the values
of basic flight forces and manoeuvre forces
2 Know the purpose and operation of control surfaces and lift augmentation devices
3 Understand, the nature of airflow over aerodynamic surfaces and the factors that
affect airflow when at subsonic, transonic and supersonic velocities
4 Understand the nature of aircraft response and the methods used for improving
stability.

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Unit content

1 Be able to explain the generation of lift and drag forces and determine the
values of basic flight forces and manoeuvre forces

Lift and drag force generation: Bernoulli and Venturi principles and their
relationship to lift force generation; the aerofoil shape and lift; aerofoil
terminology; angle of attack; airspeed and lift; drag types eg drag, total drag,
induced drag, profile drag (such as skin friction, form, interference); drag factors
eg shape, streamlining, drag coefficient, airspeed; significance of atmospheric
parameters on lift and drag generation eg barometric pressure, buoyancy,
density, relative density, airflow velocity, temperature, altitude, standard sea
level values, the international standard atmosphere (ISA)
Basic flight forces: lift, weight, thrust, drag; force couples (lift/weight,
thrust/drag); action of forces and force couples in straight and level flight
Determination of flight and manoeuvre forces: calculate lift and drag forces using
the basic equations, L = CL 12 ρV 2 S , D = CD 12 ρV 2 S ; experimentally determine
basic flight force parameters eg lift and drag plots, lift to drag ratio (L/D),
coefficients of lift and drag, minimum drag, pitching moment; manoeuvre axes
(longitudinal, lateral and normal) eg roll, pitch, yaw; manoeuvre force diagrams,
load factor, manoeuvre envelopes, flight forces and other parameters (such as
velocity, centripetal acceleration, centripetal force, manoeuvre angles);
manoeuvres eg climb, cruise, dive, level steady turn, stall, pullout from a dive

2 Know the purpose and operation of control surfaces and lift augmentation
devices

Purpose and operation of control surfaces: primary controls (ailerons, elevators,

rudder); secondary controls eg spoilers (lift/dump and roll), airbrakes, canards,
stabilisers, elevons, tailerons, flaperons
Purpose and operation of lift augmentation devices: eg plain, split, slotted,
double slotted, fowler, multi-slotted fowler, Krueger, slots, slats, vortex
generators, wing fences, winglets

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3 Understand, the nature of airflow over aerodynamic surfaces and the factors
that affect airflow when at subsonic, transonic and supersonic velocities

Airflow over aerodynamic surfaces: effects eg subsonic (boundary layer

thickening, centre of pressure forward, turbulence (effects of ice, snow and frost
build up), reduction in velocity rear of surface, normal stall), transonic
(formation of shockwave, shock stall), supersonic (increase in velocity, reduction
in pressure at rear of surface, centre of pressure movement, trim change);
aerodynamic cross-sections eg high camber, low camber, high speed; flow
parameters eg streamlines, laminar flow, turbulent flow, boundary layer,
incompressible, compressible, separation, transition point, stagnation; speed
ranges eg subsonic, transonic, supersonic; speed of sound; Mach number
Factors affecting airflow: normal shockwave formation eg density and pressure
rise, velocity fall, pitching, buffeting, shock stall, loss of control effectiveness,
design factors (washout, wash-in, area ruling, vortex generators, blown air,
sweepback, wing fences)

4 Understand the nature of aircraft response and the methods used for
improving stability

Nature of aircraft response to a disturbance: condition eg stable, unstable,

neutrally stable; aircraft static and dynamic response motion; static stability
(lateral, longitudinal and directional); aircraft dynamic stability eg lateral
(directional divergence, spiral divergence, Dutch roll), longitudinal (phugoid
motion, porpoising), directional (aerodynamic coupling)
Methods of improving stability: lateral stability eg wing dihedral, sweepback,
high wing position, keel surface, yaw dampers; longitudinal stability eg tailplane
(horizontal stabiliser) size and position, elevator movement; directional stability
eg fin, keel surface aft of centre of gravity

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain how lift force is generated over M1 use experimentally obtained data, D1 produce force diagrams for an aircraft
aerofoil surfaces and how atmospheric plot appropriate lift and drag curves subject to four different types of
parameters affect lift and drag force against velocity and use them to aircraft manoeuvre and calculate the
generation as an aircraft gains altitude determine the maximum L/D and required acceleration, force and velocity
minimum total drag parameters for each, using appropriate
P2 describe the four basic forces and two force
formulae
couples that act on an aircraft during M2 explain how area ruling, sweepback
straight and level flight and apply basic and wing fence designs help to D2 explain the dynamic stability
equations to determine lift and drag forces alleviate some of the undesirable phenomena; directional divergence,
factors associated with flight through spiral divergence and porpoising and for
P3 carry out a wind tunnel or wind generator
the transonic range. each explain how these undesirable
experiment and produce lift and drag plots
effects may be reduced.
for a given aerofoil section or aircraft model
for varying angle of attack and air velocity
P4 sketch the force diagrams and calculate
force and velocity parameters for an aircraft
involved in two different manoeuvres

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 state the purpose and describe the
operation of all primary controls, three
secondary controls and four lift
augmentation devices
P6 explain the effects on the air flowing over
aerodynamic surfaces when travelling at
subsonic and supersonic speeds
P7 define the subsonic, transonic and
supersonic speed ranges, speed of sound and
Mach number
P8 describe how a normal shock wave is first
formed and the result on the airflow and
subsequently the aircraft, as the airflow
passes through a shockwave
P9 sketch the response motions of an aircraft to
a disturbance when the aircraft is statically
stable and dynamically stable and when
statically stable and dynamically unstable
P10 explain how lateral static stability is
improved using wing dihedral and sweepback
and how longitudinal and directional static
stability improvements are achieved using
horizontal stabilisers and fin/keel surface
respectively.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit has been designed to cover the elementary flight theory necessary for all
those wishing to enter the aerospace industry at technician level, irrespective of
their chosen field of specialisation. As such, it is expected that this unit should be
delivered as part of most, if not all, BTEC Aerospace Engineering programmes.
Elements of the content of this unit will act as a crucial foundation for further study
of both mechanical and avionic units.
Centres could deliver this unit early in the first year of the programme, providing an
aeronautical flavour at an early stage. Learners will need to have been introduced to
the concepts of force, pressure and density. They should also have sufficient
mathematical ability to manipulate formulae associated with flight and manoeuvre
loads, and have an idea of vector quantities and their representation.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in order. Learning outcome 1 is the largest
and is likely to take up a considerable part of the delivery time. Learners’
understanding of the concepts associated with the generation of lift and drag forces
will be enhanced by appropriate experimental work and such experiments are
considered an essential part of the delivery of this learning outcome. Simple
calculations using the lift and drag equations will also help strengthen the principles
that underpin the generation of these forces. The relationship between Bernoulli’s
principle, the Venturi tube and aerofoil cross-sections should be emphasised,
particularly when explaining the generation of lift.
The effect that atmospheric parameters have on the generation of lift and drag with
rising altitude should also be explained and learners should know the standard sea-
level values for temperature, pressure and air density in the ISA. The classifications
for the various parts of an aerofoil cross-section should also be emphasised and the
concept of angle of attack clearly explained. These will prove particularly useful in
aiding understanding when learners are engaged in wind-tunnel work.
Learning outcome 2 is concerned with the identification and function of control
surfaces and lift augmentation devices and should take a relatively short amount of
time to deliver. Learners should have a clear knowledge of control about the three
aircraft axes and should be aware of the advantages/disadvantages of a selection of
leading edge and trailing edge lift augmentation devices. The range and depth of
treatment of these devices will clearly depend on the learners’ specialisation. Only
the purpose and operation of the control and lift augmentation surface need be
emphasised, rather than the systems that operate them.
Learning outcome 3 is essentially about high-speed flight. The key to the delivery of
this subject lies in learners’ understanding of the formation and effects of the
shockwave. All the problems associated with flight in the transonic range are
dependent on the first appearance of the shock wave. Learners need to be aware of
this fact and understand how the design features inherent in high-speed aircraft are
primarily there to minimise the adverse effects and time spent flying in the transonic
range. The changes in airflow behaviour over aerofoil sections when flowing at
subsonic and truly supersonic velocities also need to be explained in detail.

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When delivering the content relating to aircraft response and stability (learning
outcome 4), a clear differentiation should be made between static and dynamic
stability, and the resulting response motions after a disturbance should be known.
The difficult dynamic concepts concerning directional divergence, spiral divergence,
Dutch roll, dynamic phugoid motion, porpoising and aerodynamic coupling should be
carefully explained, as these concepts are needed at distinction level.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

It is expected that a range of assessment methods will be used for this unit. Evidence
may be gathered from written responses to assignments and formal timed
assessments. Evidence from laboratory reports and observation records will be
appropriate and necessary, particularly when addressing the assessment criteria for
learning outcome 1.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must understand the significance of the
aerodynamic parameters (pressure, temperature, density), how they change with
altitude and their subsequent effect on lift and drag forces. They must describe the
four basic forces that act on the aircraft and be able to perform calculations using
the lift and drag equations and a range of the aircraft manoeuvre equations. An
understanding of the relationship between lift, drag, velocity and angle of attack is
also needed. Assessment evidence from a laboratory experiment write-up could be
used as evidence of learners’ competence. Witness statements would be a good way
to record their performance during the practical element of P3. The ability to state
the purpose and describe the operation of a variety of control surfaces and lift
augmentation devices may be assessed through a written assignment, where sketches
and written responses can be gathered.
Learners are also required to be able to explain the effects of airflow over an
aerofoil section when the air is travelling from subsonic up to supersonic speed.
Evidence for this could be gathered using smoke tunnel and supersonic wind tunnel
experiments, if this equipment is available.
Finally, a rudimentary understanding of the static and dynamic behaviour of an
aircraft after being subject to a disturbance is required. This requires learners to
provide a basic definition for static stability and dynamic stability and demonstrate
through the production of sketches, knowledge of an aircraft’s motion after a
disturbance, based on whether or not the aircraft is dynamically stable or
dynamically unstable. In the latter case learners need just show this situation as a
diverging sinusoidal wave motion. A full understanding of the complex dynamic
stability phenomena is not required for the pass criteria.

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To achieve a merit grade, learners need to build on their understanding of flight

forces and other parameters (P1, P2, P4) and experimental plotting (P3). They will
need to convert experimental data into plots capable of determining L/D ratios and
minimum total drag. Learners’ understanding of the significance of the L/D ratio and
minimum drag (at the crossover point of induced drag and profile drag) also needs to
be assessed. Learners will need to provide a clear explanation of some of the design
features that have been produced to alleviate the problems associated with flying
through the transonic range. For example how sweepback helps to delay the onset of
the shock stall and thus reduce the time that the aircraft spends in the transonic
range. Written responses would provide appropriate assessment evidence.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners will need to produce force diagrams for a
range of aircraft manoeuvre situations. They will then need to solve problems by
finding the required unknown parameters. Learners will also need to explain the
dynamic stability phenomena, directional and spiral divergence, and porpoising. This
will require learners to first have knowledge of directional, longitudinal and lateral
dynamic stability and their interrelationships and how these affect the response
behaviour of the aircraft. Evidence for both distinction criteria may best be obtained
through the use of assignment questions that are designed to test learners’
understanding of the underlying principles, not just to test recall.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers the knowledge and understanding associated with the European
Aerospace Safety Agency (EASA) aircraft maintenance licence Part 66 examination for
Module 8 Basic Aerodynamics. It also covers part of the requirements for Aeroplane
Aerodynamics contained in Modules 11 and 13.
In addition, the unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge and understanding
associated with the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 46: Installing Flying Control Surfaces and Systems
• Unit 59: Testing Aircraft Flying Control Surfaces and Systems.
This unit has strong links with Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Aerospace
Mechanical Science.

Essential resources

Access to laboratory equipment, particularly wind tunnels, will be needed, especially

for learning outcome 1. For those centres with limited resources, wind generators,
aerofoil sections and appropriate lift and drag balances would be the absolute
minimum requirement to meet the learning outcomes. Easy access to the following
equipment would provide a more appropriate learning environment:
• open or closed section wind tunnel/s, aerofoil cross-sections and aircraft scale
models
• smoke generation visualisation equipment
• high-speed wind tunnel and associated apparatus
• training aids, aircraft airframe components, flying control rigs.

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Note that learning is enhanced when the wind tunnel measuring equipment is simple,
such as the use of manometers, manual lift and drag balances etc. Interpreting
sophisticated digital read outs and converting them to force measurements tends to
have little meaning for learners at this stage.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Barnard R and Philpott D — Aircraft Flight: A Description of the Physical Principles of
Aircraft Flight (Prentice Hall, 2003) ISBN 0131200437
Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Engineering Principles (Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004) ISBN 075065015X
Kermode A, Barnard R and Philpott D — Mechanics of Flight, 11th Edition (Prentice
Hall, 2006) ISBN 1405823593

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining lift and drag and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
preparing to carry out wind- information from relevant sources.
tunnel testing N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
• modifying and plotting data stage calculations to do with:
and drawing force diagrams. a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining how lift force is C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
generated over aerofoil each one giving different information
surfaces and how about complex subjects.
atmospheric parameters One document must be at least 1000
affect lift and drag force words long.
generation
• describing the basic forces
and force couples that act on
an aircraft during straight
and level flight
• describing the operation of
primary controls, secondary
controls and lift
augmentation devices
• explaining the effects on the
air flowing over aerodynamic
surfaces when travelling at
subsonic and supersonic
speeds
• describing how a normal
shock wave is first formed
and the result on the airflow
and subsequently the aircraft
• explaining how lateral static
stability is improved using
wing dihedral and sweepback
and how longitudinal and
directional static stability
improvements are achieved
using horizontal stabilisers
and fin/keel surface.

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Unit 4: Principles and Applications of

Aerospace Mechanical Science
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The study of physical science is essential for all those who wish to understand the
underlying principles and ways in which aircraft engineering systems function. This
unit has been designed to build knowledge and understanding of aircraft mechanical,
fluid and thermodynamic systems. It will prove useful for those engaged in the
manufacture and maintenance of aircraft structures and mechanical systems.
Learners will apply their knowledge to the static loads imposed on aircraft jointed
structures and the effect of load distribution on aircraft weight and balance. Aircraft
dynamic and rotating systems are also covered, with an opportunity to apply dynamic
principles to aircraft motor, gearbox and lifting equipment parameters as well as
looking at the loads imposed on airframes during flight manoeuvres. Fluid principles
concerned with external and internal fluid flows are covered and applied to flow over
aerofoil surfaces and through wind tunnels and piped systems.
Finally, learners will study the thermodynamic principles that will enable them to
understand practical reciprocating piston and aircraft gas turbine engine cycles.
This unit will be of benefit not only to learners studying at BTEC National level but
also those following an apprenticeship in aircraft manufacture or maintenance, as
well as those undergoing aircraft engineering training with the armed forces. The
unit also provides some of the underpinning knowledge required for those taking, the
European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 examinations.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine forces and stresses in static
aircraft engineering systems
2 Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine the parameters of aircraft
dynamic and rotating systems
3 Be able to apply fluid principles to determine the parameters of aircraft fluid
flows
4 Know how to apply thermodynamic principles to determine the parameters of
aircraft thermodynamic systems.

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Unit content

1 Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine forces and stresses in

static aircraft engineering systems

Forces and stress: coplanar system of forces; simply supported beams, eg

concentrated load, uniformly distributed load, reactions; stress, eg direct, shear
Mechanical principles: resolution of forces; conditions for static equilibrium;
expressions, eg direct stress, strain, stress in components subject to single and
double shear; factor of safety
Static aircraft engineering systems: aircraft weight and balance (fuselage as a
simply supported beam, centre of gravity(CG), reaction at main and nose wheels);
∑ mn xn m1 x1
providing CG estimates, eg x = , dx = ± , point and distributive
MT MT
aircraft loads, payload distribution and effect on CG; aircraft fastened joints eg
riveted, bolted, hinge pins

2 Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine the parameters of aircraft

dynamic and rotating systems

Parameters: kinetic, eg angular displacement, uniform circular motion, velocity

and acceleration, centrifugal/centripetal acceleration, manoeuvre angle and
radius, effort and load motion; dynamic, eg radius of gyration, moment of inertia,
applied torque, mechanical work, rotational kinetic energy, momentum, power,
centrifugal/centripetal force, load and effort force, mechanical advantage,
efficiency
Mechanical principles: kinetic and dynamic equations and expressions, eg uniform
circular motion ( ω2 = ω1 + α t , θ = ω1t + 1 2 α t 2 , ω2 2 = ω12 + 2αθ , θ = 1 2 (ω1 + ω2 )t ),
moment of inertia I = mk 2 , KE = 1 2 I ω 2 , power of rotating machine =T ω ;
principle of the conservation of energy; expressions for centripetal acceleration
2 2
and force ( a = ω 2 or a = v and Fc = mω 2 r or Fc = mv ); lifting system
r r
principles (velocity ratio, mechanical advantage, efficiency)
Aircraft dynamic and rotating systems: eg aircraft manoeuvres (such as steady
turn, pull out from a dive, loop, take-off, landing and taxing), aircraft rotating
machinery (such as flywheel, gearbox, aircraft control torque tubes, control
rods), aircraft lifting systems (such as helicopter winch, aircraft lifting screw
jack, trestles, engine hoists, pulley systems)

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3 Be able to apply fluid principles to determine the parameters of aircraft fluid

flows

Parameters: atmospheric (pressure, temperature, temperature lapse rate,

density, standard sea level values, the international standard atmosphere (ISA),
troposphere); fluid motion eg pressure, velocity, viscosity, laminar and turbulent
flow, Reynold’s number, boundary layer, transition point
Fluid principles: gas laws for gas pressure, volume, density and temperature
p1V1 pV p p2
( pV = c , = 2 2 , 1
T1 T2 ρ1T1 = ρ 2T2 ); equation for temperature lapse
rate ( Th = T0 + Lh ); equations of continuity (Q = A1v1 = A2v2, m = ρ1A1v1 = ρ2A2v2);
Bernoulli’s theorem for incompressible flow ( p1 + 12 ρ v12 = p2 + 12 ρ v2 2 = C );
Bernoulli’s and Reynold’s equations eg mgh1 + 12 mv12 + p1V1 = mgh2 + 12 mv2 2 + p2V2 ,
v12 p1 v2 2 p2 ρVl
h1 + + = h2 + + , ρ gh1 + 12 ρ v12 + p1 = ρ gh2 + 12 ρ v2 2 + p2 , Re =
2g ρ g 2g ρ g μ
ρVd
external flow, Re = internal flow
μ
Aircraft fluid flows: eg airflow pressures, density and velocities through wind
tunnel sections, internal and external flows (such as laminar and turbulent flows
through piped systems and over aerofoil surfaces)

4 Know how to apply thermodynamic principles to determine the parameters of

aircraft thermodynamic systems

Parameters: fundamental parameters (thermodynamic temperature, heat energy,

heat flow, specific heat capacity at constant volume and constant pressure, ratio
of specific heats, enthalpy); thermodynamic system parameters (working fluid,
heat source, system boundaries, closed system, open system); thermodynamic
process parameters eg reversible/irreversible, constant volume, constant
pressure, isothermal, polytropic, reversible adiabatic

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Thermodynamic principles: laws eg first law of thermodynamics applied to a

closed system, non flow energy equation (NFEE) Q − W = ΔU , further
thermodynamic laws and equations [such as steady flow energy equation (SFEE)
Q − W = (U 2 − U1 ) + p2V 2 − p1V1 ) + (mgz2 − mgz1 ) + ( 12 mv2 2 − 12 mv12 ) ,
Q − W = (h2 − h1 ) + ( gz2 − gz1 ) + ( 12 v2 2 − 12 v12 ) , pV = mRT (characteristic gas), gas
processes ( pV = c isothermal, pV n = c polytropic, pV γ = c isentropic), second
law of thermodynamics (Qin − Qout = Wnet ) , thermal energy, power and efficiency
Qin − Qout
equations ( Q = mcΔt thermal power Q = m(h2 – h1) heat engine η = ,
Qin
1 2 2

aircraft gas turbine thermodynamic efficiency nT = 2 m(V j – V a

and
FC
2
propulsive efficiency η P = )]
Vj
1+
Va
Aircraft thermodynamic systems: piston engines eg Otto cycle, practical four-
stroke cycle, p-V diagrams, thermal efficiencies; gas turbine engines eg Brayton
cycle, practical cycle, T-s diagrams, thermal efficiency, propulsive efficiency

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 determine the magnitude and direction M1 determine the centre of gravity and D1 determine required kinetic and dynamic
of the resultant and equilibrant of a changes to the centre of gravity parameters of an aircraft rotary winch
coplanar force system containing a respectively for an aircraft with a given system that combines a motor, gearbox
minimum of three non-right-angled set of six point loads, one distributive and drum wheel to accelerate a load
forces load and one point load change condition linearly to a constant velocity against
the effects of inertia
P2 state the conditions for static M2 explain the formation of the boundary
equilibrium and for an aircraft treated as layer and its effect on fluid flow over an D2 using the thermal energy, power and
a simple supported beam in static aerofoil and using the Reynold’s efficiency equations, determine heat
equilibrium, determine the centre of equations with given set parameters, transfer, power transfer and efficiency
gravity from a datum, given the determine whether for both an internal parameters for an aircraft turbojet gas
reactions and distances of the aircraft piped flow and external aerofoil flow the turbine engine.
wheels from the datum fluid is laminar or turbulent
P3 determine the shear stress in the rivets M3 solve two problems for each required
of a typical aircraft sheet metal riveted thermodynamic parameter, that involve
joint in both single and double shear the use of the SFEE equation and the use
and, from given appropriate values, find of two different gas process equations.
the factor of safety in operation in each
case

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P4 define centripetal acceleration,
centripetal force and manoeuvre angle
and determine the required kinetic and
dynamic parameters for an aircraft
subject to three different manoeuvres
P5 calculate the velocity ratio, mechanical
advantage and efficiency of a simple
aircraft lifting screw jack for given initial
conditions
P6 use the gas laws and temperature lapse
rate equations to find atmospheric
parameters at altitude in the
troposphere, given the necessary ISA
sea-level values
P7 use the continuity equations and
Bernoulli theorem and equations to
calculate from given parameters, the
flow rates, velocity changes and pressure
changes that occur in the airflow as it
passes through a wind-tunnel of varying
cross-section

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 solve two problems for required
fundamental parameters that involves
the use of each of the equations for
thermal energy, a characteristic gas and
the first law applied to non-flow systems
P9 define, stating units where appropriate,
all fundamental and thermodynamic
system parameters and three
thermodynamic process parameters and
explain the first law of thermodynamics
applied to an open gas turbine engine
cycle.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit extends the ideas and concepts found in Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and
Applications which is an essential prerequisite.
The unit focuses on the aircraft engineering applications of scientific principles and
therefore the unit may be best delivered by science tutors that have an aerospace
engineering background.
Learners often find the concepts presented in this unit difficult, particularly the
learning outcomes concerned with fluids and thermodynamics. Therefore, tutors
should be aware of the additional time that may be necessary to successfully deliver
learning outcomes 3 and 4.
The order in which the learning outcomes are taught may vary from centre to centre.
However, as there is some synergy between statics and dynamics, learning
outcomes 1 and 2 could be taught first and sequentially. Learning outcomes 3 and 4
could then be delivered, again sequentially, as the content covering fluids
complements thermodynamics. In this way learners will have time to acquire the
mathematical and scientific competence needed for learning outcomes 3 and 4.
When delivering learning outcome 1, emphasis should be placed on the relationship
between the loading of a simply supported beam and that of the aircraft fuselage,
where the supports may represent the aircraft wheels. The theory can then easily be
applied to aircraft weight and balance. The application of the resolution of coplanar
forces may not be so apparent, as the ability to resolve coplanar forces is not applied
until aircraft manoeuvre loads are determined in learning outcome 2. The application
of the principles concerned with stress and strain can easily and naturally be applied
to examples involving aircraft riveted and bolted joints.
When delivering the kinetic and dynamic parameters and mechanical principles in
learning outcome 2, initial emphasis should be placed on those associated with
aircraft flight manoeuvres. For example, centrifugal/centripetal acceleration and
force and manoeuvre angle and radius, together with those concerned with lifting
machines, are necessary for learners to achieve the related pass criteria. The
remaining parameters and principles provide the understanding necessary to apply
them to aircraft rotating machinery and coupled systems, which is assessed at
distinction level.

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When delivering learning outcome 3, emphasis should initially be placed on the

parameters and gas laws that are directly associated with the atmosphere in which
aircraft fly. An understanding of the nature and use of the ISA should be covered,
including the significance of the tropopause and the way in which temperature,
pressure and density vary with altitude. The significance of the continuity equation
and Bernoulli’s theorem and equations with respect to internal flow pressure and
velocity changes also need to be covered. Learners’ understanding of internal and
external flows will be significantly enhanced if they can use equipment such as wind
tunnels, Bernoulli apparatus and flow and velocity measurement instruments. An
understanding of the nature and use of Reynold’s equations, in particular to
determine laminar and turbulent flow, is needed if learners are to attempt the merit
grading criteria.
For learning outcome 4 tutors are advised to spend some time ensuring that learners
fully understand the thermodynamic parameters detailed in the unit content. Many of
these parameters will be totally unfamiliar to learners yet they will need a thorough
understanding of them if they are to successfully use and apply the thermodynamic
laws and equations. The application of the first law to closed systems and the use of
the characteristic gas equation, particularly with respect to establishing closed
system parameters, should also be emphasised. The law can then be extended to
cover open systems.
Learners will need an understanding of the significance of the NFEE and SFEE,
together with knowledge of the perfect closed and open thermodynamic system
cycles in order to apply this knowledge to real thermodynamic cycles for aircraft
piston and gas turbine engines.
In order that learners have the appropriate knowledge to tackle the distinction
grading criteria, they will need to be taught the significance of polytropic and
isentropic processes and their relationship to isentropic efficiency. They will also
need to be familiar with aircraft gas turbine thermal energy and efficiency equations.
It is strongly suggested that this learning outcome is revisited with those learners who
are able and wish to attempt the distinction criteria in order to cover these more
advanced topics.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The criteria for learning outcome 1 on static aircraft systems might best be assessed
using a mixture of practical and theoretical tasks. For P1 calculations could be based
on data from an experiment involving force boards. If an aircraft and suitable
weighing units are available, the theoretical calculations required for P2 could be
taken from practically gained data, as could the changes in the centre of gravity with
changing load conditions. Alternatively, evidence of attainment of P2 and M1 could
be obtained from theoretical written questions. A suitable tensile testing machine
may be used to establish the shear stress in riveted joints (P3), for both single and
double shear, or again theoretical written questions could provide appropriate
evidence of achievement.

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A similar approach could be adopted to assess learning outcome 2. Although a purely

theoretical approach to assessment could be used, practical work can help motivate
learners. For example, centrifugal force apparatus could be used to show the nature
of centripetal and centrifugal accelerations and forces (P4). This practical approach
might be backed up with further evidence from written questions concerned with
aircraft manoeuvres. Evidence of achievement of P5 could again be provided from
calculations based on data from an experiment that involved the use of screw jack
machines.
Evidence of achievement of D1 might come from a practical and/or theoretical
investigation into ‘coupled systems’ with given parameters, for example a helicopter
rotary winching system. Learners would therefore need to investigate and understand
inertia loads, torque and power parameters of such a system and their interaction,
before being able to complete this part of the assignment.
Assessment evidence for P6 is probably best obtained from written theoretical
questions. For P7 the continuity and Bernoulli equations could be used to establish
and/or verify flow rates and velocities of fluid flow, obtained from the Bernoulli
apparatus or a closed section wind-tunnel. Appropriate flow and velocity measuring
devices would need to be used such as digital velocity meters, the orifice meter,
float meter and venture meter. If this apparatus is not available then evidence will
need to be provided from written exercises although, as above, learners may be more
motivated if they use practical apparatus.
Evidence for M2 could be obtained from a set of written questions designed to assess
learners’ understanding of Reynold’s number and its significance in determining the
dynamic parameters for fluids flowing through piped systems and over aerofoil
sections. Learners’ understanding of the importance of the boundary layer and its
control needs to be emphasised in any such assignment.
The grading criteria for learning outcome 4 are best assessed by completing two
separate assignments. The first assignment covering P8 and P9 could use problems
involving the use of equations concerned with thermal energy, characteristic gas
parameters and the first law applied to closed system (P8). Further questions on the
fundamental and thermodynamic system parameters and the application of the first
law to aircraft piston and gas turbine engines could be set to assess P9.
An investigative assignment could then provide opportunities to achieve M3 and D2.
To achieve M3 series of tasks could be used to provide evidence of learners’
understanding of the use of the SFEE and gas process equations, such as polytropic,
isothermal and isentropic processes. Further tasks could then show a thorough
knowledge of isentropic and propulsive efficiencies, together with power and heat
transfer through the gas generator components of an aircraft gas turbine engine, for
D2.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit extends and applies many of the concepts presented in the prerequisite
Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and Applications.
The unit has strong links with Unit 71: Theory of Flight and the two units can be
delivered together. This unit will also act as a sound foundation for the further study
of aerospace mechanical science and thermofluid dynamics at BTEC Higher National
level.
This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
European Aerospace Safety Agency (EASA) aircraft maintenance licence EASA-Part 66
examination, Module 2, Physics.
In addition the unit will provide some useful underpinning knowledge and
understanding associated with the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in
Aeronautical Engineering.

Essential resources

Like all science, much of the delivery of this unit cannot be achieved successfully
without learners being directly involved in practical experimentation. Therefore, as a
minimum centres will need to provide easy access to the following equipment:
• mechanical laboratory equipment such as force boards, tensile testers, screw
jacks, winches, turntable apparatus
• Bernoulli fluid flow apparatus plus flow rate and velocity measuring equipment
• closed section wind tunnel with velocity and flow measurement equipment.

Indicative reading for learners

Bird J — Science for Engineering (Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750657774

Bolton W — Engineering Science (Newnes 2001) ISBN 0750652594
Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Engineering Principles (Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004) ISBN 075065015X

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using the continuity N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
equations and Bernoulli information from relevant sources.
theorem and equations to N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
calculate the flow rates, stage calculations to do with:
velocity changes and
pressure changes that occur a amounts or sizes
in the airflow as it passes b scales or proportion
through a wind-tunnel of
c handling statistics
varying cross-section.
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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 UNIT 5: METALLIC AIRCRAFT MATERIALS, STRUCTURES AND REPAIR

Unit 5: Metallic Aircraft Materials,

Structures and Repair
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
An understanding of materials is a fundamental requirement for those wishing to
work as aircraft technicians. The particular problems associated with the properties,
selection, repair and maintenance of aircraft materials, which are subjected to
differing forces and environments, needs to be understood. Those specialising in the
mechanical area of aerospace engineering also need to gain the practical skills
associated with the maintenance and repair of aircraft materials and airframe
structures.
This unit will give learners an understanding of metallic materials and structures
together with an introduction to the practical skills necessary to practice as an
aircraft mechanical technician.
The unit will introduce learners to the effect of metallic materials’ microstructure
and processing on the parent material. The methods used for the construction of
typical metal airframes and airframe components will be looked at, including the
ways in which airframe structures are designed to minimise the effects of corrosion
and fatigue damage. Both destructive and non-destructive testing methods will be
covered and the reasons for both fully explained.
Finally, learners will be able to carry out selected practical tasks associated with the
repair and replacement of metallic structures such as riveting exercises, simple
aircraft skin repairs and fastener repairs or replacement.
Along with Unit 79: Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair, this
unit provides some of the knowledge required for learners wishing to progress on to
the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements. It will
also benefit those seeking employment within the armed forces or the aircraft
manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the effect of microstructure and processing on the macroscopic
properties of aircraft metallic materials
2 Understand the general concepts and construction of airframe metallic structures
3 Understand how metallic structural properties and defects are determined using
destructive and non-destructive testing techniques
4 Know how to carry out metallic repairs on aircraft structures or structural
components.

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Unit content

1 Understand the effect of microstructure and processing on the macroscopic

properties of aircraft metallic materials

Metallic materials and properties: mechanical properties eg density, strength,

stiffness/elasticity, specific strength, specific stiffness, hardness, brittleness,
ductility, malleability; other properties eg heat resistance, expansivity,
conductivity, resistivity, permeability, durability, passivity, ease of fabrication
and manufacture; ferrous and non-ferrous alloys eg steels, aluminium, titanium,
lithium, magnesium; alloying elements eg iron, aluminium, titanium, copper,
tungsten, nickel, chromium, lithium, magnesium, cadmium
Microstructure: atomic lattice packing (body-centred cubic (BCC), face centre
cubic (FCC), closed packed hexagonal (CPH)); features of grain structure eg
formation, boundary, size, crystal defects (such as point, line or dislocation,
planar), slip planes; effect of lattice packing on ductility and brittleness of parent
material
Processing: effects on parent material eg aluminium alloy, lithium alloy, titanium
alloy, steel; cold working eg rolling, cladding, drawing, forging; process annealing
for copper alloys

2 Understand the general concepts and construction of metallic airframe

structures

General concepts: structural type classification (primary, secondary, tertiary,

failsafe, safe-life and damage tolerant); elementary design methods to prevent
corrosion eg drains, structural ventilation, provision for run-off, correct selection
of metals, barrier methods, sacrificial anode; corrosion types eg surface, crevice
intercrystalline, bimetallic, exfoliation, pitting, fretting, corrosion fatigue;
surface corrosion protection methods eg chromating, anodising, painting and
surface cleaning
Airframe construction: primary fuselage components (stressed skin, formers,
frames, longerons, stringers, doublers); primary wing components (ribs, stringers,
spars, stressed skin); other fuselage structural components eg floor panels,
bulkheads, undercarriage attachment, pressure seals, seats, doors, windows,
transparencies; other wing structural components eg integral construction, fuel
tanks, milled sections, wing boxes; other aircraft structural components eg
ailerons, flaps, slats, rudder, lift augmenters, tail plane, empennage, fore plane,
engine mounts, firewalls, nacelles, pylons

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3 Understand how metallic structural properties and defects are determined

using destructive and non-destructive testing techniques

Structural defects: failures (ductile, brittle, creep); identification and nature of

other defects eg surface and internal flaws, fatigue damage, stress corrosion
cracking, damage to surface finish, accidental damage, design methods to limit
defects (such as doubler plates, butt plates, alternative load paths, jointing
compounds, cold rolling, surface hardening, drain holes, materials selection)
Property and defect testing techniques: destructive testing methods eg tensile,
impact, toughness, hardness, fatigue; non-destructive testing methods eg eye,
torch, probe light, boroscope, hand-held hardness tester, dye penetrant, eddy
current, ultrasonic, radiography, thermography

4 Know how to carry out metallic repairs on aircraft structures or structural

components

Repair: riveting techniques and practice eg marking out, metal removal, rivet
removal and fit, riveting exercises with use of jointing compounds, simple light
alloy sheet metal bending, patch and insert repair exercises, cowling fastener
replacement, panel fastener replacement, wire-insert removal and fit, pneumatic
broaching; rivet types eg solid, Chobert, Avdel, pull through, self-plugging,
cherry, rivnuts, Jo-bolts; national standards eg manufacturers’ repair manuals, air
publication 101 series repair manuals (service), Health and Safety at Work Act
1974, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002, Civil
Aviation Authority (CAA) and European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) regulations
Repair theory: aircraft metal repair standards; related theory for rivet and light
alloy types eg identification, rivet spacing, rivet land, pitch, tolerance and
allowance, sheet metal bend allowance calculations, patch and insert repair
layouts

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the mechanical and other M1 compare and contrast the mechanical D1 carry out a metal insert repair that
properties of two alloys that make them and other properties of steel alloys, requires metal bending and bend
suitable for airframe skin manufacture titanium alloys and magnesium alloys allowance calculations to an airframe
and give two examples of the best use of structure, to required national
P2 explain how BCC, FCC and CPH lattice
each of these alloys in aircraft standards.
packing and features of grain structure
production
affect the ductility and brittleness of
parent metallic materials M2 explain the construction methods used to
form integral box-sections and detail the
P3 describe the effect of cold working on a
advantages of this type of construction
given parent material and explain why it
when used for integral fuel tanks
is necessary to process anneal copper
alloys after cold working M3 describe two design methods used to
limit the amount of fatigue damage
P4 describe the six types of structural
incurred by aircraft structures.
classification and explain the relative
importance of each of these types
P5 describe two design methods used to
prevent airframe corrosion and describe
three different types of corrosion and
one corrosion protection method

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe and state the function of all
primary structural fuselage and wing
components and two each of other
fuselage, other wing and other aircraft
structural components
P7 identify and describe the nature of
ductile, brittle and creep failure of
aircraft structural components
P8 carry out a destructive and a non-
destructive test to identify the
mechanical properties and defects
respectively in each of two different
specimen aircraft metallic materials
P9 carry out a simple light alloy riveted
repair to given laid-down standards
P10 describe the repair theory for a simple
light alloy riveted repair carried out to
national standards.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit will give learners a through understanding of aircraft metallic materials,
their use in aircraft construction, and the maintenance and repair of aircraft
structures. Delivery will need to include the underpinning knowledge and skills,
probably using both a classroom and workshop environment. Health and safety issues
should be emphasised throughout and appropriate manufacturers’ and operators’
manuals and other essential standards should be complied with.
When delivering the unit content on structures and properties, emphasis should be
placed on the packing of lattice structures and the effect of such packing (variation
in slip planes) on the brittleness/ductility of the parent alloys. In addition, variation
in dislocation density and its relation to strength and hardness should also be
emphasised, particularly as a result of cold working. The restriction of dislocation
movement at the grain boundary and the effects on this movement due to alloying
should also be covered. When delivering process annealing for copper alloys it would
be useful for learners to have knowledge of other heat treatment processes such as
normalising, hardening and tempering.
The nature and types of corrosion and corrosion prevention methods should also be
covered but only in a qualitative sense.
The amount of time spent on construction and construction methods, as opposed to
maintenance and repair techniques, will depend on the cohort being taught. For
example, emphasis should be placed on the former for those engaged in aircraft
manufacturing activities and on the latter for those wanting to enter aircraft
maintenance engineering.
All learners should be made aware of typical aircraft structural defects and damage
that result, in particular, from corrosion and fatigue. They will also need to
understand airframe design methods (in a qualitative sense) used to minimise such
damage. Learners should also be able to select appropriate non-destructive and
destructive testing techniques for a particular purpose, carry out a selection of such
techniques and interpret the results.
The time spent on airframe repair practice and the underlying theory may vary
according to the needs of the cohort and the availability of materials, structures,
fixtures and fittings. However, as a minimum learners should have opportunities to
be involved in the following aspects of sheet metal work: marking out, drilling, filing,
light alloy joining using solid rivets, rivet removal and fitting, blind riveting using lazy
tongues or similar. The removal and broaching of other rivet types such as chobert,
avdel and jo-bolts using pneumatic broaching equipment would also be beneficial.

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Assessment

This unit could be assessed through four assignments.

The criteria covering learning outcome 1 (P1, P2, P3 and M1) are probably best
assessed using a theoretical assignment or a formal written assessment.
P4, P5, P6 and M2 cover learning outcome 2 and are concerned with the concepts and
construction of aircraft airframes and their associated components. Again, an
assignment or formal written assessment would probably be the best means of
assessing these criteria. If centres wish to assess the pass criteria before starting the
additional learning needed to meet M2, it is suggested that P4, P5 and P6 are best
covered by formal written assessment and M2 by an investigative assignment.
Criteria P7, P8 and M3 cover the requirements of learning outcome 3. Criteria P7 and
M3 are best covered by an assignment or formal written assessment where questions
associated with the various modes of failure would need to be answered.
P8 will require learners to complete a non-destructive and a destructive test and
report their findings. If equipment is limited it is suggested that as a minimum a
standard tensile test and simple dye-penetrant technique are used. Learners would
benefit if some form of ultrasonic or eddy current equipment could be used for
assessment of the non-destructive test. As well as results from these tests, further
evidence could be in the form of witness statements/observation records
supplemented by annotated photographs.
Criteria P9, P10 and D1 cover learning outcome 4. P9 will need to be assessed
through a practical exercise in which learners produce a piece of work that complies
with the standards laid down by the centre. The repair carried out should not involve
metal bending. Assessment of the repair should be based on dimensional accuracy,
correct marking out and rivet tolerance, allowance, land and pitch, as well as the
correct broaching of rivets used in the repair. Evidence could be in the form of
witness statements/observation records supplemented by annotated photographs. A
written task needs to be set requiring learners to describe the theory associated with
the repair (P10).
For D1, learners would be expected to work directly from the appropriate repair
manual or air publication. They will need to complete a metal repair that requires
sheet metal bending skills and meets the standards laid down in the repair manual,
air publication or other recognised sources. Again, evidence is likely to come from
witness statements/observation records supplemented by annotated photographs.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit acts as a prerequisite for Unit 76: Aircraft Maintenance Practices. It can
also be linked to Unit 70: Aircraft Workshop Principles and Unit 75: Non-metallic
Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair.
The unit also contributes towards the knowledge content of modules 6 and 7 in the
EASA Part-66 syllabus.

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Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to destructive and non-destructive testing

equipment. Ideally this will include tensile, hardness, toughness, creep and fatigue
testing. Learners will also need access to some form of non-destructive testing
equipment such as a dye penetrant kit, ultrasonic test or eddy current test
equipment.
Light alloy sheet metal, rivets and riveting equipment, aircraft structural components
and/or airframes, aircraft panels and cowlings complete with fasteners will also need
to be provided.

Indicative reading for learners

Black B — Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials (Newnes, 2004)

ISBN 0750660732
Bolton W — Materials for Engineering (Newnes, 2000) ISBN 0750648554
Crane D — Airframe Volume 1: Structures (Aviation Supplies and Academics, 2001)
ISBN 1560273399

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out destructive N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
testing exercises and information from relevant sources.
collating and interpreting the N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
results of such tests to stage calculations to do with:
establish material properties
a amounts or sizes
• carrying out a simple light
b scales or proportion
alloy riveted repair to given
laid-down standards. c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing mechanical and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
other properties of alloys least two documents about the same
that make them suitable for subject.
aircraft airframe skin Each document must be a minimum of
manufacture 1000 words long.
• explaining how BCC, FCC and C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
CPH lattice packing and each one giving different information
features of grain structure about complex subjects.
affect the ductility and
One document must be at least 1000
brittleness of metallic words long.
materials
• describing the effect of cold
working on a parent material
and explaining why it is
necessary to process anneal
copper alloys
• describing the six types of
structural classification and
explaining their relative
importance
• describing and stating the
function of all primary
structural fuselage and wing
components and two each of
other fuselage, wing and
aircraft structural
components
• describing the repair theory
for a simple light alloy
riveted repair.

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Unit 6: Non-metallic Aircraft Materials,

Manufacture and Repair
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
An understanding of materials is a fundamental requirement for those wishing to
practice as aircraft engineering technicians. In particular, there is a need to
recognise the characteristics and know about structurally efficient materials. The
need for materials that maximise strength and stiffness and minimise weight is a key
criterion when selecting them for aircraft engineering applications.
This unit is concerned with the use of non-metallic materials, particularly polymers,
elastomers and polymer matrix composites. These materials exhibit the key qualities
of strength, rigidity (stiffness) and lightness that are necessary for producing a
structurally efficient aircraft airframe.
The unit will introduce learners to the microstructure, properties and characteristics
of aircraft non-metallic materials. Learners will gain an understanding of the
methods used in the manufacture and repair of aircraft non-metallic structures and
components and the use of adhesive bonding for composite manufacture and repair.
The means of identifying defects in aircraft non-metallic materials, particularly in
polymer matrix composite materials is also covered, with emphasise being placed on
the types of non-destructive tests that may be used to identify such defects.
Throughout the whole of this unit, aspects of safety associated with non-metallic
materials are also emphasised, particularly with respect to the handling and care of
solvents, adhesives and sealants, used for manufacture and repair.
Along with Unit 78: Metallic Materials, Structures and Repairs, this unit provides some
of the knowledge required for learners wishing to progress to the European Aviation
Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements. It will also benefit those seeking
employment within the armed forces or the aircraft manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the microstructure, properties, use and characteristics of non-
metallic materials
2 Understand how composite structures and components are manufactured and
repaired
3 Know about adhesives, sealants and bonding techniques used in aircraft
manufacture and repair
4 Understand how non-destructive tests are used to determine defects in non-
metallic aircraft structures.

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Unit content

1 Know about the structure, properties, use and characteristics of non-metallic

materials

Structure, properties, use and characteristics of polymers and composites:

microstructure of polymers (thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers); structural
make-up of glass fibre reinforced plastic (GFRP), ceramic matrix composite
(CMC), polymer matrix composite (PMC) and metal matrix composite (MMC)
materials; properties and use of composite material reinforcing fibres, matrix and
core materials eg strength, stiffness/elasticity, specific strength and stiffness,
toughness, ductility, fatigue resistance; characteristics of composites eg
directional and non-directional strength and stiffness in tension, compression,
shear and bending, cost, environmental degradation, weathering, ageing,
reaction to ultra-violet light, heat and chemical attack; use and identification of
reinforcing fibres and cloths (such as glass cloth, aromatic-polyamide
aramid/Kevlar, boron, ceramic fibres), matrix materials (such as thermosets,
thermoplastics, metals) and core materials (such as paper and metal honeycomb,
balsawood, Styrofoam, methane foam, pvc foam, strux/cellulose acetate)
Types, structure and characteristics of wood: types and structure of wood eg Sitka
spruce, balsa, Douglas fir, Western Hemlock, Birch plywood; characteristics of wood
eg cost, inconsistent grain structure, strength variation, rot, disease, knots

2 Understand how composite structures and components are manufactured and

repaired

Manufacture: methods eg compression moulding, vacuum bag moulding, resin

transfer moulding, filament winding, pre-impregnated material wet lay-up,
pultrusion process, resin film infusion, sandwich construction, cutting and
machining of cured composites, finishing; associated safety eg materials data
sheets, personal safety with chemicals and matrix materials, solvent use and
safety (methyl-ethyl-ketone, acetone), personal safety while machining cured
Repair: procedure for non-patch and patch repairs eg resin injection (potting or
filling), delamination injection, heat treatment, surface coating, bonded external
patch, bonded scarf, bonded flush, bolted external patch; associated safety eg
materials data sheets, personal safety with chemicals and matrix materials,
solvent use and safety (such as methyl-ethyl-ketone, acetone), personal safety
while cutting and drilling

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3 Know about adhesives, sealants and bonding techniques used in aircraft

manufacture and repair

Adhesives and sealants: general types of adhesive eg thermoset, thermoplastic

polymers, elastomers, wood glues, epoxy resins, phenolic resins, redux; adhesive
safety and service conditions; general types of sealant eg silicones, bedding
sealants, Thiokol (PRC), room temperature vulcanising (RTV) sealants, Pro-seal PR
1440; use and characteristics of adhesives and sealants eg heat activated, solvent
activated, impact activated, solvent cement
Bonding techniques: pre treatments and surface preparation eg moisture
removal, potting surface of adherents, solvent wipe, surface roughening; curing
eg activation systems, moisture curing, uv-light, anerobic reaction, anionic curing
(cyanoacrylates); bonding safety and service conditions

4 Understand how non-destructive tests are used to determine defects in non-

metallic aircraft structures

Material defects: cause and identification of typical defects eg structural, impact,

foreign object, delamination, disbond, void, contamination, water ingress, wood
defects (such as knots, decay, rot, heart shake, ring shake, dote disease)
Non-destructive testing techniques: use and procedure eg tap test, visual
inspection, thermography, acoustic emission, ultrasonics, radiography (x-ray,
gamma-ray)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the differences in the M1 compare and contrast the properties and D1 produce a bonded flush repair procedure
microstructure of thermosets, characteristics of PMC and GFRP and for a given damaged composite aircraft
thermoplastics and elastomers and state two appropriate aircraft uses for component, detailing the requirements
describe the structural make up of GFRP, each of these materials, giving your before, during and after repair and all
CMC, PMC and MMC materials reasons why necessary safety precautions for handling
repair materials
P2 describe the properties and M2 select one appropriate adhesive/sealant
characteristics and explain the use for for an aircraft fuel tank, based on its D2 explain the differences in the procedures
three different reinforcing fibres, three characteristics, and select an used to produce the penetrating rays and
matrix materials and three core appropriate bonding technique, giving the physical set up for X-ray radiography
materials used in the production of reasons for your choices and Gamma-ray radiography and detail
aircraft composite structures one use for each process.
M3 compare the set-up and on/off aircraft
P3 identify three different types of wood use of the acoustic emission and
and explain how the particular ultrasonic test-set non-destructive
characteristics of wood have made it examination processes.
both suitable and unsuitable for aircraft
construction

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P4 explain why, apart from costs, specific
strength and specific stiffness are two of
the most important properties for
aircraft materials
P5 explain the different methods used and
detail the associated safety precautions
necessary for the manufacture of three
different composite
structures/components
P6 explain the procedures used and detail
the related safety precautions associated
with two non-patch and two patch
repairs to composite
structure/components
P7 describe the characteristics and use of
two adhesives and two sealants and
detail the appropriate safety precautions
associated with the use and storage of
these materials
P8 describe two pre-treatments/surface
preparations and two curing methods for
bonded joints, detailing the associated
safety precautions and service conditions
for adhesive bonding

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 UNIT 6: NON-METALLIC AIRCRAFT MATERIALS, MANUFACTURE AND REPAIR

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P9 identify and state the cause of five
separate defects associated with non-
metallic aircraft structures
P10 describe the procedure and explain a use
for the tap test, thermographic and
radiographic inspections of non-metallic
aircraft structure/components.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should be designed to give learners a thorough understanding of

aircraft non-metallic materials, particularly the properties and characteristics that
make these materials especially suited for aircraft structural applications.
When delivering the unit content associated with the microstructure, properties and
characteristics of non-metallic materials, emphasis should be placed on polymers,
glass fibre reinforced plastics and polymer matrix composites as these are the most
commonly. Wood has been included for those who expect or have a career in general
aviation, where wood for light aircraft is still used as a practical alternative to the
more common metals and fibre reinforced composite materials.
All the properties given as examples are important, although emphasis should be
placed on specific strength and stiffness, toughness and fatigue resistance. The
characteristics of carbon fibres, matrix materials and wood should also be covered
and comparisons made with their metallic counterparts.
The amount of time spent on manufacturing methods as opposed to composite
structural repairs will depend on whether the cohort is predominantly engaged in
aircraft manufacturing activities or aircraft maintenance engineering. In both cases
there should be sufficient coverage to meet the grading criteria.
Centres should give learners the opportunity to practice manufacturing and repair
procedures such as lay-up methods or the use of a hot-box or autoclave whenever
possible.
There are a great number of adhesives and sealants currently being used in aircraft
manufacture and repair examples of each type should again reflect the needs of
learners. Emphasis should be placed on the related safety precautions to be followed
when handling, using and disposing of adhesives and sealants. When considering
bonding and bonding techniques the importance of surface preparation should be
emphasised, including the additional difficulties that need to be overcome when
undertaking bonded field repairs.
When looking at the typical defects associated with non-metallic materials, their
identification (through use of illustration or actual components) is of equal
importance to establishing their cause. This will enable learners to decide on the
best course of remedial action to be taken during manufacture or repair.
The non-destructive testing normally associated with composite non-metallic
materials involves (apart from the tap test and visual inspection) the use of complex
equipment and highly skilled operators. Learners’ experience will be enhanced if
they are able to carry out practical exercises using such equipment or at least
observe the equipment in use. As a minimum, all learners should be taught the tap
test and, if possible, use boroscope equipment or similar to assess surface damage to
polymer matrix composite structure.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

The criteria covering learning outcome 1 (P1 to P4 and M1) are probably best
assessed using a formal written assessment. This assessment would require learners
to describe the differences in the microstructure of plastics and elastomers as well as
describing the components that go to make up the major classes of composite
materials, used in aircraft manufacture and repair (P1).
In order to satisfy P2, space should be provided on the assignment for learners to
describe the properties and explain the use/s of the materials concerned.
For the identification part of P3, a set of photographs or actual pieces of different
woods could be provided for learners to correctly identify.
For P4, questions should be set that require learners to define specific strength and
specific stiffness and through the units for these properties also identify how they are
a measure of the structural efficiency of these materials.
Questions to achieve M1 should be set in such a way that they require not only a
comparison of strength and stiffness characteristics for these two materials but also
toughness and fatigue strength to be compared. The use to which GFRP may be put
will also depend on the glass fibre used in its construction, for example S or E glass,
the latter being used particularly for radome production.
Criteria P5, P6 and D1 cover learning outcome 2 and may best be covered through a
theoretical assignment. For P5 and P6 the required information may be made
available through course notes or reference to the appropriate parts of specialist
manufacturer or repair manuals.
For D1, learners must search independently for the correct sources of information
and use it to ascertain the correct methods and procedures and related safety issues
that need to be addressed, before, during and after repair.
Criteria P7, P8 and M2 cover learning outcome 3. P7 and P8 may be best covered by a
theoretical assignment requiring learners to search relevant literature to establish
the characteristics and use of appropriate adhesives and sealants and pre-treatments
and curing methods appropriate to either manufacture, repair or both.
The same assignment could be extended to cover M2, where the search might involve
looking through adhesive and sealant manufacturers’ catalogues and aircraft
manufacturers’ manuals to establish an appropriate adhesive/sealant choice for
aircraft fuel tank bonding.
Criteria P9, P10, M3 and D2 cover learning outcome 4. P9 and P10 may be best
covered by a theoretical written assessment. A set of illustrations/photographs could
be given for identification of the defects and learners suggested cause could be
written next to each. P10 requires learners to describe and provide a use for the
different tests.
M3 and D2 could be assessed through an investigative assignment, with set tasks that
ensure learners carry out a thorough investigation of the set-up, uses and differences
in the non-destructive testing procedures being assessed.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has been designed to act as prerequisite for Unit 76: Aircraft Maintenance
Practices. It can also be linked to Unit 70: Aircraft Workshop Principles and Practice
and Unit 74: Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and Repair. It also covers some
of the knowledge content of modules 6 and 7 of the EASA Part 66 syllabus.
The unit also contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the Level 3 SEMTA
National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 13: Repairing Airframes and Structures
• Unit 26: Producing Aircraft Composite Assemblies
• Unit 29: Joining Aircraft Components by Adhesive Bonding.

Essential resources

Learners should have access to examples of aircraft structures or structural

components made from composite materials. They should also have access to
examples of carbon and glass fibres and clothes, polymer matrix materials and
core/fillers materials required for GFRP and PMC structural components. Visual aids
such as probe lights or boroscopes are considered to be the absolute minimum non-
destructive test equipment.

Indicative reading for learners

Armstrong K — Care and Repair of Advanced Composites (Society of Automotive

Engineers, 2001) ISBN 0768000475
Bolton W — Materials for Engineering (Newnes, 2000) ISBN 0750648554
Crane D — Aviation Maintenance Technician Series — Airframe Volume 1: Structures
(Aviation Supplies and Academics, 2006) ISBN 1560275480

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the differences in C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the microstructure and the least two documents about the same
structural make up of subject.
materials Each document must be at least 1000
• explaining different methods words long.
used for the manufacture of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
composite structures and each one giving different information
components and detailing the about complex subjects.
associated safety precautions
One document must be at least 1000
• describing pre-treatments/ words long.
surface preparations and
curing methods for bonded
joints.

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 UNIT 7: AIRCRAFT MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Unit 7: Aircraft Maintenance Practices

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Aircraft require careful preparation before each flight. Essential replenishment of
fuel and oil, checks for leaks and structural and system damage must all be carried
out prior to flight. When the aircraft engines are started, the ground crew must be in
visual and/or radio contact with the aircrew and be able to operate the relevant
ground equipment.
This unit will give learners the knowledge, skills and understanding needed to carry out
a range of aircraft maintenance procedures in a safe, efficient and timely manner.
Safety is vital during aircraft maintenance, to protect both individuals and the
integrity of the aircraft. Therefore this unit will cover the health and safety issues
relating to all aspects of aircraft ground handling and first line maintenance. The
practice and procedures to be followed for aircraft ground handling, weighing and
those required after an abnormal occurrence are then introduced.
The unit will look at a range of general maintenance activities, such as working in
confined spaces and marshalling and chocking aircraft, as well as specialist activities
that would normally be undertaken by line mechanics or avionic or mechanical
aircraft maintenance technicians.
Learners will also be introduced to the requirements and use of maintenance
documents, manuals and administrative procedures. This will include maintenance
planning and related documentation, stores procedures and quality processes. These
will be covered in detail either from a military or civil perspective, depending on
learners’ interests or chosen vocational area.
The unit will benefit those undertaking a modern apprenticeship in aircraft
maintenance, members of the armed forces, and those employed by civil and general
aviation operators and third party maintenance organisations.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the health and safety precautions directly associated with aircraft
handling and first line maintenance
2 Know about the practice and procedures necessary for aircraft ground handling,
weighing and balancing and in the event of abnormal occurrences
3 Be able to carry out selected aircraft maintenance activities in accordance with
laid down procedures and safety precautions
4 Understand the procedures and requirements for the planning, documentation,
stores systems and quality processes associated with aircraft maintenance.

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Unit content

1 Understand the health and safety precautions directly associated with aircraft
handling and first line maintenance

Aircraft handling safety precautions: aircraft engine running safety zones; radio
transmission (electro-static hazard, safety zones); earthing; bonding; ground use
fire extinguishers (carbon dioxide, dry powder, foam)
Aircraft first line maintenance safety precautions: general (highway staging and
working at height, working in confine spaces, hoisting and lifting operations)
specialist eg aircraft refuelling/de-fuelling, oxygen/Lox replenishment,
application of electrical ground power, application of hydraulic/pneumatic
ground power, replenishment of engine and hydraulic system oils and gases,
ground de-icing/anti-icing, fitment of static blanks, flying control locks and
undercarriage locks

2 Know about the practice and procedures necessary for aircraft ground
handling, weighing and balancing and in the event of abnormal occurrences

Ground handling: practice and procedures eg aircraft taxiing and towing,

marshalling, jacking and trestling, engine starting and running, aircraft earthing
and bonding, using appropriate first-aid fire appliances, anti-deterioration checks
Inspection procedures after abnormal occurrences: procedures eg lightning strike,
tyre burst, heavy landing, bird strike, flight through turbulence
Aircraft weight and balance: general terms (basic weight, basic load, variable
load, disposable load, maximum take-off weight, balance limits, reaction,
moment arm); equipment and procedures eg use of weighbridge, weighing units,
aircraft weight and centre of gravity determination, weight and balance
documentation

3 Be able to carry out selected aircraft maintenance activities in accordance

with laid down procedures and safety precautions

Selected aircraft maintenance activities: general eg assist with jacking and

trestling aircraft, remove/fit highway staging, ladders and platforms, fit aircraft
static blanks and covers, chock and secure aircraft, marshal aircraft; specialist eg
apply electrical ground power, carry out pitot-static checks, apply pneumatic
and/or hydraulic ground power, earth and bond an aircraft, replenish engine oils,
replenish hydraulic system oils, charge system air/nitrogen gas bottles, carry out
anti-deterioration checks, ground de-icing/anti-icing procedures, oxygen
replenishment, Lox replenishment, navigation light bulb change; other eg assist in
weighing an aircraft and determining its centre of gravity, carry out abnormal
occurrence inspection/s; application of safety precautions; use of related
documentation for the activity

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4 Understand the procedures and requirements for the planning, documentation,

stores systems and quality processes associated with aircraft maintenance

Planning: civil or military maintenance planning eg approved maintenance

programmes and schedules, check cycles, equalised servicing, opportunity
servicing; additional maintenance requirements eg minor and major
modifications, special technical instructions (STI), servicing instructions (SI),
airworthiness directives (AD)
Documentation: content and purpose of civil or military maintenance
documentation eg maintenance manuals, repair manuals, records/recording
documents, historical record cards, serial and part numbers, logbooks, certificate
of release to service (CRS), MOD Form 700
Stores: civil or military stores systems eg layout, procedures, parts/equipment
tracking and record keeping, quarantine stores, bonded stores, parts
classification (such as, aircraft general spares AGS, A, B, C stores, consumables,
life-limited items), issue of parts/equipments, parts manuals
Quality processes: function and role of civil or military quality departments
(quality assurance/control systems, inspection department); function and role of
inspection/checks eg military first, second, third and fourth line system, civil A,
C, D, ramp and transit system, scheduled, unscheduled, authorisations, duplicate
inspections, independent checks; control of life-limited components/equipments
eg hard-time, on-condition, condition monitoring

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the reasons for aircraft handling M1 assist in carrying out an aircraft weight D1 explain the administrative procedure and
safety precautions and balance check and determine the detail all the requirements needed to
aircraft weight and centre of gravity clear the civil CRS or military aircraft log
P2 identify and explain the importance of
position (Mod Form 700), prior to aircraft flight
general first line maintenance safety
precautions and two given specialist M2 explain the need for and nature of two D2 explain the requirements,
safety precautions civil or military aircraft maintenance documentation and procedures necessary
activities for raising, carrying out and completing a
P3 describe two ground handling practices
civil or military duplicate/independent
and procedures and one inspection M3 explain the procedures and methods of
maintenance check.
procedure after an abnormal occurrence tracking, issuing and recording major
parts and life-limited items within a civil
P4 define all the general terms associated
or military stores system.
with aircraft weight and balance and
explain the need for the completion of
the aircraft weight and balance
documentation
P5 carry out three general, three specialist
and one other aircraft maintenance
activity in a safe manner using related
documentation

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 state the purpose of and describe a
typical civil or military check cycle or
equalised servicing cycle planned for an
additional aircraft maintenance
requirement
P7 describe the content and state the
purpose of civil or military maintenance
manuals, repair manuals and work
recording documents
P8 define and explain the need for
quarantine and bonded stores when used
in a civil or military system
P9 explain the role and functions of a civil
or military quality department
P10 explain the function and role of a
military or civil inspection/check system
and describe how life-limited
components/equipment are controlled
within a quality process.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit will give learners an understanding of the safety precautions, procedures
and documentation associated with aircraft ground handling and first line/hangar
maintenance activities.
Delivery should ensure that the theory relating to safety procedures and
documentation is taught before the practical aspects of the unit. Safety issues and
precautions associated with aircraft ground handling and first line/hangar
maintenance activities should be delivered at the start. Emphasis should be placed
on the maintenance safety precautions directly associated with the specialisation of
the cohort being taught, as well as the mandatory safety precautions associated with
aircraft ground handling.
When delivering the theory aspects of learning outcome 2, the associated
documentation and recording procedures could also be taught. This will enable
learners to become familiar with maintenance manuals, repair and parts manuals.
This can also link to learning outcome 4 by covering the documents for recording
work such as job cards and the status of the parts and consumables that might be
required to complete associated handling and maintenance procedures.
Next, to put the maintenance documentation into context, it would be useful to
teach the parts of learning outcome 4 relating to aspects of maintenance planning
and quality control that affect the execution of maintenance. This way the need for
and identification of the different types of servicing and check cycles could be taught
and their relationship to the actual work cards and job recording system could be
explained. How the quality and integrity of aircraft components and systems are
achieved could also be explained at this stage.
Learners would then have sufficient underpinning theory to start on the practical
activities for learning outcome 3. The range of practical activities listed in the
content would best be undertaken in a real maintenance environment, although they
could be carried out in a realistic training environment providing the centre has the
necessary physical resources and equipment.
Centres may be involved in partnerships with airline operators, third party
maintenance organisations, Part 147 approved organisations or with Armed Services
establishments where the required practical work can be undertaken. In all such
environments, there is the further opportunity for learners to familiarise themselves
with the associated reference and recording documentation directly applicable to
their specialisation.
Finally the remainder of the content of learning outcome 4, necessary to meet the
criteria M3, D1 and D2 may be taught.
Throughout delivery of the unit, emphasis needs to be placed on all associated safety
issues and the mandatory documentation that needs to be followed and completed.
For this reason it will be noted that these two vitally important elements make up
the majority of the grading criteria.

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Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The following assessment strategy for this unit is based on the suggested delivery
guidance above.
An appropriate assessment method for P1 and P2 (knowledge and understanding of
safety precautions) might be a formal written assessment.
In order to satisfy P1, learners must explain the reasons for the aircraft handling
precautions listed in the unit content. This means, for example, that they must have
knowledge of the safety zones when aircraft engines are running and understand the
dangers associated with intake pulling forces and the implications of foreign object
debris (FOD) ingestion. They will also need to explain the dangers associated with
engine exhaust efflux when the aircraft is turning into or away from the parking area.
Learners also need to explain the electro-static hazards associated with radio
transmission and the reasons for earthing and bonding the aircraft. The use of fire
extinguisher equipment should also be explained, including carbon dioxide, dry
powder and foam.
For P2, learners will need to identify the necessary precautions when working at
height, moving suspended loads, positioning highway staging and when working in
confined spaces. They will also need to explain the fairly obvious importance of these
precautions.
The choice of specialist safety precautions enables learners to concentrate on those
associated with their individual specialism. For example, those with an avionic bias
might concentrate on the safety associated with the connection of electrical ground
power and the fitting of Pitot static blanks and other instrument bungs.
P3 and P4 cover learning outcome 2. As mentioned in the delivery section learners
will need to explain the content and use of associated documentation when
describing handling and maintenance practices and procedures. This links to P7,
which could also be assessed at the same time.
An appropriate form of assessment might be a theoretical assignment in which
learners describe the ground handling practices and procedures, the procedure after
an abnormal occurrence (P3) and weight and balance terms and procedures (P4).
They could then describe the purpose and content of the documentation required to
undertake and complete these procedures (P7).
As part of a separate theoretical assignment learners could be set a number of
questions to satisfy P6, P8, P9 and P10.
For example, for P6 learners might be required to produce and explain a flow
diagram for a typical check cycle system or equalised servicing system. This would
incorporate typical additional maintenance requirements such as the embodiment of
modifications, the satisfaction of servicing instructions, airworthiness directives or
special technical instructions.
In order to satisfy P8 learners need to define and explain the need for quarantine and
bonded stores within a typical aircraft maintenance environment.

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P9 and P10 cover the quality processes element of learning outcome 4. When
describing the control of life-limited items learners need to include the appropriate
maintenance actions necessary for continued airworthiness and integrity of the
aircraft structure and systems. This assignment might best be set at a time when
learners are about to start their practical activities in a real or simulated aircraft
maintenance environment.
P5, M1 and M2 are associated with learning outcome 3. The most appropriate method
for gathering evidence for the practical activities detailed in P5 is by use of expert
witness statements and/or observation records. Annotated photographs could also
supplement these statements/records. Tasks should be assessed not only in terms of
practical competence but also to ensure all technical procedures, safety precautions
and related documentation have been adhered to, as appropriate. To satisfy M2,
learners would be expected to produce a written report or similar that explains the
need and nature of two of the maintenance activities carried out for P5.
For M1, centres will need access to a light aircraft and the associated lifting and
weighing units. Again evidence can be gathered from expert witness statements
and/or observation records, supplemented by annotated photographs.
The more in-depth requirements for learning outcome 4 are covered by M3, D1 and
D2. These might be best assessed through an investigative assignment, ideally carried
out towards the end of the unit. This could provide learners with the opportunity to
determine and explain the procedures/methods used in a particular stores system for
issuing, recording and tracking major parts and life-limited items (M3). Such methods
might include historical record cards, serial and part numbers, records of related
maintenance and life recording and tracking methods.
Assessment evidence for D1 and D2 might come in the form of a report detailing the
procedure to be adopted prior to, during and after clearing the civil CRS or the
military Mod Form 700 or their equivalents. Learner should also provide details of
those personnel qualified to clear these documents. A report or key-point procedure
should be provided to satisfy D2, including the legislative requirements, the
documents used and the necessary process for raising, carrying out and completing
independent/duplicate maintenance checks.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides an opportunity to practice some of the skills and understanding
associated with the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 135: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Pitot Static Systems
• Unit 136: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Communication Systems
• Unit 155: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Fuel and Storage Systems
• Unit 159: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Power Transmission Systems.
The unit also contributes to the knowledge content of modules 6 and 7 in the EASA
Part 66 syllabus when taken with Unit 74: Metallic Aircraft Materials, Structures and
Repair and Unit 75: Non-metallic Aircraft Materials, Manufacture and Repair.

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Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to suitable training aircraft/light aircraft and
associated ground support equipment. The ground support equipment should include:
• electrical and hydraulic/pneumatic ground power units
• lifting equipment such as winches/hoists
• platforms or staging for working at height
• replenishment equipment for oils and gases
• aircraft lifting jacks and trestles
• pitot-static test equipment
• trestles and weighing units
• harnesses and other necessary safety equipment and clothing
• aircraft ground locks and blanks
• electrical and mechanical parts
• tool kits
• aircraft first-aid fire appliances.
Where centres are not able to provide this level of resource provision they should
consider partnership with an EASA 147 approved training organisation, a military
training school, local aircraft operator or any other approved aircraft
maintenance/repair organisation.
Learners will also need access to aircraft maintenance, repair and parts manuals,
work-recording documents and technical logs.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Maintenance Practice (Elsevier, 2007)
ISBN 9780750650168
Health and Safety Executive — Health and Safety in Engineering Workshops (Health
and Safety Executive, 2004) ISBN 0717617173
Specialist texts
Air Publications — 101 series of manuals and aircraft engineering publications
(Military)
ATA — 100 Series, specialist textbooks and publications from the Joint Aviation
Authority sanctioned by the European Aviation Safety Agency (Civil)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining the reasons for C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
the safety precautions when each one giving different information
handling aircraft about complex subjects.
• explaining the importance of One document must be at least 1000
general first line words long.
maintenance and specialist
safety precautions
• describing ground handling
practices and procedures
• explaining the need for
completing aircraft weight
and balance documentation
• describing the content of
civil or military maintenance
manuals, repair manuals and
work recording documents
• explaining the need for
quarantine and bonded stores
• explaining the role and
functions of a civil or military
quality department
• describing how an
inspection/check is carried
out and how life-limited
components/equipment are
controlled.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out three general, PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
three specialist and one ways of tackling it.
other aircraft maintenance PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
activity. solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 UNIT 8: AIRCRAFT HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS

Unit 8: Aircraft Hydraulic Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Nearly all modern aircraft use some form of hydraulic actuation, for example to power
the aircraft undercarriage, wheel brakes and flying control surfaces. Hydraulic
actuation provides instant response, rigidity and the immense power needed to operate
such systems. For these reasons, hydraulic power is likely to remain an integral part of
aircraft systems engineering for many years to come and its study remains of
paramount importance for those entering the aircraft engineering profession.
This unit has been designed to provide a thorough introduction to the principles of
hydraulic transmission and the associated aircraft systems and components. In
particular the principles associated with hydraulic power actuation and their
application in modern hydraulic power supply systems is covered.
The purpose, construction and operation of aircraft landing gear and retardation
systems are also covered, including the provision made in an emergency for loss of
system power.
To emphasise the benefits that may be gained from hydraulic actuation and the
current designs of modern aircraft, both manual and hydraulically powered flight
control systems and their associated components are covered in detail.
The final part of the unit allows learners to carry out a number of selected
maintenance activities directly associated with hydraulic power, landing gear,
retardation and flying control systems and equipment.
This unit provides some of the knowledge required for learners wishing to progress to
the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements. It will
also benefit those seeking employment within the armed forces or the aircraft
manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of hydraulic transmission and the purpose and
operation of hydraulic power supply systems and their associated components
2 Know about the construction, purpose and operation of aircraft landing gear and
retardation systems and their associated components
3 Understand the purpose and operation of manually operated and hydraulically
powered flight control systems and their associated components
4 Be able to carry out maintenance activities on aircraft hydraulic power, landing
gear and retardation and flight control systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles of hydraulic transmission and the purpose and

operation of hydraulic power supply systems and their associated components

Hydraulic transmission principles: fluid transmission including direction and flow

control eg pressure in a fluid, transmission of force by a hydraulic fluid, hydraulic
actuation, system requirements (need for fluid storage); fluid types and
properties eg vegetable, mineral, ester-based oils, hydraulic fluid identification,
handling, conditioning and filtration; sources and consequences of fluid
contamination
Hydraulic power supply systems and components: purpose and operation of a
power supply system eg power source (such as hand pump, fixed and variable
displacement engine driven pumps (vane or piston), electric pumps), emergency
provision (such as multiple system provision, ram air turbine, standby pumps);
purpose and operation of power source and fluid control components eg pipes
(such as rigid, flexible), hoses, seals, fittings, reservoir, filter, actuator, fluid
control (such as directional control valves, non-return valves, temperature and
pressure control valves, cut-out valves, accumulators, heat exchanger), cabin and
external warning indicators and gauges

2 Know about the construction, purpose and operation of aircraft landing gear
and retardation systems and their associated components

Landing gear: construction eg single, double, multi bogies, doors and fairings,
shock absorbers (such as oleo pneumatic, liquid spring); purpose and operation of
extension/retraction systems eg hydraulic sequencing, relief valves, shuttle
valves, emergency provision (blow-down, multiple hydraulic supplies,
accumulators) weight switches, indication and warning devices
Retardation systems: associated hydraulic system eg thrust reverser, arrestor
hook, wheel brake, steering, anti-skid, auto-braking; purpose, construction and
operation of major retardation components eg reverse thrust bucket, brake
parachute, brake parachute attachment mechanism, arrestor hook, steering
actuator, steering mechanism, wheel assembly (tyres, wheels, bearings), brake
units (liners adjusters, rotors, stators) anti-skid devices (conventional hydro-
mechanical, modern hydro-electronic)

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3 Understand the purpose and operation of manually operated and hydraulically

powered flight control systems and their associated components

Manually operated systems and components: purpose and operation of rod and
cable operated systems eg primary control surface systems, trim and balance tab
systems, cable/pulley and control rod systems, cables, cable tension regulators,
turnbuckles, eye and fork ends, bell-cranks, pulleys, fairleads
Hydraulically powered systems and components: purpose and operation eg power
assisted and fully powered primary and secondary control systems, lift
augmentation systems (flaps, slats), lift reduction systems (lift dumper, spoilers,
speed brakes), artificial feel, Mach corrected trim, rudder limiter and gust lock
systems, systems inter-relationship, signalling/control

4 Be able to carry out maintenance activities on aircraft hydraulic power,

landing gear and retardation and flight control systems

Hydraulic power: following documentation and observing all relevant safety

precautions; activity eg operate ground hydraulic test rig, connect and test
hydraulic components on test rig, release system pressure, drain a system, prime
and bleed a system, replenish an aircraft hydraulic system, correctly fit fluid
plumbing components (pipes, hoses, couplings), replace a hydraulic system
component, functionally test system after component fit
Landing gear and retardation systems: following documentation and observing all
relevant safety precaution; activity eg examine tyre for damage and wear, inflate
tyre, replace wheel, replace brake unit, brake pack change, charge shock
absorber, assess undercarriage for physical damage and leakage, carry out brake
functional test after assembly
Manual and powered flying controls: following documentation and observing all
relevant safety precautions; activity eg manual control system rigging, placing
aircraft into rigging position, assess control cable for serviceability, rods, fixtures
and fitting for damage and wear, replace control cable/control rod, adjust
control rods, correctly tension control cables, wire lock turn barrels/buckles,
apply hydraulic power, carry out range of movement and freedom of movement
checks, use rigging pins for powered flying control checks and adjustments,
replace flying control system hydraulic components, carry out functional tests
and checks on flying control system (rigs or on aircraft)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the principles involved and M1 explain the differences in the associated D1 compare and contrast a conventional
describe how fluid power is transmitted hydraulic circuitry and components hydro-mechanical anti-skid unit with a
and fluid flow and direction is controlled needed to operate a fixed displacement modern hydro-electronic anti-skid unit
vane pump and a variable displacement and report on findings
P2 describe the types and properties of
piston pump
three different aircraft hydraulic fluids D2 evaluate the inter-relationship between
and explain the sources and M2 explain two methods of providing a airspeed signal input and trim actuator
consequences of hydraulic system fluid hydraulic supply to an aircraft’s flying operation when considering the
contamination control actuators, in the event of an operation of a typical Mach corrected
emergency situation trim system.
P3 explain the operation of a hydraulic
power supply system including the M3 produce accurately labelled diagrams
purpose and the operation of the major that illustrate the constructional
power source and fluid control arrangement of both a power assisted
components within this system and fully powered hydraulic flying
control system, and explain the
P4 state the purpose and explain the need
operation of each.
for an accumulator and a heat exchanger
in an aircraft hydraulic power supply
system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 sketch the constructional arrangement
for an aircraft landing gear assembly and
explain the operation of the hydraulic
extension/retraction system for this
assembly
P6 describe the operation of two
retardation systems and for each system
describe the purpose, construction and
operation of their system components
P7 explain the operation of a rod operated
and cable operated manual flying control
system and state the purpose of their
components
P8 explain the operation of a hydraulically
powered aircraft trailing edge flap
system and state the function of each of
the components within the system
P9 carry out two given maintenance
activities on hydraulic power
systems/rigs, using given documentation
and observing relevant safety
precautions

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P10 carry out two given maintenance
activities on landing gear/retardation
systems/rigs, using given documentation
and observing relevant safety
precautions
P11 carry out two given maintenance
activities on manual/powered aircraft
control systems/rigs, using given
documentation and observing relevant
safety precautions.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit has been designed to give learners the necessary knowledge, skills and
understanding to be able to carry out a range of practical activities associated with
hydraulic systems in an efficient and safe manner. It is therefore essential that prior
to the start of these activities learners are fully aware of all necessary safety
procedures associated with such maintenance.
When delivering the principles element of learning outcome 1, emphasis should first
be placed on fluid power transmission principles. Then the power advantages of
hydraulic actuation should be taught along with the disadvantages and risks
associated with hydraulic fluid leakage, contamination and the dangers associated
with hydraulic fluids under pressure. The properties of different fluid types, their
identification and the need for cleanliness and care when handling these fluids should
be comprehensively covered.
Aircraft power supply systems and their associated components need to be covered in
detail, so that learners understand how complex aircraft systems operate a variety of
services. It is suggested that the starting point for delivering this part of the outcome
is the presentation of a basic system, consisting of a reservoir, a pump, a directional
control valve and a linear actuator. The need, function, operation and system
plumbing of these components can then be identified. The short falls of this basic
system can then be identified and the need for additional components for fluid flow,
emergency provision, filtration, cooling, temperature, direction, pressure and flow
control can then be introduced.
Modern aircraft hydraulic power supply systems and associated components (taken
from actual aircraft maintenance manuals) may then be used as examples, to further
aid learning. If the cohort being taught are specifically concerned with aircraft
maintenance, they will also need to understand and the external and cabin indication
and warning systems used with hydraulic power supply systems.
When delivering learning outcome 2 the depth of treatment given will be dependent
on the needs of the cohort and the type and availability of the landing gear and
retardation systems/equipment at the centre. As a minimum, the construction and
operation of single, double and multi-boogie undercarriage struts and their
associated system circuitry and components needs to be taught. This should include
the basic braking system used with these types of undercarriage.
Learners should also be familiar with the methods and additional components used to
lower the undercarriage in emergency situations. They should also be able to
describe the operation of at least one additional retardation device other than
aircraft brakes. Learners following a purely maintenance pathway should also be fully
conversant with modern aircraft cabin alighting gear indicators and warning devices.
Learning outcome 3 is concerned with modern flying control systems and components
and includes manually operated as well as power-operated controls. With the advent
of the cable tension regulator, cable operated control as well as rod-operated control
has remained a popular option, even on relatively large modern aircraft.

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The use and limitations of manual control systems should be emphasised as well as
their operation and the components used in such systems. The original idea of power
assisted control units as well as fully powered units should then be introduced,
together with their associated mechanical arrangement and circuitry. Typical fully
powered hydraulic control systems could then be explained (including emergency
provision) using system diagrams taken from aircraft maintenance manuals).
Access to real aircraft systems and sectioned components would greatly enhance the
delivery of this outcome. Again, cabin indication and warning systems should be
covered by those wishing to pursue an aircraft maintenance engineering pathway.
Knowledge of aircraft Mach corrected trim systems may either be taught at a late
stage in the unit or form part of an investigative assignment.
Once learners have gained an understanding of aircraft hydraulic systems and their
associated components, they can then undertake the range of practical activities
necessary to meet the pass criteria. Tutors should provide the appropriate
documentation and ensure that learners can carry out two practical maintenance
activities, observing all relevant safety precautions. The range of maintenance
activities that can be offered will very much depend on the physical resources
available and will vary from centre to centre.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

P1, P2, P3, P4 and M1 cover learning outcome 1 and are probably best assessed using
a formal written assessment. This will require learners to explain the principles
involved with fluid power transmission, including the properties of hydraulic fluids,
their virtual incompressibility and the transmission of force via pressure acting on an
area (Bramah press).
An understanding of the role of system components, in particular the pump, linear
actuator and control valves is required for P1. Learners will need to understand how
the pump can control fluid flow, as well as restrictor valves and how flow and
directional control valves are actuated dependent on the requirements of the service
being considered.
For P2, knowledge of vegetable, mineral and ester-based hydraulic fluids (and the seals
used with these fluids) will need to be demonstrated, as well as the consequences of
replenishing hydraulic systems with a contaminated or incorrect fluid.
For P3, learners will need to demonstrate that they fully understand the operation of
the hydraulic pump and that its function is to provide fluid flow to power the
services. Learners also need to demonstrate an understanding of the components
used to control the flow, pressure, direction, temperature and condition of the
hydraulic fluid within the system (P3 and P4). They should also understand the
additional function of the system reservoir and accumulators (P4).
To achieve M1, learners will need to understand in detail the operation of variable
and constant displacement pumps and the associated circuitry needed for each type
of pump.

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Learning outcome 2 is covered by criteria P5, P6 and D1. Again, these might be best
assessed using a formal written assessment.
For P5, learners need to produce a sketch of a landing gear assembly. This should be
labelled showing all major components within the assembly (such as the oleo strut,
doors, retraction actuator/s, casing and attachment bolt assembly, torque links,
boogie, wheel brake and wheel sub-assemblies). A typical aircraft alighting gear
hydraulic circuit could be given to learners so that they can explain its operation.
P6 may be similarly covered but with two system diagrams being given and learners
providing a description of their operation. This would need to include the purpose
and a description of the construction and operation of the major components within
each of the systems. The type of retardation device and accompanying system chosen
for the assessment could be based on whether learners are dealing with civil or
military aircraft.
D1 would best be covered as part of an investigative assignment. This would require
learners to use aircraft specialist literature, maintenance publications or similar
information, to recognise the constructional features, identify the advantages and
disadvantages, and understand the operation of both types of anti-skid unit. They
would then need to compare and contrast them and write-up their report.
Learning outcome 3 is covered by P7, P8, M2, M3 and D2. All of these criteria, with
the exception of D2 might be best assessed using a formal written assignment.
System schematic and/or circuit diagrams could be given for the manual and
powered flying control systems (P7) and trailing edge flap system (P8). Learners
would then need to give an explanation of the systems. In the case of P8 the function
of each of the major system components must also be given.
In the case of M3 learners need to produce accurately labelled diagrams that show
the physical and system set up for the two types of powered flying control unit. For
M2, when describing the two methods of emergency hydraulic power provision,
learners could illustrate their answers with diagrams.
D2 might best be assessed as part of the investigative assignment detailed above
under learning outcome 2. Learners need to explain the system arrangement, the use
of capsules, bellows or other more sophisticated transducers to convert subsonic and
supersonic flight speeds into hydraulic actuation and eventual movement of the all
flying tail or elevons. This allows the aircraft attitude to be repositioned after the
occurrence of trim changes caused by a shift in the centre of pressure when the
aircraft flew supersonic.
P9, P10 and P11 cover learning outcome 4, the practical element of the unit. The
most appropriate method of gathering evidence for each of these criteria is through
observation records or expert witness statements depending on where the
maintenance activities are carried out. Expert witness statements may have to be
relied upon if resources are used away from the centre. These forms of evidence may
be supplemented by annotated photographs of the activities undertaken. In judging
whether or not learners have met the criteria, their compliance with all necessary
safety precautions must be taken into account.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the skills and understanding associated with aspects of the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 146: Removing and Replacing Components of Aircraft Hydraulic Systems
• Unit 156: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Hydraulic Systems.
The unit also covers some of the systems knowledge and understanding contained in
Module 11 of the EASA part 66 syllabus for those wishing to qualify as category A and
B1 Aircraft Licensed Mechanics and Technicians.

Essential resources

As a minimum centres need to provide access to:

• an aircraft power supply rig
• an operational hydraulically powered aircraft undercarriage system complete
with wheel and brake assembly
• a manual control system rig
• a powered flying control system rig and associated miscellaneous hydraulic
components (including engine driven pumps, reservoirs, actuators, accumulators,
filters, plus an assorted range of directional, pressure, relief and non-return
valves).

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Moir I and Seabridge A — Aircraft Systems Mechanical, Electrical and Avionic Sub-
systems Integration (Longman, 2004) ISBN 1860582893
Neese W A — Aircraft Hydraulic Systems (Krieger Publishing Company, 1991)
ISBN 0894645625
Other publications
Air Publications — 101 Series of manuals and Air Publications (Military)
ATA — 100 Series, specialist textbooks and publications from the Joint Aviation
Authority and sanctioned by the European Aviation Safety Agency (Civil)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing how fluid power is C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
transmitted and fluid flow each one giving different information
and direction is controlled about complex subjects.
• describing the types and One document must be at least 1000
properties of three different words long.
aircraft hydraulic fluids and
explaining the sources and
consequences of hydraulic
system fluid contamination
• explaining the operation of a
hydraulic power supply
system including the purpose
and operation of the major
power source and fluid
control components
• describing the operation of
two retardation systems and
describing the purpose,
construction and operation of
their system components
• explaining the operation of a
rod operated and cable
operated manual flying
control system
• explaining the operation of a
hydraulically powered
aircraft trailing edge flap
system.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using given documentation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
and observing relevant safety ways of tackling it.
precautions and carrying out PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
two given maintenance solving the problem.
activities on hydraulic power
systems/rigs PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.
• using given documentation
and observing relevant safety
precautions and carrying out
two given maintenance
activities on landing
gear/retardation
systems/rigs
• using given documentation
and observing relevant safety
precautions and carrying out
two given maintenance
activities on manual/
powered aircraft control
systems/rigs.

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Unit 9: Aircraft Propulsion Systems

NQF Level: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners the underpinning knowledge needed to understand the
construction and operating principles of aircraft propulsion systems. Learners will
gain an understanding of the major systems associated with aircraft gas turbine
engines such as fuel and lubrication systems, engine control and fire/ice detection
and protection systems. The unit will emphasise the underlying reasons for these
systems and their layout.
The unit covers some of the underpinning knowledge required for those taking
module 15: Gas Turbines of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66
examinations for certifying staff. The unit also supplies a limited amount of
underpinning knowledge across other modules.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the function and operation of typical gas turbine fuel systems
2 Understand the function, construction and operation of gas turbine lubrication
systems
3 Know about engine control systems
4 Know about the operation and components of engine fire detection and
protection systems and the operation of ice detection and protection systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand the function and operation of gas turbine fuel systems

Function and operation: layout of fuel systems (methods of operation, system

equipment and components); fuel systems eg fuel pumps and pressurisation,
atomising and vaporising fuel nozzles, pressure control, flow control, bypass
valves, fuel filters, fuel heaters, dump valves, cross feed system, hydro-
pneumatic fuel controls, electronic (EEC) and manual engine control
Fuel: types and grades used in aviation eg Jet-A, Jet A-1 and Jet-B or their
military equivalents (Avtur and Avtag); additives eg anti-icing and microbial
agents; identification codes eg equipment controls colour, pipe markings and
refueler decals; health and safety precautions when working with pressurised fuel
systems

2 Understand the function, construction and operation of gas turbine lubrication

systems

Function, construction and operation: operation of gas turbine engine lubrication

system types and layout (wet and dry-sump) eg recirculatory pressure relief
system, full flow and total loss systems; characteristics and functions of engine
lubricants eg types of lubricants, viscosity, flash point, anti-foaming additives,
adhesion and cohesion; oil identity codes (type 1 and type 2) and grading system
eg Commercial Aviation Number, AN specification (Military), SAE system;
requirements for gas turbine engine oil systems; lubrication system components
eg oil reservoirs, deaerators, constant displacement oil pumps (gear, vane and
gerotor), oil filters, filter ratings, chip detectors (indicating and pulsed),
contaminants, relief valve systems, oil jets, vents, check valves, pressure and
temperature gauges, oil coolers (hot and cold tank) and scavenge systems

3 Know about engine control systems

Basic engine control systems: layout of engine control cables eg Teleflex, cable
and rod controls, forward and reverse thrust levers, fuel control switches/levers,
friction brake, tension regulation, autothrottle regulation; engine control cable
rigging eg control pulley box, directional control valves, feedback cables, cable
grommets, pressure seals, cable turnbuckles, locking, control cable quick stops,
start/thrust cable control drum; fuel shut-off valves; electrical fuel cock
actuator; miscellaneous switches eg go-around switch, auto-throttle disengage
switch, mode control panel; electronic engine control; flight/ground idle control

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4 Know about the operation and components of engine fire detection and
protection systems and the operation of ice detection and protection systems

Fire detection and protection systems: fire protection systems eg classes of fire,
requirements for overheat and fire protection systems; main components eg gas
turbine engine fire zones, types of fire or overheat detectors, flame resistant
materials and fire walls; ground fire protection; extinguishing agents (carbon
dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons); fire extinguishing systems (conventional,
high rate discharge); smoke and toxic gas detection systems (carbon monoxide,
smoke detectors, light refraction, ionisation and solid state); multi-engine fire
protection systems (operation and components); fire extinguishing system
inspection and trouble shooting (container pressure check, discharge cartridges
and agent containers)
Ice detection and protection systems: de-icing and anti-icing systems eg bleed
air, electrical, pressure control (constant, manual and cyclic); ice detection and
indication systems

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must
must show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, show that, in addition to the pass and merit
the learner is able to: criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 sketch the layout and describe the M1 explain the operation of a typical gas D1 compare and evaluate the fuel and lubrication
basic function and operation of turbine engine fuel control system systems for two main types of gas turbine
typical components used in a given engine
M2 explain the differences between a wet
gas turbine fuel system
and dry sump lubrication system D2 analyse the causes and effects of engine fires
P2 describe the different types of fuel and how they are detected and contained.
M3 compare the operational requirements for
used in gas turbines (military or
two given gas turbine fire detection and
civil) and identify their colour codes
protection systems.
and identification markings
P3 describe the precautions necessary
when working with aviation fuels
and pressurised fuel systems
P4 describe the operation of a
lubrication system for a typical gas
turbine engine

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must
must show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, show that, in addition to the pass and merit
the learner is able to: criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the characteristics of
lubricants used in gas turbines and
state why they are suitable for the
requirements of gas turbine engines
P6 sketch the layout and describe the
basic functions of the main
components found in a given gas
turbine lubrication system
P7 identify and describe the basic
engine controls of a gas turbine
engine
P8 identify and describe the main
components of a given type of gas
turbine engine fire detection and
protection system and describe the
principles of operation
P9 describe the principles of operation
of an engine ice detection and
protection system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit should be delivered using a mixture of lectures, tutor-led demonstrations,

case studies, visits to aircraft factories and practical collection of data from a chosen
type of gas turbine engine. Delivery should, where possible, include a comparison of
different types of gas turbine engines including turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft and
turboprop. It would be advantageous to then focus on a particular type of gas turbine
and relate the fuel and lubrication systems to the chosen engine. This allows delivery
to be tailored to learners’ requirements and the most appropriate form of gas turbine
application.
Learners will need access to a gas turbine engine together with the fuel components,
lubrication, fire and ice protection and controls systems. However where learners are
employed they should be encouraged to use the resources available at their
workplace. A practical approach could be used for parts of the unit, particularly
where centres have access to small gas turbine engine test rigs, for example to
monitor oil temperature and pressure, or the use of engine controls and servicing,
although this is not essential.
If possible visits should be made to an engine manufacturer, airline and/or aircraft
maintenance facility where installation, commissioning or maintenance of gas turbine
engines takes place. Learners should be encouraged to take an investigative approach
throughout and to use an appropriate engine to identify the main components.
For learning outcome 1, learners will need to know about the layout of the main
components of a gas turbine fuel system and understand the function, operation and
contribution of each main component to the fuel system as a whole. They should
learn about the types of fuel used, including the main additives and the reasons for
those additives, their identification codes and the equipment colour markings used
for gas turbine engines. These markings can then be compared to those used for
reciprocating engine fuels used in aviation such as Avgas 80/100/100LL or the
military equivalents to ensure that learners are aware of the differences of each type
of fuel system. Learners must also be made aware of the health and safety
implications of high pressure fuel systems.
In learning outcome 2 learners must understand the layout, function and operation of
the main components which make up a typical gas turbine lubrication system and
which can be related to any of the four main types of engine application whether
civil or military.
Learners should understand the types and characteristics of lubricants used in gas
turbines and why synthetic oils are used almost exclusively in preference to mineral
oils and also have a basic understanding of why they should not be mixed. They
should be aware of the different types of synthetic oils used, such as type 1 and
type 2, and the basic differences between them. They will have a knowledge of the
grading system and be able to recognise either the commercial aviation number or
the AN specification (military) and relate these to the SAE system, as appropriate to
the learner.

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 UNIT 9: AIRCRAFT PROPULSION SYSTEMS

Learning outcome 3 is concerned with engine controls, their layout, function and
operation. Learners should understand how the basic controls are built up from their
components parts to control a relevant and typical gas turbine engine. While it is not
necessary for learners to understand Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) in
this unit, it is an ideal opportunity to introduce it in very basic terms so that learners
are aware of its existence.
Learning outcome 4 looks at fire and ice protection systems, and learners will need
to understand how these systems work. Learners should know the main fire zones,
how fires can start and how they are detected and dealt with to stop them from
spreading. Ice detection and protection requires an understanding of the differences
between de-icing and anti-icing and the main areas that need particular protection.

Assessment

Assessment evidence can be collected from assignments and practical activities

undertaken either in the laboratory or in the workplace.
To achieve a pass, learners must have a basic knowledge and understanding of the
principles of aircraft propulsion systems. Learners must be able to sketch and
describe the basic layout of a fuel system and the components that are used to make
up that system (P1). They should also be able to describe the types and grade of fuel
used and should also be able to recognise the colour codes used to identify the
markings for these fuels either Military or Civil (P2). Learners must also demonstrate
a clear understanding of the dangers of dealing with pressurised fuel systems (P3).
Learners should be able to sketch and describe a typical lubrication system both wet
and dry (P4, P5, P6) and understand the difference between the two (M2). Learners
will need to describe a basic system that includes, for example, pumps, filters,
deaerators, oil reservoirs and other components within the system. They will need to
understand the types and characteristics of lubricants used in gas turbines, the
reasons why synthetic oils are used almost exclusively in preference to mineral oils
and why they should not be mixed. They should also be aware of the different types
of synthetic oils used, such as Type 1 and Type 2, and the basic differences between
each type.
Learners must demonstrate a basic understanding of engine controls by identifying
and describing their basic function (P7).
Ice and fire detection and protection systems should be identified and described at
component level to show that learners understand how they form a system (P8, P9).
To achieve a merit, learners must be able to explain how the fuel is controlled in a
typical gas turbine engine. M1 is developed from P1, P2, P3 and P7. For the
lubrication system and its components, M2 requires an understanding of the system’s
operation and should focus on an engine and system relevant to the learner, while
demonstrating an understanding of the other systems available. This should be shown
in the differences between wet and dry sump systems. Learners should also be able
to compare the operational requirements for both fire detection and protection (M3).
To achieve a distinction, learners must demonstrate an understanding of both fuel
and lubrication systems and compare and evaluate two main types of gas turbine
engines for these systems (D1). They must also analyse the causes and effects of
fires, how they are detected and contained (D2). They must also understand how
fires are dealt with using a variety of different methods.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has strong links with other BTEC units in the programme, particularly
Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science and Unit 76:
Aircraft Maintenance Practices. The unit is also designed to contribute essential
evidence for an aircraft Modern Apprenticeship.
The unit has a strong link to module 15: Gas Turbines for EASA pt 66 and the license
examinations and to a lesser extent some of the science for module 2:Physics.

Essential resources

This unit is intended to provide learners with a practical introduction to gas turbine
engines. The intention is to focus on the techniques, skills, methods and
documentation used, particularly planning and quality control which are applicable
to all areas of maintenance, installation and commissioning.
For these reasons it is essential that learners have access to:
• an aircraft gas turbine engine
• data books and manufacturers’ specifications
• AP manuals
• the internet
• appropriate textbooks.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Eastop M — Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists (Longman, 1996)
ISBN 0582091934
Rogers M — Engineering Thermodynamics — Work and Heat Transfer (Longman, 1992)
ISBN 0582045665
Sherwin K and Horsley M — Thermofluids (Chapman and Hall, 1996) ISBN 0412598000

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the operation of a C3.3 Write two different documents about
lubrication system for a complex subjects. One piece of writing
typical gas turbine engine should be an extended document and
lubrication system include at least one image.

• describing the characteristics

of lubricants used in gas
turbines and state why they
are suitable for the
requirements of gas turbine
engines
• sketching the layout and
describing the basic functions
of the main components
found in a given gas turbine
lubrication system.

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 UNIT 10: AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Unit 10: Aircraft Gas Turbine Engines

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the construction and operating
principles of aircraft gas turbine engines. Learners will study the scientific principles
that dictate engine performance and will gain an understanding of gas turbine engine
components, including intakes, compressors, combustion chambers, turbines and
exhaust units.
Learners will gain an understanding of the different types of aircraft turbine engine,
their function, construction and installation arrangements. They will also look at
factors that can affect engine performance, such as combustion processes and
emissions. The unit will also cover the function of gearboxes and the different
methods of coupling.
The unit has been designed to take into account the differences between military
and civil applications of gas turbine engines and can be delivered to focus on the
engine type most appropriate to centres and learner needs.
The unit also covers some of the underpinning knowledge required for those taking
Module 15 of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 examinations for
certifying staff.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the basic principles of gas turbine propulsion
2 Understand the function and operation of gas turbine engines
3 Know the factors affecting engine operation and performance
4 Know about the basic function and operation of gearboxes and engine driven
ancillary equipment.

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Unit content

1 Understand the basic principles of gas turbine propulsion

Propulsion engine performance: fundamentals of turbine engine theory eg

Newton’s laws, Boyle’s law, Charles’ law and the ideal gas law, simple mass flow
and thrust equations, airflow through convergent and divergent ducts, ram
effect, principles of energy transformation, work, power and efficiency; working
cycle (Brayton cycle); purpose of gas turbine engine sections eg intake,
compressor, combustion chamber, turbine, exhaust

2 Understand the function and operation of gas turbine engines

General construction and principles of operation: advantages and disadvantages

of each type of engine; operation; construction and installation arrangements;
types of gas turbine engine eg turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft, turboprop; auxiliary
power units (APUs)
Intakes: airflow; main types of intakes eg Pitot, divided, external/internal,
variable throat
Compressors: function and operation eg airflow control, fixed and variable inlet
guide vanes, bleed valves, compression ratio, by-pass ratios; centrifugal
compressor eg single entry, double entry; axial flow compressor eg single spool
and multi-spool
Combustion chambers and components: use of components eg burner, swirl
vanes; chamber types eg annular, multiple can, tubo annular, single chamber;
advantages
Turbines: types (impulse, reaction, impulse/reaction); modes of failure
associated with common blade to disc attachment methods eg creep, stress;
methods of cooling turbine blades eg film, convection, transpiration
Exhausts: components eg jet pipe, exhaust cone, fixed and variable propelling
nozzles

3 Know about the factors affecting engine operation and performance

Principle of operation: starting systems for engine and ground run eg electric,
hydraulic, direct air impingement, turbo starter, airstart, ignition systems with an
emphasis on safety; factors affecting performance eg basic combustion processes
and emissions, compression ratio, compressor surge and stall, noise, intake and
exhaust danger zones, foreign object damage (FOD), thrust augmentation (such as
water, water/methanol, after burners, mixing units, convergent, divergent and
variable nozzles); operation of engine air distribution eg cooling, sealing and
external air and anti-ice control, engine pressure ratio, turbine discharge and
exhaust pressure systems, hot and cold stream thrust reversers

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4 Know about the basic function and operation of gearboxes and engine driven
ancillary equipment

Functions and operation: gearbox types eg radial, internal, external,

intermediate, auxiliary drive systems and reduction gearing; coupling methods eg
gas, free, gear coupled turbines

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the basic principles of jet M1 explain the working cycle of a gas D1 analyse and evaluate one type of gas
propulsion using simple equations turbine engine and the relationship turbine in terms of performance under
between pressure, velocity, volume and varying conditions
P2 sketch the working cycle of a gas turbine
temperature
engine D2 compare and contrast two main types of
M2 explain the function and operation of gas turbine including their ancillaries
P3 describe the purpose of three sections of
two methods of thrust augmentation and when installed on a different aircraft
a gas turbine engine
their effects on performance type.
P4 state the advantages and disadvantages
M3 compare the function and operation of
of two main types of engine including
free, gas coupled and gear coupled
the use of APUs, in relation to operation,
turbines giving examples for the use of
construction and installation
each.
arrangements
P5 describe the flow of air through one of
the main types of intake
P6 describe the function and operation of
centrifugal and axial flow compressors

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the use of components and the
differences between multiple can, tubo-
annular and annular combustion
chambers, giving the advantages of each
type
P8 describe the function of impulse,
reaction and impulse/reaction turbines,
one form of failure and one method of
cooling turbine blades
P9 describe the use of exhaust components
for two of the main types of engine
P10 describe one type of starting system
P11 describe the basic factors affecting
engine performance and air distribution
P12 describe the basic function of one type
of ancillary gearbox and one method of
coupling.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit should be delivered using a variety of methods including lectures, tutor-led
demonstrations, case studies, mini-projects and visits to aircraft workshops. An
initial, broad introduction could make comparisons between the different types of
gas turbine engine including turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft and turboprop. It would
then be advantageous for learners to focus on one particular type as it is likely they
will only encounter one type of gas turbine engine in the learning environment.
There are differences between military and civil applications of gas turbine engines,
and while the fundamentals remain the same the unit has been designed so that
learners can study the engine most relevant to their vocational area.
Delivery of learning outcome 1 should focus on the science behind the gas turbine
and learners will need to relate these principles to a working engine. Simple thrust
and mass flow equations should be practiced and learners given an understanding of
the gas laws and the Brayton cycle.
Because of the importance of learning outcome 2 to the rest of the unit, more time
should be devoted to its teaching than the other learning outcomes. Delivery should
focus on the components of a gas turbine and their function. Although it is not
necessary to have more than one type of engine for identification purposes, learners
must be familiar with the four main types, including APUs, and the differences
between them.
Learning outcome 3 looks at the operational use of engines and the factors affecting
performance. The highly topical area of gas turbine emissions should only be taught
in basic form — learners should know what the products of combustion are, such as
CO, CO2, unburnt hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen.
Learners will also need to understand anti-ice systems, thrust augmentation and
thrust reversal together with the reasons why they are used. Learning outcome 4
looks at the function and operation of gearboxes and the arrangement on the engine,
engine driven ancillaries, drive systems and coupling methods.
A practical delivery approach should be used for this unit where possible. Visits to
manufacturers, airlines and/or aircraft maintenance facilities where installation,
commissioning or maintenance of gas turbine engines takes place would be of
immense value to support learning.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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 UNIT 10: AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit can be collected from a mixture of written
assignments and practical activities.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must have an understanding of the principles of
aircraft propulsion and be able to make simple thrust calculations. They will need to
be familiar with the configuration of the major types of gas turbine engine and
understand the functions of their main components. This will include an
understanding of the factors affecting engine performance.
Learners should also be able to explain how thrust augmentation is obtained and how
thrust reversal is achieved together with the reasons why they are required. Learners
must be able to describe the purpose and function of engine driven ancillaries,
starting systems and engine air distribution systems.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must build on their understanding of the working
cycle of a gas turbine engine in terms of pressure, volume and temperature (Brayton
cycle). Learners will also need to demonstrate an understanding of thrust
augmentation and the function and operation of different turbines.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners will need a thorough understanding of the
factors that affect the design and development of different types of gas turbine.
They will need to compare and contrast different types, such as those in the
commercial or military sectors utilising either turbojet, turbofan, turboshaft or
turboprop. This includes being able to give an informed opinion for selecting a
particular engine for a given role.
Four assignments could be used to assess this unit. The first of these could cover
criteria P1, P2, P3 and M1. Written tasks could be set requiring learners to describe
the principles of jet propulsion and the purpose of three sections of a gas turbine
engine. A sketch would also be required to show the working cycle of a gas turbine
engine and this task could be extended to meet M1.
The second assignment would need to be given once learners have fully covered and
are familiar with the function and operation of gas turbine engines as in learning
outcome 2. The assignment could again involve a range of written tasks to enable
learners to develop evidence to meet the requirements of P4, P5, P6, P7, P8 and P9.
Assignment 3 may well be a smaller written assignment covering P10 and P11 along
with M2. The final and fourth assignment could cover the remaining one pass
criterion P12 and merit criterion M3. Further written tasks could then be given to
allow opportunities to develop evidence against he requirements of D1 and D2. These
should be the last tasks set for the learner as they will need to have an understanding
of most aspects of the unit to produce suitable evidence in written form.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit is designed to contribute essential evidence for an aircraft Modern

Apprenticeship which may follow the Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Production, Level 3
NVQ in Engineering Installation and Commissioning or Level 3 NVQ in Aircraft
Engineering Maintenance.
The unit has strong links with other BTEC units, particularly Unit 72: Principles and
Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science and Unit 76: Aircraft Maintenance
Practices.
This unit also has strong links to Module 15: Gas Turbines, and, to a lesser extent,
some of Module 2: Physics, for EASA Part 66 and the license examinations.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to suitable aircraft gas turbine engines, data books,
manufacturers’ specifications and AP manuals.

Indicative reading for learners

Eastop M — Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists (Longman, 1993)

ISBN 0582215714
Moran M — Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics (John Wiley and Sons,
2006) ISBN 0470030372
Sonntag R and Bourgnakke C — Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics (John
Wiley and Sons, 2006) ISBN 0471737593
Treager I — Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Technology (McGraw-Hill, 1995)
ISBN 0028018281

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 UNIT 10: AIRCRAFT GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing principles of C3.3 Write two different types of documents
propulsion and the purpose each one giving different information
of sections of the gas turbine about complex subjects.
engine One document must be at least 1000
• describing the function and words long.
operation of centrifugal and
axial flow compressors
• describing the use of
components and the
differences between multiple
can, tubo-annular and
annular combustion
chambers
• describing the function of
impulse, reaction and
impulse/reaction turbines,
one form of failure and one
method of cooling turbine
blades.

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 UNIT 11: AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

Unit 11: Airframe Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
A study of airframe systems is essential for anyone wishing to enter the aerospace
industry as a mechanical technician or engineer. This unit complements Unit 77:
Aircraft Hydraulic Systems and together they provide a sound introduction to all
aircraft airframe systems (other than those associated with avionics and aircraft
engines).
The unit has been designed to provide a thorough introduction to aircraft air, fuel,
fire emergency, cabin equipment and protection systems. The aircraft air systems
covered include pneumatic power supply, cabin air conditioning and pressurisation
systems. The importance of these air systems is apparent when flying at altitude,
where there is a need to pressurise the cabin in order to sustain life and prevent the
onset of anoxia (total lack of oxygen). The cabin air also needs to be conditioned in
order to provide an acceptable environment for passengers and crew.
Aircraft airframe fuel systems are covered, particularly their operation as a heat
exchanger for hydraulic oil cooling and during their fuel pressurisation and transfer
modes. Aircraft fire protection systems, fixed and portable oxygen systems and
associated emergency and cabin equipment systems are also considered, along with
other protection systems such as anti-icing and de-icing systems.
The final part of the unit gives learners the opportunity to carry out a number of
selected maintenance activities directly associated with airframe systems.
This unit provides some of the knowledge required for learners wishing to progress to
the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements. It will
also benefit those seeking employment within the armed forces or the aircraft
manufacturing industry.

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UNIT 11: AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the purpose, component function and operation of aircraft pneumatic
supply, cabin conditioning and pressurisation systems
2 Know the component and system functions and the layout and operation of
aircraft fuel and fire detection and extinguishing systems
3 Know the system functions and the layout and operation of aircraft cabin
equipment and protection systems
4 Be able to carry out maintenance activities on pneumatic, cabin conditioning,
pressurisation, fuel, fire, cabin equipment and protection systems.

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 UNIT 11: AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

Unit content

1 Understand the purpose, component function and operation of aircraft

pneumatic supply, cabin conditioning and pressurisation systems

Pneumatic supply: purpose eg aircraft pressurisation, air conditioning, thermal

anti-icing, engine starting, hydraulic reservoir pressurisation, potable water tank
pressurisation, door and canopy sealing; component function eg piston engine,
turbine engine/auxiliary power unit (APU), air compressors, blowers, receivers,
reservoirs, ground cart, ducts, louvers, channelling, trunking, check valves,
pressure control valves, sensors, emergency valves, pre-cooler; system operation
(supply of air to pre-cooler)
Cabin conditioning and pressurisation: purpose; function of system components
eg bleed and ram air, air cycle and vapour cycle cold air units, filters,
humidifiers, water separators, trunking, ducting, plenum chamber, diffusers, duct
stats, sensors, valves, controllers, temperature control valves, flow control
valves, pneumatic and electrical cabin pressure controllers, discharge valves,
inwards/outwards relief valves, warning and indicating devices; system operation
eg supply of conditioned air to cabin, temperature and humidity control of
conditioned air, pneumatic cabin pressure control cycle, electrical cabin pressure
control, discharge methods, emergency provision, warnings and indicators

2 Know the component and system functions and the layout and operation of
aircraft fuel and fire detection and extinguishing systems

Fuel: purpose; component functions eg tanks, pumps, vents, drains plumbing,

valves, filters, indicators, gauges, warning devices, heat exchangers; layout eg
sources of supply, distribution, plumbing, fuel contents/warning sensors and
lines, fuel system component positions; operation eg fuel pressurisation, feed,
transfer, venting, refuel/de-fuel, fuel as heat exchanger
Fire: system functions; component functions eg unit detectors, continuous
firewire detectors, inertia switches, crash switches, fixed and portable
extinguishers, fire warning panel indicators); layout/operation eg engine bay/jet
pipe unit detection system, continuous detection system, on-board fire
extinguishing system, pilot/automatic extinguishant actuation system, overheat
conditions

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3 Know the system functions and the layout and operation of aircraft cabin
equipment and protection systems

Cabin equipment: emergency equipment functions eg harnesses, belts, seats,

slides, parachutes, dropdown oxygen and masks, crew and cabin therapeutic walk
round oxygen systems; layout eg cabin, emergency equipment, furnishings,
entertainment, galley, airstairs, cargo handling systems; operation eg seat belts,
slides, airstairs, entertainment, therapeutic oxygen
Protection: functions of systems eg de-icing, anti-icing, oxygen, windscreen
repellents/wipers, probe and drain heating; system layout/operation eg ice
detection, anti-icing (such as electrical, hot air, chemical), de-icing (such as
pneumatic, chemical, electrical, hot air), oxygen (such as storage, pilot/cabin
distribution, regulation, emergency provision, chemical generation, liquid oxygen
generation and distribution)

4 Be able to carry out maintenance activities on pneumatic, cabin conditioning,

pressurisation, fuel, fire, cabin equipment and protection systems

Pneumatic: following documentation and observing all relevant safety

precautions; activity eg check serviceability of aircraft drains, vents, trunking,
leak checks, condition of storage bottles, reservoirs, receivers and their
associated fixtures and fittings
Cabin air conditioning and pressurisation: following documentation and observing
all relevant safety precautions; activity eg leak checks, assist with pressure tests,
check condition of system components, fixtures and fittings, check function of
system components
Fuel and fire: following documentation and observing all relevant safety
precautions; activity eg fuel contamination avoidance procedures, leak checks,
refuel/de-fuel operations, fuel tank venting, fuel tank storage, fire wire
condition, fire detector condition, check fire extinguishers for contents and
inadvertent operation
Cabin equipment and protection: following documentation and observing all
relevant safety precautions; activity eg check seat belts, airstairs, therapeutic
oxygen, emergency oxygen for condition/contents, check correct stowage of lift
rafts, life jackets and evacuation slides, check operation of seat entertainment
systems, windscreen wipers, probe and drain heaters, re-apply rain repellent,
check operation of blown air, pneumatic, electrical heater, chemical fluid anti-
icing/de-icing systems

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 UNIT 11: AIRFRAME SYSTEMS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 state three purposes for an aircraft M1 explain how the pneumatic supply D1 explain both the normal and emergency
pneumatic supply system and give the systems differ for gas turbine powered operation of a pneumatically controlled
functions of the piston engine, air aircraft and piston engine aircraft aircraft cabin pressurisation system,
compressor and receiver, within the throughout the whole of its ground-air-
M2 explain how with the use of sensors, duct
system ground cycle
stats and motor operated valves the
P2 describe how air is supplied to the temperature of the air supply to the D2 explain the circumstances and the means
system pre-cooler from the aircraft’s cabin is controlled by which the passenger emergency
turbine engine/s dropdown oxygen masks are activated
M3 explain the operation of an aircraft fuel
and the way that oxygen may be
P3 state the purpose of aircraft cabin system for the fuel pressurisation and
chemically generated.
conditioning and pressurisation systems, fuel transfer modes
give the function of ram air, bleed air,
M4 explain the circumstances under which
the air cycle unit and the humidifier and
the on-board fire extinguishers are
explain how conditioned air is supplied
automatically operated.
from the intercooler to the aircraft cabin
P4 state the purpose of the aircraft’s fuel
system, its fuel, fuel pump and heat
exchanger

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 sketch the layout of the fuel system for a
twin-engine aircraft, showing its
essential components and describe its
operation as a fuel heat exchanger
P6 state the function of a fire detection and
extinguishing system and the functions of
inertia switches and fire warning panel
indicators
P7 sketch the layout of a continuous fire
wire aircraft engine detection system,
showing all essential components and
explain its operation for overheat
conditions
P8 state the function of aircraft cabin
harnesses, slides and oxygen provision,
sketch the layout and describe the
operation of the seat belts and
therapeutic oxygen
P9 state the function of four aircraft
protection systems and sketch the layout
and describe the operation of an aircraft
anti-icing system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P10 using given documentation and observing
relevant safety precautions carry out a
given maintenance activity on a
pneumatic supply system
P11 using given documentation and observing
relevant safety precautions carry out two
given maintenance activities on air
conditioning/pressurisation systems
P12 using given documentation and observing
relevant safety precautions carry out two
given maintenance activities on aircraft
fuel/fire protection systems
P13 using given documentation and observing
relevant safety precautions carry out two
given maintenance activities on two
cabin equipment/protection systems.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit, together with Unit 77: Aircraft Hydraulic Systems, will provide learners
with a knowledge and understanding of aircraft mechanical systems (other than
those associated with aircraft engines and avionics). These two units will be
beneficial to anyone pursuing a mechanical pathway in aerospace manufacture or
maintenance. The units would, therefore, be best taught in tandem in the second
year of a conventional two-year full-time programme.
As a pneumatic supply can be required for thermal anti-icing, hydraulic reservoir
pressurisation and aircraft potable water systems, it would be best to teach learning
outcome 1 first. The practical assessment activities associated with each system
could be undertaken immediately after each system is delivered or, alternatively, as
part of a set of practical activities towards the end of the unit’s delivery time.
For learning outcome 1, learners should be made fully aware of the purpose of each
of the three systems (ie pneumatic supply, cabin air conditioning and pressurisation)
and the function of each of the major system components. The operation of each of
these systems, under normal and emergency conditions, should also be understood
although, with the exception of aircraft pressure controllers and discharge valves,
there is no need for learners to understand how the system components themselves
operate. However, learners must be made aware of the function of the major
components within the system.
For learning outcome 2, learners should be aware of the functions of aircraft fuel
and fire detection components and systems and be able to describe the layout of
such systems. Tutors should ensure that when explaining the operation of an aircraft
airframe fuel system, learners fully understand their operation as a fuel heat
exchanger and their operation when pressurising fuel and transferring fuel.
Both fire detection and suppression systems should be covered, with learners being
made aware of the properties, function and identification of modern extinguishers.
They will as also need to understand the conditions under which aircraft
extinguishing systems are automatically activated to suppress an overheat or aircraft
fire situation.
For learning outcome 3, emphasis should be placed on the emergency cabin
equipment that is most applicable to the learners’ vocational area. For example, if
the group is primarily concerned with the manufacture and maintenance of civil
aircraft then it might be best to emphasise the layout and operation of emergency
slides, airstairs and the passenger seats. Alternatively, for learners primarily
concerned with military aircraft, it might be best to concentrate on the crew and
cabin therapeutic walk round oxygen systems. However both these areas will need to
be covered in order to meet the assessment criteria.
Similarly, when dealing with ice and rain protection systems, the items of content
selected from the list of examples and the particular type of de-icing and anti-icing
system considered may depend on whether the cohort has a civil or military aviation
bias.

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When it comes to delivering the practical elements in learning outcome 4, the

selection of the activities to be carried out will largely be based on access to
relevant physical resources. However, learners will be disadvantaged if they cannot
gain access to a training aircraft with at least some of the systems and equipment
listed on-board. Many of the activities involve physical inspection of system
equipment, so at the very least this should be made available off-aircraft to
compensate for the lack of equipment being available on-board training aircraft.
Visits to air museums, flying clubs and, preferably, aircraft operators or military
establishments will need to be arranged for learners with no direct access to aircraft
at their centre.
When undertaking the practical activities learners are not expected to reach industry
standards of practical competence, other than being able to follow and comply with
the relevant safety procedures and aircraft documentation.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A theoretical assignment or a formal written assessment might be the best way to

assess the criteria associated with learning outcome 1 (P1, P2, P3, M1, M2 and D1).
However, it may be appropriate, depending on the progress of the cohort, to split
the pass criteria from the merit and distinction criteria and use two separate forms
of assessment.
Evidence for P1 and P2 could come from questions that require learners to
demonstrate their understanding of the pneumatic supply from piston engine aircraft
(P1) and then the supply from a turbine engine aircraft to the pre-cooler (P2).
For P3, learners need to demonstrate an understanding of the way in which engine
bleed air, ram air and the cold air unit are used to provide correct temperature air
to the cabin and the use of humidifier equipment to ensure the air moisture content
is appropriate for passenger comfort.
For M1, learners will need to explain the significant differences in the air supply
systems on piston and turbine engine aircraft. For M2 they will need to explain how
the temperature of the air supplied to the cabin is controlled. An accurately labelled
diagram could be produced to support the explanation.
To satisfy D1, learners need to demonstrate their knowledge of the operation of the
pneumatic controller/discharge valve combination. In particular this will need to
include its operation from the ground to the aircraft operating altitude, its operation
at altitude when maximum cabin differential has been met and its use on the
descent to control cabin pressure changes within suitable limits.
P4, P5, P6, P7, M3 and M4 cover learning outcome 2. In order to meet P4, P5, P6 and
P7 learners only need to answer questions of a descriptive nature, in which they
show an awareness of the function of aircraft airframe fuel systems and fire
detection/extinguishing systems and their major components. They will also need to
sketch the layout and describe the operation of a typical fuel system and continuous
fire wire detection system for a modern aircraft.

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For M3, learners must explain the operation of fuel systems when used in their
pressurisation and fuel transfer modes. For M4, they will need to explain the
circumstances under which the on-board fire extinguishers are automatically
operated (ie during fire emergency and crash emergencies). They should also be
aware of the means of electrically signalling and firing the bottles.
A formal written or theoretical assignment would also be an appropriate method of
assessing the criteria that cover learning outcome 3 (P8, P9 and D2). This assignment
should include written questions that cover the functions and layout of aircraft cabin
harnesses, slides and oxygen provision, together with other questions that require
learners to describe the operation of seat belts and walk round therapeutic oxygen
bottles.
For P9, learners should state the function of most (four) of the protection systems
mentioned in the unit content. They should also be able to describe the operation of
an aircraft anti-icing system, whether this is hot air, chemical or electrical.
Assessment of D2 should give learners the opportunity to explain the circumstances
needed for automatic activation of the passenger cabin dropdown masks and the
mechanism used to achieve this. Learners will also need to explain in detail
(probably with the aid of a diagram) the way in which typical chemical oxygen
generators produce the required oxygen once activated.
P9, P10, P11 and P12 cover learning outcome 4. As mentioned above, the assessment
of these practical skills could take place either at the end of each related learning
outcome or as part of a final overall unit assessment, and centres should decide
when to gather this evidence. Appropriate documentation should be made available
and learners will need to demonstrate that they can follow the guidance given in the
documentation and follow all relevant safety procedures.
Most of the practical activities require a limited amount of skill to complete them
satisfactorily, so the fact that learners adopt the correct approach and strictly
adhere to procedures and all related safety considerations should be the primary
factor used to assess learner competence. For all the practical tasks witness
statements/observation records and annotated photographs and documentation are
likely to be the best form of evidence.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the skills and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 43: Installing Aircraft De-icing Systems
• Unit 44: Installing Aircraft Fuel Systems
• Unit 45: Installing Aircraft Environmental Systems
• Unit 55: Testing Aircraft Pneumatic Systems
• Unit 56: Testing Aircraft Environmental Systems
• Unit 57: Testing Aircraft De-icing Systems
• Unit 147: Removing and Replacing Components of Aircraft Pneumatic and Vacuum
Systems

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• Unit 148: Removing and Replacing Components of Aircraft Environmental Systems

• Unit 150: Removing and Replacing Components of Aircraft Cabin Systems,
Equipment and Furnishings
• Unit 155: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Fuel and Storage Systems.
The content of this unit, together with Unit 77: Aircraft Hydraulic Systems, provides
some of the general airframe systems knowledge and understanding for those wishing
to pursue a career in aerospace engineering. In particular, it covers some of the
systems knowledge and understanding contained in Module 11 of the EASA Part 66
syllabus for those wishing to qualify as category A and B1 Aircraft Licensed Mechanics
and Technicians.

Essential resources

As a minimum, centres should provide learners with access to an airliner or military

aircraft and their associated airframe systems equipment. The aircraft should be
equipped with as many of the following systems as possible:
• pneumatic
• cabin conditioning
• pressurisation
• fire protection
• airframe fuel
• de-icing/anti-icing
• cabin systems equipment that enables learners to assess the condition of some of
these systems.
Access may be via the centres own aircraft or through pre-arranged visits to aircraft
airline operators or military establishments where some of the practical activities
detailed in learning outcome 4 can be undertaken. In addition to the above
(particularly for those centres that do not have access to their own suitable training
aircraft), centres should have a selection of airframe system components and
systems rigs, suitable not only for explaining their function and operation, but also
for assessing system component condition and system layout and operation.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Moir I and Seabridge A — Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical and Avionic Sub-
Systems Integration (John Wiley and Sons, 2004) ISBN 1860582893
Wild T W — Transport Category Aircraft Systems (Aviation Theory Centre, 1990)
ISBN 0891003630
Specialist texts
Air Publications — 101 Series of manuals and Air Publications (Military)
ATA — 100 Series, specialist textbooks and publications from the Joint Aviation
Authority and sanctioned by the European Aviation Safety Agency (Civil)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using given documentation, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
observing relevant safety information from relevant sources.
precautions and carrying out
a given maintenance activity
on airframe systems.

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Unit 12: Human Factors in Aerospace

Engineering
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Although aviation is the safest means of transportation, the aerospace industry can
not take aircraft safety for granted. Within any safety-critical industry such as
aerospace, where human beings play a central role, it is of paramount importance
that the ‘right first time’ approach is applied. For any technician involved in the
manufacture or maintenance of an aircraft or its components, it is essential that
they have an understanding of how human factors can impact on their daily routines.
This unit seeks to cover the many performance-influencing factors that can inhibit a
technician, both from an organisational and personal perspective. It includes social,
cultural, and individual, team and organisational responsibility issues. Learners will
be encouraged to relate to their own personal experiences from all aspects of life
whilst working towards this unit. The use of facilitated learner-group discussions will
form an important part of the learning process, together with looking at recent
aircraft accidents/incidents that have been attributed to human factors.
This unit has been written to serve as an introduction to human factors and closely
follows the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Human Factors syllabus
requirements. It also provides some of the basic knowledge and understanding for
learners working towards EASA Part 66 licensing.
Learners will develop their understanding of the wider implications of human factors
and its relationship to individual and organisational behaviours that can lead to
mistakes being made within the industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the importance of human factors and how they have contributed to
aviation accidents
2 Understand how various human limitations can affect performance
3 Know the differences between an error and a violation, and the importance of
basic error management principles
4 Understand the effect of the organisation and the working environment on safety
and performance.

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Unit content

1 Know the importance of human factors and how they have contributed to
aviation accidents

Importance: human factors in safety-critical industries eg aerospace, rail,

medical; relevant and current legislation eg EASA Part 66, Part 145, CAP 715, CAP
716; accident/incident research eg data classification (machine/human),
reduction of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), advances of cockpit resource
management (CRM)
Human Factors concepts: error chains; Murphy’s law; ‘Dirty Dozen’ (12 most
common causes of error)
Accident/incidents: eg Japan Airlines JA123 (1985), Aloha Airlines Flight 243
(1988), United Flight 232 (1989), British Airways Flight 5390 (1990), Alaska
Airlines Flight 261 (2000)

2 Understand how various human limitations and behaviours can affect

performance

Human limitations: memory; motivation; stress eg work related, personal,

domestic; fatigue and sleep patterns (circadian rhythm); perception; knowledge
and experience eg situation awareness; complacency; general health; vision;
inhibitors eg alcohol, drugs, medicines; external influences eg diet, lifestyle,
fitness, exercise; training; individual communication eg verbal, written, body
language, gestures
Behaviour: relevance of work ethics eg integrity, professionalism; importance of
procedural compliance eg manuals, task sheets, company policies and procedures

3 Know the differences between an error and a violation and the importance of
basic error management principles

Error and violation: definitions and forms eg active and latent error, situational
and routine violation; social acceptance of rule breaking eg speeding; how norms
and habits can impact behaviour
Error prevention: methods eg the importance of using technical data (manuals
and task sheets), training, staff selection; audits (both internal and external)
Error capturing: defence barriers eg inspections including duplicates, tool
control, calibration, audits, functional tests, training, the use of technical data
(manuals, task sheets, procedures)
Error reporting: awareness of reporting requirements eg organisational/internal,
legislative/external (Mandatory Occurrence Report (MOR)); error investigation
methods eg Maintenance Error Decision Aid (MEDA)

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4 Understand the effect of the organisation and the working environment on

safety and performance

Workplace factors: organisational eg communication (such as formal, informal),

company structure (such as tall, flat, hierarchical), cost constraints, leadership
(such as autocratic, democratic); staffing and resource levels; culture eg safety,
blame, just, blame free; type of tasks eg simple, complex, repetitive;
distractions; time constraints; workload; team working eg effective, non-
effective
Environment: general working conditions (ergonomic) factors eg space, lighting,
heating, noise, climate, temperature; mistakes eg incorrect readings, incorrect
messages, poor workmanship, accidents to self and others during work;
importance of risk assessments

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the importance of the study of M1 compare the consequences of human D1 evaluate the importance of procedural
human factors within the aerospace factors between the aerospace compliance in counteracting human factors
industry industry and other safety critical within the aerospace industry
industries such as rail and medical
P2 describe the human factor concepts that D2 evaluate how error management principles
contributed to two recent large-scale air M2 explain how changes in the workplace can reduce aviation accidents/incidents.
accidents/incidents and its environment can affect safety
and performance.
P3 describe the different types of human
limitations that can affect human
performance
P4 explain how human behaviour can affect
human performance
P5 describe the differences between error
and violation
P6 describe and explain the importance of
error prevention, capturing and
reporting

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the workplace factors that can
affect human performance
P8 identify conditions in the working
environment that could lead to mistakes
being made.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

In all safety-critical industries such as aerospace, it is important that everyone

develops an understanding of human factor principles of human factors into everyone
as early as possible. Case studies (based on real accidents/incidents) should be
considered an essential part of the delivery of the unit to focus learners on the
relationship between maintenance error and human factors. Whilst using case
studies, learners should be presented with relevant accident/incident investigation
material to use. They should be encouraged as much as possible to relate to their
own experiences of human factors in their employment/work experience in the
industry or other similar fields.
The learning outcomes form a natural order for delivery. A large amount of
information relating to all areas of the unit content can be found within CAP 716 and
via research on the internet. Centres can also utilise recent television programmes
which highlight human factor issues surround aircraft accidents.
Learning outcome 1 provides context for the importance of human factors in the
aerospace industry. The investigation of accidents will highlight the human factors
involved and learners should be encouraged to look at the relevance of their findings
to other safety-critical industries.
Learning outcome 2 is about identifying the human limitations such as fatigue and
stress that can affect a technician’s performance when undertaking everyday tasks.
Learning outcome 3 must be emphasised as the most important aspect of human
factors. Firstly, the differences between errors and violations will need to be
highlighted, namely intent, and how norms and habits can have a part to play in the
actions and behaviours of technicians. Secondly the importance of error management
(or control) through defence barriers such as training, duplicate inspections,
calibration etc and other defence barriers will need to be covered. The final part of
this learning outcome focuses on error reporting, the legislative requirements of both
internal and external reporting and how they can impact on any possible future
errors.
Delivery of learning outcome 4 will need to consider organisational impacts and the
workplace factors that can affect an individual’s behaviour, including the working
environment that aerospace technicians are working in.
The unit has been designed to give learners a thorough introduction to human factors
appropriate to the industry. Wherever possible (and particularly during case-study
exercises) learners should be encouraged to work in small groups, discussing and
sharing their experiences with each other and the group as a whole.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of
breadth and depth of the topic of human factors. As such, not all content that
follows an ‘eg’ needs to taught or assessed.

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Assessment

Evidence of learning outcomes may be collected from case studies, tests, exercises
and assignments that enable learners to explore the application of human factors to
minimise the risks of human error in maintenance activities.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must demonstrate an understanding of the
importance of human factor considerations applied to the aerospace industry and
especially within maintenance activities.
The unit could be assessed through the use of three assignments. The first
assignment could cover P1, P2 and M1, covering the content of learning outcome 1.
Learners are expected to describe in their own words the importance of the study of
human factors in the aerospace industry (P1) and its relevance to at least two recent
large-scale aircraft accidents/incidents (P2). Where possible learners should be
encouraged to research accidents from other safety-critical industries, such as rail,
to compare accident analysis data and meet merit criteria M1.
The second assignment could cover the grading criteria that relate to learning
outcomes 2 and 3, namely P3, P4, P5, P6, D1 and D2. Learners are expected to
describe the different performance limitations (P3) as ranged by the unit content,
building on the ‘dirty dozen’ looked at in learning outcome 1. The relationship of
behaviour (P4) is key to understanding human factors, especially rule breaking and its
effects on error (eg failure to follow procedures). Simple class exercises could be
used to show the importance of following instructions and not relying on memory or
perception of the required tasks.
Learners will also need to describe the main difference between an error and a
violation (P5). This should include the intent to do something wrong (not working to
manuals/procedures etc) and how one-off situational violations can turn into routine
violations, undertaken every time the same task is required.
It is important that learners are shown that behaviours outside of the workplace, for
example speeding and its social acceptance, mean that sometimes people will carry
on with law/rule breaking behaviour inside the workplace. Learners should
understand that not following the rules can lead to actual (active) or latent error,
something done wrong now that won’t appear or go wrong until many years in the
future, such as the United 232 (Sioux City) accident. The assignment will also need to
ask learners to show a level of understanding of basic error management principles
(P6). This should include looking at the importance of defence barriers such as
duplicate inspections and the legal requirements of error reporting.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners must fully understand and state the
importance of procedural compliance in counteracting human factors (D1). Learners
will also need to demonstrate comprehension of how the reporting of errors and
violations and their subsequent investigation using tools such as MEDA can reduce the
occurrence of accidents/incidents (D2). This should include details of how learning
from other individuals’ and organisations’ mistakes and the sharing of ‘best practice’
information around maintenance activities is an integral part of human factors
requirements.

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The final assignment could cover the criteria associated with learning outcome 4 and
build on the knowledge from the other learning outcomes regarding human
performance including error and violation. Learners will need to describe what
difference an organisation’s structure, management style and especially culture
(both actual or perceived) can have on individuals or groups (P6). Learners will also
need to describe the environmental and ergonomic factors (P7) such as lighting and
temperature that could possibly lead to error or violations. A written task to show
the relationship of the workplace and its environment to behaviour and how it can
affect performance (M2) will be required for the final merit criteria.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The principles within this unit relate to all the practical units within the BTEC
Nationals in Aerospace Engineering. The unit also provides some of the knowledge
and understanding associated with EASA Part 66, Module 9 Human Factors.

Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that the centre has, or has access to,
facilities for carrying out research into the topic. As well as a wide range of subject
literature and research material, centres will need to ensure learners have access to
the internet.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Patankar M and Taylor J — A Practical Guide to Applied Human Factors in Aviation
Maintenance (Ashgate, 2004) ISBN 0754619400
Reason J and Hobbs A — Managing Maintenance Error (Ashgate, 2004) ISBN 074561591
Websites (legislative)
Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) www.caa.co.uk
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) www.hf.faa.gov/webtraining/index.htm
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) www.hse.gov.uk/humanfactors/index.htm
Websites (general interest)
Aviation Safety Network www.aviation-safety.net
Maintenance and ramp safety society www.marss.org

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Other materials

Available via the CAA website:

CAP 715: An Introduction to Aircraft Maintenance Engineering Human Factors
CAP 716: Aviation Maintenance Human Factors
CAP 718: Human Factors in aircraft maintenance and inspection
CAP 719: Fundamental Human Factors Concepts.
The appendices of all the above documents provide references for further
information and research material.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the different C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
types of human limitations each one giving different information
that can affect performance about complex subjects.
• explaining how human One document must be at least 1000
behaviour can affect their words long.
performance
• describing the differences
between error and violation
• describing and explaining the
importance of error
prevention, capturing and
reporting.

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Unit 13: Aerospace Electrical Devices and

Circuits
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Modern aircraft rely on an increasingly sophisticated range of electrical components
and systems used in the generation, distribution and utilisation of electrical energy.
These components include resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, generators
and alternators and the systems in which they are used include those for electrical
generation, power control and regulation, and electromechanical actuators and
rotating machinery.
This unit aims to broaden the knowledge that learners will have already gained from
their study of Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles. It will focus on the specific
application of electrical components and systems to the generation, distribution and
utilisation of electricity in aircraft and aerospace applications.
Learners will develop their understanding of electrical terminology and the methods
use to produce electricity, in particular the construction and characteristics of
aircraft batteries as a means of producing direct current (DC) electricity. Learners
are then taken through the theory, construction and operation of resistive, capacitive
and inductive devices and their use in electrical circuits and components such as
transformers. Finally, learners will apply AC theory and their knowledge of
magnetism and inductance to the construction, operation and distribution of
electrical energy in both single and three-phase systems.
When taken with Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles and Unit 85: Aircraft
Electrical Machines, this unit covers the underpinning knowledge of the European
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 module 3: Electrical Fundamentals. The unit
will also be useful for those seeking employment with the armed forces or the
aircraft manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the theory, terminology, methods and devices used to produce static
and direct current (DC) electricity
2 Understand the theory, terminology, construction and operation of resistive and
capacitive devices
3 Be able to determine parameters in circuits by applying relevant alternating
current (AC) theory
4 Be able to apply the theory of magnetism to the construction and operation of
electromagnetic components and AC generators.

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Unit content

1 Understand the theory, terminology, methods and devices used to produce

static and direct current (DC) electricity

Theory and terminology: atomic structure and electrical charge; conduction in

solids, liquids and gasses
Methods and devices used to produce electricity: construction and basic chemical
action of primary and secondary cells eg lead acid, nickel cadmium and alkaline
types; series and parallel connection of cells eg terminal voltage, internal
resistance and its effect on terminal voltage and load current supplied by a
battery

2 Understand the theory, terminology, construction and operation of resistive

and capacitive devices

Theory and terminology: factors affecting resistance eg conductor length, cross

sectional area, specific resistance (resistivity), temperature and coefficient of
resistance; factors affecting capacitance eg plate spacing plate area dielectric
constant (permittivity)
DC circuit theory: relationship between voltage, current, resistance and power;
relationship between charge, voltage, capacitance and energy stored in a
capacitor; charge and discharge of the capacitor (exponential growth and decay
of voltage and current, and time constant)
Resistive devices: construction, properties and characteristics of different types
of resistor eg carbon film, metal film and wire-wound types, variable resistors
(rheostats), potentiometers, voltage dependent resistors (VDRs); thermistors
(positive temperature coefficient (PTC) and negative temperature coefficient
(NTC)); light dependent resistors (LDRs); ratings, markings and colour code eg
preferred values, tolerance, power rating; methods used for testing and
measuring resistance eg ohmmeter and Wheatstone bridge
Capacitive devices: construction of different capacitor types eg air-spaced, multi-
plate types, axial and radial types; variable capacitors; markings and colour code;
ratings (preferred values, voltage rating); methods used for testing capacitors eg
open and short circuit tests

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3 Be able to determine parameters in circuits by applying relevant alternating

current (AC) theory

AC theory: relationship between resistance, reactance and impedance (the

impedance triangle, phase angle and power factor); variation of reactance with
frequency (both inductive and capacitive reactance); phasor diagrams; true
power and apparent power; determination of the voltage, current and power in
series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits containing a combination of resistance
and reactance (both inductive and capacitive); resonance, Q-factor and
bandwidth; power factor correction
Transformers: transformer principles eg primary and secondary voltage, current
and power relationships, turns ratio, turns per volt; transformer types eg step-up,
step-down, isolating, autotransformers, three-phase transformers; transformer
losses (iron, copper); transformer conditions eg under no-load, on-load; power
loss and efficiency; calculation of line and phase voltages and currents;
calculation of power in three-phase systems

4 Be able to apply the theory of magnetism to the construction and operation of

electromagnetic components and AC generators

Electromagnetic theory: Faraday’s law; induced electromotive force (emf);

principles of electromagnetic induction; relationship between induced emf,
magnetic field strength, number of conductor turns and rate of change of flux;
self and mutual inductance; relationship between number of turns, magnetic
length, permeability, and inductance; generator theory (rotation of a loop in a
magnetic field and the waveform generated); power delivered to a load in single-
phase and three-phase (balanced condition only) AC circuits

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain electrical theory and terminology M1 carry out functional tests on three D1 measure the voltage and current in a C-R
different types of resistor and three circuit during charge and discharge and
P2 describe and explain different methods
different types of capacitor used in verify the results obtained by calculation
used for producing electricity
aircraft and aerospace applications
D2 measure the line and phase voltage,
P3 explain factors affecting resistance and
M2 measure the voltage, current, power and current and total power present in a
use DC circuit theory to determine the
power factor in a single-phase AC circuit three-phase AC circuit and verify the
resistance, current, voltage and power in
containing a series combination of results obtained by calculation.
a simple circuit with a battery and a
resistance, and reactance and verify the
resistor and solve series/parallel circuits
results obtained by calculation.
with up to four resistors
P4 describe the construction,
characteristics, properties, ratings,
markings and colour codes used for two
different types of resistive devices and
methods used for testing and measuring
resistance

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 explain factors affecting capacitance and
use DC circuit theory to determine the
charge, voltage, current, capacitance
and energy stored in a simple circuit
with a battery, resistor and a capacitor
and solve series/parallel circuits with up
to four capacitors
P6 describe the construction, ratings,
markings and colour codes used for two
different types of capacitor and the
methods used for testing and measuring
capacitance
P7 use AC theory to determine circuit
parameters (voltage, current,
impedance, phase angle, Q-factor,
resonant frequency, bandwidth, power,
and power factor) in an AC circuit
containing a combination of resistance
and reactance and apply power factor
correction techniques

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 explain the transformer principle, losses
in transformers and determine circuit
parameters (primary and secondary
voltage, current, power, power loss and
efficiency) when a transformer is
connected to a purely resistive load
P9 use appropriate theory to determine
single and three-phase circuit solutions
relating to electromagnetic components
and alternating current generators.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

All four learning outcomes are linked and the delivery strategy should ensure that
these links are maintained. Learning outcome 1 is the most likely starting point for
delivery, as it will establish much of the underpinning knowledge and skills required
for the remaining learning outcomes.
The unit could be delivered through a combination of theory lessons and
demonstrations, reinforced through practical work in an electrical workshop or
laboratory. It is important that learners have a thorough understanding of circuit
theory if they are to be able to understand the operation of complex electrical and
electronic systems found in modern aircraft and aerospace applications.
Learners should be given plenty of opportunity to put into practice the theory
covered in the unit content. They should be able to select the most appropriate
formulae to determine the required circuit values of current, voltage, power and
power factor. Learners should also be able to transpose equations to meet their
needs (eg rearrange Z = R 2 + X 2 and then use given values of Z and R to find X). It is
important that Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians has been delivered or is being
delivered concurrently with this unit to give learners the necessary mathematical
skills.
Delivery of learning outcome 2 could be based on a series of investigations in to
typical components found in aircraft and aerospace applications. Learners should be
introduced to each type of component as well as its construction and operation. They
should learn to recognise components from their markings, colour codes, and physical
appearance and should be introduced to the methods used for carrying out simple
tests and measurements using a multimeter in order to confirm their value and
operational status.
Learning outcome 3 will extend learners’ understanding of AC principles to circuits
containing a mixture of resistance and reactance. Learners should be introduced to
theoretical concepts (such as the impedance triangle, phasor diagrams and power
factor calculation) before investigating practical applications in which these circuits
are used (such as power factor correction, resonant circuits and filters). Learners also
need to be introduced to transformers including non-ideal components in which iron
and copper losses are present.
Learning outcome 4 can be delivered through an investigation of a variety of
components used in aircraft AC electrical systems. Learners should practice solving
single-phase and three-phase circuits (balanced condition only) and should be shown
how to determine the power present in a three-phase load when given the line
voltage, line current and power factor.
Wherever possible, learners should be given opportunities to experience a range of
electrical test equipment (specifically multimeters) that reflect typical and current
use in the aerospace industry. Tutors should also ensure that learners are aware of
the safe use of multimeters (and the need for routine inspection and calibration) in
an aircraft workshop and industry setting.

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Centres should relate theory to real aircraft and practical aerospace applications
wherever possible. Industrial visits or work experience could be used to support
learning and provide learners with an appreciation of the use of electrical
components and systems within the aerospace industry. Learners should be
encouraged to make reference to relevant aircraft maintenance manuals for
recommended procedures and information on the operation of components and
systems.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit could be developed through a combination of

assignments, investigations and conventional written examinations with short and
long answer questions.
The method of assessment preferred by national legislative bodies relative to the
aerospace industry involves the use of multiple choice questions. Many centres may
have existing banks of multiple choice questions designed to prepare and test
learners for Module 3 of EASA Part 66. Where learners are aiming to achieve
recognised licensed status, this method of assessment could be adopted as a means
of supporting and checking learning. However, multiple-choice questions should not
be used as assessment instruments for the purposes of this unit.
It is likely that at least four assessment instruments will be required for this unit. If
practical investigations and tests are also used then the total number of pieces of
assessed work could be even greater. This should be carefully considered so that it
does not place an unduly heavy assessment burden on learners or the tutor.
Wherever possible, practical investigations should lead to a final product or outcome
that can be handed in for assessment at the end of the session without further need
for report writing. This will help control authenticity of evidence and also keep the
assessment activities short, sharp and relevant. Clearly, the ability to work safely in
an aircraft environment should be paramount and centres should ensure that learners
understand relevant hazards, such as high voltages in aircraft three-phase AC systems
and leakage of electrolyte in the vicinity of aircraft batteries.
The four assessment instruments could be based on:
• sources of electricity (providing evidence that will contribute to P1 and P2)
• electrical components (providing evidence that will contribute to P3, P4, P5, P6,
M1 and D1)
• AC circuits (providing evidence that will contribute to P7, M2 and D2)
• electromagnetic components (providing evidence that will contribute to P8, P9,
M2 and D2).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has strong links with Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians and it would be
useful to study these units concurrently. Data from experiments within this unit can
be manipulated mathematically and so provide evidence for both units. The unit also
provides underpinning knowledge to support the study of other electrical and
electronic units such as Unit 72: Further Electrical Principles.

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This unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 15: Checking the Compliance of Electronic Components Against the
Specification
• Unit 17: Assembling and Wiring Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production Electronic Components and Circuits
• Unit 24: Assembling Transformers and Inductors
• Unit 25: Fitting small Transformer and Inductor Cores
• Unit 26: Assembling Rotor and Armature Windings
• Unit 27: Assembling Stator Windings
• Unit 28: Assembling and Fitting Commutators
• Unit 30: Assembling and Fitting Electrical Rotating Equipment
• Unit 31: Mounting Electrical Components in Enclosures
• Unit 32: Wiring Electrical Components and Equipment in Enclosures
• Unit 33: Selecting and Preparing Materials and Components for Electrical
Assembly
• Unit 34: Carrying Out Functional Tests on Electrical Equipment.

Essential resources

It is essential that learners have access to a well equipped electrical workshop or

electrical laboratory, with up to date electrical test instruments such as digital and
analogue multimeters, generators and oscilloscopes. Centres should also provide a
range of typical electrical components used in aircraft and aerospace applications.
Learners would benefit from access to ‘live’ aircraft, spare parts and maintenance
information found in a typical aviation technical library.

Indicative reading for learners

Bird J O — Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750657847
Bird J O — Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology (Second Edition)
(Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750665505
Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Engineering Principles (Elsevier, 2005)
ISBN 075065015X
Eismin T — Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (McGraw-Hill, 1994) ISBN 0028018591
Robertson C R — Fundamental Electrical and Electronic Principles (Butterworth-
Heinemann, 2001) ISBN 0750651458

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating the resistance, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
current, voltage and power information from relevant sources.
in a simple circuit with a N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
battery and a resistor and present your findings and justify your
solve series/parallel circuits methods.
with up to four resistors
• calculating the charge,
voltage, current, capacitance
and energy stored in a simple
circuit with a battery,
resistor and a capacitor and
solve series/parallel circuits
with up to four capacitors
• using AC theory to determine
circuit parameters (voltage,
current, impedance, phase
angle, Q-factor, resonant
frequency, bandwidth,
power, and power factor) in
an AC circuit containing a
combination of resistance
and reactance and apply
power factor correction
techniques

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Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating circuit
parameters (primary and
secondary voltage, current,
power, power loss and
efficiency) when a
transformer is connected to a
purely resistive load
• determining single and three-
phase circuit solutions
relating to electromagnetic
components and alternating
current generators.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining the construction, C3.3 Write two different types of documents
and properties of aerospace each one giving different information
electrical components and about complex subjects.
systems. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Unit 14: Aerospace Electronic Devices

and Circuits
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Modern aircraft rely on an increasingly sophisticated range of electronic components
and systems used for actuation, control, instrumentation and monitoring. These
systems are often integrated into comprehensive automatic flight control systems
(AFCS) that allow an aircraft to fly in difficult situations (such as reduced visibility)
without continuous intervention from the crew.
This unit aims to broaden the knowledge that learners will have already gained from
their study of Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles, which is an essential
prerequisite. It also focuses on the specific application of electronics in a variety of
avionic systems used for indicating, controlling and regulating aircraft parameters.
The unit will introduce learners to semiconductor theory and the basic operation of
diodes and transistors, two of the most important building blocks in electronic
circuits.
Filters are used in many avionic applications and the unit introduces the fundamental
characteristics and operation of different types of filter including low-pass, band-
pass, band-stop and high-pass types.
Learners will be introduced to the fundamental concepts of open- and closed-loop
systems and how various functional circuit blocks (transducers, amplifiers,
comparators, etc) can be arranged to form a functional closed-loop control system.
Such systems are used extensively in aircraft instrumentation and as a means of
controlling and regulating aircraft systems generally.
When taken with Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles and Unit 85: Aircraft
Electrical Machines, this unit covers the underpinning knowledge of the European
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66 module 3: Electrical Fundamentals. The unit
will also be useful for those seeking employment with the armed forces or the
aircraft manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand semi-conductor theory and the fundamental construction and
operation of diodes and transistors
2 Understand filter types, characteristics and operation
3 Understand the function and operation of open- and closed-loop systems
4 Be able to apply electronic theory to the construction and operation of aircraft
servomechanisms.

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Unit content

1 Understand semi-conductor theory and the fundamental construction and

operation of diodes and transistors

Theory: molecular structure of conductors, semiconductors and insulators; doping

(trivalent and pentavalent impurities); structure of P-type and N-type
semiconductor materials; conduction in semiconductors; majority and minority
carriers
Diodes: the P-N junction; symbol and construction of a junction diode; forward
and reverse bias and direction of current flow; diode applications (rectification,
signal detection, switching); functional testing of diodes (forward and reverse
resistance measurement)
Transistors: symbols and constructions of PNP and NPN bipolar junction
transistors (BJT); transistor current gain; functional testing of BJT (forward and
reverse resistance measurement for each junction)

2 Understand filter types, characteristics and operation

Types: low-pass, high-pass, band-pass and band-stop; single section and multiple
section; active and passive types
Characteristics: eg frequency response, cut-off frequency, bandwidth, insertion
loss and attenuation
Operation: simple passive filters based on T-section and pi-section R-C, R-L and
R-C-L networks

3 Understand the function and operation of open- and closed-loop systems

Function: difference between open and closed-loop systems; block schematic

diagrams for typical systems showing functional elements
Operation: terminology used with closed-loop systems (feedback, input or
demand, output, error, null, inertia, dead-band, overshoot, undershoot, rise-
time, settling time, damping, oscillation); formulae (relationship between output
and input given forward gain and feedback ratio); time response of a typical
closed-loop system with different amounts of damping applied

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4 Be able to apply electronic theory to the construction and operation of

aircraft servomechanisms

Construction and operation: transducers and sensors eg potentiometers,

tachogenerators, linear variable differential transducers (LVDT), resistive strain
gauges, semiconductor strain gauges, piezoelectric sensors, temperature sensors,
light sensors, vibration sensors, flow sensors, accelerometers; E-I transformers;
inductance transmitters; capacitance transmitters; synchronous transmitters;
synchro resolvers and transformers; phase sensitive detectors; synchro defects
(reversal of stator or rotor connections, hunting); amplifiers and filters

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the structure of conductors, M1 determine the functional state of D1 design and construct simple low-pass and
semiconductors and insulators and the three junction diodes and three BJTs high-pass filters for a given cut-off
production of P-type and N-type using a multi-range meter frequency and analyse their performance
semiconductor materials by doping with using laboratory test equipment
M2 determine the current gain of a BJT
trivalent and pentavalent impurities
using simple a power supply and a D2 diagnose and correct three different
respectively
multi-range meter fault conditions present in a closed-loop
P2 explain the principle of conduction in servo system.
M3 determine the pass-band loss, cut-off
semiconductors in relation to majority and
frequencies and bandwidth of a
minority carriers and the action of a P-N
passive filter using a signal generator
junction when forward and reverse biased
and basic test instruments
P3 describe and explain the construction,
M4 determine the rise-time, settling time
properties, operation, and circuit symbols
and overshoot/undershoot of a simple
for PNP and NPN bipolar junction
closed-loop servo system under various
transistors (BJTs)
conditions of demand, load and
damping.

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P4 explain the functional testing of diodes
(using forward and reverse resistance
measurement) and transistors (using
forward and reverse resistance
measurement for each junction)
P5 explain the operation of low-pass, high-
pass, band-pass and band-stop filters in
relation to frequency response, cut-off
frequency and bandwidth and describe
simple passive filters based on T-section
and pi-section R-C, R-L and R-C-L networks
P6 explain, with the use of block schematic
diagrams, the functions of open-loop and
closed-loop systems and the terminology
used to describe their operation
P7 explain the construction and operation of a
typical aircraft servomechanism with
reference to the function of the individual
components used in the system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

All four learning outcomes are linked and the delivery strategy used should ensure
that these links are maintained. Learning outcome 1 is the most likely starting point
for delivery, as it will establish much of the underpinning knowledge and skills
required for the rest of the unit content.
The unit could be delivered through a combination of theory lessons, demonstrations
and practical investigations carried out in an avionics workshop or electronics
laboratory.
Delivery of learning outcome 1 should include practical investigations of junction
diodes and bipolar junction transistors (BJTs). During these investigations, learners
should be encourage to carry out forward and reverse resistance measurements of
the semiconductor junctions, relating the measured values to what would be
expected from previous theory. Learners should also be shown how to identify a
semiconductor device that has an open-circuit or short-circuit junction. In order to
demonstrate the concept of current gain and amplification, a simple investigation
can be carried out in which learners measure the input (base) and output (collector)
current in a junction transistor.
Learning outcome 2 should begin with a reminder of the basic properties and
characteristics of resistors, capacitors and inductors. Learners should recall how
capacitive and inductive reactance varies with frequency and should be encouraged
to perform simple calculations of reactance at different frequencies (for example,
100 Hz and 10 kHz) for capacitors and inductors of given values.
Learners should be introduced to the different types of filter (low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass and band-stop) and the frequency response for each type. Practical
investigations of ready-made filter circuits will provide learners with an opportunity
to plot frequency response and measure filter characteristics.
The delivery of learning outcome 3 should be based on introductory theory but should
be treated in a descriptive rather than mathematical way. However learners should
be introduced to the basic equations for the closed-loop gain, using positive and
negative feedback in terms of open-loop gain and feedback ratio. Learners should
also be introduced to the time response of closed-loop systems and this can be done
through demonstrations or practical investigations in which learners make
measurements on model closed-loop systems (eg position controllers, speed
controllers, temperature controllers).
Learning outcome 4 could be delivered through an investigation of the construction
and operation of aircraft servomechanisms. Learners should be given the opportunity
to familiarise themselves with the components used in servomechanisms (such as
transducers, amplifiers, rectifiers, resolvers, etc) and to investigate a complete servo
system on which measurements can be made and faults can be placed.

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Wherever possible, centres should enable learners to experience a range of

electronic test equipment (specifically multimeters and oscilloscopes) that reflect
typical and current use in the aerospace industry. Tutors should ensure that learners
are aware of the safe use of test equipment (and the need for routine inspection and
calibration) in an aircraft workshop and industry setting.
Centres are encouraged to relate theory to real aircraft and aerospace applications
wherever possible. Industrial visits or work experience could be used to support
delivery and to give learners an appreciation of the use of electrical components and
system within the aerospace industry and in aircraft maintenance in particular.
Wherever possible, learners should be encouraged to refer to relevant aircraft
maintenance manuals for recommended procedures and information on the operation
of components and systems.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit could be developed through a combination of

assignments, investigations and conventional written examinations with short- and
long-answer questions.
The method of assessment preferred by national legislative bodies relative to the
aerospace industry involves the use of multiple choice questions. Many centres may
have existing banks of multiple choice questions designed to prepare and test
learners for Module 3 of EASA Part 66. Where learners are aiming to achieve
recognised licensed status, this method of assessment could be adopted as a means
of supporting and checking learning. Multiple-choice questions should not, however,
be used as assessment instruments for the purposes of this unit.
It is likely that at least three assessment instruments will be required for this unit. If
practical investigations and tests are also used then the total number of pieces of
assessed work could be even more than this. This should be carefully considered so
that it does not place an unduly heavy assessment burden on learners or the tutor.
Wherever possible, the evidence should be handed in at the end of an assignment.
This will help control authenticity of evidence and also keep the assessment activities
short, sharp and relevant. Clearly, the ability to work safely in an aircraft
environment should be paramount and centres should ensure that learners are
adequately briefed concerning the hazards that exist.
The three assessment instruments could be based on:
• semiconductors (providing evidence that will contribute to P1, P2, P3, P4, M1 and
M2)
• filters (providing evidence that will contribute to P5, M3 and D1)
• servomechanisms (providing evidence that will contribute to P6, P7, M4 and D2).

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles. It also has links
with Unit 85: Aircraft Electrical Machines.
The unit also contributes towards the knowledge and understanding for the SEMTA
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance, including:
• Unit 4: Designing Electronic Circuit Board Layouts Using CAD Tools
• Unit 10: Selecting and Preparing Materials and Components for Manufacturing
• Unit 12: Monitoring and Analysing Data from Electronic Circuit Manufacturing
• Processes
• Unit 13: Adjusting and Sustaining Electronic Circuit Manufacturing Processes
• Unit 15: Checking the Compliance of Electronic Components Against the
• Specification
• Unit 17: Assembling and Wiring Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production electronic components and Circuits.
The unit also covers the underpinning knowledge of the European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) Part 66 module 3: Electrical Fundamentals.

Essential resources

It is essential that learners have access to a well equipped electronic/avionic

workshop or electronic laboratory with up to date electrical test instruments such as
digital and analogue multimeters, waveform and function generators and
oscilloscopes. Centres will also need to provide a range of typical electronic
components used in aircraft and aerospace applications generally. Learners will also
benefit from access to ‘live’ aircraft, spare parts and maintenance information found
in a typical aviation technical library.
In order to deliver learning outcome 2, a selection of different pre-built filters should
be available for learners to examine and investigate. For learning outcome 3, one or
more model control systems should be available for learners to use in conjunction
with their investigation of closed-loop control systems. Finally, in order to deliver
learning outcome 4, a model of a typical aircraft servomechanism should be available
on which faults can be introduced and diagnosed by learners.

Indicative reading for learners

Dingle L and Tooley M — Aircraft Engineering Principles (Elsevier, 2005)

ISBN 075065015X
Eismin T — Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (McGraw-Hill, 1994) ISBN 0711382864
Tooley M — Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications (Third Edition,
Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750669233

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining the structure of C3.3 Write two different types of documents
conductors, semiconductors each one giving different information
and insulators about complex subjects.
• explaining the principle of One document must be at least 1000
conduction in semiconductors words long.

• explaining the functional

testing of diodes
• describing and explaining the
construction and operation of
bipolar junction transistors
• explaining the operation of
filters
• explaining open-loop and
closed-loop systems
• explaining the operation of
an aircraft servomechanism.

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Unit 15: Avionic Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The avionic systems installed on modern aircraft have grown significantly over the
last few decades in terms of complexity and their level of integration with other
aircraft systems. A thorough understanding of avionic systems and their underpinning
principles is needed by aircraft technicians involved in the installation and
maintenance of these systems.
This unit will familiarise learners with aircraft communications, navigation,
automatic flight control, flight management and monitoring systems. It will give
learners an understanding of some of the fundamental avionic principles, in
particular how digital techniques are applied in avionic systems. Learners will also
know how avionic systems are monitored and tested.
Learners will investigate the operational aspects of key avionic systems and will
understand how they interface with other aircraft systems. Learners will start by
investigating how logic functions and numbering systems are used as the basis of
digital components. This leads to how digital components form the end applications
such as electronic displays and computer memory. This is followed by a look at radio
frequency (RF) principles and how these are applied to communication and
navigation systems.
The theme of navigation develops through area navigation and on to flight
management systems. The unit will also cover the operation of automatic flight
control systems (AFCS). The final section of the unit looks at methods of
troubleshooting avionic systems.
On completion of this unit, learners will have a broad understanding of the operation
of key avionic systems, together with how digital electronics are applied. This will
include an understanding of the principles of monitoring and testing to identify faults
in these systems.
This unit has been designed to provide some of the knowledge required for learners
wishing to progress on to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66
licensing requirements. It will also benefit those seeking employment within the
armed forces or the aircraft manufacturing industry.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to relate digital electronic fundamentals to their end applications
2 Know the purpose of typical aircraft electronic systems
3 Understand the operation of an automatic flight control system
4 Understand the principles of monitoring and testing avionic systems.

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Unit content

1 Be able to relate digital electronic fundamentals to their end applications

Logic functions: common logic circuit functions eg digital signals, combinational

logic, sequential logic
Numbering systems: principles of numbering systems eg binary, binary codes,
octal, hexadecimal, denary
Hardware: components eg integrated circuits, printed circuit boards, computer
memory, microprocessors; electronic displays eg cathode ray tubes, liquid crystal
displays, light emitting diodes

2 Know the purpose of typical aircraft electronic systems

Radio frequency (RF) principles: nature of radio wave transmissions eg

electromagnetic spectrum, modulation, amplifiers, transmitters, receivers;
frequency bands eg high (HF), very high (VHF), ultra high (UHF)
Communication systems: manual and automatic systems eg flight deck
communications, data communications, interphone system, aircraft
communications addressing and reporting system (ACARS), satellite
communications (SATCOM, cockpit voice recorder (CVR), selective calling
(SELCAL))
Navigation systems: radio/radar navigation systems eg automatic direction finder
(ADF), VHF omnirange (VOR), instrument landing system (ILS), microwave landing
system (MLS), distance measuring equipment (DME); self-contained/long-range
systems eg inertial navigation system (INS), inertial reference system (IRS), global
navigation satellite systems (GNSS), long range navigation (LORAN), Doppler
navigation
Flight management systems: area navigation eg navigation data base, position
initialisation, route planning, navigation system management, lateral navigation
(LNAV); performance management eg operational database, performance
initialisation, flight planner and management, programme pin identification,
autothrottle, vertical navigation (VNAV)

3 Understand the operation of an automatic flight control system

Automatic flight control system (AFCS) components: mode control panel;

computer amplifier; servos (roll, yaw, pitch); attitude references; flight director;
flight mode annunciator; audible and visual warnings
Basic operation: pitch modes eg altitude hold; vertical speed select, indicated air
speed (IAS) select, mach hold; roll modes eg heading select, LOC/VOR select;
auto approach and landing

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4 Understand the principles of monitoring and testing aircraft avionic systems

Purpose of monitoring: cost reduction eg reduce unnecessary removals, reduce no

fault found; predictive maintenance; simplify troubleshooting
Test methods: individual line replaceable unit (LRU) testing eg current operation
monitoring, built-in test (BIT), built-in test equipment (BITE), go/no test, fault
codes; comprehensive system testing eg fault history, centralised maintenance
systems

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe where digital electronics M1 compare the operation of three aircraft D1 evaluate the interaction of avionic
including logic functions, numbering navigation systems and their application components on the overall performance
systems and hardware are used in avionic of an automatic flight control system
M2 explain in detail how an automatic flight
systems
control system is used during approach D2 evaluate how a flight management
P2 describe the principles of radio and landing system is initialised with performance
frequency transmissions and navigation data.
M3 explain how flight management systems
P3 describe the use of three aircraft can reduce operating costs with area
communication systems navigation and flight performance
management.
P4 describe the features of two radio/radar
navigation systems and two self-
contained/long-range systems
P5 describe the basic features of flight
management system area navigation and
performance management
P6 define the use of AFCS components

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the basic operation of one pitch
and one roll mode of an automatic flight
control system
P8 state the purpose of monitoring and
describe a test method for a given
avionic system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should begin with an introduction to digital systems and the
contribution they make to the effectiveness and capability of avionic systems. It
might be useful to give an overview of how avionic systems have developed over the
last 25–30 years as a result of advances in microelectronics and electronic displays.
Illustrations of these advances could be via comparisons of hardware using actual
equipment and/or videos.
Examples of how avionic systems are used should focus on their operation in a
commercial or military environment. Use can also be made of any first-hand
experience that learners may have gained through work experience and/or the Air
Training Corp (ATC). The avionic systems in this unit (communications, navigation,
automatic flight control systems and flight management systems) all have significant
technical content and it is not intended that each is covered in depth.
Learning outcome 1 covers fundamental principles of digital electronics. Note that
this is a subject in its own right and care must be taken to only address the relevant
unit content (logic functions, numbering systems and basic hardware). There is a
huge amount of data available on this subject and when learners are carrying out
research they should be given structured tasks which lead them to the specified
content. It is important that learners grasp the concept of how small electronic
devices, for example diodes and transistors, can be scaled-up into larger computer
functions, such as memory devices.
Before starting work on learning outcomes 2 and 3, learners would benefit from being
able to see inside an aircraft flight deck or cockpit. In the context of this unit ‘flight
deck’ is used to define the pilots’ stations on a commercial aircraft and ‘cockpit’ is
used for general aviation or military aircraft. This could be achieved by using the
centre’s own aircraft and/or by carrying out a visit to an airline, repair organisation
or military base. Because of the security associated with the aircraft industry,
alternative arrangements could include viewing an aircraft simulator or aircraft
museum. For learning outcome 2, DVDs and/or videos could be used to help learners
appreciate how systems are used. It would also be beneficial for learners to get their
hands on equipment such as control panels or aircraft computers and take them apart
to see how they are constructed.
Learning outcome 2 is covered by criteria P2, P3, P4 and P5. For the radio frequency
criteria (P2), learners are not expected to have detailed knowledge of radio wave
propagation. They are only required to produce evidence that relates to the basic
principles of how a radio wave is transmitted and received, together with an
understanding of frequency bands used for aircraft.
Learning outcome 3 is covered by P6 and P7. When defining the use of the main
system components (P6), learners should be guided towards the specific components
of the AFCS itself with minimal references to systems that integrate with the AFCS.
Where integration of the AFCS with other aircraft systems is covered (P7), it would
add interest to the task(s) if it is contextualised and based on a simple flight plan
devised by the assessor.

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P8 covers learning outcome 4. Delivery of this learning outcome should include some
maintenance training DVDs/videos, so that learners can appreciate how avionic systems
are tested using built-in test equipment. It would also be beneficial for learners to see
printouts from typical aircraft maintenance computers so that normal and abnormal
parameters can be discussed. When designing the delivery of learning outcome 4, it is
important that learners are only required to retain knowledge and skills for simple
procedures relating to the testing, maintenance and faultfinding of systems.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be achieved through five assignments as detailed

below. A variety of assessment instruments could be used including (but not limited
to) short answer questions, observations and written assignments.
The first assignment could just cover P1 and should be structured so that learners
remain focused on the unit content of learning outcome 1. Learners are expected to
use their own words when referring to applications and while much of their research
will be done using the internet, it is important that what they present is not just a
simple cut-and-paste exercise. Evidence to support knowledge of digital applications
could be generated by giving learners a list of situations/scenarios and then asking
them to detail what methods could be used.
Grading criteria P2 and P3 could be assessed through a second assignment that would
cover part of the unit content for learning outcome 2 and lead into P4. Criterion P4
then links into P5, M1, M3 and D1, which could all be assessed by the third assignment.
Although automatic flight control systems are integrated with many other avionic
systems, grading criteria P6 and P7 would fit well into a fourth assignment. This
assignment could then be extended to incorporate M2 and D2.
The last assignment would cover grading criteria P8 and should involve a given
avionic system scenario. Learners could assume the role of a maintenance technician
who has been tasked with investigating pilot reports that have been recorded in the
technical log. Evidence for this criterion should show that learners can distinguish
between permanent and intermittent faults.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles, Unit 85: Aircraft
Electrical Systems and Unit 88: Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems.
It covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering (Electrical and
Electronic Avionic Systems Installation), particularly:
• Unit 79: Testing Aircraft Communication Systems
• Unit 80: Testing Aircraft Flight Guidance and Control Systems
• Unit 81: Testing Aircraft Navigational Systems.

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Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that centres have access to the
following:
• an aircraft and/or simulator with functioning avionic equipment
• representative avionic equipment, eg control panels, computers, displays and
indicators
• test equipment and measuring instruments
• relevant aircraft technical publications, eg maintenance manuals, system
schematics, wiring diagram manuals.

Indicative reading for learners

Eismin T — Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (McGraw-Hill, 1994) ISBN 0071132864

Pallett E and Coombs L — Aircraft Instruments and Integrated Systems (Longman
Scientific and Technical 1996) ISBN 0582086272
Tooley M and Wyatt D — Aircraft Digital Electronic and Computer Systems (Elsevier
2006) ISBN 0750681381

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing where digital C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
electronics are used in least two documents about the same
avionic systems subject.
• describing the principles of Each document must be at least 1000
radio frequency transmissions words long.

• describing the use of aircraft C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
communication systems each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
• describing the features of
One document must be at least 1000
radio/radar navigation
words long.
systems self-contained/long
range systems
• describing the basic features
of flight management system
area navigation and
performance management.

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Unit 16: Aircraft Electrical Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC Nationals
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will familiarise learners with a range of typical electrical systems installed
on modern aircraft. These systems include a variety of airframe and propulsion
applications, such as centralised warning systems, flight data recording, and fire
detection and overheat warning systems. The unit also addresses how to check,
troubleshoot and maintain aircraft electrical components and systems.
The unit encourages learners to investigate the purpose of these systems and how
they contribute to the overall effectiveness of aircraft operation. Emphasis is placed
on the operation and maintenance of these systems in order to develop the learners’
awareness of cockpit procedures. Learners will be given an appreciation of how
electronic flight data recording systems can be utilised for the investigation of
accidents and the scheduling of maintenance activities. A range of airframe and
propulsion applications is studied including warning systems, control systems and
actuation devices.
On completion of the unit, learners will have a broad understanding of how these
electrical systems are operated and be able to identify their mechanical and
electrical interfaces. Learners will also be capable of a range of maintenance
activities on electrical systems and will gain experience in the use of aircraft
documents including maintenance manuals and wiring diagram manuals.
This unit has been designed to provide some of the knowledge required for learners
wishing to progress on to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66
licensing requirements. It will also benefit those seeking employment within the
armed forces or the aircraft manufacturing industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the function and operation of aircraft electronic systems
2 Understand the function and operation of airframe electrical systems
3 Understand the function and operation of aircraft propulsion electrical systems
4 Be able to carry out real or simulated aircraft electrical system maintenance
activities.

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Unit content

1 Understand the function and operation of aircraft electronic systems

Typical electronic systems: accident data recording systems eg flight data

recorders, data acquisition systems, mandatory parameters, optional parameters,
interpretation of data for the purposes of scheduled inspections and
maintenance; engine health monitoring systems eg temperature and pressure
recording, interpretation of data for the purposes of scheduling inspections and
maintenance activities

2 Understand the function and operation of airframe electrical systems

Typical airframe systems: warning systems eg centralised warning, configuration

warning, bleed air overheat detection; safety and actuation eg ice and rain
protection, landing lights, navigation lights, landing gear retraction, flying
controls actuation

3 Understand the function and operation of aircraft propulsion electrical

systems

Typical propulsion systems: emergency systems eg thermal fire detection, optical

fire detection, fire suppression; electrical control eg ignition systems, engine
starting

4 Be able to carry out real or simulated aircraft electrical system maintenance

activities

Practical activities: functional tests on aircraft electrical systems eg centralised

warning systems, airframe electrical systems, propulsion electrical systems;
serviceability of electrical components eg wiring loom integrity, electrical
continuity and insulation checks, inspection of fibre optic cable assemblies and
associated components; electrical component replacement eg lamps, fuses,
circuit breakers, antennas, electronic modules, micro-switches, proximity
detectors, actuation devices
Documentation: use and application of real or simulated documentation eg
maintenance manuals, illustrated parts catalogues, wiring diagram manuals,
electrical schematics, technical log

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the operation of an aircraft M1 analyse the operation of an airframe D1 evaluate how centralised warning
data recording system warning system systems contribute to the overall safety
of an aircraft
P2 describe the operation of an engine M2 compare the different methods used for
health monitoring system engine fire detection D2 explain the importance of coordinating
maintenance activities when carrying out
P3 describe the electrical operation of a M3 explain how a given electrical system
functional checks on actuation devices.
given airframe warning system problem could be assessed to ascertain
its serviceability.
P4 describe the electrical operation of a
given airframe safety and actuation
system
P5 describe the electrical operation of a
given propulsion emergency system
P6 describe the electrical operation of a
given propulsion control system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 carry out practical activities to
determine the serviceability of a given
electrical system
P8 identify the documentation required to
test and replace an electrical
component.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Although this unit assumes that learners have no prior knowledge of aircraft
electrical systems, they must have an understanding of electrical and electronic
fundamentals equivalent to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles. Before
delivering this unit tutors will therefore need to ensure that learners have the
relevant prerequisite knowledge.
To establish the context of aircraft electrical systems the unit should begin with an
introduction to the types of systems that will be studied, eg warning systems, control
systems and actuation systems. Learners should appreciate that these are typical
systems employed in a variety of electronic, airframe and propulsion applications. It
might be useful to give an overview of how electrical systems have developed over
the last 25–30 years because of the increased complexity and integration of aircraft
systems. Illustrations of these advances could be via comparisons of hardware using
actual equipment, DVDs and/or videos.
The first three learning outcomes are not specifically linked, however, learning
outcome 4 applies to all of the preceding outcomes.
On completion of this unit, learners will have a broad understanding of the operation
of these typical electrical systems and how they are tested and maintained. This will
include an understanding of the range of associated documents that are required for
the operation of a modern aircraft. Examples of how electrical systems are used
should focus on their operation in a commercial or military environment. Use can also
be made of any first hand experience that learners may have gained through work
experience and/or the Air Training Corp (ATC).
Learning outcome 1 covers the fundamental principles of electronic systems such as
flight data recorders and engine health monitoring systems. In delivering this subject,
there is an opportunity to broaden the scope of learners’ attitude towards operating
aircraft safely and efficiently. The subject of flight data recording will necessitate
reference to the ‘black box’ flight recorder and the ‘autopsy’ approach used in
investigating aircraft accidents. In contrast, engine health monitoring will introduce
learners to the concept of trend monitoring and predictive maintenance.
To aid teaching of learning outcomes 2 and 3 it would be useful if learners are able
to see a gas turbine engine that has been removed from an aircraft and have access
to an aircraft flight deck or cockpit. In the context of this unit ‘flight deck’ is used to
define the pilots’ stations on a commercial aircraft and ‘cockpit’ is used for general
aviation or military aircraft. It would also be of benefit for learners to be able to see
inside an equipment bay. This could be achieved by using the centre’s own aircraft
and/or by carrying out a visit to an airline, repair organisation or military base.
Because of the security associated with the aircraft industry, alternative
arrangements could include viewing an aircraft simulator or aircraft museum. It
would also be beneficial for learners to get their hands on equipment such as control
panels or aircraft computers and take them apart to see how they are constructed.

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The use of a ‘given system’ in the criteria relating to learning outcomes 2 and 3
allows centres to take advantage of the resources and expertise available.
Learning outcome 4 is focused on practical activities based in a workshop and/or
hangar environment. When delivering learning outcome 4 learners only require the
knowledge and skills for simple procedures relating to the testing, maintenance and
faultfinding of systems. Task-based activities could be used and a checklist kept of
what has been achieved. Learners should be given a range of tasks that require them
to work both by themselves and in teams.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be through the use of four assignments, one assignment
for each learning outcome. However the learning outcomes do not need to assessed
in order. Evidence of assessment could be collected in a variety of formats including
short answer questions, observation of practical work and written assignments.
Learners are expected to use their own words when referring to systems and, while
much of their research will be done using the internet, it is important that what they
present is not just simply a cut-and-paste exercise.
For the first assignment, covering P1 and P2, evidence to support knowledge of flight
data recording and engine health monitoring applications could be generated from
written tasks asking learners to describe how these systems operate.
The second assignment could cover pass criteria P3 and P4 and include further
written tasks giving learners an opportunity to analyse warning systems (M1) and
evaluate their contribution to aircraft safety (D1).
A third assignment, covering P5 and P6, could include a task requiring learners to
apply their knowledge of fire detection systems for the comparison needed to
achieve M2.
The last assignment could cover pass criteria P7 and P8 and involve a given range of
practical tasks. The learner could assume the role of a maintenance technician who
has been tasked with investigating reports raised by their supervisor. These criteria
should be met by learners providing evidence that they can test systems, investigate
defects, replace components and use the appropriate aircraft documentation. The
assignment could be extended with written tasks to cover criteria M3 and D2.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to other units within the qualification, particularly Unit 5: Electrical
and Electronic Principles and Unit 88: Aircraft Instruments and Indicating Systems.
It covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering (Electrical and
Electronic Avionic Systems Installation), particularly:
• Unit 1: Complying with Statutory Regulations and Organisational Safety
Requirements
• Unit 4: Reinstating the Work Area on Completion of Activities
• Unit 76: Testing Aircraft Cableforms/Looms.

Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit, learners will need access to the following:
• an aircraft and/or simulator with functioning electrical systems
• representative electrical equipment (eg sensors, computers, displays and
indicators)
• test equipment and measuring instruments
• relevant aircraft technical publications (eg maintenance manuals, system
schematics, wiring diagram manuals).

Indicative reading for learners

Eismin T — Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (McGraw-Hill, 1994) ISBN 0071132864

Pallett E — Aircraft Electrical Systems (Longman, 1988) ISBN 0582988195

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing electronic, C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
airframe and propulsion least two documents about the same
systems. subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out real or PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
simulated maintenance ways of tackling it.
activities on aircraft PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
electrical systems. solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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Unit 17: Aircraft Electrical Machines

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
For any avionic/electrical technician involved in the maintenance or manufacture of
aircraft it is important that they have an understanding of how aircraft electrical
power is generated and distributed. It is also important that they have an
understanding of motors and other electrical machines that are used to power and
control various systems fitted to the aircraft.
This unit will provide learners with a practical introduction to aircraft electrical
machines and power distribution. It encourages learners to investigate the range of
electrical machines available for use in aviation and to understand the reasons for
selecting a particular machine for specific tasks.
The unit will also look at how an aircraft’s power supply system operates. In order to
develop their practical competence and awareness of safety precautions, learners
will study the operation of machines. On completion of the unit, learners should be
able to describe how machines are constructed and operate, say which machines are
most suitable for various tasks and describe the power distribution and protection
system of a typical aircraft.
The unit is designed to provide underpinning knowledge for learners working towards
EASA Part 66 licensing requirements, employment with the armed forces or in the
aircraft manufacturing industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the construction, operation and control of aircraft electrical
generators and transformers
2 Understand the construction, operation and control of aircraft electrical motors
3 Be able to interpret test results from representative electrical machines and
confirm fitness for purpose
4 Know how aircraft electrical power is generated, distributed, monitored and
controlled.

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Unit content

1 Understand the construction, operation and control of aircraft electrical

generators and transformers

AC and modern (brushless) DC generators: underpinning principles, single-phase

and polyphase; construction detail; machine characteristics; operation of single-
phase generators/three-phase generators/brushless DC generators; generator
control parameters (frequency, voltage, phase, methods of achieving these
parameters); generator internal and control circuitry; principles of operating AC
generators in parallel
Specialist transformers: current transformers, purpose and principles of
operation; transformer rectifier units (TRUs), purpose and principles of operation

2 Understand the construction, operation and control of aircraft electrical

motors

DC motors: motor principles, including the limiting effect of back EMF;

construction detail of simple DC motors; methods of automatic control;
performance characteristics (starting, torque, speed, reversing); typical uses eg
starter motors, windscreen wiper motors, fuel pumps, servo motors
AC single phase, three-phase synchronous and induction motors: motor
principles; construction details; characteristics (starting, torque, speed,
reversing); typical uses eg starter motors, windscreen wiper motors, fuel pumps,
servo motors; methods of control

3 Be able to interpret test results from representative electrical machines and

confirm fitness for purpose

Generators: characteristic/performance tests on representative generators eg

brushless DC, single-phase, three-phase
Motors: characteristic/performance tests on DC and AC representative motors eg
synchronous, three-phase induction, single-phase induction, capacitor start,
shaded pole, series DC, shunt DC, compound DC, stepper motors
Electrical safety: safe set up of machines for testing; mechanical and electrical
safety precautions eg guards for moving parts, avoidance of exposed live
connections, correct earthing and bonding, personal protection (correct clothing,
no loose clothing), actions to be taken in cases of electric shock, safe working
practices on aircraft power supply systems

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4 Know how aircraft electrical power is generated, distributed, monitored and

controlled

Aircraft power generation and distribution: primary and secondary power; single
and multiple generators systems; bus bars; auxiliary airborne power units;
emergency power provision eg main batteries, emergency batteries, standby
generators, ram air turbines (RATs)
Aircraft power monitoring and control: DC generators voltage control; paralleling
AC generator control systems; voltage control; frequency control eg fixed
frequency, frequency wild; constant speed drive units; integrated drive generators

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the construction, principle of M1 compare series and shunt motors in D1 evaluate the suitability of a given motor
operation and output characteristics of a terms of their speed/torque for a specified task, referring to the
DC generator characteristics and give typical uses for motor’s characteristics, size, cost and
each performance characteristics
P2 describe the construction, principle of
operation and output characteristics of M2 compare different types of single-phase D2 with the aid of given documentation,
an AC generator motors in terms of their speed/torque explain how a modern AC brushless
characteristics and give typical uses for generator is controlled and protected
P3 describe the construction, operation, use
each when supplying power to an aircraft
and performance characteristics of a DC
system.
motor M3 compare different types of three-phase
motors in terms of their speed/torque
P4 describe the construction, operation, use
characteristics and give typical uses for
and performance characteristics of an AC
each.
motor
P5 describe the purpose and explain the
principle of operation of a current
transformer

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the purpose and explain the
principle of operation of a TRU, when
fitted into an aircraft power supply
P7 carry out, in a safe manner, a functional
test on a DC or an AC generator and use
the results to explain the characteristics
of the resulting outputs
P8 carry out, in a safe manner, tests on a
DC and an AC motor when subject to
varying load, and record and use the
results to explain the output
characteristics
P9 describe the power generation and
distribution system of a specified aircraft
P10 describe the power monitoring and
control system of a specified aircraft.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The first three learning outcomes of this unit are strongly linked and provide the
underpinning knowledge required for learning outcome 4. Knowledge of electrical
machines should be built from general principles to specific applications so that
learners appreciate why different machines are required for different purposes. This
includes why different types of motors are required for different applications and
what makes specific motors suitable for some applications and not others. A similar
approach should be used for different types of generators. Learning outcome 4 then
moves on to power generation and distribution in typical aircraft.
The unit has been written so that it can be studied by learners in full-time education
with limited access to aircraft and aircraft equipment. However, at the very least,
they should be able to observe the testing of real industrial machines and the related
safety precautions. It would not be sufficient for practical activities to rely on
miniature machines. While it may not be practicable for each learner to carry out
tests individually, centres should aim for learners to be working in small groups. If
the testing has to be carried out by demonstration, and/or if there are only a limited
number of different machines available for testing, then a portfolio of results for the
range of machines specified in the unit content should be provided for learners to
study.
Learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 should be studied concurrently, ie moving from the
principles of generators to the testing of generators, and then on to DC motors and
then AC motors. The principles of current transformers and TRUs could be left until
just before starting learning outcome 4.
Learning outcome 4 would benefit from being taught with reference to
representative aircraft systems that learners are likely to encounter. The relevance
of this unit relies on centres keeping up to date with current and medium-term
future systems and equipment. For instance, reference could be made to modern
magnetic materials which are allowing the development of electrical motors capable
of replacing hydraulic actuators.
The ultimate purpose of delivery must be to prepare learners to work in the aircraft
maintenance or manufacturing industries and as such a practical approach would
ideally be used.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

Criteria P1 to P6 cover the underpinning knowledge upon which the rest of the unit
builds and could be evidenced via short-answer questioning (either verbal or
written), or via a vocationally contextualised assignment based on familiar
equipment. While P1 to P4 require descriptions of four different machines, it would
not be sufficient to limit teaching to just these as this would not provide sufficient
breadth for the merit criteria.
P7 and P8 could be assessed through practical exercises. Evidence could be recorded
in a workbook, with space for learners to record results of the tests, draw the
resulting graphs and provide an explanation of the results in their own words. The
range of tests required will be governed by the type of motors used; however, as
motors operate in starting, torque, speed and reversing modes, three of these four
would be appropriate. The various loads will come from the different mode of
operation. Additional guidance, such as outline calculations, could be provided, into
which learners can enter their own results, together with questions about what the
results mean and how they compare to ideal results.
P9 and P10 could be tackled in different ways depending on the mode of delivery in use
at the centre. Part-time learners with employment in the aircraft industry could be
asked to prepare a brief about an aircraft their company operates (or manufactures)
for a qualified aircraft technician who is new to the aircraft. For full-time learners, it
might be necessary to provide the aircraft manual/publication for the specified aircraft
and to ask them to write a summary of how the systems operate.
To achieve the three merit criteria, learners should compare enough different
machines to cover the range of typical uses given in the unit content. These criteria
could be met by a series of tables listing different machines, providing a sketch graph
of their characteristics and saying what each machine is used for and why the
characteristics make the machine suitable for the stated application.
D1 evidence is likely to build on that provided for the merit criteria. The task and the
motor to be evaluated should be given to the learner. To ensure fairness of
assessment, a variety of motors should be available so that each learner works with a
different combination of task and motor. It is not necessary that the motors provided
be suitable for the task stated; an explanation of why the motor is unsuitable is valid
evidence of the learners’ understanding of the machine.
D2 should relate either to a familiar aircraft to which learners have access or an
aircraft from the sector they are most likely to go on to work in. The explanation
should be in sufficient depth to allow a qualified technician, who is unfamiliar with
the aircraft being described, to work on the system.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

It is recommended that this unit be studied after Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic
Principles. It would also complement Unit 84: Aircraft Electrical Systems.
The unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding associated with SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering, particularly
Unit 134: Carrying Out Tests on Aircraft Electrical Power Control, Distribution and
Protection Systems.

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Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that the centre has, or has access to
facilities for carrying out characteristic/performance tests on electrical machines.
This should include sufficient electrical machines to cover the range specified in the
unit content. Centres should also have texts showing ideal characteristics for the
machines tested to enable learners to compare these with observed results.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Hiley J, Brown K, Hughes E and Smith I — Electrical and Electronic Technology
(Prentice Hall, 2004) ISBN 0131143972
Pallett E — Aircraft Electrical Systems (Longman, 1988) ISBN 0582988195

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning and carrying out N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
tests on AC and DC information from relevant sources.
generators and motors, using N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
the results to explain the present your findings and justify your
characteristics of the methods.
resulting outputs.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the construction, C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
principles of operation and each one giving different information
output characteristics of DC about complex subjects.
generators and motors One document must be at least 1000
• describing the construction, words long.
principles of operation and
output characteristics of DC
generators and motors
• explaining the purpose and
principles of operation of a
current transformer and a
TRU.

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Unit 18: Aircraft Radio and Radar

Principles
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Modern aircraft make extensive use of complex avionic systems for communication
and navigation. These systems rely primarily on radio and radar for their operation.
This unit provides an introduction to the principles of aircraft communication and
navigation systems. Learners will gain an understanding of radio waves and how radio
transmitters and receivers operate. They will also look at the operation and use of
aircraft radio and radar antennas. Learners will gain an understanding of the
principles, characteristics and applications of the different systems used for aircraft
navigation and the operation of radar systems.
The unit covers the essential underpinning knowledge needed by those involved in
the design, manufacture and maintenance of military and commercial aircraft radio
and radar systems. The unit also provides some of the knowledge and understanding
for learners wishing to progress on to category B of the European Aviation Safety
Agency (EASA) Part 66 licensing requirements, Module 13.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radio transmitters and
receivers
2 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radio and radar antennas and
feeders
3 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft navigation systems
4 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radar systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radio transmitters and

receivers

Radio principles: radio waves (ground, sky, space); radio wave propagation at
different frequencies eg very low (VLF), low (LF), medium (MF), high (HF), very
high (VHF), ultra high (UHF), super high (SHF); principles characteristics and
applications of different modulation methods eg amplitude modulation (AM)
(including DSB and SSB), single-sideband (SSB), frequency modulation (FM), digital
modulation (Frequency-shift keying (FSK), Phase-shift keying (PSK), differential
phase-shift keying (DPSK))
Transmitters: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of
transmitters eg AM, FM and SSB and for use at different frequencies such as HF,
VHF (datalinks VDL and HFDL), and UHF, aircraft communication addressing and
reporting system (ACARS); block schematic diagrams of transmitters showing
internal functional blocks eg oscillators, frequency multipliers, mixers, frequency
synthesisers, phase-locked loops (PLL), modulators, filters, compressors,
automatic level control (ALC), antenna matching units; typical transmitter
specifications eg output power, frequency range, frequency accuracy, frequency
stability, number of channels, modulation depth
Receivers: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of receivers eg
tuned radio frequency (TRF), single superhets, double superhets; block schematic
diagrams of receivers showing internal functional blocks eg radio frequency (RF)
amplifiers, mixers, oscillators, frequency synthesisers, phase-locked loops (PLL),
intermediate frequency (IF) amplifiers, filters, automatic gain control (AGC),
automatic frequency control (AFC), demodulators, typical receiver specifications
eg image channel rejection, adjacent channel rejection, sensitivity, frequency
range, frequency accuracy, frequency stability, number of channels

2 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radio and radar antennas
and feeders

Antennas: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of radio and

radar antennas eg isotropic radiator, half-wave dipole, quarter wave unipole,
beam, ground-plane, discone, loaded monopole, helical, parabolic reflector,
phased array, rod, slot, loop, plate, horn and dielectric types; uses (HF, VHF)
Feeders: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of coaxial
(flexible and rigid) and waveguide (rigid and flexible) feeders; feeder
specifications eg characteristic impedance, loss, frequency response and power
handling

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3 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft navigation systems

Navigation systems: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of

systems used for aircraft navigation eg VHF omni-directional range (VOR) tactical
air navigation (TACAN), distance measuring equipment (DME), automatic direction
finding (ADF), instrument landing system (ILS), microwave landing system (MLS),
hyperbolic navigation system, Doppler navigation, global positioning system
(GPS), global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), in-flight meteorological
information (VOLMET); typical performance specifications for aircraft navigation
systems eg operating frequency/frequency band, accuracy, maximum range,
availability, reliability

4 Understand the principles and operation of aircraft radar systems

Radar: principles, operation, characteristics and applications of primary and

secondary pulsed and continuous wave (CW) radar transmitters eg radar
altimeter, secondary surveillance radar (SSR), weather radar (WXR), traffic alert
and collision avoidance system (TCAS); block schematic diagrams of radar showing
internal functional blocks eg mixer, oscillator, intermediate frequency (IF)
amplifier, demodulator, clutter reduction, sensitivity time control (STC),
automatic frequency control (AFC), magnetron, klystron, travelling wave tube
(TWT), Gunn effect diode, high power oscillator (HPO) and master oscillator
power amplifier (MOPA); factors affecting the performance of radar systems eg
slant range, bearing, elevation angle, clutter, transmitter power, receiver
sensitivity, frequency of operation, beam shape and scanning method, pulse
repetition frequency (PRF), pulse duration (PD); typical radar specifications eg
operating frequency/frequency band, accuracy, maximum range,
resolution/target discrimination, peak and mean operating power, pulse
repetition frequency

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the principles of radio wave M1 describe a typical application for an D1 evaluate the performance of two
propagation (ground waves, sky waves aircraft voice communication system and different aircraft navigation systems
and space waves) at different give a typical specification for the with reference to their application,
frequencies (LF, MF, HF, UHF and above) equipment used performance specification and the
antennas used
P2 explain the different methods of M2 describe a typical application for an
modulation aircraft navigation system and give a D2 evaluate the performance of two
typical specification for the equipment different aircraft radar systems with
P3 explain the principles, characteristics,
used reference to their application,
application and specifications of a
performance specification and the
typical aircraft radio transmitter with M3 describe a typical application for an
antennas used.
reference to a labelled block schematic aircraft radar system and give a typical
diagram specification for the equipment used.
P4 explain the principles, characteristics,
application and specifications of a
typical aircraft radio receiver with
reference to a labelled block schematic
diagram

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe and explain the principles,
operation, characteristics and
specifications of two different types of
aircraft radio antenna (one for use at HF
and one for use at VHF)
P6 describe and explain the principles,
operation, characteristics and
specifications of coaxial and waveguide
feeders
P7 describe and explain the principles,
operation, characteristics, applications
and performance specifications of three
different aircraft navigation systems
P8 explain the principles, operation,
characteristics, applications and
specifications of typical primary and
secondary, pulsed and continuous wave
radar transmitters with reference to
labelled block schematic diagrams
P9 describe the factors affecting radar
system performance for a given radar
specification.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit is designed to give prospective avionics technicians the understanding of

aircraft communications and radar systems needed to work safely and effectively in
an aircraft environment. Learners will gain an understanding of the specific health
and safety issues associated with aircraft communications and radar systems and
equipment (notably hazardous electromagnetic fields and high voltages).
Although this is primarily a theoretical unit, delivery would be enhanced through the
use of real communication and radar systems/equipment. The amount of any
practical input will be largely dependent on the resources available. Where centre
resources are limited or no suitable partnership with industry can be arranged visits
to aircraft maintenance organisations and aircraft operators should be used. In
addition, visits to museums such as those at Duxford, Brooklands, and Yeovilton will
provide learners with access to static aircraft of various types.
Although this subject requires substantial tutor input, learners should be encouraged
to take responsibility for their own learning, whenever appropriate.
Each of the four learning outcomes are linked and the delivery strategy should ensure
that these links are maintained. Learning outcome 1 is the most likely starting point
for delivery, as it will establish much of the underpinning knowledge required for the
remaining learning outcomes. The unit could be delivered through a combination of
theory lessons and demonstrations, reinforced through practical investigations where
possible (for example measurement of the E-plane and H-plane radiation patterns of
a dipole antenna). Where learners have been employed (or are currently in
employment) in the aerospace sector, they should be encouraged to draw upon their
experience of aircraft systems.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit can be developed through assignments,

investigations and conventional written examinations with short- and long-answer
questions. A combination of these assessment methods can also be used.
The method of assessment preferred by national legislative bodies involves the use of
multiple choice questions. Many centres may have existing banks of multiple choice
questions designed to prepare and test learners for Module 13 of EASA Part-66. Where
learners are aiming to achieve recognised licensed status, this method of assessment
could be adopted as a means of supporting and checking learning. However multiple-
choice questions should not be used as an assessment instrument for the purposes of
this unit.
It is likely that at least four assessment instruments will be required for this unit. If
practical investigations and tests are also used then the total number of pieces of
assessed work could be even more. This should be carefully considered so that it does
not place an unduly heavy assessment burden on learners or the tutor.

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Wherever possible, practical investigations should lead to a final product or outcome

that can be handed in for assessment at the end of the session without further need
for report writing. This will help control authenticity of evidence and also keep the
assessment activities short, sharp and relevant. Clearly, the ability to work safely in
an aircraft environment should be paramount and centres should ensure that learners
are adequately briefed about potential hazards, such as high-intensity radiated fields
in the vicinity of an antenna.
The four assessment instruments could be based on:
• propagation and modulation
• transmitters and receivers
• antennas and feeders
• radar systems.
P1 could be assessed through a task in which learners provide an explanation of radio
wave propagation at different frequencies. An acceptable explanation should include
mention of ground waves, sky waves and space waves and should include the range of
frequencies normally associated with each type of propagation. Learners should also
explain how and why radio wave propagation informs the use and application of radio
in aircraft. For example, learners should associate long-distance HF radio
communication with single and multi-hop sky wave propagation, space wave
propagation at UHF/SHF with orbiting satellites for GNSS and GPS etc.
P2 could be assessed through a task which involves learners investigating modulation
techniques. Learners should be able to describe in words and using appropriate
diagrams where this helps, the principles of amplitude modulation (including DSB and
SSB), frequency modulation (FM), and digital modulation. Learners should also
explain how and why modulation techniques inform the use of voice and data
communication in aircraft. For example, learners should associate the narrow
bandwidth available with HF radio systems to relatively low data rates used for High
Frequency Data Link (HFDL). They should also associate the wider bandwidth of VHF
radio systems with faster data rates used with Very High Frequency Data Link (VDL)
and the Aircraft Communication Addressing and Reporting System (ACARS).
Learners can achieve P3 by drawing a labelled block diagram of an aircraft radio
transmitter (this can be either an HF or VHF unit). The diagram should include
appropriate annotation and should clearly show the links between blocks. Each block
should be clearly labelled with its function, for example ‘Frequency Multiplier’,
‘Modulator’, ‘Antenna Filter’. Learners should provide a brief written explanation of
the function of each stage as well as the overall function of the unit together with
typical operational specifications and a suggested application for the unit.
For P4, learners could draw a labelled block diagram of an aircraft radio receiver
(this can either be an HF or VHF unit). The diagram should include appropriate
annotation and should clearly show the links between blocks. Each block should be
clearly labelled with its function, for example ‘RF amplifier’, ‘Mixer’, ‘IF filter’.
Learners should provide a brief written explanation of the function of each stage, the
overall function of the unit together with typical operational specifications and a
suggested application for the unit.

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P5 can be achieved through an investigation of different types of antenna. Learners

should describe (using labelled sketches and a supporting written explanation) the
principles of at least two antennas, for example a VHF blade antenna and HF slot
antenna. Feed-points should be clearly identified and the directional characteristics
of each antenna should be described.
For P6, an investigation of coaxial (flexible and rigid) and waveguide (flexible and
rigid) feeders could be used. Learners should describe (again using labelled sketches
where applicable and a supporting written explanation) the principles and operation
of each types of feeder. They should also summarise the characteristics, typical
operational specifications and a suggested application for each type.
P7 can be achieved through an investigation of three different aircraft navigation
systems (such as VOR, DME, GPS/GNSS, ILS, MLS or Loran-C). Learners should describe
and explain the principles on which their chosen systems operate as well as providing
a summary of the characteristics and applications as well as typical specifications
relevant to the systems that they have chosen.
Learners can achieve P8 by drawing a labelled block diagram of typical primary and
secondary radar systems (such as weather radar and surveillance radar systems). The
diagram should include appropriate annotation and should clearly show the links
between blocks. Each block should be clearly labelled with its function, for example
‘Magnetron’, ‘Directional coupler’, ‘IF amplifier’, ‘Antenna’. Learners should provide
a brief written explanation of the function of each stage as well as the overall
function of the unit together with typical operational specifications and a suggested
application.
For P9, learners should provide a written description of the factors that affect radar
performance for a given specification (such as primary or secondary surveillance
radar system, and weather radar system). Their description should include references
to factors such as range, target discrimination, freedom from clutter in relation to
performance parameters such as peak radiated power, pulse width, antenna beam
width, as relevant to the chosen system.
M1 could be achieved through a detailed investigation of an aircraft voice
communication system. This can be either an HF or a VHF unit. Learners should
provide an adequately detailed description of how the system works and what it is
used for. The description should relate specifically to the primary application of the
chosen aircraft voice communication system and should include, for example, the
need for ALC and AGC, channel selection using frequency synthesis and cockpit
mounted control units etc. Learners should also provide a description of the
application and type of traffic handled by the system, for example ATC instructions,
VOLMET, as well as an outline specification including, for example, frequency range,
receiver sensitivity, transmitter output power, input/output impedance, modulation
types (AM, SSB, DPSK), number of channels, etc.

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M2 could be achieved through a detailed investigation of an aircraft navigation

system. This will usually be a VHF system, such as ILS or VOR but could also be based
on GPS or GNSS. Learners should provide an adequately detailed description of how
the system works and what it is used for. The description should relate specifically to
the primary application of the chosen aircraft navigation system and should include,
for example, the need for ground-based equipment (such as beacons and antennas).
Learners should also provide a description of the application as well as an outline
specification including, for example, frequency range, receiver sensitivity,
transmitter output power, input/output impedance, modulation types (AM, SSB,
DPSK), number of channels, etc.
For M3, learners could carry out a detailed investigation of an aircraft radar system.
This will usually be a weather radar system. Learners should provide an adequately
detailed description of how the system works and what it is used for. The description
should relate specifically to the primary application of the chosen aircraft radar
system and should, for example, include the need for scanning, antenna tilt, anti-
clutter, etc. Learners should also provide a description of the application as well as
an outline specification including, for example, operating frequency, antenna beam
width, receiver sensitivity, peak and mean output power, pulse repetition frequency,
input/output impedance, etc.
D1 could be achieved through an extension of the work carried out for M2. D1
requires them to evaluate the performance of two different navigation systems (for
example, evaluating hyperbolic and satellite-based systems and then providing a
detailed comparison of the two systems). Learners should quote comparative
specifications and should summarise advantages and disadvantages of each system
investigated. Learners should be expected to relate the overall performance of a
system to the properties and characteristics of the individual components (receivers,
transmitters, antennas, feeders, ground-based equipment, etc) as well as the
vagaries of propagation (effect of anomalous propagation, variations in MUF) noise,
errors and other disturbances.
Learners could achieve D2 through an extension of work carried out for M3. D2
requires them to evaluate the performance of two different aircraft radar systems
(for example, evaluating a secondary radar system used for distance measurement
(DME) or tactical navigation (TACAN) and a primary radar system used for weather
(WXR) and then providing a detailed comparison of the two systems in terms of
frequency, power, range, etc). Learners should quote comparative specifications and
should summarise advantages and disadvantages of each system investigated.
Learners should be expected to relate the overall performance of a system to the
properties and characteristics of the individual components (receivers, transmitters,
antennas, feeders, ground-based equipment, etc) as well as the vagaries of
propagation (effect of anomalous propagation, ducting, rain and moisture), noise,
errors, false reflections and other disturbances.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has strong links with Unit 80: Avionic Systems.
The unit also links with parts of the EASA Part 66 syllabus, particularly the knowledge
required by maintenance certifying mechanics and avionics tradesmen undergoing
initial technical training in the armed forces.

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Essential resources

It is accepted that apart from JAR 147 approved organisations and specialist training
centres, access to modern communications/radar systems and equipment will be
severely limited. However, sight of such systems and equipment will greatly enhance
delivery. Centres with limited equipment are strongly advised to incorporate a
structured industrial visit into their teaching, so that learners have, at the very least,
sight of aircraft radio, radar, radio navigation and opto-electronic systems and
equipment.
Access to system hardware, such as transmission lines, aerials and wave-guides would
also be beneficial. Computer packages, illustrating aircraft communications and radar
systems and equipment would also be of tremendous benefit.

Indicative reading for learners

Eismin T — Aircraft Electricity and Electronics (McGraw-Hill, 1994) ISBN 0711382864

Tooley M and Wyatt D — Aircraft Communications and Navigation Systems
(Butterworth-Heinemann, 2007) ISBN 9780750681377

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• explaining the principles of radio C3.3 Write two different types of
wave propagation and the different documents, each one giving
methods of modulation different information about
complex subjects.
• explaining the principles,
characteristics, application and One document must be at least
specifications of a typical aircraft 1000 words long.
radio transmitter and of a typical
aircraft radio receiver
• describing and explaining the
principles, operation, characteristics
and specifications of two different
types of aircraft radio antenna and of
coaxial and waveguide feeders
• describing and explaining the
principles, operation, characteristics,
applications and performance
specifications of three different
aircraft navigation systems
• explaining the principles, operation,
characteristics, applications and
specifications of typical primary and
secondary, pulsed and continuous
wave radar transmitters
• describing the factors affecting radar
system performance for a given radar
specification.

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 UNIT 19: AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS AND INDICATING SYSTEMS

Unit 19: Aircraft Instruments and

Indicating Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC Nationals
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will familiarise learners with some of the key instruments and indicating
systems installed on modern aircraft. These include primary flying instruments,
primary engine instruments and airframe system indicators.
Although electromechanical instruments are being replaced by electronic displays on
transport and military aircraft, it is important that learners appreciate the
fundamentals and origins of instrumentation and indicating systems. To broaden the
scope of this knowledge, it is necessary that learners have an understanding of some
fundamental instrumentation principles, including gyroscopes, air data instruments
and synchro systems. Learners should also know how instrument systems are installed
and tested.
This unit encourages learners to investigate the purpose of key instrument systems
and how they contribute to the overall effectiveness of aircraft operation. Learners
start by investigating the earth’s atmosphere and the construction and operation of
air data instruments. This is followed by a study of the gyroscopic instruments that
provide attitude and directional information. The unit concludes with an
investigation into engine and airframe instruments.
On completion of this unit learners will have a broad understanding of the operation
of these key instrument systems, together with how basic scientific principles are
applied. This will include understanding the principles of monitoring to identify faults
in these systems.
This unit has been designed to provide some of the knowledge required for learners
wishing to progress on to the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Part 66
licensing requirements. It will also benefit those seeking employment within the
armed forces or the aircraft manufacturing industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the operation of air data instrument systems
2 Understand the operation of gyroscopic instruments
3 Understand the operation of engine indicating systems
4 Understand the operation of airframe system indications.

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Unit content

1 Understand the operation of air data instrument systems

Principles: physical properties of the earth’s atmosphere eg pressure, density and

temperature variations with altitude; measurement of aircraft altitude, forward
speed and vertical speed; construction and operation of air data instruments eg
altimeters, vertical speed indicators (VSI), air speed indicators (ASI), Mach
meters, capsules, pointers, displays
Systems: pitot-static systems eg altimeters, vertical speed indicators (VSI), air
speed indicators (ASI), Mach meters, pitot tubes, static ports, piping, connectors,
drain traps, sense and leak checks, associated maintenance procedures and
related safety precautions

2 Understand the operation of gyroscopic instruments

Principles: gyroscope properties eg rigidity, precession; gyroscope eg space, earth

tied; wander eg real, apparent, transport
Instruments: construction of basic instruments eg rotors, gimbals, bearings,
torque motors, levelling switches, damping mechanisms; attitude reference eg
artificial horizon, attitude direction indicator (ADI), handling of gyroscopic
instruments; directional reference instruments eg directional gyro, horizontal
situation indicator (HSI), turn and slip indicators, gyrocompass, handling of
gyroscopic instruments

3 Understand the operation of engine indicating systems

Parameters: primary engine indicators and transducers eg turbine or cylinder

temperature, rotational speed, fuel flow, torque, thrust, oil pressure and oil
temperature
Operation: simple fault diagnosis on engine indicating systems eg turbine or
cylinder temperature, rotational speed, fuel flow, torque, thrust, oil pressure, oil
temperature

4 Understand the operation of airframe system indications

Principles: fluid temperature transducers and indicators eg resistance

temperature devices, Wheatstone bridge, thermocouples, thermostatic switches;
fluid pressure transducers and indicators eg capsules, strain gauges, Bourdon
tubes, transducers; remote position indicating systems eg potentiometers, DC
synchro indicating systems, AC synchro indicating systems

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify how the earth’s atmosphere is M1 analyse the results of a pitot-static sense D1 evaluate the performance of a pitot-
used to measure altitude, airspeed and and leak check to ascertain the system’s static system in respect of the physical
vertical speed operational status properties of the earth’s atmosphere
P2 describe the construction and operating M2 explain the procedures required to assess D2 evaluate the likely cause of given faults
principles of three air data instruments the operational status of engine on engine indicating systems.
indicating systems
P3 describe a pitot-static system sense and
leak check M3 compare the effectiveness of two
airframe systems that utilise remote
P4 describe the principles of gyroscopic
position control indication.
instruments
P5 describe the construction and operating
principles of attitude and direction
instruments
P6 identify the parameters used for primary
aircraft engine indicating systems
P7 describe the operation of four engine
indicating systems

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 describe the principles of temperature
and pressure indicating systems
P9 describe the principles of remote
position indicating systems.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Although this unit assumes that learners have no prior knowledge of aircraft
instruments and indicating systems, they must have an understanding of scientific
principles equivalent to Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and Applications or Unit 72:
Principles and Applications of Aerospace Mechanical Science. Before delivering this
unit, tutors will therefore need to ensure that learners have the relevant prerequisite
knowledge.
The unit should begin with an introduction to the earth’s atmosphere and how the
physical properties of pressure, density and temperature are utilised by air data
instrument systems. This is followed by a review of gyroscopic instruments, primary
engine indicators and remote position sensing.
It might be useful to give an overview of how instrument systems have developed
over the last 25–30 years as a result of advances in microelectronics and electronic
displays. These advances could be illustrated by comparing hardware using actual
equipment and DVDs or videos.
Common instrument features link the four learning outcomes, eg layout of the
instruments in an aircraft, display format, indicator range, units etc. Examples of
how instrument systems are used should focus on their operation in a commercial or
military environment. Use can also be made of any first-hand experience that
learners may have gained through work experience and/or the Air Training Corp
(ATC). The instrument systems covered in this unit make use of advances in
technology, eg electronic displays, solid state transducers, air data computers, laser
gyros etc. Therefore it may not be possible to cover all of these technologies in
depth.
Before starting work on this unit, learners will benefit from being able to see inside
an aircraft flight deck or cockpit. In the context of this unit ‘flight deck’ is used to
define the pilots’ stations on a commercial aircraft and ‘cockpit’ is used for general
aviation or military aircraft. This could be achieved by using the centre’s own aircraft
and/or by carrying out a visit to an airline, a repair organisation or a military base.
Because of the security associated with the aircraft industry, alternative
arrangements could include viewing an aircraft simulator or aircraft museum. It
would also be beneficial for learners to get their hands on typical equipment such as
control panels or aircraft computers and take them apart to see how they are
constructed.
Learning outcome 1 covers the fundamental principles of the earth’s atmosphere and
how the physical properties of air pressure, temperature and density are used to
derive aircraft forward speed, vertical speed and altitude. There is a huge amount of
data available on this subject and when learners carry out research they should be
given structured tasks which lead them to the specified content. The location of the
primary instruments in the cockpit or flight deck should be emphasised.

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Learning outcome 2 covers the fundamental principles of gyroscopes and the

instruments that utilise these properties for attitude and directional indication.
Simple, low-cost gyroscope demonstrations could be used to allow learners to
actually feel and see the effects of rigidity and precession. Again, the location of
these primary instruments in the cockpit or flight deck should be emphasised.
Learning outcome 3 covers the primary parameters and indicating systems needed to
operate the engine safely and economically. The types of engine used to illustrate
these parameters should include gas turbine engines, including turboprop
applications if possible within the centre’s resources. Piston engines can also be
included.
Learning outcome 4 covers a range of airframe indicating systems that can be applied
to applications such as hydraulic oil pressure, hydraulic oil temperature, bleed air
pressure, or bleed air temperature. These applications can start with a review of
direct reading instruments, eg Bourdon tubes, leading onto how synchro systems can
be used for remote position indication.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

This unit could be assessed using four assignments. A variety of assessment

instruments could be used including short-answer questions, observation of practical
work and written assignments.
Learners are expected to use their own words when referring to applications and,
while much of their research for will be done using the internet, it is important that
what they present is not just simply a cut-and-paste exercise.
It is suggested that the first assignment could cover P1, P2 and P3. Evidence for P1
could be generated by giving learners a list of situations/scenarios and asking for
details of what would be displayed by each of the three instruments (altimeter, ASI
and VSI). Examples could include: the aircraft climbing at a constant airspeed and
then levelling out; the aircraft flying at constant altitude with increasing airspeed;
the aircraft descending with decreasing airspeed and then levelling out.
P2 can be an extension of this theme by asking questions for each of the three
instruments, eg what happens to a VSI capsule and pointer when the aircraft is
climbing/descending/in level flight? This evidence would need to be backed up by a
description of the construction of the instruments. P3 requires learners to understand
how air data instruments are connected into a system and how this system is checked
for sense and leaks. Criterion P3 leads into M1 and D1. As such, criteria P1, P2, P3,
M1 and D1 could all be covered by one assignment comprising of written tasks and
the results of practical tasks. Learners can apply their knowledge of pitot-static
systems via M1 and then make reasoned judgements on the performance of a pitot-
static system for D1.

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The second assignment could cover P4 and P5. Evidence to support P4 could be
generated through learners predicting what happens to a gyro under certain
conditions. It is important that learners describe the principles involved. Evidence to
support an understanding of gyroscopic instruments (P5) could be generated by giving
learners a list of situations/scenarios and then asking for details of what would be
displayed by each of the instruments. This will need to include opportunities to
describe the construction and operating principles of both attitude and direction
instruments. Examples could include the aircraft turning onto a new heading while
climbing at a constant pitch angle.
Pass criteria P6 and P7 could be covered in the third assignment. The tasks set to
generate evidence for P6 could involve learners linking given parameters and their
respective transducers eg temperature and thermocouples, pressure and capsules
etc. For P7, learners could assume the role of a maintenance technician tasked with
investigating pilot reports of problems with the four indicating systems. This can be
expanded to cover M2 and D2. Starting with simple fault diagnosis (P7) this can then
lead to an explanation of procedures (M2). In the context of M2, ‘procedures’ refers
to the essential events, actions, test equipment, documentation and safety
considerations required to assess the operational status of engine indicating systems.
The assignment finishes with an evaluation of the likely causes of given faults (D2).
The fourth assignment could then cover P8 and P9. Most aspects of these two criteria
can be referred back to the previous pass criteria, eg how direct reading oil pressure
indicators using Bourdon tubes could be combined with a synchro system to provide
remote indication of oil pressure. Tasks should also involve recognition of transducers
and synchro systems on aircraft schematics and/or wiring diagrams. P9 requires a
description of remote position indicating systems leading into M3 that requires a
comparison of two airframe systems.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles, Unit 6: Mechanical
Principles and Applications, Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Aerospace
Mechanical Science and Unit 84: Aircraft Electrical Systems.
This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Aeronautical Engineering (Electrical and
Electronic Avionic Systems Installation), particularly:
• Unit 63: Installing Aircraft Instrument Panels and Meters
• Unit 73: Installing Aircraft Instrumentation Systems
• Unit 85: Testing Aircraft Instrumentation Systems.

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Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that the centre has, or has access to
some, if not all of the following:
• an aircraft and/or simulator with functioning instruments
• representative instrumentation components, eg transducers, capsules,
temperature sensors, displays and indicators
• simple fault diagnosis equipment used on engine indicating systems
• relevant aircraft technical publications, eg maintenance manuals, system
schematics, wiring diagram manuals.

Indicative reading for learners

Pallett E — Aircraft Instruments and Integrated Systems (Longman, 1992)

ISBN 0582086272

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• describing the construction and C3.2 Read and synthesise information
operating principles of three air data from at least two documents
instruments about the same subject.
• describing the principles of Each document must be at least
gyroscopes and attitude and direction 1000 words long.
instruments C3.3 Write two different types of
• describing the principles of documents each one giving
different information about
temperature and pressure indicating
complex subjects.
systems
One document must be at least
• describing the principles of remote
1000 words long.
position indicating systems.

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 UNIT 20: MICROPROCESSOR SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

Unit 20: Microprocessor Systems and

Applications
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Microprocessors can be found in a wide range of commercial, industrial and domestic
applications such as electronic thermometers, weighing scales, remote controls,
vending machines and cameras. This unit will introduce learners to the principles of
microprocessors and give them experience of using and programming a
microprocessor system for the operation or control of peripheral devices.
The unit will also provide an introduction to the terminology (eg bits, bytes, words)
and concepts (eg instructions, operation codes and operands, instructions sets, use of
mnemonics, coding methods, programs, memories, assemblers, linkers and
debuggers, subroutines) related to microprocessor applications.
Learners will be introduced to the ways in which microprocessor-based systems can
be applied, including industrial, commercial and domestic applications. Learners will
examine a range of input and output devices and consider the implications of
connecting devices to a system (interfacing consideration). This will take into
account signal types (eg analogue, digital) and look at the finer detail of packaging
and cooling, environmental considerations, issues relating to electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) and safety.
The unit will also develop learners’ understanding of the architecture and operation
of microprocessor-based systems and the use of decimal, binary and hexadecimal
number systems, instructions and subroutines for programming.
Finally, learners will experience the use of a microprocessor development system to
prepare, run and test a typical microprocessor program application.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know how microprocessor-based systems can be applied
2 Understand the architecture and operation of a microprocessor system
3 Understand decimal, binary and hexadecimal number systems, instructions and
subroutines
4 Be able to use a microprocessor development system to prepare and run a program.

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Unit content

1 Know how microprocessor-based systems can be applied

Microprocessor system applications: types of application (industrial, commercial,

domestic) eg robotic manufacture, vending machine, photocopier, burglar alarm,
remote controls, electronic lock, electronic thermometer, keyboard interface,
electronic tape measure; input/output devices eg sensors, transducers, seven-
segment light emitting diode (LED), liquid crystal display (LCD), matrix and multi-
line alphanumeric displays; interfacing consideration; signal types eg analogue,
digital; packaging and cooling; environmental considerations; issues relating to
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), safety

2 Understand the architecture and operation of a microprocessor system

Architecture: central processing unit (CPU); registers; arithmetic and logic unit
(ALU); instruction decoder; data paths eg internal or external busses; memory
(random access (RAM), read only (ROM), erasable programmable ROM (EPROM),
electrically erasable/programmable ROM (EEPROM)); input/output (I/O) ports;
analogue-to-digital (ADC) and digital-to-analogue (DAC) conversion
Principles of operation: address selection and enabling; chip select/enable;
consequence of data bus conflict and avoidance with a tri-state device control;
address decoding; commercial chips eg 74LS138, 8205; clock (clk); read/write
function; memory map for system; fetch-execute sequence (operation of system
and actions between the CPU and memory that involve instruction register and
role of program counter)

3 Understand decimal, binary and hexadecimal number systems, instructions and

subroutines

Number systems: express numbers in decimal, binary and hexadecimal;

conversion between number systems; use of ASCII codes; manipulation eg binary
addition/subtraction, signed binary, two’s complement; bit-wise AND/OR
operations
Instruction groups: eg data transfer, arithmetic, logic, branch/jump, test-
compare, stack
Subroutines and the stack: subroutines and interrupt routines eg time delay
routine, arithmetic operation, I/O operation; call and return instructions; purpose
of the stack eg to hold subroutine addresses, data storage

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4 Be able to use a microprocessor development system to prepare and run a

program

Program operations: data handling eg data I/O, arithmetic operations, time delay
routines; programming language eg hexadecimal, assembly language; graphical
interpretation eg flowcharts, data flow diagrams; program function eg production
of square wave, switch testing, traffic light sequencing
Enter, assemble, download, run and test a program: use of text editor eg create
and store program; assemble program to create object file; download, run and
test/debug eg tracing, trace table, variable watches, single stepping, breakpoints;
typical program applications eg linear program, I/O initialisation, microprocessor
system I/O, iteration and single loop time delay, logic operation, arithmetic
operation, subroutines, macros, simple interfacing via parallel I/O port

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe three different types of M1 compare the architecture and principles D1 explain the use of interrupts and
microprocessor system application of operation of two different evaluate and contrast the operation of a
microprocessors conventional programmed subroutine
P2 describe the architecture and principles
with that of an interrupt driven routine
of operation of a microprocessor-based M2 explain the benefits of using an
system assembler, and describe two examples of D2 produce program code to facilitate
assembler directives digital input and output of data using
P3 use decimal, binary and hexadecimal
appropriate interfacing and explaining
number systems to represent and M3 identify and correct a linear and a
the operation of the interfacing
manipulate data subroutine programming error in given
device(s).
fragments of program.
P4 identify and explain a programming
example for representative instructions
taken from five different instruction
groups
P5 explain an example of the use of a
subroutine, including the operation of
call and return instructions and the
function of the stack

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 explain the operation of a given section
of a program with a specific function
P7 use a microprocessor development
system to enter, assemble, download,
run and test a typical program
application.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should be mainly based on practical exercises in order to give
learners experience in the use of microelectronic devices. Microcontrollers are
suitable for the delivery of the required knowledge, but traditional 8-bit processor
training kits, for example based on the Z80, 6809, 8088 or 6502 are also appropriate.
Computer simulation can also be used to give learners an opportunity to develop
code, test and debug their programs before downloading the finalised software to a
target system.
Learning outcome 1 requires the learner to develop an appreciation of the wide
range of applications for small microprocessor systems and could be used as an
introductory topic, as no previous knowledge is assumed at this point.
For learning outcome 4, a complete development system is strongly recommended.
At the very least, the learner should be able to use hand-assembly techniques,
writing the program first in assembly language code before converting it manually to
hexadecimal machine code. This could then be input manually where facilities for
electronic assembly and download of code to the target system are unavailable.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The assessment evidence for P1 could be a brief written description supported by

appropriate diagrams of three different microprocessor applications. To meet the
requirements of the unit content, these applications should be drawn from the
different types of applications listed (industrial, commercial, domestic). For example
an automotive engine management system, a photocopier and a domestic washing
machine.
P2 requires learners to describe the architecture and principles of operation of a
microprocessor-based system. This work can form the basis of an extended study of
one of the systems that learners have examined for P1. Alternatively, a detailed
study of a single microprocessor system could be used by the learner as a focus for
the other criteria and in particular, the microprocessor that they will develop a
program for to satisfy P7.
Evidence to support P2 would typically take the form of a summary of the features of
the microprocessor-based system including the type and principal features of the CPU
(eg address range, I/O facilities, internal registers, instruction set, power
requirements, physical encapsulation, manufacturing technology) and each of its
principal support devices (eg RAM, ROM, I/O devices, clock generator).

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Learners should be able to identify the functions of each of the components and they
should produce a diagram showing the architecture of the system identifying principal
features (eg address bus, data bus, control bus, serial and parallel I/O). They should
also be able to show that they understand the need for address decoding and they
should be able to explain the function of read/write and chip enable signals.
For P3, learners need to be able to use and convert between all three number
systems (decimal, binary and hexadecimal) to represent and manipulate data. This
could be achieved through a series of appropriate programming examples, which are
then explained (eg the result of an AND operation between two hexadecimal numbers
where the learner converts the hexadecimal number to binary before applying the
AND logic function to each binary digit in turn). The assessment method used should
sufficiently guide learners to ensure that all aspects of the criterion and related
content are covered and also enable their achievement to be tracked before the
criterion is awarded. To ensure the relevance of the work for this criterion some
fragmentation of the criterion might be required but this should be avoided wherever
possible or at least kept to a minimum.
P4 requires learners to identify and explain a programming example for
representative instructions taken from five different instruction groups. Learners
could be given a selection of typical programming instructions taken from at least
five major instruction groups as appropriate to the microprocessor family. These
might include load and exchange, block transfer and search, arithmetic and logical,
rotate and shift, bit manipulation (set, reset, test), jump, call, and return,
input/output and CPU control. Learners should be able to identify and then explain
what each instruction does and it might be helpful to set this within a typical
example of its use.
Assessment of P5 and P6 could be linked. P5 requires learners to explain an example
of the use of a subroutine (eg a time delay), including the operation of call and
return instructions and the function of the stack. Provided that the function and
operation of the subroutine is adequately and clearly explained, this could easily be
used to cover P6 as well. The explanation of the program operations must include the
way that the data is handled, the programming language used, applications of
graphical interpretation and the function of the program. The content section for this
criterion lists a range of examples for each of these operations.
Appropriate evidence for P7 should include documentation and tutor observation of
learners’ work relevant to each stage of developing and testing the program (enter,
assemble, download, run and test). This will require learners to use a text editor eg
to create and store the program, assemble program to create object file, download,
run and test/debug the program. Typical program applications might be a linear
program, I/O initialisation, microprocessor system I/O, iteration and single loop time
delay, logic operation, arithmetic operation, subroutines, macros or simple
interfacing via parallel I/O port.
For M1, learners should be able to extend the work done for P1 and P2 to encompass
a different microprocessor, or base their work on a microcontroller device (eg
PIC16C84, PIC16F877) rather than a general purpose microprocessor. In either case,
learners need to compare the architecture and principles of operation of two
different microprocessor systems.

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In order to satisfy M2, learners need to explain the benefits of using an assembler
compared with hand assembly involving entry of program instructions in hexadecimal
format. They will also need to describe two examples of assembler directives eg
those used for conditional assembly or those used to determine program location.
Learners should provide a written description of the use of two common assembler
directives, explaining how they work and what they do in conjunction with a typical
assembly code routine.
For M3, learners should be provided with two code fragments containing different
errors. One code fragment should contain linear code error and the other should
contain a subroutine error. Typical errors might be the use of an incorrect address
mode (linear error), an incorrect offset in a relative jump instruction, or incorrect
use of the stack when calling a subroutine. Learners should apply standard debugging
procedures, correcting the code fragment before testing it (eg by single stepping) in
order to confirm its correct operation. Assessment evidence of this work is likely to
be in the form of a short report supported by appropriate program trace and register
dump, clearly showing the program operation before and after implementing the
correction.
Learners should annotate any print outs to identify both the error and the corrective
action taken to resolve the linear and the subroutine programming errors within the
given fragments of program.
For D1, learners need to explain the use of interrupts and evaluate and compare the
operation of a conventional programmed subroutine with that of an interrupt driven
routine. A typical activity might be comparing a polled I/O routine with a comparable
interrupt-driven I/O routine.
D2 requires learners to produce program code to facilitate digital input and output of
data using appropriate interfacing, and an explanation of the operation of the
interfacing device(s). Learners should develop, enter and test program code that will
provide a means of inputting and outputting digital data in conjunction with a
microprocessor system.
This exercise will require the use of one or more programmable I/O ports. The
developed code should include appropriate port initialisation routines (configuring
individual I/O lines for use as either input or output) as well as routines that will
input and output data. A typical application might involve interfacing a number of
LED indicators and switches, the switches to be configured as inputs and the LED
indicators to be configured as outputs.
Learners should provide appropriate documentary evidence of the programming
process (including evidence of correct program operation), an explanation of the
operation of the interfacing circuit (together with relevant circuit details showing, eg
pull-up resistors, LED drivers) as well as the programmable I/O device (eg showing its
internal register moder and I/O address map).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
This unit can be linked to Unit 68: Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers.

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Essential resources

Centres should provide learners with access to a typical 8-bit development system,
including the use of assembler software and facilities for software testing (eg single-
stepping and/or program tracing). The development system could be based on
traditional 8-bit processors or on one or more popular microcontrollers, eg 16C84,
16F84, 16F877.
Learners should also be provided with documentation comprising (as a minimum) fully
commented instruction sets for each of the microprocessors/microcontrollers used,
manufacturers’ data sheets, examples of coding sheets and program documentation
and instruction manuals relating to microprocessor development systems. PC-based
simulation software for developing, testing and debugging code prior to downloading
and implementation on target systems is also recommended.

Indicative reading for learners

Bates M — PIC Microcontrollers (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750662670

Smith D — PIC in Practice (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750668261
Tooley M — Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications, Third Edition
(Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750669233
Tooley M — PC Based Instrumentation and Control, Third Edition (Newnes, 2005) ISBN
0750647167

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using decimal, binary, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
hexadecimal number systems information from relevant sources.
to represent and manipulate N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
data stage calculations to do with:
• using a microprocessor a amounts or sizes
development system to
d using formulae.
enter, assemble, download,
run and test a typical N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
program application. present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and describing C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the different types of least two documents about the same
microprocessor system subject.
applications, their Each document must be at least 1000
architecture and principles of words long.
operation
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• identifying and explaining a each one giving different information
programming example for about complex subjects.
five different instruction
One document must be at least 1000
methods words long.
• explaining an example of the
use of a subroutine, including
the operation of call and
return instructions.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and describing ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the different types of sources, and multiple search criteria in at
microprocessor system least one case.
applications, their ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
architecture and principles of derive new information.
operation
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
• identifying and explaining a text with image, text with number,
programming example for image with number.
five different instruction
methods
• explaining an example of the
use of a subroutine, including
the operation of call and
return instructions.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using a microprocessor PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
development system to ways of tackling it.
enter, assemble, download, PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
run and test a typical solving the problem.
program application.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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Unit 21: Fundamentals of Science

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Learners wishing to pursue a career as a laboratory technician will need a general
understanding of all the main sciences including some basic practical techniques.
This unit introduces learners to fundamental scientific ideas in chemistry, biology and
physics. The unit is core to all endorsed titles.
The learning outcomes have also been designed to underpin the knowledge required
in fundamental concepts in biology, chemistry and physics. This should enable
existing or future applied science technicians to carry out work effectively in industry
and analytical services.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the quantities involved in chemical reactions
2 Understand structures in biological systems
3 Understand types of energy and their interconversions
4 Know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic radiation.

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Unit content

1 Understand the quantities involved in chemical reactions

The periodic table: organisation of elements; periodicity; groups (physical and

chemical properties); relative atomic mass; atomic number
Electronic structure of atoms: Bohr’s theory
Bonding of elements: ionic bonding; covalent bonding; tetrahedral basis of
organic chemistry
Quantities in chemical reactions: balanced equations; relative molecular mass;
moles; molarities; preparation of standard solutions and titration

2 Understand structures in biological systems

Design and operation of: light microscope; electron microscope

Microscopic structures of cells: plants; animals; bacteria; prokaryote; eukaryote
Cell organelle structure and function: cell membrane; cell wall; nucleus;
nucleolus; cytoplasm; mitochondria; ribosome; endoplasmic reticulum (smooth
and rough); Golgi body; lysosome; vesicles
Cell division: mitosis
Tissues and their functions: cell differentiation; epithelial; connective; nerve;
muscular

3 Understand types of energy and their interconversions

Types of energy: mechanical (kinetic and potential); chemical; thermal;

electrical; electromagnetic; nuclear
Measurement of energy: to include all of the above types of energy; units; use of
the calorimeter
Examples of energy transfer: metabolism, potential to kinetic, generation of
electrical energy; thermal energy from fuels; nuclear energy to electrical energy;
examples of applications

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4 Know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic radiation

Electrical terminology and units: current (ampere); direct current (dc)

alternating current (ac); potential difference (volt); resistance (ohm); power
(watts); Ohm’s law
Electrical circuits and components: series and parallel circuits (resistors and
capacitors); voltmeters; ammeters
Electromagnetic radiation: the electromagnetic spectrum; wave amplitude;
frequency; periodic time; v=fλ speed of electromagnetic waves; main regions
and their physical manifestations (ie typical wavelengths and energy contents);
X-rays; ultraviolet (uv); visible; infrared (ir); microwaves; radio wave; use of a
colorimeter

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 outline the key features of the periodic M1 draw conclusions based on the practicals D1 explain the use of preparing standard
table, atomic structure and chemical carried out solutions and titrations and describe how
bonding and carry out simple titrations this may be carried out differently in
and calculate accurate results industry
P2 describe, using a light microscope and M2 explain the importance of cell D2 compare different tissues with similar
electron micrographs, the structures and differentiation in the formation of functions in terms of their structure and
functions of the components of tissues in eukaryotes functions
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and
provide illustrations of types of animal
tissue
P3 describe the different types of energy M3 practically demonstrate a range of D3 evaluate the efficiencies of energy
and their interconversions energy interconversions with appropriate conversion systems
explanations of the systems investigated
P4 construct simple series and parallel M4 describe how series and parallel circuits D4 perform calculations on series and
electrical circuits and describe the operate referring to current and parallel circuits, and explain applications
properties of the main regions of the potential difference, and explain the that use electrical circuits.
electromagnetic spectrum. applications of the main regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories and enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories, but even in
many chemistry ones), and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners
may not be aware of.
The fundamental ideas contained in this unit should be introduced through a
programme of tuition, guided learning, practical work in the laboratory and problem
solving. The practical activities in this unit will develop technical skills and help
learners to understand science, common scientific instruments, and the use of these
instruments in a vocationally relevant context.
Any opportunity should be taken to gather data from the practical activities via
science-based technologies. Today’s science laboratories depend more and more on
the use of computerised systems. Scientists and science technicians need familiarity
with basic terminology and principles associated with those measurement systems
and their communications with computers.
Learners should be encouraged to use a standard scientific practical report format
(introduction, aims/hypothesis, materials, method, results, discussion, conclusion
and references).
This unit builds on the concepts in Key Stage 4, the GNVQ Intermediate, the Edexcel
BTEC First Diploma in Applied Science and GCSE in Applied Science.
The content of this unit should be contextualised for vocational routes. This could be
reinforced by visits to relevant industries to enable learners to relate scientific
theory to applications in relevant industrial sectors. Wherever possible the scientific
theories should be applied to the use within, for example, a research establishment,
a quality control laboratory in a fine chemical or bulk chemical industry, a medical
laboratory, or a forensic science laboratory.
Studying blood and other bodily substances is not a banned activity (unless an
employer has provided written instructions restricting the activity). A risk assessment
must be carried out. For further guidance refer to page 497 (old specification).

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Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners must demonstrate practically the ability to prepare standard
solutions and test their accuracy by titration. The introduction must outline the
periodic table, the electronic structure of atoms and the bonding of atoms. The
learners must write balanced chemical equations from the results they generate. The
quantities in chemical reactions must also be calculated accurately. Lengthy
descriptions of the quantities in which chemical systems react are not required for
P1. Tutors should complete observation forms as evidence of learners demonstrating
required practical skills.
For P2, learners must use a light microscope in accordance with good practice to
draw and label samples of tissue types. Electron micrographs should be provided to
learners so that the cell organelles listed in the unit content can be identified and
drawn. Learners must write a brief description of the structures and functions of cell
components. Tutors should ensure that learners know the design and operation of
both the light and electron microscopes. Learners could be assessed by a variety of
means, eg a written report, PowerPoint presentation, or a poster presentation.
For P3, learners must understand different types of energy and their
interconversions. The tutor should teach all the listed types of energy, their
associated units of measurement and the interconversions listed in the unit content.
Learners should be able to explain the different types of energy and understand their
interconversions by completing appropriate practicals, under tutor supervision, or
worksheets provided by the tutor.
For P4, learners must know the basic principles of electricity and electromagnetic
radiation. Definitions of all the electrical terminologies and units given in the unit
content must be written by the learner. It is also necessary for learners to identify
clearly the main regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A diagram must be
included by learners to aid the identification of all the regions listed in the unit
content. Learners should relate the terms to simple circuits to show full
understanding. The regions of the electromagnetic spectrum listed in the unit
content must be fully described, possibly in the form of a written report or a poster.
If learners are assessed via practicals, eg making simple circuits, then tutors should
complete observation forms so that evidence generated by learners is documented.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
The merit grading criteria allow learners’ skills and understanding of scientific
principles to be developed further.
For M1, learners must draw conclusions for the practical work completed on
preparing standard solutions and titrating as appropriate. Learners must ensure the
calculations for the quantities in which chemicals react are accurate. The need for a
safe working environment and risk assessments should always be maintained and
reinforced by the tutor. The conclusions given by learners must be accurate and
account for anomalous results.
For M2, learners must explain cell differentiation and its importance in the formation
of tissue types. Learners must cover all tissue types in eukaryotes.

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For M3, learners must use appropriate practical methods, as provided by the tutor, to
show energy interconversions. Some centres may have limited practical apparatus
but simple calorimetry is an essential practical requirement included in the unit
content. Tutors delivering this unit can select appropriate practical methods to
enable learners to demonstrate and explain energy conversion systems. Learners
should be encouraged to take responsibility for ensuring safety and risk assessments
are completed. Tutors should record practicals carried out by learners on observation
forms as evidence of the required work being completed.
For M4, learners must describe the properties of the main regions of the
electromagnetic spectrum in terms of wavelength, frequency and energy. Learners
must be able to apply knowledge of this topic to appropriate instrumentation of
vocational relevance.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
Distinction criteria will develop learners’ knowledge, skills and understanding
further. Tutors should ensure that calculations are well presented, and there is
correct use of scientific terminology. Learners must work independently for D1, D2,
D3 and D4.
For D1, learners must relate their practical work in the laboratory to industrial
applications and comment on how procedures and equipment may differ in industry.
For D2, learners must compare different tissues, in terms of their structure, that
have similar functions. For example, learners must compare cardiac and skeletal
muscle, or endocrine and exocrine glands, or two sense organs/receptors, clearly
describing the differences between the tissues and explaining how both tissue types
perform similar functions. This grading criterion requires a detailed review of the
information learners have given for M2 so that the cellular components of the
different tissue types can be identified and explained in terms of the functions of the
tissue types. Illustrations learners have provided for M2 would be useful in developing
greater understanding of cellular components of tissues and the relationship to the
function of the tissue types.
For D3, learners must use the practical investigations completed for M3 to write
evaluations on the efficiencies of the energy conversion systems. Each energy
conversion system investigated should be individually evaluated with appropriate
vocational examples of their applications in industry.
For D4, learners must present evidence of uses of the electromagnetic spectrum in
industry. This may be presented as a poster, leaflet or similar: a long formal report is
not required.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit is linked with all the units in this programme as it underpins the knowledge
and understanding of core scientific principles. The content in this unit will be
further developed in:
• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques
• Unit 11: Physiology of Human Body Systems
• Unit 12: Physiology of Human Regulation and Reproduction
• Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques
• Unit 14: Energy Changes, Sources and Applications
• Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques
• Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians
• Unit 18: Genetics and Genetic Engineering
• Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis
• Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques
• Unit 24: Principles of Plant and Soil Science
• Unit 32: Forensic Evidence Collection and Analysis.

Essential resources

• Basic laboratory glassware and general laboratory equipment.

• Burettes.
• Light microscopes.
• Prepared microscope slides of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
• Photomicrographs showing cell organelles.
• Calorimeter.
• Colorimeter.
• Basic equipment for building simple electrical circuits.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Adams S and Allday J — Advanced Physics (Oxford University Press, 2000)
ISBN 0199146802
Ciccotti F and Kelly D — Physics AS (Collins Educational, 2000) ISBN 0003277550
Fullick A — Heinemann Advanced Science: Biology (Heinemann Educational Secondary
Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570951
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Educational
Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Fullick P — Heinemann Advanced Science: Physics (Heinemann Educational Secondary
Division, 2000) ISBN 0435570978
ILPAC — Advanced Practical Chemistry, 2nd Edition (Independent Learning Project
for Advanced Chemistry) (Hodder Murray, 1997) ISBN 0719575079
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/learning BBC learning
www.cellsalive.com CELLS alive
www.ici.com The ICI Company
www.nln.ac.uk National Learning Network
www.rsc.org.uk The Royal Society of Chemistry

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• acquiring and interpreting N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
data from methods information from relevant sources.
appropriate to a practical
investigation, and planning
and undertaking a
programme of work to
provide relevant data from
the investigation
• using appropriate methods to N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
process primary data from stage calculations to do with:
practical work undertaken a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions drawn from present your findings and justify your
processed practical methods.
investigatory data.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• taking part in group C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
discussions about a complex
abstract scientific subject,
such as the structure and
function of cellular
components or electronic
configurations of elements
and relating to their
properties
• presenting the results and C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
conclusions of an eight minutes using an image or other
investigation support material.
• reading and synthesising C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information about a complex least two documents about the same
subject, such as one of the subject.
examples in C3.1a Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• preparing a document about C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
a complex subject as above. each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning and carrying out a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
search for experimental sources, and multiple search criteria in at
methods appropriate to a least one case.
scientific investigation to be
undertaken
• preparing a report of a ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
scientific investigation. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• developing the plan for a LP3.1 Set targets using information from
scientific practical appropriate people and plan how these
investigation and consulting will be met.
and gaining the agreement of
their tutor
• implementing the plan and LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
modifying it in accordance using your plan to help meet targets and
with results obtained and improve your performance.
constraints and problems
encountered
• evaluating the plan at LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
frequent intervals and your achievements.
refining it in accordance with
the conclusions reached.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• formulating the plan with a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
range of options for a ways of tackling it.
scientific practical
investigation
• identifying and evaluating PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
alternative approaches to the solving the problem.
investigation, and deciding
on the approach to be
adopted
• evaluating the plan PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
continuously during the review your approach to problem solving.
investigation, on the basis of
the results and conclusions
reached.

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Unit 22: Working in the Science Industry

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
We continue to encounter many scientific challenges and at the centre of them all is
the understanding and skill of the laboratory science technicians who work in a
variety of places and scientific disciplines. The most important driving force in their
success or failure will be how their laboratory is organised.
Laboratory technicians need to have a good understanding of how each of the
specialist laboratories have individual requirements and also have generic procedures
and practices. An understanding of safety regulations and the application of
laboratory management information systems are essential. These combine to give an
appreciation of how to run an efficient, effective and safe laboratory. This unit is
crucial in underpinning the training of a science laboratory technician.
The unit starts by exploring the essential procedures and practices found in all
laboratories. This is supported by a look at specialist laboratories. They are examined
on their different individual requirements in terms of efficiency, effectiveness and
safety. This unit gives learners an appreciation of how scientific data and records are
kept in a modern laboratory information system. Finally, the unit provides an
essential insight into how laboratories are organised today in the light of up-to-date
safe working practices and safety regulations.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know how procedures are followed and information passed on in the laboratory
2 Understand the design of a workplace with respect to its efficiency,
effectiveness, safety and security
3 Understand laboratory management information systems and a range of scientific
computer applications
4 Be able to demonstrate and understand safe working practices in the laboratory.

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Unit content

1 Know how procedures are followed and information passed on in the

laboratory

Procedures: chemical store management; ordering procedures; calibration of

equipment eg pH meters, Pasteur pipettes; servicing equipment eg burettes and
Bunsen burners; collection/transport of substances and equipment for disposal;
use of centrifuges; instrumentation techniques eg colorimeter, electrophoresis;
desiccators and vacuum storage; handling and disposal of radioactive substances;
handling and use of glassware; handling of solvents and poisons; use of ovens;
operation of the fume cupboard
Communicating practices: lines of authority and accountability to and from other
personnel; working as a team; organisation of the laboratory (weekly, daily, etc);
routines (work schedules, briefings); reporting of results

2 Understand the design of a workplace with respect to its efficiency,

effectiveness, safety and security

Design: identify the key features necessary in a laboratory (services, furniture,

access, safety equipment, fume cupboard, storage, workspace)
Specialist laboratories: biological eg microbiological laboratories; chemical;
physical sciences; research facilities
Safety requirements: materials; radioactive substances; specialist equipment;
health and safety requirements; waste disposal; toxic and flammable substances;
storage; specific safety equipment and clothing; security

3 Understand laboratory management information systems and a range of

scientific computer applications

Scientific data storage: COSHH records; scientific data; scientific apparatus

records; waste disposal records; health and safety checks; training records;
quality assurance data; report records; specification levels; sample throughput
and managing; security, Data Protection Act
Workplace records: stock records; work schedules; servicing dates and contracts;
laboratory test data; specimen records; test records; calibration records;
validation data; standard operating procedures

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4 Be able to demonstrate and understand safe working practices in the

laboratory

Definitions: risk; hazards eg harmful, toxic, flammable, oxidising agent, reaction

with water to give flammable gas
Risk assessment: need for; carried out for every practical activity; minimisation
of risk; action to be taken when incidents occur
Sources of information: CLEAPSS hazcards, manufacturer’s data sheets, MSDS;
good laboratory practice eg quality standards, UKAS BS 17025, BS EN ISO 9001
Regulations and legislation: COSHH regulations; HSE inspectors; UKAS
assessments; other relevant regulation/legislation
Safe working practices: fume cupboard storage; waste disposal; incident and
accident procedures; risk assessments; COSHH register; good housekeeping eg
safe handling of pathogens; protective equipment eg laboratory coat, protective
gloves, goggles, visor, protective shoes, protective glasses

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe procedures and practices M1 demonstrate evidence of documented D1 explain and analyse why laboratory
undertaken in a laboratory and how they procedures that you have used in the procedures and practices must be
can be communicated laboratory communicated in a laboratory
P2 identify key features in the design of a M2 design a specialist laboratory and justify D2 analyse why good laboratory design is
specialist laboratory its individual key features important for efficiency, effectiveness
and safety
P3 identify the scientific data that may be M3 describe the procedure for storing D3 explain the advantages gained by
stored and recorded in a laboratory scientific data and necessary records in a keeping data and records on a laboratory
laboratory management information management information system
system
P4 demonstrate safe working practices in a M4 explain how safe working practices in a D4 explain why working practices in a
laboratory and describe their regulation. laboratory are regulated. laboratory are regulated.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories to enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories, but even in
many chemistry ones), and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners
may not be aware of.
In delivering this unit it is essential that the learner be enthused, motivated and
stimulated by performing experiments and following procedures in the laboratory.
Varied and interesting experiments or exercises can teach the proper use of
laboratory equipment. Key laboratory skills can be developed in this way by
concentrating on a practical teaching approach.
The importance of health and safety regulations should be strongly stressed when
undertaking all practical teaching. The learner should be encouraged to risk assess
each practical exercise they undertake.
Reports should be written at every opportunity. The recording of all practical work
should be written in a hardback practical laboratory notebook by every learner.
The use of industrial visits should be encouraged to enlighten the learner about
laboratory organisation in a range of scientific workplaces or laboratories. This will
enforce the relevance of the unit.
Learning outcome 1 delivery could consist solely of completing and recording a
number of practical exercises. Industrial visits and guest speakers would also greatly
enhance the experience.
Learning outcome 2 should be delivered in a way that makes the learner fully aware
of how the environment in which they find themselves affects their effectiveness,
efficiency and safety. Well-designed specialist laboratories promote their own
efficiency and effectiveness for their intended use and purpose. These factors
together promote safety for everyone, and security for staff and information.
Learning outcome 3 brings together the purpose of a laboratory to produce results
from scientific investigations and procedures. It should make the learner aware that
these results have to be recorded and stored for future reference. Modern
laboratories all employ laboratory management information systems (LMIS) to record
this information, and have security systems in place to protect it.
Learning outcome 4 addresses the safe practice of performing procedures and
experiments in the laboratory. The learner should be made aware of all current
regulations.
All four learning outcomes can be delivered to the learner in creative and stimulating
assignments to promote successful learning.

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Studying blood and other bodily substances is not a banned activity (unless an
employer has provided written instructions restricting the activity). A risk assessment
must be carried out. For further guidance refer to page 497 (old specification).

Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners will be expected to describe the procedures commonly used in a
laboratory. Learners will be expected to cover the procedures listed in the unit
content, and then decide how each can be communicated. Evidence for this could
take the form of a compiled list with accompanying short notes, a leaflet or a
PowerPoint presentation.
P2 requires learners to describe key features of a laboratory in terms of the design of
a specialist laboratory. Guidance on the design of specialist laboratories is expected
to have been covered in the unit content. The criteria could be assessed by producing
a leaflet, descriptive list or PowerPoint presentation.
For P3, learners can compile lists on the scientific data that can be recorded and
stored in a laboratory. The learner should stress the need for its storage on an LMIS.
Alternatively, tutors could give the learners a prepared list of scientific data and ask
them to decide which sets of information could be stored on an LMIS and which could
be placed on a workplace record system. Due to the enormous size of material in the
unit content, tutors may confine themselves to choosing specific types of data or
records. Again, tutors must acknowledge the need for security and must give some
examples, but a catalogue-style presentation is not appropriate.
P4 requires learners to show safe working practices and their understanding of
relevant current regulation. The tutor could again write a specific worksheet for the
assignment, to which the learner would apply the unit content to match working
practices to their appropriate regulations. The opportunities for the learners to
design leaflets or produce PowerPoint presentations should be strongly encouraged.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
For M1, learners are required to produce evidence of their practical activities
performed in the laboratory. This should have been undertaken during the study of
the unit content of learning outcome 1 and learning outcome 4. It would normally
take the form of a written practical work in a hardback laboratory notebook.
For M2, the learners must produce a design or plan of a specialist laboratory. Written
justification should be supplied to the design of individual key features. Plans can be
placed on a CD ROM or on graph paper according to the abilities of the learner and
their ICT skills.
For M3, the learners must identify the scientific data and records necessary for
storage in an LMIS. They should justify why some information should be scientific
data and why it should be only stored as records. Evidence can take the form of an
essay or verbal presentation. Learners must also demonstrate an awareness of the
need for security and confidentiality.

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M4 requires learners to submit a discussion essay, giving details and examples to

support their understanding of how safe working practices are regulated in the
laboratory.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1, learners should make a judgment about the importance of communicating
laboratory procedures to other laboratory personnel, giving reasons and examples to
support their evaluation. This could take the form of a well-structured essay.
D2 requires learners to make an informed judgment on how a well-designed
laboratory fulfils its effectiveness, efficiency, safety and security purposes. Examples
from industrial visits may be drawn upon to demonstrate the learners’ understanding
in the form of a well-constructed essay. Tutors may wish to draw up appropriate
worksheets for learners to complete during these visits, to assist the implementation
of this task.
D3 requires the learners to justify the necessity for keeping data and records in an
LMIS. Their views should be supported by evidence. The evidence can be drawn from
the course content or industrial visits. Again, tutors can assist learners with the use
of appropriate worksheets on any industrial visit or the visit of a guest speaker. A
well-constructed essay may be necessary to achieve the criterion.
For D4, the learners must show that they understand why safe working practices are
regulated in a modern laboratory. Attention should be paid to applying the most up-
to-date regulations in all working practices in today’s scientific environments. The
learner may have to access the internet to complete this assignment. Again,
industrial visits and/or guest speakers may assist greatly in the learners’
understanding of this course content.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links to the following units:

• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques
• Unit 9: Informatics
• Unit 10: Using Science in the Workplace
• Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques
• Unit 15: Microbiological Techniques
• Unit 20: Medical Physics Techniques
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques.

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Essential resources

Tutors delivering this unit will ideally have had some industrial experience as a
technician or scientist. Knowledge of contemporary methods and regulations is
essential in teaching this unit.
Learners should have access to the internet, a library or a learning resource centre.
Visits to industrial laboratories would enable the learners to talk to technical staff in
a scientific environment. This is strongly encouraged.
The use of as much technical equipment as possible pertaining to the implementation
of standard laboratory practices should be sought.
Learners should have a hardback laboratory notebook to ensure all laboratory
practical work is recorded.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science
Education, 2003) ISBN 0863572839
Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000)
ISBN 0854049193
Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002)
ISBN 0340847123

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Websites
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science Education
www.bio.org.uk The Institute of Biology
www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/safety/basicchem. Office of Health and Safety (American
htm website: has a set of scenarios that could
provoke discussion)
www.explorer.bio-rad.com Bio Rad science education
www.genetics.gsk.com/virtual.htm GlaxoSmithKline virtual tour of genetics
laboratories
www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/vlabs Howard Hughes Medical Institute virtual
laboratory tours
www.infomat.net/infomat/rd_staffroom/ CLEAPSS
rd1/database/cleapps
www.iop.org.uk The Institute of Physics
www.istonline.org.uk Institute of Science Technology,
(go to: Publications; Laboratory Technician’s Handbook by Judson PF
Handbook; Full copy of the Handbook)
www.mond.org Society of Chemical Industry
www.rsc.org The Royal Society of Chemistry
www.scienceconsortium.co.uk The Science Consortium
www.sciencelearningcentres.org.uk Science Learning Centre, London
www.sep.org.uk Science Enhancement Programme
www.york.ac.uk/org/ciec Chemical Industry Education Centre
(CIEC)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• performing standard N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
procedures in the laboratory information from relevant sources.
and applying risk assessments
• performing good laboratory N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
practice and preparing stock stage calculations to do with:
solutions a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• performing calibration of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
standard laboratory present your findings and justify your
equipment. methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• showing a PowerPoint C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
presentation as part of an eight minutes using an image or other
assignment. support material.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the grading criteria sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• presenting PowerPoint ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentations. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• undertaking exercises in LP3.1 Set targets using information from
efficiency, effectiveness and appropriate people and plan how these
safety in the workplace. will be met.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• performing procedures and PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
practices in the laboratory ways of tackling it.
• checking the stock solutions PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
prepared. solving the problem.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• undertaking practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
procedures in the laboratory
• undertaking communication WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
exercises. progress towards your agreed objectives.

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 UNIT 23: SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

Unit 23: Scientific Investigation

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
All scientists need to have good investigative skills and this unit develops these
essential skills. Working in science often means teamwork but there are many
instances of independent work. In this unit, learners will have to make the best use
of the laboratory time allocated by the tutor. Learners may be asked to carry out a
practical investigation designed by somebody else or to suggest ways of doing an
investigation themselves. The practical investigation is designed to allow learners to
show their science knowledge and practical skills. After discussion with the tutor
learners will be asked to plan, carry out and analyse the results of their investigation
and present it as a scientific report.
The topic learners choose for investigation will depend on the endorsed title they are
following. The emphasis in this unit is on the learners’ ability to formulate a relevant
hypothesis that they would be able to test experimentally, to plan and execute their
ideas and to deal with the results. Learners may need to use questionnaires but these
will only be part of their research. This is a practical unit and one project will be
used to cover all the learning outcomes, although learners may repeat their
experiment several times in order to collect accurate data.
As in an industrial laboratory, learners will be monitored by the tutor right from the
start of the procedure. Assessment will be on the final report and will take into
account how learners carry out their practical work, their awareness of health and
safety issues and how accurately and honestly they record their results.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to formulate a relevant hypothesis and plan an investigation relevant to
the area of study
2 Understand the scientific principles involved in the investigation and be able to
undertake the planned investigation
3 Be able to collect, collate and analyse the results from the investigation using
appropriate techniques and present them in an accepted format
4 Understand and interpret results from the investigation and present them in a
report in an accepted scientific format including any applications and
implications of science.

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Unit content

1 Be able to formulate a relevant hypothesis and plan an investigation relevant

to the area of study

Nature of the investigation: statement of objectives and hypothesis; description

of experimental research eg laboratory, fieldwork, sports facility
Information resources: identification, location and extraction of relevant
information sources; use of recognised protocol for recording the sources eg
Harvard system; assessment of reliability and validity of information researched
Principles of design of investigations: formulation of hypothesis; details of
experimental design and controls; proposed analytical techniques to be used;
assessment of possible errors in practical work
Health and safety: risk assessment; elimination/minimisation of identified risks;
availability of physical resources

2 Understand the scientific principles involved in the investigation and be able

to undertake the planned investigation

Scientific principles: identification; application

Experimental techniques: assembly of relevant equipment and materials;
adherence to health and safety requirements; manipulative skills; appropriate use
of instruments and techniques for taking measurements; observational skills;
recording results, accuracy, integrity, precision; maintenance of working
laboratory book

3 Be able to collect, collate and analyse the results from the investigation using
appropriate techniques and present them in an accepted format

Practical data: organisation of data eg class intervals, tallying; methods of data

processing and analysis eg mean, standard deviation, student’s t-test; correct
units of experimental quantities used; assessment of experimental accuracy and
precision, accurate calculations
Validation of method and results: fitness for purpose of methods used;
repeatability; sources and magnitudes of errors in reading taken
Assessment of information sources used: relevance to investigation; use of
relevant, researched information to support/negate experimental work

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4 Understand and interpret results from the investigation and present them in a
report in an accepted scientific format including any applications and
implications of science

Scientific report of the investigation: correct scientific protocol ie structure,

format; correct scientific language and terminology ie third person, past tense;
inclusion in appendix of relevant references and bibliography
Data presentation: appropriate format; appropriate degree of precision, correct
units
Scientific evaluation of findings: evaluation of results; sources of error and how
to minimise; conclusions drawn using scientific principles; experimental and
literature investigations; consideration of the hypothesis

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 state the objectives and hypothesis of M1 analyse the research information D1 appraise the different approaches
the investigation and present a working obtained and discuss how it is relevant to considered for the investigation and
plan for the experiment including health the planned experiment justify the hypothesis, experimental
and safety assessments procedures and recording methods
chosen
P2 demonstrate the required manipulative M2 explain how accuracy and precision are D2 evaluate the effectiveness of the
skills to assemble relevant equipment ensured in the investigation investigative procedures in terms of
and materials and safely carry out the accuracy and precision and suggest how
planned investigation these could be improved
P3 assemble equipment, carry out the M3 review experimental progress, modify D3 analyse the data, justifying the
planned investigation, record the results practical procedures if necessary, and statistical methods chosen and relating
and analyse the data collected justify the use of experimental the findings to scientific principles and
techniques to increase the accuracy, applications
reliability and validity of results obtained
P4 state and explain the conclusions in a M4 justify the conclusions made, drawing on D4 evaluate the outcomes of the
report using accepted scientific protocol primary and secondary research data. investigation using scientific protocols.
and language, including presentation of
relevant research resources.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories to enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories but even in many
chemistry ones) and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners may
not be aware of.
It is not intended that this unit is assessed via other units, but it may well use skills,
techniques and information from other units.
Formal input will be needed at the start of this unit so that learners are clear about
the scientific protocols associated with a science investigation. The whole unit is
based around formulating a hypothesis then planning and carrying out an
investigation, analysing the results and producing a report.
The investigation carried out by learners is not expected to be original but it should
be new to the learners. This extended science project allows learners to show their
ability to do meaningful, investigative work using standard operating procedures
expected of technicians in the workplace. Individual or group work is permissible, as
is the pooling of results, but each learner must be able to prove that all the learning
outcomes and grading criteria are covered by their own work.
Health and safety issues relating to this work must be emphasised and safe working
practices adhered to. Risk assessments, the use of COSHH and other regulations must
be followed and the learners should be supervised by qualified members of staff in
the laboratory.
Learning outcome 1 demands the ability to formulate a hypothesis and plan an
investigation. Formal input will probably be needed initially and then tutorial support
as the learners research their area of interest, set up their hypothesis and plan
practical work to test it. Tutorial guidance is essential as learners will be limited in
their choice of topic by the facilities and equipment available. The choice of topic
for investigation should be vocationally relevant and chosen specifically for this unit.
For learning outcome 2 learners should carry out the investigation linked with the
scientific principles involved. The tutor must observe each learner assembling the
equipment needed and safely carrying out the practical work. The tutor should make
it clear to learners what skills they will be assessed on, eg manipulation, observation,
dexterity, use of suitable equipment, recording of their data in a working laboratory
book, ensuring accuracy and consideration of validity of data.

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Learning outcome 3 requires the learners to organise their data using conventional
methods and then use statistical analysis. Formal input will be needed in helping
them choose and use the statistical techniques (which are covered in Unit 8:
Statistics for Science Technicians). From this the learners should be validating their
methods and results and making reference to their research to support or negate
their findings. Negative results are as valid as positive ones — learners need to
explain what has happened and why. Tutor support will be needed throughout this
learning outcome, especially in choosing and applying the analytical techniques.
Consideration of statistical analysis must be done during planning to ensure data
collected is suitable for the statistical analysis required. Calculations must be carried
out accurately.
Learning outcome 4 requires a written report which follows standard scientific
protocol for reporting investigations. The end result should be in a form which any
science supervisor would accept as an account of a scientific investigation. Learners
need to include references within their text and compile a reference list and
bibliography using accepted methods. This report will be expected to include text,
graphical data, data collection charts and evidence of statistical techniques. A
conclusion should be given along with a statement saying clearly whether the
hypothesis has been supported or negated and why.
Studying blood and other bodily substances is not a banned activity (unless an
employer has provided written instructions restricting the activity). A risk assessment
must be carried out. For further guidance refer to page 497 (old specification)

Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners must present a realistic working plan for the experiment with
sufficient detail for the tutor to follow the practical work planned. A risk assessment
should be carried out to comply with existing health and safety rules in the
laboratory. A clear objective and hypothesis must be given which is relevant to the
practical work planned. It is acceptable for learners to state their objective rather
than stating how a hypothesis will be supported or negated by their investigation.
For P2, performing the investigation is normally assessed in the laboratory. Learners
must be observed as they assemble the equipment and materials they need and carry
out the experiment safely. An expert witness such as the laboratory technician may
be used to judge the effectiveness of the assembly of the equipment and working
safely. The tutor must consider how well the practical is carried out and the accuracy
with which learners record their results (P3). If the tutor devises a list of factors to
satisfy the grading criteria, such a list must be shared with the learners well in
advance.
For P3, the results obtained from learners’ observed practical work must be analysed
and then compared with information found as a result of the research. A qualitative
approach is sufficient to meet the grading criteria but learners must show that they
have analysed their results and considered other relevant secondary data.
Calculations must be accurate and results that are clearly wrong must be checked
and corrected by the learner.

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For P4, learners must draw together the results of their work, stating whether their
original objective or hypothesis has been met and explaining their conclusions. This
part of the report requires learners to write more formally using accepted scientific
language and protocols, eg passive, third party, past tense, and correct referencing
of sources. It is expected that learners will give a comprehensive bibliography and
list of references using a standard protocol such as the Harvard system. At this level
learners should realise that the bibliography is recommended reading and the
references are sources they have referred to in the text or from which they have
taken information. Tutors should look for material taken from another source to be
acknowledged as such, including websites where the URL should be given and date of
last access to the site.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
For M1, learners are expected to analyse their research material and relate it to the
planned experiment. Learners need to show what information has been retained, how
it is related to their investigation and possibly how it has affected their plans. Some
learners will gather an enormous amount of research material which may or may not
be relevant. The evaluation of the material needs to be documented so learners can
show their ability to analyse and evaluate information and relate it to the
experimental topic chosen. Research material must be cited using a recognised
system.
For M2, the accurate recording of data should be part of the observation process but
it can also be assessed as part of the written report when the raw data should be
included in an appendix. Methods to increase accuracy and precision should be given,
eg the apparatus may have been linked to a computer which has been programmed to
convert raw data to a graph. Part of this criterion will probably be assessed via
observation during the practical procedures. Learners will be expected to
demonstrate accuracy in their observational skills, eg reading liquid levels by showing
awareness of the meniscus, positioning themselves correctly to read the level in a
burette/measuring cylinder, etc. Recording the results in an appropriate format is
required including noting approximations, decimal place accuracy, etc. For example,
learners must justify why an approximation was used, why only two decimal places
were recorded, etc. Learners must make it obvious that they have considered how to
ensure that the data collected is accurate and precise. This can be demonstrated in
the plan, the execution or the report of the investigation.
For M3, at least one appropriate statistical technique should be applied to the data
collected and the method involved should be recorded even if a computer
programme did the calculations. The outcomes of the analysis need to be related to
the research data found.
For M4, learners must bring together the results of their work by justifying the
conclusions they have drawn. In doing so they should be in a position to support (or
discard) their original hypothesis and justify their opinion based on their data and the
researched material.

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For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1, once the topic and hypothesis have been decided learners must plan the
experiment. Learners need to show they have considered in detail more than one
approach and the problems they raised. Having settled on their plan they should be
able to justify their choice of procedures.
For D2, the tutor must observe learners performing the planned investigation. Should
learners modify their practical procedure while not being observed, any alterations
need to be documented so verification is possible. The review of the experimental
procedure and its progress may end in a decision to start again, modify something,
repeat the whole procedure or even carry on as originally intended. Whichever,
learners must record their review procedures and explain and justify their decisions.
For D3, learners may use only one statistical technique but this choice needs to be
justified. Justification must include reasons why other statistical techniques were
rejected. The statistical techniques chosen must be appropriate and accurately
applied. The results from the statistical application must be analysed and assessed in
terms of how they meet the original hypothesis. Additionally, the appropriateness of
the statistical technique used must be assessed.
D4 requires learners to review the information obtained from their practical work and
research, decide on its validity and decide whether the original hypothesis has been
validated. Learners must evaluate alternative experimental approaches, the
modification or rewriting of their hypothesis and the strengths and weaknesses if
alternative approaches were used. They must evaluate the validity and usefulness of
their researched data and how their experimental data compare with published
information. It is expected that correct scientific protocols are observed throughout
the project.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit may be linked with many other units in the programme but it is intended
that the investigation performed is chosen specifically for this unit. The unit is
designed so the investigation can be carried out in the centre or workplace
laboratory and it should be observed as part of the assessment process.
It is not intended that this unit is assessed via other units but it may use skills,
techniques and information gained from other units.
The development and use of skills for identifying, accessing and using information
from a variety of sources is needed to achieve the learning outcomes. Practical skills
will be developed and assessed that are vocationally relevant to this unit and others.
Other skills involving numeracy and data handling, information communication
technology, planning, reporting and communicating are developed for use in this and
other units.

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Essential resources

To deliver this unit, laboratory space equipped for work at Level 3 standard is
required, or field equipment if appropriate. The facilities needed should include
access to equipment which will enable learners to carry out an experiment of their
choosing. The choice of experiment will be negotiated with the tutor but it must be
practically based, normally in the laboratory. It could cover any of the content of the
units learners are studying as part of this qualification, or a combination of them.
Therefore the centre will be expected to have the normal range of equipment and
materials to carry out advanced level practical work in physics, chemistry and
biology.
Research facilities should include access to computers, CD ROMs and suitable texts.
The learners should have available science and mathematics packages to help them
present their data in the most appropriate way.
Suitably experienced and qualified staff will be needed to supervise the practical
work and the assessments carried out in the laboratory. Similarly, suitable staff will
be required for the assessment of the scientific report using standard scientific
protocol.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment
and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2005)
ISBN 0131144006
Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for
Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press, 2003)
ISBN 0521815274
Hutchings K — Classic Chemistry Experiments (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2000)
ISBN 0854049193
Jones A et al — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002)
ISBN 013045141X
Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe
Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169
Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002)
ISBN 0340847123
Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of
pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736
Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of
Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X
Reed R et al — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0130451428

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Journals
Nature
New Scientist
Website
www.chemistry-react.org/go/Topic/ ideas for practical investigations
Default_4.html

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning to carry out an N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation information from relevant sources.
• recording data and carrying N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
out calculations including stage calculations to do with:
statistical analysis a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• explaining their experimental N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
work and its conclusions. present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out research to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
support experimental least two documents about the same
findings subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• writing up a report of their C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
investigation. each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a search for ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
experimental methods and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
information for their least one case.
investigation
• recording their data and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
using computer packages for derive new information.
graphical and statistical
techniques
• writing up their experimental ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
report. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing with supervisors LP3.1 Set targets using information from
their plans for the appropriate people and plan how these
investigation, health and will be met.
safety checks and the
equipment to be used
• analysing and appraising the LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
plans developed and using your plan to help meet targets and
modifying them as they improve your performance.
proceed
• carrying out their practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation and recording your achievements.
observations.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• deciding on their PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
investigation and which ways of tackling it.
method to choose
• discussing their investigation PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and experimental method solving the problem.
• analysing results and writing PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
up the report. review your approach to problem solving.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• conferring with supervisors WO3.1 Plan work with others.
and laboratory technicians
about their investigation
• agreeing work plans with WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
their supervisor including progress towards your agreed objectives.
equipment requirements
• discussing their investigation WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
with tutors and validity of of improving collaborative work in future.
pooling results with
colleagues for greater
accuracy.

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Unit 24: Scientific Practical Techniques

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The ability to sample and test substances and materials is important in many
branches of industry, in research work and in forensic science. In order to do this,
learners need to be able to select and use appropriate instruments for the work being
carried out. In this unit they will gain experience of a range of instruments and their
use.
As a result of scientific advances new drugs have revolutionised health care, and new
forensic techniques have led to accurate and swift conviction of criminals and solved
crimes from the past. In sport, new materials developed by scientists have enabled
athletes to break world records, going faster, higher and further than ever before.
Practical techniques are the basis of many other science-related industries, including
environment, conservation, animal health and breeding, food manufacturing,
engineering and aerospace.
In all of these areas the ability to work safely and accurately and to appreciate the
properties of materials is important. When scientists undertake investigations they
may only need to know what substances are present, but it is also necessary to find
the quantities of the substances. For example, an investigation of a pollution incident
may need to identify the cause of the pollution. If the scientist is checking the purity
of a pharmaceutical product then accurate content measurements are needed.
Learners will gain experience of both these types of analytical method.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to use appropriate methods to produce two chemical substances
2 Be able to use sampling techniques
3 Be able to use analytical methods
4 Be able to select and use appropriate instruments for scientific investigations.

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Unit content

1 Be able to use appropriate methods to produce two chemical substances

Preparative techniques: produce samples of two chemical substances, ie an

organic chemical compound
Separation techniques: eg precipitation, crystallisation, filtration, distillation,
solvent extraction, chromatography, electrophoresis, centrifugation, cell or tissue
disruption
Estimation of purity: measurement of melting point and boiling point;
chromatography eg paper, thin layer, gas liquid; spectroscopy eg ultraviolet,
infrared; appropriate reference data

2 Be able to use sampling techniques

Sampling: importance of sampling; techniques for solids, liquids, gases;

importance of sample collection; labelling; storage to ensure valid results
Safety procedures: risks; hazards; risk assessment; sources of information;
application of health and safety

3 Be able to use analytical methods

Analysis: quantitative methodology; preparation and use of standard solutions;

qualitative methodology; test for cations eg sodium, potassium, copper, calcium,
barium; test for anions eg chloride, sulphate, carbonate
Safety procedures: risks; hazards; risk assessment; sources of information;
application of health and safety

4 Be able to select and use appropriate instruments for scientific investigations

Selection of instruments: measure scientific parameters; appropriate choice of

instruments; assembly of instruments, safety, calibration, consideration of the
required accuracy
Measurement: techniques for measuring material properties eg conductivity,
tensile strength, compressive strength, elasticity
Use of a variety of basic instruments: microscope, pH meter, balance,
colorimeter; collect, process and record data and qualitative information from
the instruments

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 produce samples of at least two M1 measure the yield and purity in the D1 explain how the highest yield and best
compounds and estimate their purity preparations carried out and describe purity could be achieved in the
the factors that influence them preparations carried out
P2 apply sampling techniques while working M2 describe the importance of sampling in a D2 explain potential sources of error in
safely specific industrial context sampling and describe how to deal with
errors
P3 carry out analytical techniques and M3 explain the importance and legal D3 explain the importance of working
report the results accurately responsibilities of working safely accurately and how accuracy can be
ensured in the techniques used
P4 select and use appropriate instruments M4 explain the choice of instruments in the D4 evaluate the variables in operation of
to test substances or materials. practical exercises. instruments used and how they could be
optimised.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories to enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories, but even in
many chemistry ones), and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners
may not be aware of.
The role of the technician in the science industry or related industries is largely
defined by standard operating procedures. The technician is required to use these
procedures to produce material, select instruments or analytical methods to obtain
results to pre-determined specifications. They must follow these procedures
consistently and accurately to meet the objectives of the organisation. This unit is
designed to facilitate the development of consistent and accurate practical skills
appropriate to the learners’ employment or interests.
The learning outcomes of this unit require learners to carry out selected procedures
to pre-determined orders of accuracy. Learners should be introduced to the selected
techniques and practise them through formative practical work before presentation
for assessment. The delivery should be based on a well-structured programme of
practical exercises to develop the necessary skills. The procedures selected will be
influenced by those in common use in the related vocational area and the resources
available to the centre.
Health and safety must be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and assessment
of this unit. Learners must understand how reasonable precautions can prevent
hazards becoming risks. All practical briefs must include risk analyses consistent with
COSHH regulations. These must be emphasised during introduction of each practical
exercise and the learners required to take all identified measures during their work.
Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under the COSHH regulations; they should not,
therefore, be expected to carry out full risk analyses unsupervised for practical work
to be undertaken.
The practical exercises used to deliver the learning outcomes will be determined by
the specialisation of the learners. The following approaches might be appropriate.
• Use of aseptic techniques to culture microorganisms, estimation of bacterial cell
counts using haemocytometer, use of staining techniques to identify products.
• Qualitative tests for representative samples of biochemical materials (reducing
sugars, non-reducing sugars, starches, proteins, lipids).
• Quantitative determination using electrophoresis and/or chromatography, with
appropriate methods of location and estimation.
• Setting up and using the light microscope to examine and characterise cellular
and tissue samples.

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• Preparation of inorganic and organic compounds, purification by distillation,

recrystallisation or solvent extraction, estimation of purity by melting point or
boiling point or spectroscopically.
• Qualitative analyses of inorganic or organic materials (single compounds or
mixtures) using standard chemical tests, titrimetric, chromatography or
spectroscopic methods and using appropriate sampling methods.
• An acid-base titration followed by crystallisation and fermentation.
• Selection and calibration of instruments for testing or measuring: viscometer,
refractometer, tensometer, multimeter, tensile and compressive testing
apparatus, oscilloscope etc.
• Analysis of soil or water samples or another substance found in the natural
environment.
Studying blood and other bodily substances is not a banned activity (unless an
employer has provided written instructions restricting the activity). A risk assessment
must be carried out. For further guidance refer to page 497 (old specification).

Assessment

The effectiveness of the science technician in industry is measured by completion of

set work within timescales and to specified quality standards. The assessment of this
unit should reflect workplace practices as closely as possible.
The focus of assessment should be on learners carrying out the required tasks, rather
than concentration on a final written report. The tutor should use appropriate
methods to observe the learners’ performance of practical activities and to record
them for verification purposes.
Learners should produce results within an acceptable tolerance to achieve the
criteria for the pass grade. Set tolerance should be demanding of the practical skills
but achievable by the competent learner. Tolerances should reflect values expected
in employment but should recognise that an employed technician might engage in
only one or a small number of laboratory techniques. Results that are clearly wrong
must not be accepted.
If the learners are in employment, use of evidence produced in the workplace may be
admissible for this unit. If evidence from employment is to be used, tutors must
make firm and written arrangements for assessment. In particular, the assessment
should not concentrate solely on written reports of methods used. Evidence of
assessment of process must be fully documented and made available for verification,
whether it is carried out in the centre or off-site.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. The most important pass
requirement for all learners is to work safely and accurately.
For P1, P2, P3 and P4 learners must use the methods provided to produce results
within specification. The learners should be assessed by observation while performing
the set tasks and on results obtained. The acceptable tolerances must be applied
rigorously; learners who are outside the allowed limits must be required to repeat
the work until the required standards are met.

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For M1, M2, M3 and M4 learners must show an appreciation of the principles of the
methods used and why they are appropriate to the selected activities. The learners’
evidence may be in the form of responses to structured questions designed to focus
the learners’ attention on the required information. However, such questions must
not be so prescriptive as to make the generation of correct responses undemanding.
The merit learner must show an understanding of the precautions in each method to
reduce risk from the hazards present.
D1, D2, D3 and D4 require learners to show sufficient understanding of the
techniques used to evaluate their performance. Learners must identify how
techniques can be optimised and the accuracy of the results maximised. Learners
must show considerable independence when generating evidence. It is not
appropriate to base the evidence for distinction on answers to structured questions.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

Most units in the Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Nationals in Applied Science have a practical
component and therefore this unit can be linked to many. Practical investigations
may assume that the learners possess specific practical skills — if learners do not, the
identified skills may be developed and assessed through this unit.
Programme teams may plan to integrate the delivery and/or assessment of practical
techniques partially or totally within other units. This is a valid method of
programme planning, but it must not lead to any dilution of the development of
practical skills that are the basis of this unit.
The practical techniques developed in this unit may find application in Unit 3:
Scientific Investigation, which involves the planning of an investigation, including
selection of methods. This selection may be informed by the learners’ experience of
practical work during study of this unit.

Essential resources

The resources required are determined by the learners’ specialist studies. The
practical methods selected for study should be representative of those in current use
in the appropriate vocational area. All learners will need access to appropriate
laboratory facilities and information communication technology resources.
Non-employed learners will benefit from visits to appropriate industrial facilities to
see practical techniques in operation in the context of the industry.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Coyne G S — The Laboratory Companion: A Practical Guide to Materials, Equipment
and Technique (John Wiley & Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471780863
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Chemistry (Prentice Hall, 2001) ISBN 013028002X
Dean J R et al — Practical Skills in Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2005)
ISBN 0131144006
Derenzo S E — Practical Interfacing in the Laboratory: Using a PC for
Instrumentation, Data Analysis and Control (Cambridge University Press,
2003) ISBN 0521815274
Jones A et al — Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd Edition (Prentice Hall, 2002)
ISBN 013045141X
Lintern M — Laboratory Skills for Science and Medicine: An Introduction (Radcliffe
Medical Press, 2006) ISBN 1846190169
Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of
pH (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 0854044736
Prichard E and Lawn R — Practical Laboratory Skills Training Guide: Measurement of
Volume (The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2003) ISBN 085404468X
Reed R et al — Practical Skills in Biomolecular Science (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0130451428
Journals
Nature
New Scientist

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UNIT 24: SCIENTIFIC PRACTICAL TECHNIQUES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• measuring the yield and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
purity of compounds stage calculations to do with:
produced. a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• presenting their work to an C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
audience of their peers and eight minutes using an image or other
tutors using slides or other support material.
visual aids
• reading scientific journals C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
and textbooks on the least two documents about the same
practical techniques used in subject.
science Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• writing an essay or producing C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
a PowerPoint presentation on each one giving different information
scientific practical about complex subjects.
techniques used to balance One document must be at least 1000
purity and yield against cost. words long.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning experiments WO3.1 Plan work with others.
together to produce
compounds
• identifying ways of improving WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
teamwork. of improving collaborative work in future.

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 UNIT 25: PERCEPTIONS OF SCIENCE

Unit 25: Perceptions of Science

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit allows learners to explore the role of science in a wider context. How much
influence does science have on society, people and politics? What influences science?
In this unit learners can use their science training and knowledge to explore the
pressures on the science community. Similarly, they can investigate whether science
can influence people and politicians.
Is it fair that scientists get the blame when their discoveries are misused? Should
scientists withhold their knowledge in case the media get hold of it and release scare
stories or misinterpret their work?
Although learners will need to do some initial research on the media, politics and
society, the main thrust of this unit is the analysis of case studies. Learners will be
putting forward reasoned arguments about some of the more controversial current
science topics. Learners are free to choose their topics of study, provided they are
relevant to the endorsed title they have followed during this course, and the tutor
will be available for discussion and guidance in making these choices.
The aim of this unit is to show knowledge of science and an understanding of its
interaction with people, society as a whole and the media in particular. Learners can
express their own opinions about the science topics of their choice but the final
conclusions they present must be supported by fact and well reasoned. This is an
opportunity for learners to show that they can express their opinions constructively.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the development of scientific knowledge
2 Understand the public perception of science, as influenced by the media
3 Be able to identify the ethical and moral issues associated with scientific
advances
4 Understand the relationship between science, commerce and politics.

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Unit content

1 Understand the development of scientific knowledge

Development of theories: ideas; testing; evidence; hypothesis, predications,

theory; illustrative examples eg particulate theory of matter, quantum theory,
evolution
Collection and analysis of data: methods of collection; use of controls, placebos,
blinds, double-blinds; concordant data; repetition of experiments; validity;
reliability; informed consent; ethics committees
Value and limitations of science: characteristics of a scientific question;
processes determining the solution; scientific theory (hypotheses); cannot prove a
negative
Uncertainties: ideas develop over time; ideas acknowledged and validated by the
scientific community; peer-review

2 Understand the public perception of science, as influenced by the media

Media: eg formats; target audience; originators; influences; owners; hidden

agenda; style of writing; science detail and accuracy; level of language used eg
technical, scientific, layman; effect of science reporting on different groups in
society
Perceptions of science: eg science documentaries, science docu–fiction; film and
television series; science ‘scare’ stories eg MMR vaccine; exploiting public fears
eg rapid spread of viruses, implications of cloning, DNA collection for government
database
Concerns about science: control of experimental work; safeguards for scientific
research; control of research funds; allocation of public money; media
representation eg by non-science journalists; accuracy of science reporting;
control of scientists’ ideas; control of media output
Constraints on the media: legal eg court orders, civil law, legal procedures,
criminal law, slander and libel; other eg government watchdogs, self-regulating
bodies eg Press Complaints Commission
Science reporting: specialist journals; popular science journals eg New Scientist,
Astronomy Now; newspaper articles; internet; style of writing, target audience,
science detail and accuracy, level of language used eg technical, scientific,
layman; effect of science reporting on different groups in society

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3 Be able to identify the ethical and moral issues associated with scientific
advances

Scientific advances: benefits; drawbacks; risks; contemporary scientific or

technological advances eg artificial intelligence, drug treatments, stem cell
research, technology, miniaturisation of electrical components; development of
space exploration programmes; chemical weapons; genetic manipulation eg GM
crops; analysis of body fluids and materials at crime scenes; siting of radio masts
Ethical and moral issues: eg animals and humans as organ donors; transplants and
self-inflicted illnesses eg smoking and lung cancer; genetic manipulation,
screening eg to avoid inherited conditions; experimenting on animals eg drug
trials, long space journeys; use of scientific data obtained by dubious means eg
illegal experiments, wartime Nazi experiments, DNA sampling at crime scenes

4 Understand the relationship between science, commerce and politics

Society and politics: eg social groups in society, their influence and association
with popular science; political groups, their influence on science issues; pressure
groups, their influence on society eg animal rights, civil rights concerned with eg
DNA databases, artificial reproduction, intelligent design; voluntary or statutory
pressure groups; international pressures
Commerce and finance: eg financial supporters of research, public funding,
private funding, vested interest; allocation of funds eg cost effectiveness of new
scientific developments in medicine eg expensive drug regimes, incentives
offered to doctors for prescribing; funding restraints on prescription drugs;
postcode lottery of drug availability; financial rewards for donating organs;
limited research resources and the cost eg of international space stations,
interplanetary explorations; development and control of science discoveries later
used for non-peaceful purposes eg chemical weapons, atomic (nuclear) bombs

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the development of one M1 differentiate between those questions D1 explain the necessity for peer-review
scientific theory, highlighting the that science is currently addressing, and why sometimes there is resistance to
processes involved those that science cannot yet answer new scientific theories
and those that science will never be able
to answer, giving two examples of each
P2 list public concerns about science M2 explain whether concerns raised about D2 analyse whether the media makes a
highlighted in the media and describe science in the media are justified by positive contribution to the public’s
two recent cases analysing two recent cases perception of science

P3 list scientific or technological M3 explain the progress made by one D3 analyse the ethical and/or moral
developments which have raised ethical contemporary scientific or technological arguments associated with two scientific
or moral issues and describe the issues advance and analyse the effect on or technological developments and
associated with two developments society as it was developed substantiate your own conclusion
P4 describe five different groups and/or M4 explain that financial support influences D4 explain how science can be put to uses
organisations that have a political scientific research. other than those originally intended and
agenda and their influence on science. how this affects either society or
society’s perception of science.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

In this unit tutors will need to provide factual and stimulus material and use case
studies to prepare learners for discussion.
The use of specialist speakers is essential to provide the backdrop needed for this
unit. It is intended that after the factual input the learners will use their tutors as
facilitators but essentially the learners should be ‘self-driven’.
The learners should negotiate, via individual action planning with their tutor, how
they will meet the learning outcomes and grading criteria. The facilitators should be
periodically reviewing each action plan to make sure the goals and target dates set
are being met. Close monitoring of the learners is necessary to prevent loss of
momentum and to ensure the focus is kept on the material to be covered.
In this unit the tutors, facilitators or mentors do not all need to be science
specialists. Learners may benefit from having some input from staff from other
disciplines. However, it is important that the learners are able to consider science
objectively and have the opportunity to develop a balanced view.
Learning outcome 1 is an opportunity for learners to explore the nature of science:
what is a scientific question and what is not; and why some questions are scientific
and why some are not. This is best done through informed discussion. Learners should
appreciate that, while there are scientific methods, processes and conventions,
science ‘facts’ are ultimately arrived at by consensus. It is not expected that learners
explore the depths of the philosophy of science, but they should show an
appreciation of the nature of science: that there is no one scientific method, but
that scientists do follow general protocols to ensure validity and reliability of
information. Learners should understand the ever-changing situation of scientific
knowledge as theories are reviewed and improved to give a more realistic reflection
of our world and how it works. They could also explore why there are some areas of
knowledge that could be subject to scientific investigation but which are not.
Learners can do their own research to define ‘the nature of science’. This should
cause much discussion, which should be strongly encouraged.
Learning outcome 2 requires the learners to understand how their perception of
science fits in with the public perception. Additionally, they must consider the way
science concerns are reported by the media. Some guidance should be given by the
tutors to ensure learners look at all branches of science and technology and a variety
of media formats. Learners should be given the opportunity to consider how the
general and specialist media report a science story. They may then choose, after
consultation, to consider some topics in line with their particular interests.

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Learning outcome 3 allows any scientific advances to be considered from any branch
of science or technology. Equally, any moral or ethical issues associated with these
advances can be studied. Initially, input from tutors will be needed to get the
learners to consider a wide range of advances and the subsequent issues that arise.
Subsequently, learners should receive mentoring by the tutors via action planning and
tutorials but learners should essentially be ‘self-driven’. Monitoring is essential to
ensure the research and discussions enable the learning outcome to be met. Tutors
should ensure learners consider both sides of an argument and are able to articulate
and substantiate their own position.
Learning outcome 4 introduces learners to the funding issues of scientific research
along with other pressures, such as those from voluntary and political groups.
Learners should be encouraged to research these and must present a balanced view
of these groups. A range of visiting speakers presenting differing views would greatly
enhance the learning experience. Media reports and documentaries are a good source
of stimulus material, especially regarding financial aspects (eg ‘postcode-lottery’ for
healthcare). Learners should also be encouraged to look at historical developments
and uncontentious ‘spin-offs’ from contentious research. If learners are to have a
successful meaningful debate, they must be well prepared with their arguments and
supporting evidence.

Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners have the opportunity to investigate how science works and must
describe the development of a scientific theory. Learners must understand that this
is a dynamic process, without specific procedures. Competing theories exist in many
areas of science. Learners can take a historical angle if they wish, and describe how
from several competing theories one has come to prominence. This is not expected
to be an in-depth study or a long complicated piece of work. Learners could present
their work verbally, but evidence of research and/or presentation must be
maintained for verification purposes.
For P2, some of the topics chosen may be emotive and personal opinions will
probably feature largely in the public perceptions put forward. This is inevitable but
learners must provide evidence to support the perceptions outlined. The list of public
concerns should be tackled in the same way.
For P3, analysis of the effect and the ethical and moral issues highlighted will give
learners the chance to express their informed opinions based on the facts and views
they have researched. This criterion lends itself to a verbal presentation or discussion
supported by research and presentation notes. The learners must provide evidence
that can be verified, so presentations must be recorded or notes retained (eg
preparatory notes, print out of PowerPoint presentation) for this purpose.
For P4, learners should be encouraged to carry out their own web-based research,
along with contacting any particular groups in which they are interested. It is
important that learners present a balanced report or presentation, explaining the
purposes and views of these groups. Learners must be able to present arguments
against the purpose of certain groups, where arguments exist in order to present a
balanced case.

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For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
For M1, learners must be able to differentiate a scientific question from a non-
scientific question (such as a philosophical question) and be able to explain what
makes them different. Learners must understand the questions that science can
address and be able to explain why there are some questions that science cannot
address.
For M2, providing at least two examples are analysed, learners have the freedom to
choose any topical science issues which have affected the public perception of
science. The analysis may include concerns raised about science in the media. The
tutor must be clear when judging learners’ work that perceptions and concerns have
been clearly dealt with. The tutor may feel that case studies are a useful part of the
assessment process as well as allowing the learners to choose examples for analysis.
For M3, the emphasis is not on the development process but the attitudes that were
shown as a result of the scientific advancement. Any area(s) of science or technology
can be used providing they give enough material for learners to compare and contrast
the attitudes that resulted. Choosing topics which gave rise to positive and negative
responses is to be encouraged.
For M4, learners need to understand that all science needs funding. Much of this
comes in various forms from the government, but a large proportion comes from
public funding and learners must demonstrate an understanding of how this may
influence the direction and possibly even the outcomes and presentation of scientific
research.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1, learners need to be aware of a range of professional journals and understand
that this is how scientific developments are communicated to the scientific world.
They must understand the process a scientific paper is subject to in order for it to be
published, and be able to explain the peer-review process. Drawing on their
understanding of the development of scientific theories, they must then explain using
examples, why a new theory is often greeted with scepticism and takes time to
become accepted.
For D2, after researching and reviewing the evidence, learners are required to give
their considered opinion about the influence the media has on the public’s
perception of science. As this could be daunting to start with, the tutor could give a
couple of case studies and then allow learners to choose some examples of their own
to finish the assignment. Learners must show their ability to analyse information and
then synthesise the relevant material to give a coherent commentary on the
influences stated. The emphasis is on the validity of the way the media raises
concerns about scientific developments. Learners may be familiar with the more lurid
headlines associated with some science developments, which on closer inspection,
may not be quite as they have been represented. Learners need to study these
portrayals and then comment critically on the presentations made by the media.

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For D3, the choice of a reported controversial science development can be made by
learners or the tutor but it needs to be evaluated critically by comparing two
different sources of information. The sources can be newspapers, scientific journals
or websites but they need to be sufficiently different in approach and target
readership to make the evaluation worthwhile. The reports need to be analysed for
accuracy, clarity, scientific content and facts versus opinions. Issues such as animal
experimentation, and the development of chemical weapons are likely to arise, but
the learners should be encouraged to look further afield. Evidence of information
collected and analysed must be included in any presentation and its use in making
judgements needs to be demonstrated.
For D4, there are many examples of useful everyday products resulting from research
in entirely different areas, eg military or space programmes. Some scientific research
has been put to very destructive uses: learners must explain an example of this and
discuss its effects or perceptions. Learners are encouraged to carry out their own
research into an area that interests them and represent their findings, which could
take the form of a written or verbal report, a poster or information leaflet.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with units in all of the endorsed titles in the BTEC Nationals in
Applied Science.

Essential resources

The delivery of this unit requires access by the learners to library and internet data
but does not require laboratory space. Relevant journals and daily newspapers,
weeklies and periodicals should be available. Access to political material and to
television channels via cable and satellite are also needed, eg channels with 24-hour
news, political shows and other interests.
Specialist input from colleagues and/or guest speakers who have knowledge of the
media, law, politics, sociology and philosophy (ethical and moral issues) is highly
recommended to provide the wider background needed for this unit.
Some learners may require access to recording equipment as they can choose to
present some of their material via audio/visual recordings.

Indicative reading for learners

As this unit covers such a wide variety of subjects, the following are suggestions of
books which may give a flavour of the kind of material that could come up for
discussion. As it is likely that several tutors will input into this unit from different
subject disciplines, other texts and websites may be preferred and suggested by each
subject specialist.

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Textbooks
Best J — Damned Lies and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians
and Activists (University of California Press, 2001) ISBN 0520219783
Brignell J — The Epidemiologist: Have They Got Scares for You! (Brignell Associates,
2004) ISBN 0953910822
Curran J — Mass Media and Society (Hodder Arnold, 2005) ISBN 0340884991
Goliszek A — In the Name of Science: A History of Secret Programs, Medical Research
and Human Experimentation (St Martin’s Press, 2003) ISBN 0312303564
Jackson A R W and Jackson J — Forensic Science (Prentice Hall, 2004)
ISBN 0130432512
Jewkes Y — Media and Crime: A Critical Introduction (Sage Publications Ltd, 2004)
ISBN 0761947655
Michaels P J — Meltdown: The Predictable Distortion of Global Warming by
Scientists, Politicians and the Media (Cato Institute US, 2005) ISBN 1930865791
Moreno J D — Undue Risk: Secret State Experiments on Humans (Routledge Inc, 2000)
ISBN 0415928354
Mur C — Animal Experimentation (Greenhaven Press, 2004) ISBN 073772000X
O’Sullivan T et al — Studying the Media (Hodder Arnold, 2003) ISBN 0340807652
Spitz V — Doctors from Hell: The Horrific Account of Nazi Experiments on Humans
(Sentient Publications, 2005) ISBN 1591810329
Websites
www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/safety/ Office of Health and Safety (American
basicchem.htm website: has a set of scenarios that could
provoke discussion)
www.chemsoc.org Royal Society of Chemistry’s chemical
science network
www.indiana.edu Indiana University
www.kosmoi.com/Science/Method Science, Nature, Technology
www.project2061.org Advancing Science, Serving Society —
Project 2061

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• contributing to any C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
discussions in this unit such
as the relationship between
the media and science
• making a presentation about C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least eight
public perceptions and minutes using an image or other support
concerns regarding science material.
• reading and synthesising C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information to find reasons least two documents about the same
and motives for pressure subject.
groups Each document must be at least 1000 words
long.
• writing up information from C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
researches carried out each one giving different information about
involving facts and opinions. complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000 words
long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• researching scientific ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
advances, comparing and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
contrasting attitudes and least one case.
evaluating their usefulness
• researching science ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
developments and developing derive new information.
the material to use in
discussing moral and ethical
issues
• presenting information for ICT3.3 Present combined information such as text
any of the above researches. with image, text with number, image with
number.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• developing plans and setting LP3.1 Set targets using information from
targets with tutors and appropriate people and plan how these will
colleagues to carry out be met.
researches effectively
• monitoring progress using LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning, using
their plan and making your plan to help meet targets and improve
modifications. your performance.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• identifying the material PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
needed for an assignment ways of tackling it.
and how to find it
• meeting supervisors and PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
colleagues to discuss the solving the problem.
affect of the media and
politics on science
• reviewing the material PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
collected to see if it is review your approach to problem solving.
sufficient to meet the
requirements of the problem
set.

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 UNIT 26: USING SCIENCE IN THE WORKPLACE

Unit 26: Using Science in the Workplace

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will help learners understand the working practices used by organisations
while carrying out their day-to-day business. It also aims to put the scientist or
technician in context as an important part of the team. This unit looks at the roles
and responsibilities of the employee and the employer and the constraints, both
statutory and voluntary, that are imposed on the organisation.
If a learner is already employed in a scientific workplace they will ideally use their
own employer for the practical activity, taking into account any sensitive issues. If
learners are not employed in science they will undertake this investigation as an
individual or as part of a group.
Before starting it is important that the organisation to be studied is researched to
ensure that the relevant information is available. Owing to the wide variety of
organisations that may be studied, the content has been designed to be
contextualised to suit the learner’s situation or experience.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the scientific principles used by a science-based organisation to
produce a product or provide a service
2 Understand the role of the science technician
3 Be able to carry out relevant scientific practical work
4 Know the constraints under which the organisation must operate.

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Unit content

1 Understand the scientific principles used by a science-based organisation to

produce a product or provide a service

The organisation: aims; nature of the business; size of the organisation

Products or services: types supplied; their use; type of customer; benefits to the
customer
Processes and principles: processes used in production of the product or delivery
of the service; scientific principles employed; equipment used; roles and
responsibilities of scientists, technicians
Health and safety: legislation applicable to the organisation eg COSHH regulations
Information communication technology (ICT): eg Laboratory Management
Information Systems (LMIS)

2 Understand the role of the science technician

The scientist/technician: role in the organisation; safety requirements; standard

operating procedures
Training and development: role of Association of Science Education (ASE),
National Vocational Qualifications (NVQs), Independent Operational Test (IOT);
rewards; incentives
Workload: flexible working
Communication: lines of authority and accountability to and from other
personnel, external suppliers, external servicing staff, lay people; types of
communication; relationships with supervisor, scientists, peer group; scientific
terminology

3 Be able to carry out relevant scientific practical work

Practical work: a scaled down practical representing a large scale industrial

process used by the organisation
Equipment: equipment used in the industrial context and laboratory
representation
Industrial and laboratory scale processes: differences; similarities

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4 Know the constraints under which the organisation must operate

Local impact: environmental; forms of pollution; constraints under which the

organisation operates; consequences of non-compliance
Statutory controls: employment law; health and safety; environmental legislation
Voluntary controls: eg British Standards ISO 9000, ISO14001; Investors in People;
customer; third-party auditing
Issues of public concern: ethical and moral issues; environmental; pollution

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 outline the structures and processes used M1 analyse the processes used by the D1 assess the influence of legislation on the
by the organisation to produce a product organisation to produce a product or processes used to produce a product or
or perform a service, and identify any perform a service perform a service
health and safety issues
P2 describe the role and responsibilities of M2 outline typical career development D2 analyse the different career paths
the scientist/technician in the and/or progression for a science through the organisation of personnel
organisation technician in the organisation entering at different levels
P3 plan and carry out a practical M3 analyse the results of the investigation D3 explain how and why the industrial scale
investigation in the laboratory to and explain their contribution to the differs from the laboratory scale
represent a larger scale industrial organisation
process that is carried out by the
organisation
P4 describe the statutory and voluntary M4 analyse systems used by the organisation D4 comment objectively on any issues of
constraints that may apply to the to ensure adherence to the controls. public concern that may arise from the
organisation (and identify the work of the organisation.
consequences of non-compliance to both
the employer and employee).

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A visit to an industrial state-of-the-art laboratory is strongly recommended. If this is

not possible for all learners, then tutors are strongly advised to take any opportunity
to visit one themselves. This would give tutors an appreciation of the differences
between industrial laboratories and centre-based laboratories to enable them to
better deliver the unit. Such differences include the clear demarcation of ‘clean’ and
‘contaminated’ areas (not only in biological and animal laboratories, but even in
many chemistry ones), and the separate space for computers, desks etc that learners
may not be aware of.
This unit requires the learner to be able to research a selected organisation. It is
therefore imperative that the organisation chosen has enough relevant and up-to-
date information freely available. It is also important that a relevant practical can be
carried out by the learner in the laboratory.
Work experience or visits are useful but not essential for the successful completion of
the unit. Much of the information required can be obtained from company websites.
Many utility organisations have specific education sections. The learner will need
basic information about how a business is organised and run. This may be delivered as
short lectures giving sufficient background for the learner to be able to appreciate
the information obtained during their own investigation. Consideration of the setting
up and running of a business is not appropriate for this unit.
The emphasis should be placed on the use of science in the organisation to produce a
scientific product or provide a scientific service. The place of the scientist and
technical staff in the organisation should be referred to whenever possible.
Delivery should focus on how principles of science are applied and how the product or
service is of use to the customer, rather than on how the business is run.
The safety of the employee, the public and the environment will be studied by
investigating the statutory and voluntary controls imposed on the organisation.
Legislation such as health and safety for the employees will be studied, as will
quality standards affecting the effectiveness and efficiency of the organisation in the
eyes of employees and the public, including current and potential customers. The
impact of these controls will affect the success of the organisation or the demand for
its products.

Assessment

This unit requires the learners to plan, carry out and report on an investigation
appropriate to the learning outcomes of the role of science technician. A range of
types of technician employment will be appropriate to developing and delivering
their evidence. A series of standard exercises set and controlled by the tutor will not
meet the requirements of this unit.

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The topics for investigation can be set by the tutor or selected by the learner, but
must involve the contextualisation of the role of the technician appropriate to the
learner’s programme of study. The learning outcomes may be met by individual or
group investigations. In the latter case, tutors must document each learner’s
contribution to the investigation and provide appropriate authentication of the
evidence presented.
Much of the evidence for this unit will be generated by investigative work. The
quality of each learner’s work will only be partially reflected in the final portfolio. It
is important that the tutor observes all phases of the work and records each learner’s
performance. These records should be included in the learner’s evidence as
authentication of performance and to support the grade recommended for the work.
The tutor’s judgement must reflect the overall quality of the work, and should not be
overly influenced by the media through which it is reported.
All grades require the learner to undertake some initial planning before starting
assignment work. This requires the learner to consider carefully what is involved in
the work, and how they are to approach the constituent tasks.
For learning outcome 2, case studies would be an appropriate way for learners to
present their work. For the distinction grade learners would need to compare two
different entry routes, eg graduate and non-graduate.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit follows on from Unit 2: Science and the World of Work in the Edexcel
Level 2 BTEC First Diploma in Applied Science.
The practical work for this unit may be completed in a more suitable practical unit.
This assignment presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3.
The unit provides underpinning knowledge for the Laboratory and Associated
Technical Activities NVQs at Levels 2 and 3.

Essential resources

The internet is the core resource needed for researching specific company websites,
regulatory bodies, CLEAPSS, BSI and others depending on the organisation chosen.
Items from the current news media should be integrated as and when they occur.
Relevant television programmes may also be used to illustrate topics of interest.
Use of any resource should be checked for permission and copyright.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Atkinson C and Mariotte J — The Prep Room Organiser (Association for Science
Education, 2003) ISBN 0863572839
Morgan S — Advanced Level Practical Work for Biology (Hodder Murray, 2002)
ISBN 0340847123
Articles from newspapers, television or radio transcripts or other scientific/business
journals may also be useful.
Websites
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science Education
www.bio.org.uk The Institute of Biology
www.glaxowellcome.co.uk Glaxo Wellcome
www.iop.org.uk The Institute of Physics
www.mond.org Society of Chemical Industry
www.rsc.org The Royal Society of Chemistry
www.scienceconsortium.co.uk The Science Consortium
www.sep.org.uk Science Enhancement Programme
www.york.ac.uk/org/ciec Chemical Industry Education Centre (CIEC)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation information from relevant sources.
• producing results from the N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
practical investigation stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• analysing the results to N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
support a hypothesis. present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• talking about different types C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
of company or organisation
• conveying the results of their C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
research to the group using a eight minutes using an image or other
poster or PowerPoint support material.
• researching the company or C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
organisation using different least two documents about the same
websites or journals subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• writing up their findings and C3.3 Write two different types of documents
the report of the practical each one giving different information
work. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching using ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
organisation, company or sources, and multiple search criteria in at
regulating body websites least one case.
• producing factual and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
practical reports. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning the practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigation appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• working as a group for the LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
practical investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
• logging progress of LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
assignment work. your achievements.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• investigating the organisation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
and a relevant practical that ways of tackling it.
could be carried out
• planning the practical PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
investigation solving the problem.
• assessing the result of the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
practical investigation. review your approach to problem solving.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a group practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• working as a group in the WO3.2 Work to develop co-operation and check
practical investigation progress towards your agreed objectives.
• completing the practical WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
work and assessing the of improving collaborative work in future.
learning outcomes.

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Unit 27: Energy Changes, Sources and

Applications
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit gives learners an understanding of the fundamental concepts of energy and
how energy is measured, with consideration of ‘useful’ energy and ‘wasted’ energy.
Energy changes can cause a rise or fall in temperature or changes of state: learners
will study more about temperature and how it relates to energy changes, as well as
the relationship with volume and pressure. This unit allows learners to develop an
understanding of the need for portable energy sources in a laboratory environment,
and recognise the importance of tailoring the energy source to the application. They
will also learn about energy transfer mechanisms and how they are used in industrial
applications.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the fundamental concepts associated with energy and its measurement
2 Be able to demonstrate and relate changes of temperature or physical state to
changes in internal energy
3 Understand the differences between energy transfer mechanisms and the
relationships between them
4 Understand the properties of electrical energy sources.

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Unit content

1 Know the fundamental concepts associated with energy and its measurement

Definitions: work as force x distance moved in direction of force (W=Fd); energy

in terms of work; kinetic energy (KE = ½ mv2); gravitational potential energy
(PEg = mgh); elastic potential energy (PEe = ½ kx2); power as the rate of transfer
of energy
Concepts: principle of the conservation of energy; recognition of energy types as
forms of potential or kinetic energies; useful energy, wasted energy and
efficiency
Quantities and units: energy (joule); power (watt, kilowatt)

2 Be able to demonstrate and relate changes of temperature or physical state to

changes in internal energy

Temperature: degree of hotness; temperature scales (Kelvin, Celsius) and fixed

points (absolute zero); thermal expansion
Energy changes: transfer of energy can cause a rise or fall in temperature or
changes of state; calculations eg specific heat capacity (Q = mcΔt), specific
latent heat (Q = mL); fusion; vaporisation; condensation; applications
Gases: effect of changing temperature, pressure and volume of a gas;
experimental evidence for a gas law eg Charles’ law, Boyle’s law, pressure law;
the ideal gas law; kinetic theory dealt with qualitatively; applications

3 Understand the differences between thermal energy transfer mechanisms and

the relationships between them

Energy transfer mechanisms: conduction (transfer of kinetic energy between

atoms, electrons or molecules); thermal conductivity of solids, liquids and gases;
convection (bulk motion of liquids); radiation (absorption, emission and relation
to surface properties); Stefan’s law of radiation ( W = eσAT 4 ); temperature
Q ⎛ T − T2 ⎞
gradient, ie = kA⎜ 1 ⎟ ; applications
t ⎝ L ⎠
Relationships: eg differences between forced and natural convection

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4 Understand the properties of electrical energy sources

Structure and operating principles of common primary and secondary cells:

characteristics, merits and limitations for particular applications; capacity and
behaviour under load; ampere-hours, milliampere-hours; disposal hazards;
applications
Fuel cells: eg simple cell, the leclanche dry cell and the lead-acid cell, zinc-air
fuel cells (ZAFC), proton exchange membrane or solid polymer, direct methanol
fuel cells, recent developments, their prospects and limitations
Solar cells: recent developments; their prospects and limitations

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the fundamental concepts M1 perform calculations involving changes of D1 explain the behaviour and response of
associated with energy using industrial state for industrial processes industrial systems in terms of latent
examples heat, specific heat capacity,
temperature changes and the gas laws

P2 report on the outcomes of an M2 calculate pressure, volume and D2 explain gas pressure and how it affects
investigation of one gas law and relate temperature changes for gases in given industrial processes
them to industrial processes industrial processes

P3 investigate and describe the processes of M3 calculate energy flow using industrial D3 explain the differences between heat
conduction, convection and radiation examples for given thermal transfer mechanisms in solids, liquids,
and their industrial applications conductivities and temperature gases and combinations of substances, in
gradients, and also for given emissivities terms of molecular motion, bulk motion
and surface properties in industrial
processes
P4 describe the difference between primary M4 give examples of primary and secondary D4 evaluate the use of primary and
and secondary cells. cells and describe their characteristics, secondary cells for portable applications.
merits and limitations, in industrial
applications.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit covers much of the foundation work relating to energy, energy changes and
transfer mechanisms to complement advanced scientific studies. The learners will
have been introduced to the concept of energy as part of Unit 1: Fundamentals of
Science. This unit aims to develop the quantitative aspects and qualitative
understanding.
Practical investigation will form the backbone of the delivery strategy. Learners
should carry out measurements and see effects for themselves, rather than passive
note-taking and bookwork. Learners are not expected to carry out a series of
standard practicals and should develop their own investigations. For example,
investigating the effectiveness of double glazing on reducing the rate at which
thermal energy is lost. It is important that all the work for this unit is related to
industrial applications of energy, highlighting differences in lab-based investigations
compared with industry. Consideration should be given to implications for industry,
eg high pressure requires thickened pipes.
During delivery of this unit, tutors should adopt the sequence in the content section.
This sequence starts by linking the concept of energy to physical work. Learners
should recognise that energy is the capacity to do work. All the common energy
labels, such as electrical energy, chemical energy and solar energy, are referring to
kinetic or potential energies. These are energies due to the motion or state of
physical objects. Two concrete examples of potential energy are indicated in the unit
content but tutors should make the learners aware of other forms of potential
energy. It would be valuable for learners to carry out a practical investigation of PE
to KE conversion (or KE to PE, or PE to PE, etc). This could be done on a simple level,
by finding the height reached by a projectile fired by a spring, for example.
It is important for learners to see that temperature is related to the internal energy
of a substance. It is not necessary for learners to do a detailed or quantitative study
of distributions of quanta in a hot solid. They should recognise that the kinetic energy
of the atoms or molecules is related to the temperature. Tutors should focus on how
industrial processes make use of this concept.
Learners should carry out simple experiments to measure the specific heat or latent
heat of a substance. The aim is for learners to experience techniques used to
measure physical quantities, rather than to learn a standard experimental technique.
Learners could, for example, use a data logger to record the temperature, at regular
intervals, of a container of crushed ice heated by an electric immersion heater. This
experiment allows the determination of values for specific heat capacity and latent
heat fusion of water. There is a very simple experiment for determining the latent
heat of vaporisation of water. Water is boiled with the kettle on a balance so that
change in mass can be noted. The power of the kettle is known, so the latent heat
can be calculated from the electrical energy transferred during the time it takes for
a measured mass loss. The industrial applications and implications must again be the
focus here.

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The treatment of thermal conductivity could be linked to insulation of buildings or

the effectiveness of double glazing. It is useful for the learners to see the heat flow
equation as ‘push = flow x resistance’. In this case the ‘push’ is indicated by the
temperature difference, the flow is the energy flow and the resistance is the inverse
of the conductance (note: conductance = conductivity area/length). Learners should
comment on the effects of surface layers and the industrial applications.
This is a good time to draw out the parallels in different flow systems, ie flow of
fluid, flow of charge and flow of heat. This point need not be laboured, but it is
useful for learners to draw parallels across different systems, as it will help their
understanding of science. Forced convection produces a faster cooling rate than
natural convection. Learners’ experience should tell them this. At this level, learners
should be aware of the five-fourths power law for cooling by natural convection and
the linear law for cooling in a steady draught. Quantitative questions requiring the
recall of those laws is not necessary. When dealing with thermal radiation, learners
should understand what is meant by a black body radiator, be able to complete
calculations using Stefan’s law and be able to explain the industrial applications and
implications.
The treatment of energy sources is restricted to those used to power portable
equipment. Learners need to understand the basic principles, so they should study
the simple cell, the leclanche dry cell and the lead-acid cell. They should consult
catalogues of cell suppliers and get to know the range of cell types currently
available. They should know how they differ from those studied in terms of energy
capacity, convenience, load performance, suitability for particular applications, etc.
Fuel cells are being developed as energy sources for vehicles and other devices.
Learners should know how fuel cells differ from conventional cells.
They should also investigate the energy per square metre delivered by sunlight, so
they understand the potential benefits and limitations of using solar panels to power
remote instrumentation.

Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
This unit requires learners to build up a portfolio of laboratory investigations, reports
and calculations. The majority of the pass criteria can be achieved through practical
activity.
For P1, learners must describe the fundamental concepts of energy, in the context of
industrial applications. They must be able to define each term, and know the
associated unit of measure, as listed in the unit content.
For P2, learners must investigate a gas law. Experiments are available interactively
on the web, but learners should perform at least one in a real laboratory. The
Charles’ law tube is a fairly inexpensive piece of equipment containing a small
amount of mercury. A risk assessment must be carried out.
For P3, learners must investigate conduction, convection and radiation. They could
do this through cooling experiments, and this would be a useful opportunity for
learners to use data loggers. Learners need to highlight and explain differences in
their investigations compared with those used in industry.

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For P4, learners must describe the characteristics of primary cells and secondary
cells and then highlight the differences between these two types of cells including
their uses.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
All calculations must be carried out correctly and the correct units must be used.
For M1, learners must do accurate calculations involving changes of state of
substances used in industrial process.
For M2, learners must perform calculations to determine the changes in pressure,
volume and temperature for gases used in industrial processes, as given by the tutor.
For M3, learners must calculate energy flow for given thermal conductivities and
temperature gradients, in an industrial application. They could involve the more
practical applications of thermal conductivity in the insulation of buildings, eg heat
energy lost through single and double glazed windows.
The data for industrial calculations that use Stephan’s law will need to be provided
by the tutor.
For M4, learners must describe the characteristics of primary and secondary cells
used for industrial applications. They must also comment on the merits and
limitations of the primary and secondary cells, and the implications of these for their
industrial applications.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1 and D2, learners must apply the principles, in the unit content, to at least one
industrial system.
For D3, learners must explain the heat transfer mechanisms in solids, liquids, gases
and combinations of substances. In doing so, they must describe molecular motion,
bulk motion and surface properties, and highlight the differences of each in solids,
liquids and gases. Learners must use examples contextualised to industrial processes.
For D4, learners must evaluate the use of primary and secondary cells for mobile
electronic units. They could compare two portable devices which use primary and
secondary cells, eg MP3 players, torches.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links with:

• Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
• Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques
• Unit 17: Electrical Circuits and their Industrial Applications
• Unit 25: Electronics for Science Technicians.

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Essential resources

Learners need access to appropriate laboratory facilities and ICT equipment. They
should also have access to a range of Level 2 and Level 3 physics books.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Breithaupt J — New Understanding Physics for Advanced Level: Core Book AND Course
Study Guide (New Understanding Physics) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 0748743162
Ellse M and Honeywill C — Electricity and Thermal Physics (Nelson Advanced Science:
Physics) (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2005) ISBN 074877663X
Johnson K et al — Advanced Physics for You (Nelson Thornes Ltd, 2000)
ISBN 074875296X
Milward et al — Revise AS Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Secondary Division, 2005) ISBN 043558345X
Milward et al — Revise A2 Physics for Salters Horners (Heinemann Educational
Secondary Division, 2006) ISBN 0435582089
Websites
http://physics.indiana.edu/~brabson/p310/ A sheet on selective surfaces
selectivesurfaces.html
www.ase.org.uk The Association for Science
Education
www.efunda.com/formulae/heat_transfer/ Efunda engineering fundamentals
home/overview.cfm
www.fuelcells.org The Online Fuel Cell Information
Resource
www.iop.org Institute of Physics
www.jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/Piston/index.html Ideal gas law experimental
instructions
www.mpoweruk.com/secondary.htm MPower

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using formulae to calculate N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
work done, power, specific stage calculations to do with:
heat capacity, specific latent a amounts or sizes
heat, thermal conductivity
and emissivities b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
• constructing cooling curves N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
for heat transfer and present your findings and justify your
generating conclusions from methods.
experimental results.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing factors affecting C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
rate of cooling
• presenting experimental data C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
from specific heat eight minutes using an image or other
investigations support material.
• reading journals and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
synthesising information least two documents about the same
about the ideal gas law subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• presenting an evaluation of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
the differences between heat each one giving different information
transfer mechanisms in about complex subjects.
solids, liquids, gases and One document must be at least 1000
combinations of substances, words long.
in terms of molecular motion
and surface properties.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information from ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
books and internet sources sources, and multiple search criteria in at
on methods of heat transfer least one case.
• displaying results in ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
appropriate format derive new information.
• producing PowerPoint ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentations on findings of text with image, text with number,
investigations. image with number.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning how assignment LP3.1 Set targets using information from
tasks will be achieved appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• demonstrating responsibility LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
in executing a work schedule using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
• reflecting on their LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
performance and areas for your achievements.
improvement.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• making hypotheses about PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
factors affecting rate of ways of tackling it.
cooling and planning
experiments to explore them
• undertaking an investigation PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
into mechanisms of heat solving the problem.
transfer
• evaluating whether the PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
results support the initial review your approach to problem solving.
hypothesis.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a group WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• discussing what is to be WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
achieved, setting objectives progress towards your agreed objectives.
and discussing progress at
intervals
• reflecting on what has been WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
achieved, problems of improving collaborative work in future.
experienced and strategies
for avoiding such problems in
the future.

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 UNIT 28: INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Unit 28: Industrial Applications of

Chemical Reactions
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The chemical industry produces a vast range of chemicals, from bulk chemicals such
as sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and ammonia to medicines and chemicals used in
the electronics industry. Whatever the product, it is important to produce it in the
most economic way. This can be achieved through an understanding of the factors
that control a chemical reaction. These are the focus of study in this unit.
Energy, usually in the form of heat, may need to be supplied to a chemical reaction,
or the reaction itself may release energy. Such energy changes have economic and
safety consequences, if not controlled. These energy changes and their implications
are studied in the first part of this unit.
It is important to consider how much product a reaction will produce — they seldom,
if ever, give 100% of the desired substance. Learners will then study how far a
chemical reaction goes and the factors that affect this. Not only do we need to
consider how much of a product a reaction gives and what the energy costs are, but
we need to know how quickly it can be produced — time is money. In the final part of
this unit learners will study chemical kinetics — how quickly reactions occur and the
factors affecting this.
During this unit learners will apply the principles studied to examples of industrial
processes.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the influence of enthalpy changes on industrial chemical reactions
2 Understand the principles of chemical equilibrium as applied to industrial
chemical reactions
3 Be able to apply the principles of acid-base and redox equilibrium to industrial
chemical reactions
4 Understand rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them.

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Unit content

1 Understand the influence of enthalpy changes on industrial chemical reactions

Enthalpy change: definition and units of enthalpy change; standard molar

enthalpy change of reaction; enthalpy change of formation, combustion,
atomisation and neutralisation; sign convention; exothermic and endothermic
reactions
Principle of conservation of energy: law of conservation of energy; Hess’s law
Experimental investigation: eg measurement of standard molar enthalpy change
for a reaction; calculation of standard molar enthalpy change for a reaction from
supplied data
Enthalpy changes in industrial processes: examples of enthalpy changes in
industrial processes; implications for process design and operating conditions

2 Understand the principles of chemical equilibrium as applied to industrial

chemical reactions

Principles of chemical equilibrium: eg reversible processes; equilibrium law, Kc;

effects of changes in concentration, pressure and temperature on equilibrium
position (Le Chatelier’s principle); effects of changes in concentration, pressure
and temperature on Kc; catalysts and equilibrium
Experimental investigation of chemical equilibrium: determination of Kc for a
reaction in aqueous solution
Chemical equilibrium in industrial processes: examples of industrial processes
involving chemical equilibria; use of pressure and temperature to drive equilibria;
reasons for operation under non-equilibrium conditions

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3 Be able to apply the principles of acid-base and redox equilibrium to industrial

chemical reactions

Proton transfer in aqueous solution: pH scale and definition of pH; sources of

H3O+ and OH- ions; Bronsted-Lowry definition of acids and bases, conjugate acids
and bases; dissociation of water, Kw and pKw; calculation of pH of strong acid and
base solutions; acid/base strength, Ka, pKa; calculation of pH from Ka; acid-base
indicators; pH titration curves; choice of indicator; buffer mixtures; calculation of
pH of buffer mixtures
Electron transfer processes: definitions of oxidation and reduction; equilibrium
nature of electron transfer, oxidising and reducing agents; half-cell (electrode)
reactions; standard electrode potentials, Eo; standard hydrogen electrode,
standard conditions; electrochemical cells, cell reactions and calculation of cell
emf; relative strengths of oxidising and reducing agents from Eo values;
electrolysis
Experimental investigations: eg measurement of pH; relationship of pH to
concentration; pH titrations; determination of Ka and pKa of a weak acid; redox
titrations; measurement of cell emf
Industrial applications of proton and electron transfer: pH control in processes
and products; extraction of metals from ores; chlor-alkali industry (electrolysis of
brine); corrosion control

4 Understand rates of chemical reactions and the factors that influence them

Rate of reaction: definition of reaction rate; effect of concentration and

temperature on rate; rate equations; order of reaction; rate constants; units of
rate constant; measurement of rate; method of initial rates and its use to
determine reaction order and rate constant; activation energy; Arrhenius
equation; definition of catalyst; influence of catalysts on rate; modes of action of
catalysts
Experimental investigations: measurement of rate and rate constant for a first
order reaction; determination of order of reaction and rate equations from
experimental data
Reaction rate in industrial processes: continuous and batch processes; process
design to maximise rate; examples of industrial catalysis

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 state definitions for standard enthalpy M1 calculate from given data standard molar D1 predict the direction of redox reactions
change, equilibrium process, pH, enthalpy change for reactions, the pH of from given standard electrode potential
standard electrode potential, rate of strong acid and base solutions, the values and assess, with examples, the
reaction, order of reaction and hydrogen ion concentration of solutions limitations of their industrial use for
activation energy and relate these to of given pH and the emf of cells and such predictions
industrial applications explain the industrial applications
P2 predict the effects of concentration, M2 calculate from given data the value of Kc D2 evaluate the effects of the conditions
pressure, temperature and use of a for reactions, explain how its value chosen for two industrial processes
catalyst on the position of equilibria and varies with temperature and explain the
relate these to industrial applications industrial applications
P3 identify acids and bases and their M3 experimentally determine pH titration D3 explain the mode of action of buffer
conjugate acids and bases and relate curves and devise how to use them to mixtures and explain their industrial use
these to industrial applications determine Ka for a weak acid and in a chosen group of products
explain the industrial applications
P4 measure the molar enthalpy change for a M4 explain the use of equilibrium principles D4 evaluate the reasons for the use of non-
reaction, determine molar in the control or prevention of corrosion. equilibrium conditions in two industrial
concentrations in acid-base and redox processes.
titrations, determine the order of a
reaction and relate these to industrial
applications.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered using a wide variety of learning situations, including
lectures, discussions, presentations, data interpretation and calculation exercises as
well as laboratory practical work and research using the internet and/or other library
resources. Throughout the delivery of this unit it is important that industrial
applications are stressed, and these could be reinforced with visits to local chemical
plants. Where this is not possible, video clips of important industrial processes could
be used. The delivery should motivate and stimulate the learners.
Learning outcome 1 may be delivered through formal lectures, discussions, laboratory
practicals and calculations involving Hess’s law. The measurement of standard molar
enthalpy change for a reaction could be for a displacement, neutralisation or
combustion reaction. The industrial importance of temperature control, the
economics of heat exchange and their influence on process and plant design should
be covered in relation to specific examples, eg Haber process, or contact process.
Learning outcomes 2 and 3 both relate to aspects of equilibrium. They may be
delivered through formal lectures, discussions, presentations, laboratory practicals,
data interpretation and calculation exercises. Learners should determine Kc for a
reaction. Ester formation or hydrolysis could be used, and learners should experience
redox titrations such as manganate(VII)/Fe2+, manganate(VII)/ethanedioate(oxalate),
and iodine/thiosulphate. Several interactive programs illustrate the effects of
changing conditions on the equilibrium position, and these would be useful to
learners. Learners should be encouraged to research the industrial importance of
chemical, acid-base and redox equilibria in specific industrial processes, such as the
Haber process, contact process, oxidation of ammonia, use of buffers in biochemical
processes, stabilisers in food and pharmaceutical products.
Learning outcome 4 can be delivered mainly through laboratory practical work and
data interpretation exercises. Learners should carry out a practical investigation of
the kinetics of a first order reaction, eg bromine and methanoic acid under pseudo
first order conditions. The influences of temperature and catalysts on reaction rates
should be emphasised. Learners should explore the economics of the choice of
conditions for an industrial process such as the Haber process, contact process, or
nitric acid manufacture. At this stage learners should bring together aspects of each
learning outcome to appreciate that compromise of choice of conditions between
those giving high equilibrium yield and those giving rapid rate of formation is often
necessary for maximum economic benefit.

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Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
Where a criterion requires calculation of a quantity, the learners’ evidence must
clearly show the steps of the calculation accurately and with correct use of units.
For P1, learners must be able to state correctly a number of given key definitions
used throughout the unit. This could be assessed through the use of a carefully
constructed matching exercise with suitable distractors. Learners must get all
answers correct. They must be able to relate these measurements and processes to
industrial applications.
For P2, learners must correctly predict the effects of pressure, concentration and
temperature change, and the use of catalysts, on the position of chemical equilibria.
This must be approached with reference to Le Chatelier’s principle, the equilibrium
law and activation energies, and relate to how these are applied in industry.
For P3, learners must identify acids, bases, and their conjugates in acid/base
equilibria. Tutors can use a selection of acid/base equilibria equations, some of
which should be unfamiliar to the learners, and ask the learners to identify the
acid/base conjugate pairs. Learners must relate their knowledge to industrial
applications.
For P4, learners must correctly and safely carry out a number of stated key
laboratory practicals. Practical reports and laboratory observations should be used as
evidence for this criterion, with a section relating these procedures to those used in
industry.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.
For M1, learners must demonstrate that they can calculate correctly a number of
stated quantities from given data. The examples and data chosen should require
more than trivial calculations. For instance, learners should be asked to calculate the
pH of a 0.023 mol.dm-3 solution of a strong acid rather than a 1x10-2mol.dm-3
solution.
For M2, learners must calculate the value of the equilibrium constant, Kc, for a
reaction from given data. The data given should require learners to calculate
equilibrium concentrations of all the reactants from the stoichiometric equation for
the reaction, the initial concentrations of reactants and the concentration of one
substance at equilibrium. From given data on the enthalpy change of the reaction,
learners must explain how the value of Kc varies with temperature change. This
explanation must consider the energies involved in bond making and breaking
processes in the reaction, how the increased availability of heat energy affects the
equilibrium position and then how this affects Kc.
For M3, learners need to carry out pH titrations for a strong acid/strong base, strong
acid/weak base, weak acid/strong base, and weak acid/weak base. Learners then
need to devise how to obtain the Ka value of the weak acid from these data. The
evidence presented by learners should be in the form of a laboratory practical
report.

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For M4, learners must explain how the principles of redox equilibrium are used to
prevent or control corrosion. Learners must consider coatings, sacrificial anodes and
the impressed current methods. Explanations should include the use of emf and Eo
values for specific examples, where appropriate.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1, learners must predict the direction of a redox reaction using given Eo values.
Learners are required to do this for a number of unfamiliar examples. Learners are
also required to explain why the redox reaction predicted using Eo values may not
actually occur. This needs to be illustrated with specific examples.
For D2, learners must evaluate the chosen conditions for industrial processes. The
influences of the temperatures, pressures and concentrations used on the product
yield in a variety of industrial processes must be considered and suggestions made on
how, in theory, these yields might be improved.
For D3, learners need to explain the mode of action of buffer mixtures and their use
in a group of products. Here learners must explain how a buffer mixture can have
small amounts of strong acid or base added to it and yet maintain an approximately
constant pH. The capacity of a buffer mixture must be mentioned. Learners must
research a group of products that incorporate a buffer, and explain the reasons for
its incorporation.
For D4, learners must evaluate the reasons for the use of non-equilibrium conditions
in industrial processes. This should be approached in terms of the economics of the
process and should consider rate of reaction, cost of plant, recycling of reactants,
energy requirements and energy recovery.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The learning outcomes in this unit are linked with:

• Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians
• Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques.
This unit develops some of the topics encountered in Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
and together with:
• Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications
• Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry
provides a coherent study of chemistry at this level.

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Laboratory investigations used in this unit could be chosen to also fulfil learning
outcomes for the industrial applications of:
• Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications
• Unit 28: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry.
Laboratory investigations may be designed to provide evidence for:
• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques.
The mathematical content relates to Unit 8: Statistics for Science Technicians.

Essential resources

Learners should have access to laboratory facilities equipped with pH meters,

colorimeters and potentiometers. Learners will need library facilities, including
internet access, and audio-visual facilities for viewing video clips.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Freemantle M H — Chemistry in Action (Thomson Learning, 1995) ISBN 1861527128
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science)
(Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide
(Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X
Lewis R and Evans W — Chemistry, 3rd Edition (Palgrave Macmillan, 2006)
ISBN 0230000118
Ramsden E N — A-level Chemistry: AND Answers Key (Nelson Thornes, 2004)
ISBN 074875301X
Journals
Education in Chemistry
Royal Society of Chemistry
Magazine
Allan P — Chemistry Review, eg:
• Vol 6(4), March 1997 — Energy issues in industrial chemistry
• Vol 6(5), May 1997 — Cost issues in industrial chemistry.
Video
Industrial Chemistry for Schools and Colleges (The Royal Society of Chemistry)

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Other publications
Controlling Chemical Reactions — A Case Study (The Chemical Industry Education
Centre, University of York)
Cash and Chemicals (The Chemical Industry Education Centre, University of York)
Industrial Chemical Case Studies (The Royal Society of Chemistry)
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/science BBC
www.chemdex.org The Sheffield Chemdex
www.cia.org.uk Chemical Industries Association
www.psigate.ac.uk Physical Sciences Information Gateway
www.rsc.org Royal Society of Chemistry

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation. information from relevant sources.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• considering the optimum C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
conditions for a given
industrial process
• describing a given industrial C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
process eight minutes using an image or other
support material.
• researching a given industrial C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
process least two documents about the same
subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• presenting a report of a C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
laboratory investigation and each one giving different information
presenting a report on an about complex subjects.
industrial process. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching a given industrial ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
process sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• investigating a given ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
industrial process derive new information.
• reporting on a given ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
industrial process. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigation appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• carrying out a practical LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
• reporting on a practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation. your achievements.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• devising an experiment to PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
determine Ka for a weak acid ways of tackling it.
from pH titration curves
• performing an experiment to PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
determine Ka for a weak acid solving the problem.
from pH titration curves
• checking results obtained PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
with given data. review your approach to problem solving.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation on molar
enthalpy change for a
reaction
• carrying out a practical WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
investigation on molar progress towards your agreed objectives.
enthalpy change for a
reaction
• reporting on a practical WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
investigation on molar of improving collaborative work in future.
enthalpy change for a
reaction.

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Unit 29: Industrial Applications of

Organic Chemistry
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The majority of the substances we use every day are, or contain, organic compounds.
Pharmaceuticals such as aspirin and paracetamol, synthetic fibres for our clothes
such as nylon and polyesters, fuels for our transport vehicles, soaps and detergents,
dyes, flavourings, perfumes and liquid crystal display materials are just a few of the
many organic substances that are manufactured on an industrial scale for us all to
use.
In this unit, learners will develop knowledge of the key classes of organic compounds
that are industrially important and their chemistry which makes them useful to us.
The number of known organic compounds is enormous and growing. This is because
carbon, the basis of organic compounds, can form molecules consisting of chains and
rings of atoms that enable it to bond with itself and other elements. The classes of
organic compounds, their naming and their ability to form different arrangements of
the same atoms (isomerism) are studied in the first part of this unit.
The simplest of all organic compounds are the hydrocarbons. Learners will study
these and their industrially useful reactions. Learners will then look at five
commercially important groups of organic compounds. This study will include their
properties, reactions and how they can be converted into one another. This latter
aspect allows the synthesis of organic compounds with particular structures, fitting
them for specific commercial uses.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the bonding, shape, nomenclature and reaction types of organic compounds
2 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of saturated and unsaturated
hydrocarbons and how these relate to bonding and structure
3 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of halogenoalkanes, amines
and alcohols and how these relate to bonding and structure
4 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of carbonyl compounds and
how these relate to bonding and structure.

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Unit content

1 Know the bonding, shape, nomenclature and reaction types of organic

compounds

Structure representations and bonding: linear; structural; displayed and skeletal

formulae; 3D representations using wedge/dashed line diagrams; eg sigma and pi-
bonding in alkanes and alkenes and their relative strengths; delocalised pi-
bonding in benzene; primary, secondary and tertiary groups
Nomenclature: systematic naming of structural isomers of alkanes (saturated),
alkenes (unsaturated), substituted benzenes, halogenoalkanes, amines, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, acid chlorides, esters and amides; e-z (cis-
/trans-) nomenclature of geometric isomers; (+), (-) nomenclature of optical
isomers
Isomerism: structural isomers; geometric e-z (cis-/trans-); isomers of alkenes;
optical isomers; enantiomers; optical rotation; racemic mixtures; importance of
molecular shape in commercial products
Reaction types: substitution; addition; elimination; addition-elimination
(condensation) oxidation; reduction

2 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of saturated and

unsaturated hydrocarbons and how these relate to bonding and structure

Alkanes: crude oil as the source of hydrocarbons; combustion of alkanes; radical

substitution (chlorination) of methane; mechanism of radical substitution;
commercial uses
Alkenes: electrophiles; electrophilic addition (H2O, HBr, Br2) to symmetrical
alkenes; direction of addition to asymmetric alkenes; stabilities of intermediate
carbocations; polymerisation; commercial uses
Aromatic compounds: electrophilic substitution (nitration only) of benzene;
commercial uses

3 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of halogenoalkanes,

amines and alcohols and how these relate to bonding and structure

Halogenoalkanes: nucleophiles; nucleophilic substitution (OH—, NH3, primary

amines) of halogenoalkanes; mechanism of nucleophilic substitution limited to
simple SN2 mechanism; elimination reactions; substitution versus elimination;
commercial uses
Amines: aromatic amines from reduction of nitro compounds; amines as bases;
formation of salts; amines as nucleophiles; commercial uses
Alcohols: oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols; dehydration to
give alkenes and ethers; commercial uses

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4 Understand the reactions and industrial applications of carbonyl compounds

and how these relate to bonding and structure

Aldehydes and ketones: nucleophilic addition (HCN) and addition-elimination (2,4-

dinitrophenylhydrazine) in aldehydes and ketones; oxidation of aldehydes;
reduction of aldehydes and ketones (NaBH4, LiAlH4); commercial uses
Sugars: aldehyde and ketone sugars (glucose and fructose); open chain and ring
forms of sugars; reducing and non-reducing sugars; disaccharides (sucrose) and
polysaccharides (starches and cellulose); commercial uses
Carboxylic acids and derivatives: structures of carboxylic acids, amides, acid
chlorides and esters; esterification of carboxylic acids and acid chlorides;
reduction of carboxylic acids and esters; formation of amides from carboxylic
acids and acid chlorides; structure of amino acids; formation of proteins;
commercial uses

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 name and draw appropriate M1 explain how reactions and conditions D1 evaluate the commercial importance of
representations to correctly show the may influence the molecular structure being able to change the reaction
shape of organic compounds, identifying and shape of the products conditions
the type of isomerism and possible
involvement in types of reaction as listed
in the content
P2 describe the bonding in simple M2 explain the influence of bonding on the D2 evaluate the influence of structure and
compounds in terms of sigma and pi conditions and type of selected organic bonding on the course of selected
bonding reactions organic reactions
P3 write balanced chemical equations and M3 predict the products of selected D3 write and justify the reaction
give reaction conditions for the selected industrial organic reactions mechanisms for selected industrial
industrial organic reactions listed in the organic reactions from given evidence
content
P4 describe the commercial uses and M4 evaluate the influence of molecular D4 evaluate the need to separate isomers of
reactions of the classes of organic shape on the commercial uses of organic compounds before their use.
compounds listed in the content. selected organic compounds.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit offers many opportunities to approach delivery of the content through
individual and group practical work, practical demonstrations and should be
supported by lectures, discussions, presentations and research using the internet
and/or library resources.
Throughout the delivery of the unit, industrial applications and importance should be
stressed. These could be reinforced with visits to local organic or pharmaceutical
chemical plants. Where this is not possible, video clips of organic industrial processes
could be used. The delivery should educate, stimulate and motivate learners. All
learning outcomes should start with applications and lead to the chemistry through
explanation of processes.
Learning outcome 1 provides the essential foundations for the study of industrial
organic chemical reactions. Learners should use models to help them understand
structure and isomerism. Learners should be encouraged to draw diagrams of
structures and take digital photographs of models to record molecular shapes. They
could use a simple molecular modelling package such as ACD ChemSketch.
Learners could use the internet to search for information on how molecular shape
affects the use of compounds. This could include the ease of biodegradation of linear
and branched chain alkylbenzene sulphonate detergents, the effect of shape on
flavour and fragrance (eg (+) and (-)-carvone and (+) and (-)-limonene), the effect of
shape on physiological activity (eg (+) and (-)-adrenaline, thalidomide) and the
importance of e-z (cis- and trans-) retinal in the process of vision.
Learning outcome 2 applies the principles of bonding and structure to the chemistry
of the hydrocarbons. Many of the reactions of the hydrocarbons can be experienced
by learners as test tube reactions. Thus, radical substitution of an alkane can be
performed using bromine solution and a liquid alkane such as hexane, initiating the
reaction with a bright light. Electrophilic addition to alkenes can be performed using
bromine solution and a liquid alkene, eg hex-1-ene; phenylethene can be polymerised
using benzoylperoxide as the initiator (a reaction used in some plastic wood fillers).
The nitration of benzene must not be carried out in the laboratory for safety reasons,
but the nitration of methylbenzene or methyl benzoate can be used to illustrate the
reaction.
Learners could investigate the influence of molecular shape of alkanes on their
octane rating in fuels, the environmental effects of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), the
production of addition polymers, the production of ethanol and ethanoic acid via the
hydration of ethane, and the production and uses of nitro-aromatic compounds as
explosives.

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Learning outcomes 3 and 4 cover the reactions and industrial applications of the
major classes of functional group compounds. Test tube reactions can be used to
illustrate the relative ease of nucleophilic substitution of chloro-, bromo-, and
iodoalkanes (using dilute silver nitrate solution) leading to discussion of the SN2
mechanism. Test tube reactions can also be used to show the reaction of amines as
bases (dissolution in dilute hydrochloric acid; solid salt formation with concentrated
hydrochloric acid), the oxidation of alcohols (with warm acidified potassium
dichromate solution), 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazone formation of aldehydes and
ketones, oxidation of aldehydes (Tollens’s and Fehling’s tests), investigating reducing
sugars, and the formation of esters.
Learners could prepare 1-bromobutane from butan-1-ol, reduce benzophenone
(diphenylmethanone) with sodium borohydride, prepare an azo dye and use it to dye
cotton cloth, prepare aspirin and/or paracetamol, and make a sample of soap by
alkaline hydrolysis of olive oil. The reactivity of acid chlorides and the preparation of
nylon (nylon rope trick) could be demonstrated. Laboratory preparations and
processes should be compared with their industrial equivalents.
Industrial applications of these functional group compounds could include aromatic
amines as starting materials of dyes, alcohols as starting material for esters and as
solvents, nylon production, paracetamol, aspirin and novocaine synthesis, soap
manufacture, and cellulose acetate production.

Assessment

All the pass grade criteria must be met in order for a learner to achieve this unit.
For P1, learners must be able to name organic compounds using IUPAC systematic
nomenclature. They must also be able to draw linear, structural and skeletal
formulae for organic compounds, showing structures in three-dimensional
representations where appropriate. These should be used to show and identify
structural, geometric and optical isomerism in compounds.
For P2, learners must be able to describe sigma and pi-bonding in simple organic
compounds. This is best achieved through the drawing of clear diagrams of the sigma
and pi molecular orbitals resulting from the overlapping of appropriate atomic
orbitals. The directional characteristics of these bonds should be shown.
For P3, learners must demonstrate the ability to write balanced equations for each of
the reactions given in the unit content, and quote typical reaction conditions for
them. In redox reactions, learners are not expected to show the oxidising or reducing
agent in the balanced equation. Instead, [O] and [H] can be used with the necessary
stoichiometry for a balanced equation.
For P4, learners must describe the commercial uses and reactions of each of the
given classes of organic compounds (hydrocarbons, halogenoalkanes, amines, alcohols
and carbonyl compounds). Learners can research the information using the internet
and/or other library resources.
For a merit grade, all the pass grade criteria and all the merit grade criteria must be
met.

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For M1, learners must explain how reactions and conditions might affect the
structure and shape of the products. This must include the direction of addition to
asymmetric alkenes, substitution versus elimination in halogenoalkanes, dehydration
of alcohols and nucleophilic addition to carbonyl compounds. Learners should be able
to do this with familiar and unfamiliar substances.
For M2, learners must explain how the bonding in an organic molecule affects the
reaction conditions and reaction type. Learners must be able to explain that where
molecules contain only unpolarised sigma bonds, the reactions will require high
energy conditions and will involve radical substitution. They should explain how
molecules containing simple pi-bonds will undergo addition reactions under low
energy conditions, while the stability of the benzene ring will favour electrophilic
substitution but will require more vigorous conditions and/or a catalyst; molecules
containing polarised sigma bonds will generally favour nucleophilic substitution under
fairly mild conditions, or elimination under harsher conditions.
For M3, learners must be able to predict the products of reactions where both
familiar and unfamiliar substances are involved. The object is for learners to
demonstrate an understanding of the reactions rather than to reproduce examples
they have already encountered. This should include prediction of major and minor
products in additions to asymmetric alkenes, oxidation products of alcohols and
aldehydes, reduction products of carbonyl compounds, and whether substitution or
elimination is favoured under given conditions in the reactions of halogenoalkanes
and alcohols.
For M4, learners must evaluate the influence of molecular shape on the commercial
uses of compounds. This may be a research task using the internet and/or other
library resources. Evidence produced should include the influences of structural
isomerism (linear and branched), geometric, and optical isomerism, each illustrated
with appropriate specific examples.
For a distinction grade, all the pass, merit and distinction grade criteria must be
met.
For D1, learners must evaluate the reaction conditions that produce different isomers
for a given molecular formula. Examples chosen should include the possibility of
structural, geometric and optical isomerism but these need not all be possible for
one given molecular formula. Learners must evaluate the commercial importance of
being able to produce different isomers.
For D2, learners must evaluate the influence of structure and bonding on the course
of reactions. They must explain why alkenes undergo electrophilic addition whereas
benzene undergoes electrophilic substitution, why alkanes undergo radical reactions,
relative reactivities of halogenoalkanes towards nucleophilic substitution and relative
reactivities of carboxylic acids and acid chlorides towards esterification.
For D3, learners must write and justify appropriate mechanisms for reactions given
the reaction conditions. These must include radical substitution of alkanes,
electrophilic substitution of an arene, electrophilic addition to an alkene,
nucleophilic substitution of a halogenoalkane (SN2 mechanism only), dehydration of
alcohols and nucleophilic addition to carbonyl compounds. Learners must
demonstrate that they can write correct mechanisms for these reactions with
unfamiliar substances.

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For D4, learners must evaluate the need to separate isomers of organic compounds
before they are used. In doing this, learners must consider how the isomers may be
separated and the costs involved. This must be related to the need for a single
isomer product or whether the presence of more than one isomer will significantly
affect the performance of the product. Examples of these may be found in the
perfumery, flavourings and pharmaceutical industries.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The learning outcomes associated with this unit are linked with:
• Unit 1: Fundamentals of Science
• Unit 3: Scientific Investigation
• Unit 4: Scientific Practical Techniques
• Unit 7: Mathematics for Science Technicians
• Unit 19: Practical Chemical Analysis
• Unit 22: Chemical Laboratory Techniques
• Unit 27: Chemical Periodicity and its Applications.
This unit may be useful to learners taking:
• Unit 13: Biochemical Techniques
• Unit 16: Chemistry for Biology Technicians
• Unit 21: Biomedical Science Techniques.

Essential resources

Learners should have access to laboratory facilities fitted with fume cupboards. They
will also need library facilities including internet access, and audio-visual facilities
for viewing video clips.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Fullick A and Fullick P — Chemistry: Evaluation Pack (Heinemann Advanced Science)
(Heinemann Educational Secondary Division, 2000) ISBN 043557096X
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0174481918
Hill G and Holman J — Chemistry in Context: Laboratory Manual and Student Guide
(Nelson Thornes, 2001) ISBN 0174483074
Lewis E and Berry M — AS and A Level Chemistry (Longman, 2000) ISBN 058233733X
Journals
Education in Chemistry
Royal Society of Chemistry

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Magazines
Chemistry World
Royal Society of Chemistry
Websites
www.bbc.co.uk/science BBC
www.cia.org.uk Chemical Industries Association
www.psigate.ac.uk Physical Sciences Information Gateway
www.rsc.org Royal Society of Chemistry

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
investigation. information from relevant sources.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• considering the effect of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
molecular shape on uses
• presenting the commercial C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
uses of a given class of eight minutes using an image or other
organic compounds support material.
• researching the commercial C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
uses of a given class of least two documents about the same
organic compounds subject.
Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• producing a laboratory report C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
on the preparation of an each one giving different information
organic compound about complex subjects.
• producing a report on the One document must be at least 1000
commercial uses of a given words long.
class of organic compounds.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching the influence of ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
molecular shape on uses sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• using a molecular modelling ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
package to obtain molecular derive new information.
shape
• reporting on the influence of ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
molecular shape on uses, text with image, text with number,
including images of image with number.
molecular shapes.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a practical LP3.1 Set targets using information from
investigation appropriate people and plan how these
will be met.
• carrying out a practical LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
investigation using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
• reporting on a practical LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
investigation. your achievements.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• constructing models of e-z PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
isomers to visualise the ways of tackling it.
difference in structure
• naming and drawing PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
structures of an organic solving the problem.
compound
• checking the structures of PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
e-z isomers. review your approach to problem solving.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning a group practical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
investigation
• carrying out a group practical WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
investigation and progress towards your agreed objectives.
communicating progress to
each other
• evaluating the effectiveness WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
of their group work in of improving collaborative work in future.
conducting a practical
investigation, and identifying
areas of improvement.

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Unit 30: Basic Polymer Technology

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided earning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit introduces learners to the terminology, materials and processes associated
with the polymer industry. This unit is intended for learners who may be commencing
a career in polymers or have little knowledge of the industry. Topics covered are
relevant to both the plastics and rubber sectors of the industry.
This unit presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3 in application of
number and communication.
This unit will provide underpinning knowledge for Polymer Processing and Related
Operations NVQ at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Classify polymers using correct terminology
2 Explore the modification of polymer properties by the addition of various
additives
3 Investigate and describe processing methods by which polymers can be processed
into products
4 Investigate and describe the testing of materials to determine the physical
properties of polymers.

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Unit content

1 Classify

Basic terminology and definitions: polymer, monomer, polymerisation, elasticity,

plasticity
Classification of polymers: thermoplastic, thermoset and elastomer
Examples of polymers: standard abbreviation in each classification

2 Modification of polymer properties

Basic properties of polymers: basic molecular chain structure

Modification of polymers: strength, stiffness, service life and costs
Function of additives: fillers, plasticisers, cross-linking agents, impact modifies,
antioxidants, stabilisers, blowing agents, examples of each type of additive
Calculations: mix densities, material costs

3 Processing methods

Construction and operation of processing equipment: two roll mill, internal

mixers, extruders, calenders, presses, injection moulding machines,
thermoforming, blow moulding

4 Testing of materials

National and international standards for materials testing: BS, ISO, ASTM and DIN
Standard testing procedures: tensile strength, hardness, impact strength, density,
melt flow, state of cure

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• classify polymers using correct terminology • explain the classification of polymers with • evaluate the classification of polymers
reference to general molecular structures using examples of actual polymeric
materials
• explore the modification of polymer • explain the effect of various additives on • evaluate the effect of a range of additives
properties by the addition of various polymer properties on polymer properties with reference to
additives their effect on molecular structure and
how this can also determine the effect of
additives on product costs
• investigate and describe processing • explain the operation of polymer • justify the process selected for the
methods by which polymers can be processing equipment production of polymer products
processed into products
• investigate and describe the testing of • explain the reasons for standardisation of • compare and contrast the results obtained
materials to determine the physical testing procedures and outline the test from standard laboratory tests with the
properties of polymers. procedure for various tests. characteristics of a product in service.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The fundamental concepts in this unit should be introduced through a programme of

tuition, guided learning, practical work in the laboratory and problem solving.
Learners should build on the concepts that learners have learnt in Key Stage 4 or
have studied the Intermediate GNVQ in Science or the BTEC First Diploma in Applied
Science.
Any opportunity to gather information from industry-based learners or from visits to
industry should be taken to help relate fundamental concepts to applications in
relevant industries. This will contextualise the knowledge and understanding to the
appropriate vocational routes.
Today’s polymer laboratories are becoming increasingly dependent on computer-
based measurement and opportunities to gather data in this way should be taken.
The polymer technician has to have some familiarity with the basic terminology and
principles associated with those measurement systems and their communications
with computers.

Assessment

Each learner must write plans and reports of their investigatory work and related
interpretative exercises. During report writing the copying of information directly
from centre-supplied handouts or from recommended texts is to be actively
discouraged.
All investigations to solve problems should have acceptable tolerances. To achieve
the criteria for the pass grade, learners must be familiar with polymer-related
terminology and be able to classify polymers. They must be able to describe how
polymers are modified by various additives, the processing methods used and the
testing of materials to determine the physical properties of polymers.
The merit criteria require learners to be able to give an explanation of what they
have described for a pass grade: relating the classification of polymers to general
molecular structures; the effect of additives on polymer properties; the operation of
the processing equipment and reasons for standardisation of testing procedures.
The distinction criteria require learners to evaluate techniques and processes used in
the polymer industry and to investigate standard laboratory test results with products
in service.

Links

This unit has links with the following units: Unit 1: Introductory Science for Polymer
Technicians, Unit 9: Polymer Science, Unit 21: Polymer Practical Techniques and Unit
22: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry.

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This unit has links with the other polymer units and the sector specific specialist
units. This unit presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3 in
communication and application of number.
This unit will provide underpinning knowledge for Polymer Processing and Related
Operations NVQ at Level 3.
This unit also presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources and a range of general NQF Level 3 chemistry and
physics books. Learners will need access to specialist resources to cover the
contextualistion of the underlying concepts to their polymer specialism eg plastics,
rubber or related areas.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating the mix densities N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
and material costs with:
a amounts and sizes
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions from the mix present your findings and justify your
density and material costs methods.
calculations. You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing what would be the C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
properties of a polymer with complex subject.
the addition of certain
additives
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
a polymer subject, using at least one image to
illustrate complex points.
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
develop familiarity with two extended documents about a
terminology, definitions, complex subject.
processing and testing of One of these documents should include at
polymers least one image.
• producing a poster about C3.3 Write two different types of documents
polymers. about complex subjects.
One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

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Unit 31: ICT and MIS in the Polymer

Industry
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The role of the technician and scientist has changed dramatically since the
introduction of the personal computer to industry, research and service sciences. The
computer is being used, for example, with monitoring and control of automated
production, molecular modelling, data-logging and analysis with scientific
instruments and the use of information communication technology and management
information software.
This unit provides an understanding and knowledge of the use of information
communication technology and management information software in laboratories,
preparations rooms, workshops or in the field (eg in industry, research, education,
service sciences). Through investigations, case studies and simulations within a
scientific industrial or service context, learners will be able to explore the specified
applications of information communication technology and laboratory management
software.
The information or data used in this unit can be from a primary source obtained from
a practical investigation within the laboratory, preparation room or workshop, or
secondary data obtained from sources such as CD ROM, email, the internet or other
published material.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards key skills in application
of number, information technology, communication, improving own learning and
performance, working with others and problem solving at Level 3.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQ in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

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Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Identify and describe the various uses of information communication technology
and laboratory management software within a polymer context
2 Retrieve, input and store electronic information for a polymer-related
applications
3 Process and evaluate information or data for polymer-related applications using
computers
4 Use software to present information or data for polymer-related applications
using text, diagrams, charts, tables and/or graphs.

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Unit content

1 Uses of information communication technology and laboratory management

software

Range of scientific computer applications: eg research, development,

manufacture, quality control
Monitoring: process monitoring, analytical services monitoring, scientific
recording, simulation, experimental and production; automation control
ICT and laboratory management: COSHH records, scientific data, scientific
reports, publications, scientific apparatus records, work schedules, laboratory
outcomes, objectives, laboratory accounts, CD ROM records, schedules and
records of work, inventories, stock lists, capital items, waste-disposal records,
internet information retrieval, health and safety audit check records, use of
email

2 Retrieve, input and store electronic information

Sources of information: paper-based publications, primary information from

practical investigations, CD ROMs, use of search engines, internet, intranet,
simulations, case studies, secondary data, information from industry, services,
professional bodies
Types of information: scientific images and models, text, numerical data,
graphical data, tabular
Software packages: scientific data/information software, word processing,
spreadsheet, information systems software, FED software

3 Process and evaluate information or data

Processing methods: format and edit information and graphics, use of basic
formulae (sum, subtract, multiply, divide, average) display in graphical form,
sort, add and delete records from an information systems package, use of
templates

4 Present information or data

Types of presentations: scientific reports, accounts, articles, stock lists,

inventories, tables, assignments, action plans
Format of presentations: layout, document structure and use of graphs, tables,
charts, images, text and their integration

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• identify and describe the various uses of • demonstrate and explain the use of • evaluate the usefulness of computers in
information communication technology computers in relevant polymer relevant scientific applications and
and laboratory management software applications and laboratory management laboratory management information
within the polymer science context information systems systems
• retrieve, input and store electronic • synthesise and develop information to • evaluate the information to meet the
information for scientific applications meet the outcomes of a set task outcomes of a set task
• process and evaluate information or data • input information into relevant software • explain the application of a variety of
for scientific applications using computers packages demonstrate good editing software packages and evaluate their
formatting techniques and calculation performance
manipulation using and graphics and
templates
• use software to present information or • evaluate available software for a variety • evaluate your presentation, given the
data for scientific applications using text, of data analysis and presentation formats. software available on the market.
diagrams, charts, tables and/or graphs.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The emphasis of this unit is in using ICT as a tool for applications within the polymer
industry. The delivery of the unit can focus on the technician and their use of ICT in
laboratory management, or similar context.
The unit can be delivered through investigative assignments and can use primary or
secondary data. Case studies and simulations can also be used.
Some of the specialist scientific software can be demonstrated or visits can be made
to local industry or higher education establishments. Demonstration copies could also
be obtained to demonstrate scientific computer applications.
Science and technology professional body websites are also useful sources of
information and data.
The delivery of this unit should be practically-based, where the learners will improve
their ICT skills in a scientific context.
The unit can be integrated with the delivery of other practically-based units in this
programme.

Assessment

The evidence should be, where possible, generated from within the learners’
coursework. Alternatively laboratory/class-based assignments could be used and
contextualised to polymer applications.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must make use of computers in scientific
applications and ICT in laboratory management. Learners must acquire skills in the
use of relevant software packages. It is expected that learners will consult their
tutor(s) in selecting the appropriate material for inclusion in their work. Learners
must present their work in an appropriate manner through a structured format.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must demonstrate a more independent approach
in completing assignments. A good understanding of the use of computers in scientific
applications and laboratory management is required. Learners will have developed
competent skills and accuracy when using relevant software packages.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners must adopt an independent approach to
collate a range of evidence in order to complete assignments. Learners will fully
understand the use of computers in a range of scientific applications and laboratory
management. This will be reflected in the high standard of skills achieved when using
relevant software packages. Learners will show an independent approach to
presenting their work in a coherent and appropriate format using language in a fluent
manner.

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Links

This unit has specific links with Unit 4: Data Analysis, Unit 8: Polymer Technology
Investigations and other units in the programme with an investigatory approach.
This unit offers substantial opportunities to gather evidence towards the key skill
Level 3 in information technology. This unit is contextualised and focuses on the
polymer technician and the use of ICT in a laboratory environment. It also offers
opportunities to gather evidence towards key skills Level 3 in application of number,
communication, information technology, improving own learning and performance,
working with others and problem solving.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQ in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.
This unit also has links with Unit 6: Carrying out Scientific Investigations in GCE
Applied Science.

Essential resources

Learners will require access to modern information communication technology

facilities and handling modern software packages. Specific scientific software
packages can be demonstrated to learners through appropriate visits.
Access to the internet, CD ROMs, scientific journals, magazines and articles and
email are highly desirable.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Frost R — Data Logging in Practice (IT in Science, 1998) ISBN 0952025744
Frost R — Software for Teaching Science (IT in Science, 1998) ISBN 0952025752
Frost R — The IT in Science book of Data Logging and Control (IT in Science, 1999)
ISBN 095202571X
Technicians Task Group, The Prep Room Organiser (Association of Science Education,
1997) ISBN 0863572839

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Websites
www.ase.org.uk The Association of Science Education
www.becta.org.uk British Educational Communications and Technology
Agency
www.cleapss.org.uk Consortium of Local education Authorities for the
Provision of Science Services
www.datadisc.co.uk Data Disk, educational data logging and analysis software
www.data-harvest.co.uk Data Harvest, data logging and control systems
equipment for schools and colleges
www.philipharris.co.uk Philip Harris, supplier of science teaching equipment
www.ti.com Texas Instruments

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning and interpreting N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
information from two different types of sources, including a
laboratory information data large data set.
sources
• carrying out calculations N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
from a laboratory with:
information data source a amounts and sizes
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• interpreting the results of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
the calculations and present your findings and justify your
presenting the findings in a methods.
report, justifying methods You must use at least one graph, one
used. chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing types of laboratory C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
information complex subject.
• presenting the results and C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
conclusions of an subject, using at least one image to
investigation of the different illustrate complex points.
types of laboratory
information
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
read and synthesise two extended documents about a
information about a complex complex subject.
subject One of these documents should include at
least one image.
• preparing a document about C3.3 Write two different types of document
a complex subject. about complex subjects.
One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

Information technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning, carrying out a IT3.1 Plan and use different sources to search
search and selecting for and select information required for
information for investigations two different purposes.
on the different types of
laboratory information
• investigating different types IT3.2 Explore and develop and exchange
of laboratory information information and derive new information
to meet two different purposes.
• preparing the report on one IT3.3 Present information from different
of the above investigations. sources for two different purposes and
audiences.
Your work must include at least one
example of text, one example of images
and one example of numbers.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• developing the plan for an LP3.1 Agree targets and plan how these will be
investigation met, using support from appropriate
others.
• implementing the plan and LP3.2 Use your plan, seeking feedback and
modifying it in accordance support from relevant sources to help
with results obtained and meet your targets, and use different ways
constraints and problems of learning to meet new demands.
encountered
• evaluating the plan at LP3.3 Review progress establishing evidence of
frequent intervals and achievements, and agree action for
refining it in accordance with improving performance.
the conclusions reached.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• formulating the plan for an PS 3.1 Explore a complex problem, come up
investigation with three options for solving it and
justify the option selected for taking
forward.
• identifying and evaluating PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one option
alternative methods of for solving the problem, review progress
approach to the and revise your approach as necessary.
investigation, and deciding
on the approach to be
adopted
• evaluating the plan PS3.3 Apply agreed methods to check if the
continuously during the problem has been solved, describe the
investigation, on the basis of results and review your approach to
the results and conclusions problem solving.
produced.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• undertaking a group WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
investigation. objectives, responsibilities and working
arrangements.

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Unit 32: Engineering Studies for Polymer

Technicians
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract=
This unit covers the engineering requirements for working in the polymer industry. It
includes the principles of engineering, drawing to British Standards, computer aided
drawing, materials, manufacturing methods and measurement techniques. This unit
will enable learners to read, interpret and produce simple engineering drawings using
both conventional drawing techniques and CAD. Learners will also gain knowledge of
manufacturing processes and materials and engineering measurement techniques.
This unit presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3 in application of
number, communication, information technology and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for Polymer Processing and Related
Operations NVQ at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Interpret and produce simple engineering drawing using conventional techniques
and CAD
2 Investigate and describe the composition, properties and applications of
materials used in engineering
3 Explore and describe basic engineering processes used in the manufacture of
moulds and dies
4 Investigate and use instruments and equipment used for the measurement of
engineering components.

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Unit content

1 Engineering drawing

Concepts: first and third angle projection, standard conventions and

abbreviations, sectioning and dimensioning
Type of drawings: part, assemblies and collective
Isometric and oblique projection: construction of ellipses
AutoCAD: simple orthographic and isometric drawings

2 Materials

Range of materials: composites, carbon steel, cast iron, copper, aluminium, brass
Properties: strength, hardness, rigidity, elasticity, ductility, electrical
conductivity, thermal, processing, cost and applications
Heat treatment processes: annealing, normalising, hardening, tempering as
applied to metals, alloys, effects on properties

3 Processes

Marking out of components and of marking out tools: scriber rule, engineer’s
square, combination set, scribing block, surface plate
Use of hand tools: files, hacksaw, centre punch, square
Construction and operation: centre lathe, sensitive drilling machine
Basic machining operations: turning, boring, drilling, reaming, counter boring,
spot facing trepanning
Determination of cutting and spindle speeds: turning, drilling, common work-
place materials
Cutting tool angles: recommended for a range of materials

4 Measurement

Micrometers: construction and operation of (ie external, internal, depth), method

of reading, measuring range, and accuracy
Vernier calliper: construction, operation, reading, measuring range, accuracy
Dial test indicators: construction and use

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• interpret and produce simple engineering • produce first or third angle projection • compare the use of a CAD package with
drawing using conventional techniques and drawings, which contain sectioning, hidden traditional, manual techniques
CAD detail and dimensioning and isometric
drawings containing elliptical features by
conventional drawing techniques and by
using a CAD package
• investigate and describe the composition, • explain how the structure relates to • analyse the structural changes which occur
properties and applications of materials properties of a range of metals and how within steel during heat treatment
used in engineering this relates to their application processes and relate them to the change in
properties of steel
• explore and describe basic engineering • produce simple components using marking • compare manual techniques with mass
processes used in the manufacture of out hand tools, drills and lathes with due production for producing moulds and dies
moulds and dies regard to health and safety
• investigate and use instruments and • explain the operation of a range of • evaluate the accuracy and reliability of
equipment used for the measurement of measuring instruments and identify their measuring instruments.
engineering components. application

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The fundamental concepts contained in this unit should be introduced through a

programme of tuition, guided learning, practical work in the laboratory and problem
solving.
Learners should build on the concepts that learners have learnt in Key Stage 4 or
have studied on the Intermediate GNVQ in Science or the BTEC First Diploma in
Applied Science.
Any opportunity to gather information from industry-based learners or from visits to
industry should be taken, to relate fundamental concepts to applications in relevant
industries. This will contextualise knowledge and understanding to the appropriate
vocational routes.
Today’s polymer laboratories are becoming increasingly dependent on computer-
based measurement and opportunities to gather data in this way should be taken.
The scientist has to have some familiarity with the basic terminology and principles
associated with those measurement systems and their communications with
computers.

Assessment

Each learner must write plans and reports of their investigatory work and related
interpretative exercises and keep them in a unit portfolio file. During report writing
the copying of information directly from centre-supplied handouts or from
recommended texts is to be actively discouraged.
All investigations to solve problems should have acceptable tolerances. To achieve
the criteria for the pass grade, learners must be able to produce simple engineering
drawings and investigate physical properties of materials and the processes involved
with manufacturing, along with investigating instruments and equipment used for the
measurement of engineering components.
The merit criteria require learners to produce first or third angle projection drawings
and produce simple engineering components. They must explain how structure of
metals relates to their properties and explain the operation of a range of measuring
instruments.
The distinction criteria require learners to evaluate and analyse engineering
processes used in the polymer industry.

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Links

This unit has strong links with Unit 1: Introductory Science for Polymer Technicians,
Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology, Unit 7: Polymer Workplace Practices, Unit 8:
Polymer Technology Investigations, Unit 9: Polymer Science and Unit 10: Polymer
Process Engineering.
This unit presents opportunities to demonstrate key skills at Level 3 in application of
number, communications, information technology and working with others.
This unit will provide underpinning knowledge for Polymer Processing and Related
Operations NVQ at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources, and a range of NQF Level 3 chemistry and physics
books.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• interpreting data from N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
properties of metals and alloys different types of sources, including a large
data set.
• calculating amounts, sizes, N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
scales and proportion in with:
drawings, measurement cutting a amounts and sizes
and spindle speeds
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on at
least one occasion.
• presenting findings in drawings N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
or CAD diagrams. present your findings and justify your
methods.
You must use at least one graph, one chart
and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• discussing the use of CAD C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
compared with drawing complex subject.
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
the properties of metals and subject, using at least one image to
alloys and after heat treatment illustrate complex points.
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from two
investigate and synthesise extended documents about a complex
information about the subject.
properties of metals and alloys One of these documents should include at
and after heat treatment least one image.
• producing a poster or a report C3.3 Write two different types of document
about the investigation of the about complex subjects.
properties of metals and alloys One piece of writing should be an extended
and after heat treatment. document and include at least one image.

Information technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• planning and using data sources IT3.1 Plan and use different sources to search for
about the properties of and select information required for two
materials different purposes.
• exploring, developing and IT3.2 Explore and develop and exchange
exchanging information about information and derive new information to
drawings using AutoCAD meet two different purposes.
• presenting AutoCAD drawings. IT3.3 Present information from different sources
for two different purposes and audiences.
Your work must include at least one
example of text, one example of images
and one example of numbers.

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Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following key
skills evidence:
• undertaking a group WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
investigation: researching objectives, responsibilities and working
information for the production arrangements.
of a poster or a report about
the investigation of properties
of metals and alloys
• undertaking a group WO3.2 Work towards achieving the agreed
investigation: researching objectives, seeking to establish and
information for the production maintain co-operative working relationships
of a poster or a report about in meeting your responsibilities.
the investigation of properties
of metals and alloys
• undertaking a group WO3.3 Review the activity with others against the
investigation: researching agreed objectives and agree ways of
information for the production enhancing collaborative work.
of a poster or a report about
the investigation of properties
of metals and alloys.

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Unit 33: Plastics Materials

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit builds on the basic concepts of plastics technology and provides an
opportunity to develop an understanding of commodity and high performance
plastics. Learners will investigate the properties and uses of high consumption and
high performance plastics. Learners will be given every opportunity to develop their
understanding through practical investigation.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Investigate the properties and applications of commodity plastics and
unsaturated polyester resins
2 Identify and describe the classification properties and applications of high
performance plastics, epoxy and polyester composites
3 Explain the importance of polymer morphology in predicting polymer properties
4 Investigate the flow and thermal behaviour of plastic materials.

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Unit content

1 Commodity plastics

Polyethene: structure, types, grading, processing and mechanical properties, cost

and applications
Polystyrene: structure, grading, processing and mechanical properties, cost and
applications
Polypropylene: structure, types, grading, processing and mechanical properties,
cost and applications
Polyvinylchloride: structure, types, additives, mixing techniques, processing and
mechanical properties, cost and applications
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene: structure, types, grading systems, processing and
mechanical properties, cost and applications
Polyester resins (unsaturated): structure, types of resin, reinforcement materials,
methods of processing (to include hand lay-up and automated techniques),
mechanical properties, cost and applications
Phenol formaldehyde resins: structure, resol and novolak, additives, laminating
and moulding resins, processing and mechanical properties, cost and applications

2 High performance plastics

Polymethylmethacrylate: structure, types, grading, processing and mechanical

properties, cost and applications
Polyamides: structure, types, grading, additives, processing and mechanical
properties, cost and applications
Polyacetal: structure, types, grading, processing and mechanical properties, cost
and applications
Polycarbonate: structure, types, grading, processing and mechanical properties,
cost and applications
Epoxy and polyester composites: structure, types, additives, reinforcing agents,
mixing, processing, mechanical properties, cost and applications

3 Morphology

Glass transition temperature: outline the factors that determine Tg, relate Tg to
polymer performance, give the Tg for plastics listed in 1 and 2 above
Crystallinity: outline the factors that determine the level of crystallinity, relate
crystallinity to a polymers performance, rate the plastics listed in 1 and 2 above
in terms of crystallinity
Co-polymerisation: explain the concept of co-polymerisation, effect of co-
polymerisation on polymer performance

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4 Flow and thermal behaviour

Flow behaviour: Newtonian, non-Newtonian, Bingham, pseudo-plastic and

dilatent flows, shear rate, shear stress, apparent viscocity and orientation effects
Thermal behaviour: specific heat, viscocity temperature graphs, rate of cooling,
shrinkage, residual stress, thermal stability of plastics during processing

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• investigate and describe the properties • discuss the suitability of a range of • analyse the cost of producing a range of
and applications of commodity plastics and commodity plastics for particular products using different commodity
unsaturated polyester resins applications plastics
• identify and describe the classification • discuss the suitability of a range of high • relate the structure of commodity and
properties and applications of high performance plastics for particular high-performance plastic materials to their
performance plastics, epoxy and polyester applications physical properties
composites
• explain the importance of polymer • describe the factors that affect Tg and • evaluate the effects of processing
morphology in predicting polymer crystallinity and interpret the effect of co- conditions on the mechanical properties of
properties polymerisation on the performance of a plastic materials
plastic material
• investigate the flow and thermal behaviour • distinguish between the types of flow • analyse the effect of temperature
of plastic materials. apparent in plastic materials. changes, during processing and in-service,
on plastic materials.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes. Learners should build on the concepts delivered in
the core unit, Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology.
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg facilities on
employers’ or university premises) arrangements to use those facilities should ensure
that the necessary formative activities can be undertaken; one-off use of equipment
will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSHH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on the learner carrying out the required tasks, as
well as producing a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods
to observe the learner’s performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require practical methods to be followed correctly and in order to
investigate the properties and applications of commodity plastics and unsaturated
polyester resins. The delivery of the unit should be based on the development of
skills in industrially relevant methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require the learner to show appreciation of the merits and
drawbacks of a range of plastics for a variety of applications. This requires delivery of
the underlying principles, which may be introduced before or during the practical
work, but should be emphasised throughout the formative programme preceding
assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require investigation into the costs associated with plastic
production and the effects of processing conditions on the mechanical properties of
plastic materials. It may be appropriate to analyse one activity in detail as a group
exercise. Thereafter, these demanding activities may be left to independent study,
with appropriate guidance by the tutor.

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The final grade achieved by a learner should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. The learner cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Links

This unit has links with Unit 6: Engineering Studies for Polymer Technicians, Unit 9:
Polymer Science, Unit 10: Polymer Process Engineering, Unit 13: Rubber Technology
and Unit 14: Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers.
The unit also has links with the following BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units:
Scientific Principles, Scientific Practical Techniques, Scientific Method, Applications
of Chemical Reactions, Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit also presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating the production N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
costs of plastics, and effects, with:
in costs, of changes in flow a amounts and sizes
behaviour and thermal
behaviour b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions from the costs of present your findings and justify your
plastics, flow behaviour and methods.
thermal behaviour. You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the difference in C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
properties between complex subject.
commodity and high
performance plastics

• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex

the difference in properties subject, using at least one image to
between commodity and high illustrate complex points.
performance plastics
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
investigate the difference in two extended documents about a
properties between complex subject.
commodity and high One of these documents should include at
performance plastics least one image.
• producing a poster about C3.3 Write two different types of document
commodity and high about complex subjects.
performance plastics. One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• group researching for WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
information. objectives, responsibilities and working
arrangements.

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 UNIT 34: PLASTICS PROCESSING

Unit 34: Plastics Processing

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit builds on the basic concepts of plastics technology and provides an
opportunity to develop knowledge of plastics processing methods. Learners will
develop an understanding of plastics processing techniques for thermoplastic and
thermoset materials. Learners will be given every opportunity to develop their
understanding through practical investigation.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards Level 3 key skills:
communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
The unit also provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Describe and explain the moulding techniques used for manufacture of plastic
products
2 Investigate and describe the features of plastics extruders and extrusion
processes
3 Investigate and describe the manufacture of film and sheet materials and
conversion to products
4 Describe and explain the techniques used in the manufacture of products from
phenolic, epoxy and polyester laminates.

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Unit content

1 Moulding techniques

Compression moulding: press design: upstroke and downstroke; positive and semi-
positive mould design, preparation of moulding materials and preforms, moulding
defects, remedies
Transfer moulding: pot transfer moulds, transfer presses
Injection moulding: machine design: screw and barrel design, nozzles, clamping
systems; mould design: runners, gates, ejection systems, cooling systems, single
and multi-daylight, hot runner systems, injection moulding variables, moulding
defects

2 Extruders and extrusion processes

Extruder design: screw nomenclature, barrel and feed hopper, breaker plate, die
and die swell
Extrusion processes: pipe, wire and film; ancillary equipment; polymers used

3 Manufacture and conversion to products

Manufacture of film and sheet material: tubular blown film, cast film, extruded,
calendered sheet
Conversion of sheet material to products: thermoforming: male and female
forming, drape, plug assisted, air-slip, fabrication: welding, bag-making,
machining, mechanical fasteners

4 Laminates

Polymers and fibres: phenolics, epoxies and polyesters, paper, cotton fibre, glass
fibre, carbon fibre
Lamination techniques: hand lay-up, spray lay-up, DMC, SMC, pultrusion, filament
winding.

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 UNIT 34: PLASTICS PROCESSING

Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• describe and explain the moulding • explain the factors effecting the choice of • evaluate moulding processes, including hot
techniques used for manufacture of plastic mould design and moulding process runner systems and describe moulding
products defects and remedies
• investigate and describe the features of • describe die design for a range of • evaluate the production costs of a range of
plastics extruders and extrusion processes extrusion processes together with the extrusion processes including details of
factors effecting die swell ancillary equipment associated with each
process
• investigate and describe the manufacture • explain the merits and limitations of the • evaluate and select the most appropriate
of film and sheet materials and conversion various sheet and product manufacturing process for the production of various types
to products processes of sheet material and a range of products
• describe and explain the techniques used • explain product manufacturing processes • select and justify the most appropriate
in the manufacture of products from and identify the merits and limitations of laminate processes for a range of
phenolic, epoxy and polyester laminates. the various processes. products.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes. Learners should build on the concepts delivered in
the core unit, Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology and the other Group A unit, Unit 12:
Plastics Materials.
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg facilities on
employers’ or university premises) arrangements to use these facilities should ensure
that the necessary formative activities can be undertaken; one-off use of equipment
will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSHH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on the learner carrying out the required tasks, as
well as producing a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods
to observe the learner’s performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require practical methods to be followed correctly and in order to
investigate moulding techniques, features of plastic extruders and extrusion
techniques as well as the manufacture of film sheets and products from phenolic,
epoxy and polyester laminates. The delivery of the unit should be based on the
development of skills in industrially relevant methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require the learner to investigate factors influencing mould design
and various manufacturing processes as well as factors affecting die design and swell.
This requires delivery of the underlying principles, which may be introduced before
or during the practical work, but should be emphasised throughout the formative
programme preceding assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require the learner to have a more evaluative approach to
plastics processing, including moulding, extrusion, lamination. It may be appropriate
to analyse one activity in detail as a group exercise. Thereafter, these activities may
be left to independent study, with appropriate guidance by the tutor.

412 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 34: PLASTICS PROCESSING

The final grade achieved by a learner should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. The learner cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Links

This unit has links with Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology, Unit 6: Engineering Studies
for Polymer Technicians, Unit 9: Polymer Science, Unit 10: Polymer Process
Engineering, Unit 11: Plastics Materials, Unit 13: Rubber Technology and Unit 14:
Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers.
This unit has links with the following BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units:
Scientific Principles, Scientific Practical Techniques, Scientific Method, Food Process
Control, Energy Changes, Sources and Applications.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the Level 3 key skills:
communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the advantages C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
and disadvantages of complex subject.
different types of laminates
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
the advantages and subject, using at least one image to
disadvantages of different illustrate complex points.
types of laminates
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
investigate and synthesize two extended documents about a
information about the complex subject.
advantages and One of these documents should include at
disadvantages of different least one image.
types of laminates
• producing a poster or a C3.3 Write two different types of documents
report about the advantages about complex subjects.
and disadvantages of One piece of writing should be an
different types of laminates. extended document and include at least
one image.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• group researching WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
information for the objectives, responsibilities and working
production of a poster or a arrangements.
report about processing
plastics.

414 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Unit 35: Polymer Process Engineering

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The unit addresses the process engineering principles used in the polymer industry. It
includes the principles of drive systems, hydraulics, temperature measurement and
control, and robotics. The learner will gain knowledge of the systems used in modern
polymer processing plants such as injection moulding machines, extruders, presses
and mills.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Explore and report the principles of mechanical drive systems including belt,
gear and chain drives
2 Investigate and describe the construction and operation of hydraulic systems
3 Investigate and describe heating systems, and temperature measurement and
control used on polymer processing equipment
4 Investigate and describe the different types and applications of industrial
robots.

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Unit content

1 Mechanical drive systems

Belt drive systems: construction, operation, flat belt, V-belts, toothed belts,
merits and limitations of each type together, typical applications within the
polymer industry
Belt calculations: speed ratios and belt speeds
Gear systems: the construction, operation of spur, helical and herringbone,
merits, limitations of each type together, with typical applications within the
polymer industry
Gear calculations: speed ratios for simple, compound gear trains
Roller chain systems: construction, operation, merits, limitations

2 Hydraulic systems

Principles of hydraulics: typical fluids and their properties

Circuit diagrams: terminology, standard symbols, hydraulic circuit diagrams
Standard hydraulic components: construction, operation, pumps: gear, vane and
piston types both fixed and variable displacement; valves: pressure relief,
pressure regulator and directional control valves; cylinders: single acting, double
acting, differential, and cushioned types; accumulators: gas-filled diaphragm and
bladdeesigns; intensifiers; motors: gear, vane and piston types both fixed and
variable displacement
Simple circuits for polymer processing equipment: ‘upstroke’ and ‘downstroke’
presses, injection moulding machines and hydrostatic variable speed drives
Pressure measurement: principles, bourdon tube gauges, pressure transducers

3 Heating systems, and temperature measurement and control

Electrical methods of heating: polymer processing equipment; resistance,

induction, dielectric systems infrared, high frequency and microwave
Fluid heating methods: polymer processing equipment; steam, oil, pressurised
water
Temperature measuring device: principles, operation, thermocouples, expansion
thermometers, resistance thermometers, pyrometers
Temperature control: ‘on-off’, proportional band, PID controllers

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 UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

4 Applications of industrial robots

Applications of robots: ‘pick and place’, machining, inspection, coating,

packaging etc
Common robot configurations: Cartesian, cylindrical, revolute, pendulum,
degrees of freedom, axis of movement, operating envelope
End effectors and types of grippers: mechanical, vacuum

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UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• explore and report the principles of • explain the construction and operation of • calculate drive ratios for a range of drive
mechanical drive systems including belt, belt, chain and gear drives systems and evaluate a range of drive systems
gear and chain drives for different applications in polymer
processing equipment
• investigate and describe the construction • identify components and explain the • evaluate a wide range of hydraulic
and operation of hydraulic systems operation of simple hydraulic circuits components, pressure measuring systems for
different applications
• investigate and describe heating systems, • explain the principles of a range of • evaluate a range of heating systems, and
temperature measurement and control heating methods, temperature measuring measuring devices for different applications in
used on polymer processing equipment devices and their applications within the polymer processing equipment
polymer industry
• investigate and describe the different • review a range of robot configurations and • evaluate a range of robotic systems used in
types and applications of industrial robots cargo gripping systems. the polymer industry.
and explain ‘degrees of freedom’ and ‘axis
of movement’.

418 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Essential information for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes.
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg on employers’
or university premises), arrangements to use such off-site facilities should ensure
that they enable the necessary formative activities to be undertaken; one-off use of
equipment will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSHH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on the learner carrying out the required tasks, as
well as a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods to
observe the learner’s performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require learners to investigate engineering systems, including
mechanical drives, hydraulics and heating and also the types and applications of
robots. The delivery of the unit should be based on the development of skills in
industrially relevant methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require the learner to investigate the operation of engineering
systems. Learners need to be able to explain the systems: the principles, components
and operation. This requires delivery of the underlying principles, which may be
introduced before or during the practical work, but should be emphasised throughout
the formative programme preceding assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require the learner to have a more evaluative approach to
engineering systems. It may be appropriate to analyse one activity in detail as a
group exercise. Thereafter, these activities may be left to independent study, with
appropriate guidance by the tutor.
The final grade achieved by a learner should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. The learner cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 419

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UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Links

This unit has links with Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology, Unit 6: Engineering Studies
for Polymer Technicians, Unit 9: Polymer Science, Unit 11: Plastics Materials,
Unit 12: Plastics Processing, Unit 13: Rubber Technology and Unit 14: Rubber
Products and Specialist Elastomers.
This unit also has links with the following BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units:
Scientific Principles, Scientific Practical Techniques, Scientific Method, Food Process
Control, Electric Circuits and their Applications, Energy Changes, Sources and
Applications.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

420 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 35: POLYMER PROCESS ENGINEERING

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating pressure and N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
speed ratios with:
a amounts and sizes
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• presenting an investigation of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
speed ratios. present your findings and justify your
methods.
You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the applications of C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
different types of robots in complex subject.
the polymer industry

• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex

the applications of different subject, using at least one image to
types of robots in the illustrate complex points.
polymer industry

• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from

investigate and synthesise two extended documents about a
information about the complex subject.
applications of different One of these documents should include at
types of robots in the least one image.
polymer industry
• producing a poster or a C3.3 Write two different types of documents
report about the applications about complex subjects.
of different types of robots in One piece of writing should be an
the polymer industry. extended document and include at least
one image.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information for WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
the production of a group objectives, responsibilities and working
poster or a group report arrangements.
about the applications of
different types of robots in
the polymer industry.

422 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 36: Polymer Science

Unit 36: Polymer Science

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit introduces learners to the basic concepts of polymer science and provides
opportunities to develop an understanding of the basis of polymer characteristics
outlined in Unit 13: Rubber Technology and Unit 14: Plastic Products and Specialist
Elastomers.
Learners will develop knowledge of polymerisation mechanisms and processes, glass
transition temperature, crystallisation, molecular size and structure. Learners should
be given the opportunity to develop their understanding through practical
investigation.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication, information technology and working
with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit also provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Investigate polymerisation reactions and describe specific examples illustrating
the nature of polymerisation
2 Investigate glass-rubber transition and describe the structural features which
influence the glass transition temperature of polymers
3 Describe polymer crystallinity and relate the structural features that influence
the ability of a polymer to crystallise
4 Relate the effects of molecular size and structure to polymer performance.

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Unit 36: Polymer Science

råáí=Åontent

1 Polymerisation reactions

Addition polymerisation: general polymerisation schemes, free radical, ionic,

stereoregular initiators, mechanisms, transfer reactions, mass/bulk, suspension,
emulsion and solution techniques
Step/condensation polymerisation: characteristics, nomenclature, example
preparations eg polyamide, polyester, formaldehyde-based resins; comparison
with addition polymers
Preparation of polymers: addition and step polymerisation

2 Glass-rubber transition

Structural features: intermolecular forces, degree of movement, vibration,

rotation, and translation motion, main chain stiffness, pendant groups, polar
groups
Glass transition temperature

3 Polymer crystallinity

Structural features: single crystals and spherulites, chain mobility, intermolecular

forces of attraction, chain regularity, stereoregularity, effect of processing
variables, production of fibres

4 Effects of molecular size and structure

Molecular size: degree of polymerisation, number and weight average molecular

mass
Structure of polymer: linear, branched, three-dimensional and cross-linked
structures, variations in property levels

424 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 36: Polymer Science

Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• investigate polymerisation reactions and • discuss the mechanisms of free radical and • compare and contrast polymers produced
describe specific examples illustrating the ionic chain addition polymerisation by chain addition and by step
nature of polymerisation polymerisation
• investigate glass-rubber transition and • relate glass transition temperature of • explain how polymer glass transition
describe the structural features which polymers to mechanical properties temperature can be modified
influence the glass transition temperature
of polymers
• describe the polymer crystallinity and • accurately predict how changes to the • explain how changes in processing
relate the structural features that level of crystallinity influences material conditions affect crystallinity
influence the ability of a polymer to behaviour
crystallise
• relate the effects of molecular size and • explain the differences between number • calculate the degree of polymerisation.
structure to polymer performance. average and weight average molecular
mass.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 425

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Unit 36: Polymer Science

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes.
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg on employers’
or university premises) arrangements to use such off-site facilities should ensure that
they enable the necessary formative activities to be undertaken; one-off use of
equipment will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSSH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on learners’ carrying out the required tasks, as
well as a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods to
observe learners’ performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require learners to investigate polymer production, they must be
able to understand reactions and give illustrative examples as well as be able to
relate structural features and molecular size to polymer use and performance. The
delivery of the unit should be based on the development of skills in industrially
relevant methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require learners’ to discuss the mechanisms of polymerisation,
including the influence of temperature, the level of crystallinity and degree of
polymerisation. This requires delivery of the underlying principles, which may be
introduced before or during the practical work, but should be emphasised throughout
the formative programme preceding assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require learners’ to have a more evaluative approach to the
production of polymers, including how changes to the process affect the product. It
may be appropriate to analyse one activity in detail as a group exercise. Thereafter,
these activities may be left to independent study, with appropriate guidance by the
tutor.

426 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 36: Polymer Science

The final grades achieved by learners’ should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. Learners’ cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication, information technology and working
with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 427

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Unit 36: Polymer Science

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• investigating glass transition N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
temperature of polymers to different types of sources, including a
mechanical properties. large data set.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the mechanisms C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
involved in addition and complex subject.
condensation polymerisation
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
addition and condensation subject, using at least one image to
polymerisation or illustrate complex points.
crystallisation
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
investigate and synthesise two extended documents about a
information about the complex subject.
different types of One of these documents should include at
polymerisation least one image.
• producing a poster or a C3.3 Write two different types of document
report about polymerisation. about complex subjects.
One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

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Information technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning and carrying out an IT3.1 Plan and use different sources to search
investigation to ascertain the for and select information required for
effects of molecular size on two different purposes.
polymer performance
• analysing investigation IT3.2 Explore and develop and exchange
results and drawing information and derive new information
conditions to meet two different purposes.
• preparing the report of an IT3.3 Present information from different
investigation. sources for two different purposes and
audiences.
Your work must include at least one
example of text, one example of images
and one example of numbers.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information for WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
the production of a group objectives, responsibilities and working
poster or a group report arrangements.
about polymerisation.

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430 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 Unit 37: Polymer Technology Investigations

Unit 37: Polymer Technology

Investigations
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The work of polymer technicians is governed by standard operating procedures,
which have been designed to specify the most effective and efficient method of
performing each task and the quality standards that are expected. Experienced
people in the organisation will have developed the standard operating procedures. As
the technicians’ careers develop, they will increasingly be required to carry out one-
off activities that are not covered by standard operating procedures and, eventually,
to devise and validate standard procedures on behalf of the organisation.
This unit develops the skills required both to develop standard operating procedures
and to carry out wider scientific investigations in the workplace. Standard operating
procedures are designed to take account of similar work carried out elsewhere and
reported through the literature, and resources available to the organisation. The
procedures are formulated, developed and validated for maximum effectiveness
within the organisation. All of the skills required are applied within the system of the
scientific method.
The investigations required for this unit should be interpreted broadly to allow the
widest applicability to the workplace. Investigations must involve practical work,
which may be supplemented by other data, and can be carried out individually or in
groups. The topics chosen may be designed for this unit or integrated with other
core/specialist units.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication, information technology, improving
own learning and performance, working with others and problem solving.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

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Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Plan scientific investigations
2 Undertake a scientific investigation
3 Analyse information and data
4 Report on a scientific investigation.

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Unit content

1 Plan

Nature of the investigation: experimental research (eg polymer, laboratory,

polymer workshop etc), literature-based research
Information: identity and location of relevant information sources (eg texts,
journals, magazines, newspapers, CD ROM, the internet)
Principles of design of investigations: experimental design and controls,
literature-based investigation, stating the objectives, formulating a hypothesis,
consistency and accuracy of techniques
Hazards in practical work: assessment and elimination of risk

2 Undertake

Information from primary and/or secondary sources: use of information sources,

extraction of information relevant to the investigation, recording of sources used,
assessment of reliability and validity of information
Health and safety: safety regulations, risk analysis, safe working practice
Experimental techniques: assembly of equipment and materials, health and
safety procedures, manipulative skills, techniques of making measurements,
observational skills, recording results, accuracy, precision and integrity of results

3 Analyse

Retrieved information: assessment of relevance to the investigation, summarising

of information, use of information to support experimental work
Practical data: organisation of data (class intervals and tallying), methods of data
processing and analysis (eg mean, median, mode, standard deviation,
correlation/relationship between two variables), significant figures in numerical
data, units of experimental quantities, methods of assessment of experimental
accuracy and precision validation of method and results, fitness for purpose of
methods used, repeatability, sources and magnitudes of error in readings
Sources of error: in experimental work, in secondary sources
Assessment of error: accuracy and precision in experimental work, validity of
literature sources

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4 Report

Scientific reports: structure and format, use of correct and precise scientific
language, reference to, and compilation of bibliography
Scientific evaluation: evaluation of results, drawing conclusions from scientific
principles, experimental and literature investigations, evaluation of the
achievement of objectives
Data presentation: methods of data presentation — textual, numerical, graphical

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: evidence must show that the learner is
able to:
• use given information and methods to • schedule the use of resources and ensure • evaluate the effectiveness of the plan
formulate meaningful objectives for the that resources are available at times in meeting its objectives
investigation and devise an outline plan appropriate to the schedule of operations
and carry out a risk assessment and identify any potential problems with
the plan and suggest solutions and/or
alternative methods
• using given methods carry out your plan • review progress at each stage and repeat • justify the methods used, including any
to collect information/data measurements as appropriate revisions to the method
• using given methods, analyse the • discuss sources of error in experimental • justify techniques that may be used to
information and data obtained and draw work using examples from their minimise potential errors
conclusions investigation as appropriate

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: evidence must show that the learner is
able to:
• present your results and conclusions in an • report the extent to which your objectives • produce a well-structured report using
appropriate format, using correct were met. precise scientific language throughout,
scientific language. drawing on referenced secondary
sources of information and including a
bibliography.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit requires learners to engage in meaningful investigative work for which they
have been adequately prepared. The context should be the development of standard
operating procedures for use by technicians in the workplace. The achievement of
the outcomes requires the development of a variety of process skills, and of the
practical skills appropriate to the polymer industry. A specific investigation can be
designed for this unit, or this unit can be integrated with other core or specialist
units.
Skills in identifying and using information sources are essential for this unit. These
skills should be developed through structured exercises in which learners develop
familiarity with relevant and useful sources. Also learners will learn how to extract,
summarise and present relevant information to specific investigations.
It is essential that learners learn to carry out investigative work using a logical
framework, which is transferable to a wide range of investigations.

Assessment

This unit requires learners to plan, carry out and report on an investigation. A wide
range of topics will be appropriate to developing and delivering their evidence.
However, the outcomes require the topics selected to involve meaningful scientific
enquiry requiring some planning by the learner. A series of standard exercises set and
controlled by the tutor will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
The topics for investigation can be set by the tutor or selected by the learner, but
must involve the application of scientific principles to polymer technology. The
outcomes may be met by individual or group investigations. In the latter case,
assessors must document each learner’s contribution to the investigation and provide
appropriate authentication of the evidence presented.
Much of the evidence for this unit will be generated by practical work. The quality of
each learner’s work will only be partially reflected in the final report. It is important
that the assessor observes all phases of the work and records each learner’s
performance. These records should be included in the learner’s evidence as
authentication of performance and to support the grade recommended for the work.
The assessor’s judgement must reflect the overall quality of the work, and should not
be overly influenced by the media through which it is reported.
All grades require learners to undertake some initial planning before the
commencement of practical work. This requires the learner to consider carefully
what is involved in the work, and how they are to approach the constituent tasks.
The initial plan must be submitted and agreed before any practical work is started.
However, an action plan should not be a static document. It may need to be revised
in response to progress made or results obtained. Learners should be given the

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opportunity to review their plans at frequent intervals and to revise them as

appropriate. Each revision should be clearly dated and recorded by the assessor. It is
likely that learners who aspire to merit or distinction grades will review their action
plans more frequently and in more detail than the pass learner.
The pass learner will require significant support from the tutor throughout the work.
They will work mainly from supplied methods, but must provide evidence of an initial
appreciation of the basis of the investigation.
The work must be reported in accordance with scientific conventions. The written
report will be the normal method of reporting. However, scientific work may also be
reported orally or through electronic media. Whatever medium is chosen, the learner
must communicate the conduct of the work, the results achieved, the extent to
which their objectives were met and how the work addressed the appropriate
scientific principles. The work must be documented sufficiently well to enable the
assessment and grading to be verified. Where reporting is carried out orally, evidence
must include the learner’s preparatory materials and an assessor commentary. The
pass learner does not need to access secondary sources of information, other than
those provided or recommended by the tutor.
The merit learner must show a more independent and analytical approach to their
work. They must research and analyse the topic to be investigated. They must show,
during the practical work, an appreciation of errors in measurements and, where
possible, take the appropriate steps to minimise them. The information and data
obtained should be processed in appropriate ways to produce valid conclusions to the
work. They must show, throughout the work and in the final report, a clear
appreciation of the principles underlying the investigation. Some use of appropriate
secondary sources of information will be required in the initial research on the topic.
The distinction learner must show the ability to work with the minimum of
supervision, involving selection of the topic to be investigated; the study of tutor-
generated topics should not disqualify him/her from this grade.
The distinction learner must demonstrate appropriate uses of secondary sources of
information and show clearly how each recorded source helped in the conduct of the
work.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit may be linked with many other unit(s) in the programme. Centres may
devise an investigation purely to meet the requirements of this unit. However,
careful design of the required investigation could integrate and provide evidence for
another units. This unit is designed for integration into the workplace activities of
employed learners.
The achievement of the outcomes requires the development and use of skills of
identifying, accessing and using information from a variety of sources. It also requires
the development of practical skills appropriate to the programme area. These
practical skills will be essential to succeed in other units in the programme.
Achievement of outcomes also requires generic numerical and data handling skills,
including the use of information technology, and planning, reporting and
communicating skills. These generic skills will also be required in other parts of the
programme, and may form an appropriate vehicle to demonstrate key skills.

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This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication, information technology, improving
own learning and performance, working with others and problem solving.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.
There is no direct analogue to this unit in Edexcel VCE Science/GCE Applied Science.
The unit is designed to develop procedures and methods of working for use within
this National programme and within employment and for application by learners who
progress to further study. The specified outcomes will be achieved either through
activities carried out in the workplace by employed learners or through practical
work designed for this or other units, but the methods of working developed will be
applied wherever the learners practice their science.
GCE Applied Science Unit 6: Carry out scientific investigations, has similar outcomes
to this unit, but it does not include the range of formative activities nor is it designed
to develop the principles of application of the scientific method to underpin studies
and applications of science elsewhere.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources.

Indicative reading for learners

It is unlikely that any one text will cover the content of this unit in a manner
appropriate to all learners. Learners should be referred to texts that are devoted to
the practical aspects of their chosen applied route.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• acquiring and interpreting N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
data from methods different types of sources, including a
appropriate to the large data set.
investigation; planning and
undertaking a programme of
work to provide the data
required in the investigation
• selecting and using N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
appropriate methods to with:
process experimental and a amounts and sizes
secondary data obtained
b scales and proportion
during an investigation
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions drawn from present your findings and justify your
processed experimental and methods.
secondary data. You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• engaging in group discussions C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
to discuss strategies and complex subject.
methods to be used during
the investigation
• presenting the results and C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
conclusions of an subject, using at least one image to
investigation to a workplace illustrate complex points.
laboratory manager
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
develop familiarity with the two extended documents about a
experimental methods to be complex subject.
used in an investigation One of these documents should include at
least one image.
• preparing the report of an C3.3 Write two different types documents
investigation. about complex subjects.
One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

Information technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning and carrying out a IT3.1 Plan and use different sources to search
search for experimental for and select information required for
methods appropriate to an two different purposes.
investigation to be
undertaken
• analysing investigation IT3.2 Explore and develop and exchange
results and drawing information and derive new information
conclusions to meet two different purposes.
• preparing the report of an IT3.3 Present information from different
investigation. sources for two different purposes and
audiences.
Your work must include at least one
example of text, one example of images
and one example of numbers.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• developing the plan for an LP3.1 Agree targets and plan how these will be
investigation met, using support from appropriate
others.
• implementing the plan and LP3.2 Use your plan, seeking feedback and
modifying it in accordance support from relevant sources to help
with results obtained and meet your targets, and use different ways
constraints and problems of learning to meet new demands.
encountered
• evaluating the plan at LP3.3 Review progress establishing evidence of
frequent intervals and achievements, and agree action for
refining it in accordance with improving performance.
the conclusions reached.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• formulating the plan for an PS 3.1 Explore a complex problem, come up
investigation with three options for solving it and
justify the option selected for taking
forward.
• identifying and evaluating PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one option
alternative methods of for solving the problem, review progress
approach to an investigation, and revise your approach as necessary.
and deciding on the approach
to be adopted
• developing the plan for an PS3.3 Apply agreed methods to check if the
investigation, using the problem has been solved, describe the
preferred option. results and review your approach to
problem solving.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a group WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
investigation. objectives, responsibilities and working
arrangements.

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 Unit 38: Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers

Unit 38: Rubber Products and Specialist

Elastomers
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit builds on the basic concepts of rubber technology and provides an
opportunity to develop an understanding of the special purpose rubbers, latex and
rubber solutions. Learners will develop knowledge of latex mix design, latex product
manufacture, rubber solution manufacture and use, properties and applications of
specialist rubbers. Learners will be given every opportunity to develop their
understanding through practical investigation.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the Level 3 key skills:
application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Describe the classification, properties and applications of specialist rubbers
2 Investigate the basic concepts of latex technology and the preparation of latex
mixes and products
3 Describe the preparation, properties and application of rubber solutions
4 Investigate the design, manufacture and material selection for a range of rubber
products.

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Unit content

1 Specialist rubbers

Butadiene rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties, cost,

applications
Isoprene rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties, cost,
applications
Silicone rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties, cost,
applications
Fluorocarbon rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties,
cost, applications
Acrylic rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties, cost,
applications
Polyurethane rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties,
cost, applications
Epichlorohydrin rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties,
cost, applications
Chlorosulphonated polyethene rubber: grading systems, processing and
vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Polysulphide rubber: grading systems, processing and vulcanisate properties,
cost, applications

2 Latex

Latex concepts: stability, preservation, concentration, coagulation, gellation,

flocculation
Latex additives: fillers, cross-linking agents, antidegradants, plasticisers, foaming
agents, surfactants, preparation of dispersions, emulsions, solutions
Latex products: design, manufacture and testing of foam, cast and dipped
products

3 Rubber solutions

Solvent: factors affecting choice, toxicity

Non-vulcanising: manufacture, properties and applications
Vulcanising: manufacture, properties and applications
Room temperature vulcanising: manufacture, properties and applications
Spreading: machine design, processing conditions, solvent recovery, safety
Dipping: formers, process conditions, properties, safety

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4 Rubber products

Tyres: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy

Belting: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Hose: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Playballs/inflatables: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Footwear: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Cables: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Rubber/metal bonded: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy
Cellular: design, manufacture, material selection, test philosophy

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
• describe the classification, properties and • justify the choice of solvents used in the • evaluate the choice of rubber for a range
applications of specialist rubbers production of rubber solutions for of applications
particular applications
• investigate and describe the basic • select the most appropriate technique for • compare and contrast the use of latex and
concepts of latex technology and the the production of latex additives rubber solutions in competing products
preparation of latex mixes and products
• describe the preparation, properties and • discuss the health and safety aspects of • evaluate the production costs of
application of rubber solutions producing rubber and rubber products alternative manufacturing methods for a
range of rubber products
• investigate the design, manufacture and • describe and compare the test philosophy • evaluate the accuracy and effectiveness of
material selection for a range of rubber for different rubber products. the test philosophy for a range of rubber
products. products.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes. Learners should build on the concepts delivered in
the core unit, Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology and the other rubber unit from
Group B, Unit 13: Rubber Technology.
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg facilities on
employers or university premises), arrangements to use such off-site facilities should
ensure the necessary formative activities can be undertaken; one-off use of
equipment will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSSH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on the learner carrying out the required tasks, as
well as producing a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods
to observe the learner’s performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require learners to describe the preparation, properties and
application of rubbers and rubber solutions. The delivery of the unit should be based
on the development of skills in industrially relevant methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require the learner to be able to investigate the process of
producing rubber and rubber products. This requires delivery of the underlying
principles, which may be introduced before or during the practical work, but should
be emphasised throughout the formative programme preceding assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require the learner to have a more evaluative approach to the
production of rubber and rubber products, including the use of rubber, alternative
manufacturing methods and knowledge of competing products. It may be appropriate
to analyse one activity in detail as a group exercise. Thereafter, these activities may
be left to independent study, with appropriate guidance by the tutor.

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The final grade achieved by a learner should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. The learner cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology, Unit 6: Engineering Studies
for Polymer Technicians, Unit 9: Polymer Science, Unit 10: Polymer Process
Engineering, Unit 11: Plastics Materials, Unit 12: Plastics Processing, Unit 13: Rubber
Technology and Unit 22: Industrial Applications of Organic Chemistry.
The unit also has links with the following BTEC Nationals in Applied Science Units:
Scientific Principles, Scientific Practical Techniques, Scientific Method, Applications
of Chemical Reaction.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key skills at
Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

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 Unit 38: Rubber Products and Specialist Elastomers

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating existing N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
opportunities in the cost different types of sources, including a
differences of specialist large data set.
rubbers N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
with:
a amounts and sizes
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions from the present your findings and justify your
differences in costs of methods.
specialist rubbers. You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the difference in C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
properties between specialist complex subject.
rubbers
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
the difference in properties subject, using at least one image to
between different types of illustrate complex points.
specialist rubbers

• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from

investigate the difference in two extended documents about a
properties between specialist complex subject.
rubbers One of these documents should include at
least one image.
• producing a poster about C3.3 Write two different types of document
specialist rubbers and their about complex subjects.
products. One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• group researching WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
information for the objectives, responsibilities and working
production of a poster, for arrangements.
example.

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 Unit 39: Rubber Technology

Unit 39: Rubber Technology

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit builds on the basic concepts of rubber technology and provides an
opportunity to develop an understanding of high consumption rubbers and processing
methods. Learners will develop an understanding of mix additives, mix design,
processing, vulcanisate properties and applications of the high tonnage rubbers.
Learners will be given every opportunity to develop their understanding through
practical investigation.
This unit presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the Level 3 key skills:
application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
This unit provides opportunities for the wider curriculum.

This is an internally assessed unit.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Identify and describe the effects of additives used in rubber mix design
2 Describe the classification, properties and applications of rubbers
3 Investigate the use of additives in the mix design in the processing, costs and
property modification of rubbers
4 Discuss the construction and use of processing equipment for the manufacture of
rubber products.

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Unit content

1 Additives

Fillers: classification of reinforcing and non-reinforcing, carbon black, mineral

fillers, effect of particle size and structure, choice for application/rubber,
costing calculations
Cross-linking agents: classification, sulphur-based, characterisation of organic
accelerators, activators, EV and semi-EV systems, organic peroxides, metal
oxides, choice for application/rubber
Antidegradents: classification, antoxidants, antiozanants, waxes choice for
application/rubber
Plasticisers: classification, aliphatic, aromatic, synthetic, polymeric, mode of
action, choice for application/rubber
Process aids: reason for use, factice, reclaim rubber, tackifiers, resins,
proprietary materials, choice for application/rubber

2 Rubbers

Natural rubber: growing conditions, conversion of latex to dry rubber, grading

systems, processing and vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Styrene butadiene rubber: manufacture, grading systems, processing and
vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Acrylonitrile butadiene rubber: manufacture, grading systems, processing and
vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Polychloroprene rubber: manufacture, grading systems, processing and
vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Ethylene propylene diene modified: manufacture, grading systems, processing
and vulcanisate properties, cost, applications
Isobutylene isoprene rubber: manufacture, grading systems, processing and
vulcanisate properties, cost, applications

3 Mix design

Concepts for: low cost, maximum tensile strength, high/low modulus, maximum
oil/fuel resistance, maximum age resistance, electrical insulation/conductivity,
resilience, minimum compression and tension set, flame resistance, low
temperature flexibility, food quality/low toxicity

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4 Processing equipment

Mixing: mechanism, open mill construction and operation, internal mixer

construction and operation, mastication, comparison of machines, quality, mixing
specifications, safety
Extrusion: screw characteristics, feed design, die design, die swell, haul off,
temperature control, ram extruders, safety
Calendering: roll configuration, roll correction devices, topping, skim coating,
rubber sheet, ancillary equipment, safety
Vulcanisation: cure characteristics and terminology, selection of cure
temperature, compression/transfer/injection moulding, mould design, mould
release, mould cleaning, mould shrinkage, open cures, continuous cures, safety

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Grading grid

This unit is internally assessed

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence must
show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to:
• identify and describe the effect of additives • justify the use of mix additives for • compare and contrast the mix additives used in
used in rubber mix design particular property requirements and rubber mixes for different applications
describe the main factors that influence
mix design
• describe the classification, properties and • explain rubber processes and the • justify the use of particular rubbers for
applications of rubbers operation of processing equipment specified applications
• investigate the use of additives in the mix • suggest alternatives in designing mixes • suggest and justify appropriate corrective
design in the processing, costs and property for a range of purposes action for mix designs failing to meet
modification of rubbers specification
• discuss the construction and use of • identify and explain the merits and • select and justify the most appropriate process
processing equipment for the manufacture limitations of rubber processing for the production of a range of
of rubber products. equipment. components/products for particular purposes.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The concepts covered by this unit should be delivered through a programme of

tuition, guided learning and practical work in the laboratory. The delivery should be
based on a well-structured programme of practical exercises to develop the skills
necessary to meet the outcomes. Learners should build on the concepts delivered in
the core unit, Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology
If it is appropriate to use facilities other than those in the centre (eg facilities on
employers or university premises), arrangements to use those facilities should ensure
that enable the necessary formative activities can be undertaken; one-off use of
equipment will not meet the outcomes of this unit.
Health and safety should be a recurring theme throughout the delivery and
assessment of this unit. Learners must be taught the nature of hazards and where to
find appropriate information on them. Learners are not ‘competent persons’ under
the COSSH regulations; they should not, therefore, be expected to carry out full risk
analyses for practical work to be undertaken.

Assessment

The focus of assessment should be on the learner carrying out the required tasks, as
well as producing a final written report. The assessor should use appropriate methods
to observe the learner’s performance of practical activities and to record them for
verification purposes.
Safety requirements should be applied to all activities. Learners must work safely and
accurately within supplied methods: this must be applied rigorously to all activities.
The pass criteria require practical methods to be followed correctly in order to
describe the properties of rubbers, their classification and application and the use of
additives. Learners will need to be able to describe the use of additives in the mix
design and to discuss the construction and use of processing equipment. The delivery
of the unit should be based on the development of skills in industrially relevant
methods to meet these criteria.
The merit criteria require the learner to be able to explain and justify the use of
additives and other processes employed in the production of rubber products. This
requires delivery of the underlying principles, which may be introduced before or
during the practical work, but should be emphasised throughout the formative
programme preceding assessed exercises.
The distinction criteria require the learner to have a more evaluative approach to
rubber technology and to be able to suggest corrective actions to problems with
processing. It may be appropriate to analyse one activity in detail as a group
exercise. Thereafter, these activities may be left to independent study, with
appropriate guidance by the tutor.

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The final grade achieved by a learner should be based on the overall profile of the
evidence. The pass criteria must be met for all activities. The learner cannot be
credited with the unit until this has been achieved. There should be an opportunity
to meet a merit and a distinction criterion associated with each practical activity
carried out.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 5: Basic Polymer Technology, Unit 6: Engineering Studies
for Polymer Technicians, Unit 9: Polymer Science, Unit 10: Polymer Process
Engineering, Unit 11: Plastics Materials, Unit 12: Plastics Processing, Unit 14: Rubber
Products and Specialist Elastomers and Unit 22: Industrial Applications of Organic
Chemistry.
The unit has links with the following BTEC Nationals in Applied Science units:
Scientific Principles, Scientific Practical Techniques, Scientific Method, Applications
of Chemical Reactions.
The unit also presents opportunities to gather evidence towards the following key
skills at Level 3: application of number, communication and working with others.
This unit provides underpinning knowledge for the NVQs in Polymer Processing and
Related Operations at Level 3.
The unit also presents opportunities in the wider curriculum.

Essential resources

All learners will need access to appropriate laboratory facilities, and to library and
information technology resources. Learners will benefit from visits to appropriate
industrial facilities to see practical techniques in operation in the context of the
industry.

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating existing N3.1 Plan and interpret information from two
opportunities in the cost different types of sources, including a
reductions of rubber and large data set.
press capacities
N3.2 Carry out multi-stage calculations to do
with:
a amounts and sizes
b scales and proportion
c handling statistics
d re-arranging and using formulae.
You should work with a large data set on
at least one occasion.
• drawing and presenting N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
conclusions from the cost present your findings and justify your
reductions of rubber and methods.
press capacities. You must use at least one graph, one
chart and one diagram.

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Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• discussing the difference in C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
properties between complex subject.
commodity and high
performance plastics
• presenting an investigation of C3.1b Make a presentation about a complex
the difference in properties subject, using at least one image to
between different types of illustrate complex points.
rubbers
• using literature sources to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
investigate the difference in two extended documents about a
properties between rubbers complex subject.
One of these documents should include at
least one image.
• producing a poster about C3.3 Write two different types of document
rubbers. about complex subjects.
One piece of writing should be an
extended document and include at least
one image.

Working with others. Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• group researching for WO3.1 Plan complex work with others, agreeing
information. objectives, responsibilities and working
arrangements.

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 Unit 40: Operation of Vehicle Systems

Unit 40: Operation of Vehicle Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Modern vehicles are highly developed machines that involve sophisticated and
complex systems. Engines now provide more power, leading to higher torque and
greater speeds than in the past, which drivers have to handle and control. This
involves controlling power to the road wheels, stopping the vehicle when needed and
directing it in a particular direction. In addition, the vehicle must be comfortable to
ride in and be able to cope with the many forces that act upon it.
This unit will provide learners with an understanding of the operation of the main
chassis systems found in modern vehicles. This will include the vehicle transmission,
steering, suspension and braking systems. It will introduce learners to the layout,
function and operation of the systems, sub-systems and components involved in these
areas.
Learners will develop an understanding of the operating principles of a range of
transmission, steering, suspension and braking systems. This broad knowledge,
together with a greater understanding of the construction of system components will
enhance learners’ comprehension of vehicle systems and how they interrelate.
The unit will also support further development of learners’ competence in areas such
as fault diagnosis, specialised transmission systems, steering, suspension and brakes.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand how a transmission system and its components operate
2 Understand how a steering system and its components operate
3 Understand how a suspension system and its components operate
4 Understand how a braking system and its components operate.

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Unit content

1 Understand how a transmission system and its components operate

Transmission layout: drive method eg front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive, four-

wheel drive; power path eg flywheel, clutch, gearbox, drive/prop shafts
Transmission operation: function (clutch, gearbox, prop shaft, drive shaft,
universal joint, final drive, differential); factors affecting torque transmitted by
clutch eg number of plates, diameter, friction; gearing arrangements eg ratios,
simple and compound gear trains
Transmission components: clutch eg single plate spring, diaphragm; release
mechanisms eg linkage, cable, hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical; gearbox (input
shaft, lay shaft, main shaft, idler); types of gear (straight cut, helical); universal
joints eg Hooke’s, constant velocity; final drive — crown wheel and pinion (bevel,
hypoid and helical gears), differential (sun and planet gears); drive shafts (hollow
and solid); axles eg semi, three quarter, fully floating; wheel hubs eg taper, roller
bearings; transmission lubricant eg hypoid, multi-grade

2 Understand how a steering system and its components operate

Steering system layout: steering method eg rack and pinion, recirculating ball;
position adjustment
Steering operation: Ackerman layout, toe out on turns, wheel alignment, camber,
castor, swivel pin inclination, negative offset; oversteer and understeer
behaviour; steering arrangement eg two wheel steering, four wheel steering
systems
Steering components: steering wheel, steering column (bearings, bushes,
mounting); universal joint (mounting methods, gaiters); steering linkage and
joints for single steer vehicles eg track rod, drag link, drag link ends; steering
arm, tie rod (bushes, joints); steering box (seals, bearing)

3 Understand how a suspension system and its components operate

Suspension systems layout: suspension method eg beam axle, independent front

suspension (IFS), independent rear suspension (IRS); vibration and damping
methods eg metal, rubber, hydraulic, hydro-pneumatic
Suspension operation: interaction of components eg vehicle loaded/unloaded,
cornering, ‘bump’ reaction
Suspension components: spring systems eg leaf, coil, rubber, hydraulic; fittings
and mounting eg shackles, U-bolts, saddle, tie bar; hydraulic/hydro-pneumatic
systems eg fluid supply, storage, actuation, control; suspension damping eg oil,
gas, friction; tyres eg type (radial, cross-ply, markings) and impact on vehicle
suspension system

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4 Understand how a braking system and its components operate

Layout: braking methods eg disc brakes, drum brakes; braking circuit eg hydraulic
circuit, split braking circuits
Braking system operation: application of mechanical forces eg pedal force,
transmission of force (fluid pressure, piston sizes); brake shoes/pads; heat
dissipation eg mechanical to heat energy, vented brake arrangement; brake
efficiency eg vehicle testing; leading and trailing brake shoe action
Components: hydraulic circuit components eg single/tandem circuit, master/slave
cylinders (machined surfaces, seals, pistons, springs), brake lines (fixed and
flexible piping); brake servo eg diaphragm, spring, valve; pressure limiting valve
eg seal, actuation; brake adjuster eg manual, automatic; brake discs/drums eg
machined surface, vented, solid; callipers/actuators eg piston(s), seals,
mounting; brake shoes (leading, trailing, springs); brake drums (machined
surface, mounting); handbrake mechanism (actuation)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe a vehicle’s transmission layout M1 compare two different types of D1 evaluate and justify the choice, in terms
transmission systems of layout and operation, of the
P2 describe the operation of a transmission
transmission, steering, suspension and
system and its components M2 compare two different types of steering
braking systems used for a current
systems
P3 describe a vehicle’s steering system vehicle application.
layout M3 compare two different types of
suspension systems
P4 describe the operation of a steering
system and its components M4 compare two different types of braking
systems.
P5 describe the layout of a vehicle’s
suspension system
P6 describe the operation of a suspension
system and its components
P7 describe a vehicle’s braking system
layout
P8 describe the operation of a braking
system and its components.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should focus on developing learners’ fundamental understanding

of vehicle transmission, steering, suspension and braking systems. This will enable
them to progress onto the specialist units with a greater appreciation of the layout,
operation and components of these systems.
The unit would be best delivered early in the qualification as, although it may vary
depending on individual cohorts, many learners will have limited knowledge and
understanding of the systems identified in the content. If this is the case, tutors may
need to give learners ‘hands-on’ experience of identifying components and systems.
This will enable them to appreciate the scale and complexity of components and
systems.
The use of demonstration rigs in the classroom or workshop to reinforce principles is
recommended. In addition, the availability of separate components would strengthen
the link between classroom work and the workshop. Learners would benefit from
having access to a range of vehicles, to enable them to examine the different
systems on various types, makes and models.
There are many ways to approach delivery of the unit but its structure means that
each of the systems can be covered separately or a more integrated approach can be
used. Integration would allow for the delivery of the underlying principles and
interrelationships before dealing with the specific layouts, operation and components
of the individual systems. Centres will need to consider which methods of delivery
will enable coverage of the wide range of vocational contexts that may be of
relevance to learners (eg to learners from specific dealerships, general repair
workshops, private and commercial vehicles, motorsport). It is important that
learners are made aware of the links between this unit and other relevant units in
the learning programme.
To support delivery, centres should ensure that there are sufficient components (eg
clutch plates, brake callipers, joints and fittings) available to enable a full
understanding of the principles, function, layout and operation of the systems in
each area. References to specific manufacturers and models can often improve the
focus for learners. They should be encouraged to carry out their own research on
other models to improve their understanding of different types of systems and the
engineering approaches that can be taken. This will help them develop and practise
their skills of comparison and evaluation and therefore improve their chance of
achieving the merit and distinction criteria.

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Assessment

Assessment of this unit might be best achieved through four separate assignments,
each covering one of the listed systems (ie transmission, steering, suspension and
brakes).
The assignments need to be constructed in such a way as to ensure sufficient
coverage of the grading criteria and related unit content. In particular, care should
be taken to ensure that learners describe both the operation and the components of
each system. Opportunities to meet the pass and merit criteria that relate to each
system should be provided, eg to be able to describe a vehicle’s transmission layout
(P1), its operation and components (P2) and compare it with another different type
of transmission (M1). The comparison, for the merit criterion, should also cover the
different system’s layout, operation and components.
The assignment could direct learners to investigate a given or chosen system (eg
transmission) and then prepare their descriptions. Learners should be encouraged to
research and use a range of resource materials during their investigation. Tutors
should provide guidance on how such material can be referenced and used as part of
learners’ own work so as not to infringe guidelines on authentic evidence, eg
annotation of images, diagrams used to support/clarify own text. Development of
these research and presentation skills may also provide suitable evidence for key
skills attainment.
Guidance should be provided during the early formative assessment period on the
type of evidence and amount of detail required, to ensure that it is sufficiently
concise, clear and relevant to the unit criteria and content.
To achieve a pass, learners will need to produce a suitable description of each
system’s layout. This could be achieved through the production of drawings or
sketches that illustrate the relevant aspects of the content (eg for P1, a
transmission’s drive method and power path). The drawings should then be suitably
labelled and/or annotated to provide a sufficient description of the layout (eg to
clearly identify the path taken by the power between the flywheel and the driven
road wheels). In addition, for each system a suitable description of its operation and
components is needed. Again, drawings or sketches can be used to good effect to
support any written evidence (eg for P6, drawings that show the interaction of
components during a ‘bump’ reaction of a suspension system, together with suitable
labelling of the key components that play a part in the suspension of the vehicle
under such conditions).
Descriptions could also be supplemented with evidence from practical activities
carried out in other units or from work experience (eg steering geometry test report,
braking efficiency tests). The use of such practical work would provide a vocational
context to what could be seen as an overly theoretical unit.
To achieve the merit criteria, learners will need to compare two different types of
system for each of those covered by the pass criteria (ie transmission, steering,
suspension and brakes). One could be the system already examined for pass. The
second could be chosen by the learner or set by the tutor, but it should be
sufficiently different to provide scope for comparison. The comparison should
consider the differences and similarities in terms of each system’s layout, operation
and components. It should also consider the differences in terms of how the
components of each system interrelate with one another.

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To achieve the distinction criterion, learners will need to choose, or be given, a

current vehicle to investigate and evaluate in terms of the layout and operation of
the four systems considered at pass level. It is expected that tutors will supervise the
final choice of vehicle so that learners are exposed to systems different to those
already covered through the pass and merit criteria (eg if two-wheel drives have
been the main focus at pass/merit, then learners should consider a four-wheel drive
vehicle for D1). This will give learners variety in their study and exposure to a greater
range of industry standards. The evaluation and justification should take into account
the intended use and therefore design of the vehicle. It should also consider the
interrelationships between the systems, eg the impact of the type of suspension on
the steering and handling of the vehicle.

Links to National Occupational Standards (NOS), other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to several other units within the BTEC Nationals in Vehicle
Technology, especially Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification, Unit 12:
Light Vehicle Transmission Systems, Unit 14: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and
Braking Systems, Unit 15: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems, Unit 16: Heavy Vehicle
Transmissions and Unit 17: Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems.
The unit contributes towards the knowledge and understanding needed for the
Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly units:
• MR12: Remove and Replace Vehicle Transmission Driveline Units and Components
• MR12HV: Remove and Replace Commercial Vehicle Transmission Driveline Units
and Components.
It also supports the following units within the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational
Standards in Automotive Engineering:
• Unit 4: Assembling Sub-Assembly Units to Vehicles
• Unit 6: Assembling the Rear Axle Sub-Assembly
• Unit 7: Assembling the Front Suspension Sub-Assembly
• Unit 8: Assembling Braking systems to Vehicles.

Essential resources

Centres need to provide learners with access to a range of suitable reference

material (eg manuals and manufacturer’s data) for the systems covered. Access to
vehicle components (eg bevel, hypoid and helical gears), demonstration rigs (eg
sectioned clutches, gearboxes, steering boxes) and vehicles to support and provide
sufficient coverage and understanding of the content is also essential.

Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology

(Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748780823
Zammit S — Motor Vehicle Engineering Science for Technicians Level 2 (Pearson,
1987) ISBN 0582413028

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• working with gear ratios and N3.2 Use this information to carry out
considering the application of multi-stage calculations to do with:
forces on the vehicle due to a amounts or sizes
the type of system being
considered b scales or proportion

• presenting the results of their d using formulae.

findings in the description of N3.3 Interpret the results of your
the transmission, steering, calculations, present your findings
suspension and braking and justify your methods.
systems examined.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and preparing C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
their descriptions of at least two documents about the
transmission, steering, same subject.
suspension and braking Each document must be at least 1000
systems from manufacturers’ words long.
manuals and other sources
C3.3 Write two different types of
• writing descriptions of vehicle documents each one giving different
systems. information about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using
the layout, operation and different sources, and multiple search
components of transmission, criteria in at least one case.
steering, suspension and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information
braking systems and derive new information.
• developing their descriptions ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
of transmission, steering, text with image, text with number,
suspension and braking image with number.
systems
• presenting their final
descriptions of the systems.

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 UNIT 41: VEHICLE ENGINE PRINCIPLES, OPERATION, SERVICE AND REPAIR

Unit 41: Vehicle Engine Principles,

Operation, Service and Repair
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Although the technology in modern vehicles is under constant development, the basic
principles of the internal combustion engine (ICE) have remained the same for many
years. However, advances in design have produced engines that are more efficient,
powerful, environmentally friendly and, with the aid of electronics, much more
responsive to the needs of the user.
Developments in engine design and materials technology have significantly increased
the reliability and durability of engine components and systems and, therefore,
minimised failure and the need for subsequent repairs. However, the modern motor
vehicle technician still needs to have a working knowledge and understanding of the
engine and associated sub-systems, to enable them to carry out the necessary care,
fault diagnosis and repair.
This unit will enable learners to develop an understanding of a range of engines in
terms of their operating principles and processes, applications and service/repair.
Two and four-stroke cycle spark and compression ignition engines will be considered
together with their related sub-systems — fuel, cooling and lubrication. The unit also
covers the growing concern about future supplies of fossil fuels and environmental
pollution by examining current and future developments in engine designs that make
use of alternative fuel and power systems.
Finally, the unit will give learners an opportunity to apply their understanding of
engine principles by carrying out engine service and repair work on engines in a
vehicle workshop environment. Learners will gain practical experience of using a
range of tools and equipment and will work to vehicle service and repair industry
standards.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of operation of an internal combustion engine
2 Understand the principles of operation of fuel supply systems
3 Understand the principles of operation of engine cooling and lubrication systems
4 Be able to carry out engine service and repair procedures.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles of operation of an internal combustion engine

Operating cycles: internal combustion engines (ICE) eg four-stroke spark ignition

(SI) and compression ignition (CI) cycles, two-stroke cycle, Wankel (rotary);
pressure-volume diagrams and engine performance diagrams (torque/power)
eg the Otto cycle, identification of induction, compression, ignition, exhaust
strokes, effects of bore, stroke, swept and clearance volume; engine efficiency
eg engine timing, pressure charging, compression ratio
Engine configurations and layout: orientation (longitudinal/transverse); position
of engine (front, mid and rear); cylinder arrangement eg single cylinder twin
cylinder, four cylinder, six cylinder, eight cylinder; cylinder configuration eg in-
line, vee, horizontally opposed arrangements; vehicle design and performance
eg space saving, arrangements for power transmission, vehicle function
(passenger, people carrier, off-road, motorsport), cost, environmental issues
Engine components/assemblies: engine types eg four-stroke SI and CI, two-stroke
cycle, Wankel (rotary); components and assemblies eg cylinder block (piston,
connecting rod, crankshaft and bearings), cylinder head (camshaft, inlet/exhaust
valves, valve operating mechanisms such as over head valve (ohv), single over
head cam (sohc), double over head cam (dohc), variable valve timing); flywheel;
inlet and exhaust manifolds

2 Understand the principles of operation of fuel supply systems

Petrol combustion process: fuel principles eg composition of petrol,

characteristics of petrol, composition of air, air/fuel ratio, lambda ratio;
combustion process eg mixing of fuel/air, flame spread, exhaust emissions;
effects of pollutants/causes of undesirable emissions eg weak mixture, rich
mixture, oil control problems; symptoms of incorrect combustion process eg
detonation, pre-ignition; fuel supply method eg fuel injection, mechanical,
electrical; fuel system components eg tank, petrol filter, air filter,
supply/pressure pump, pressure regulator, injectors
Diesel combustion process: fuel principles eg composition of diesel,
characteristics of diesel, air/fuel ratio; combustion process eg phases, delay,
combustion, spontaneous burning, pressure/crank angle diagrams, diesel knock;
exhaust emissions eg normal, excess air, excess fuel, effects of pollutants; fuel
supply method eg rotary, inline, unit injector; fuel system components eg low
pressure (tank, filter(s), supply pump), high pressure (in-line pump, governor,
injector, cold start arrangements)
Alternative fuel/power: systems eg liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas,
hydrogen, hybrid; adapted/additional components eg fuel tank, additional
modifications, cooling system, management control system, performance;
legislation eg emissions, tax, health and safety

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3 Understand the principles of operation of engine cooling and lubrication

systems

Engine cooling systems: types of system eg air-cooled (cylinder construction, fan,

shutters, thermostat), water-cooled (radiator, radiator cap, expansion tank,
water pump, viscous/electric/mechanical fans, thermostat, hoses, types of
coolant, level indication, anti-freeze protection, effects and prevention of
corrosion); cooling control systems eg engine temperature sensor, ambient air
temperature sensor, thermostatic control valves (mechanical and electrical),
cooling air flow control (air flow control via flap for warm up); engine
management system eg overheating, fuel cut-off
Engine lubrication system: system components eg wet/dry sumps, oil pump,
pressure relief valve; engine oil types and filtration methods eg viscosity, Society
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) rating, multi-grade oil; filters eg full flow or
bypass; lubrication control systems eg sensors, level indicator (mechanical,
electrical); pressure sensors eg absolute and gauge or lamp; low pressure safety
system eg engine management system fuel cut-off

4 Be able to carry out engine service and repair procedures

Routine engine service: procedures eg changing engine lubricant, filters (air,

lubricant, pollen, fuel), checking and adjusting engine timing (ignition,
camshaft); working to instructions eg manufacturer’s service schedules/data,
dealership work schedules/job cards; use of tools and equipment eg hand tools,
vehicle lift equipment, oil drainer, on-board service indicators; safe working
procedures eg personal and vehicle protection (personal protective equipment,
vehicle covers, mats); control of substances hazardous to health (COSHH); safe
disposal of waste products
Major engine repair: procedures eg strip and inspect bore and crankshaft journals
for wear, cylinder head for distortion, valves for seating and damage; working to
instructions eg manufacturer’s repair manuals, web-based information, dealership
work schedules/job cards/supervisor’s instructions; use of tools and equipment eg
engine crane, chains, slings, torque wrenches, micrometers, dial test indicators
(DTI), timing tools, locking devices, cleaning equipment; safe working procedures
eg personal and vehicle protection (personal protective equipment, vehicle
covers, mats), manual handling, use of lifting and support equipment, use of
cleaning solvents; safe disposal of waste products

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the operating cycles of two M1 identify and compare the advantages and D1 evaluate and justify the choice of an
different internal combustion engines disadvantages of the design and engine used for a current vehicle
performance of two different engine application, in terms of its layout,
P2 explain the vehicle design and
configurations and layouts operation and performance
performance implications of an engine’s
configuration and layout M2 identify and compare the advantages and D2 compare a conventional fuel system with
disadvantages of two different engines in that of an alternative fuel/power source.
P3 explain the function, operation and
terms of their fuel, cooling and
construction of the components/
lubrication systems
assemblies of one type of engine
M3 prepare a work schedule for a major
P4 explain the effects of different air fuel
engine repair procedure, carry out the
ratios on the petrol combustion process
repair and evaluate the effectiveness of
and exhaust emissions
the work schedule.
P5 explain the diesel combustion process
P6 describe an application of an alternative
fuel/power supply system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 explain the principles of operation and
differences between an air and a water
cooled engine
P8 explain the layout, system components
and operation of two different engine
lubrication systems
P9 carry out a routine engine service by
following given instructions
P10 carry out a major engine repair following
given instructions.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The unit has been designed to enable learners with no previous experience of engines
to gain an insight into the principles and applications of engine technology. Tutors
will need to consider the best way to take learners through the basic principles of
engine cycles, fuel supply, cooling and lubrication. This will need to be done in such
a way that it stretches those learners with some experience of engine technology but
also provides sufficient support for those new to the topic. The method of delivery
most likely to achieve this is a practical/investigative approach supported by tutor-
led sessions on the relevant theories (eg Otto cycle in relation to engine types,
application of power and torque in engine performance). The unit should not be seen
as a purely theoretical unit with just one practical outcome and tutors should make
delivery of the whole unit a ‘hands-on’ experience wherever possible.
Tutors may consider integrating this unit with others in the programme of study (eg
Unit 8: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines, Unit 9: Diesel Fuel
Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines and Unit 11: Vehicle Engine
Management Systems). It may also be possible to integrate the delivery and/or
assessment of this unit within learners’ work-based role/work placement. Both of
these approaches will have the potential to increase the level of practical content
and relevance for learners. However, it is critical that all vehicle workshop activities
within the centre reflect and simulate current industrial standards, practices and
working environments. This includes dress, codes of practice, supervision and health
and safety.
When planning for delivery, tutors will need to consider how much can be taught
using ‘live’ vehicles and how much will need to be done on special training ‘rigs’ or
specialist models (eg engine, fuel/oil pump cut away sectioned models). The first
three learning outcomes are likely to rely upon a significant use of such ‘rigs’ and
models. However, it is expected that the delivery of the final learning outcome will
be carried out using ‘live’ vehicles and all the work undertaken should replicate
industry standards as far as possible. In particular, the routine engine service and
major engine repair procedures undertaken (eg changing engine lubricant, filters and
strip/inspect bore and crankshaft journals for wear, etc.) should follow typical
vehicle workshop working instructions and use relevant industry standard tools and
equipment.
Safe working procedures must always be followed. Tutors should ensure that
learners’ approach to safety (and care) is embedded within everything they do in a
vehicle workshop.

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Assessment

Tutors should design a varied assessment strategy that could include research and
investigate tasks, set piece service/repair activities and technical reporting.
While assessment methods must reflect the unit content they should also recognise
the need to keep up to date with current components, systems, applications and
working practices. The examples given in the unit content reflect current practice
but could be replaced with more relevant and up-to-date examples as technology
changes, without affecting content coverage. For example, the content for
lubrication control systems provides as its example ‘sensors, level indicator
(mechanical, electrical)’ but advances in digital/computer-based engine
management systems could make mechanical sensors obsolete in the not too distant
future.
There are no fixed ways in which the unit should be assessed or the number of
assessment instruments that might be used. The maximum number of assignments is
likely to be five, one for each of the first three outcomes and two for the last.
However, there are strong links between all the pass criteria and across the merit
and distinction criteria. Tutors should endeavour to make the most of these links to
keep the number of assessment instruments down to a minimum.
One approach might be to design two project-style assignments that run in parallel to
each other. Each project would focus on a particular engine and learners would study
the engine’s operating cycle, configuration and layout, combustion process, cooling
and lubrication systems. They would then carry out a routine service on one engine
and a major repair on the other.
To meet all the requirements of the criteria, one engine should use petrol
combustion and the other diesel. Special considerations within the project brief
would need to be applied to P2 and P3, which only need to be covered for one engine
(although the configuration and layout of the second engine would need to be
considered to achieve M1). Additional tasks would probably need to be included in
the project brief to enable learners to achieve P6 (alternative fuel/power supply
system), and P7 (differences between an air- and a water-cooled engine). P6 could
be achieved through a ‘what if’ scenario within one of the projects (eg consider an
alternative fuel/power supply system for the vehicle being considered). P7 could be
achieved by ensuring that one engine is air-cooled and the other water-cooled.
However, as this situation is unlikely to occur, a ‘what if’ scenario could also be set
within one of the projects (eg if the water-cooled engine had been air-cooled then
explain the principles of operation and differences that would apply).
Running the two projects in parallel would ensure that assessment could follow
delivery and also that the criteria would not need to be fragmented (ie visited twice
at different times before they could be achieved). Opportunities to achieve the merit
and distinction criteria could also be built into the projects with some imagination
and careful planning.
Whatever form of assessment is used, the tasks set will need to ensure that for P1
learners are able to explain the operating cycles of two different internal combustion
engines (ie selecting two from the list of examples in the unit content). For each
engine, learners should explain the engine’s operating cycle by using suitable
diagrams to indicate pressure-volume within the cycle, engine performance
(torque/power) and engine efficiencies (eg engine timing, pressure charging and
applicable compression ratios).

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For P2, learners should be able to explain the vehicle design and performance
implications of an engine’s configuration and layout. They need to take into account
the orientation (longitudinal/transverse), position of engine (front, mid and rear),
cylinder arrangement, cylinder configuration, the purpose for which the vehicle has
been designed and its expected performance (see examples in the unit content). The
key question for learners to address and consider is — why that engine for that
vehicle.
To achieve P3 learners need to explain the function, operation and construction of
the components/assemblies of one type of engine (eg a four-stroke SI engine or a
four-stroke CI engine). Their explanation should include details of the engine’s main
components and assemblies (ie cylinder block, cylinder head, flywheel, inlet and
exhaust manifolds).
Criteria P4, P5 and P6 focus on fuel systems. For P4 learners need to focus on a
petrol engine and explain the effects of different air/fuel ratios on the petrol
combustion process and exhaust emissions. This should include an introduction to
fuel principles (eg composition of petrol, characteristics of petrol, composition of air,
air/fuel ratio, lambda ratio) the combustion process, effects of pollutants and causes
of undesirable symptoms. Learners should also consider the fuel supply method and
fuel system components (eg tank, petrol filter, air filter, etc). This could be set
within the context of the particular petrol engine/vehicle being studied.
A similar approach is required for P5, but this time learners need to explain the
diesel combustion process. Learners should explain diesel fuel principles, combustion
process, exhaust emissions, fuel supply method and fuel system components for
either low pressure or high pressure diesel fuel systems.
For P6, learners should describe an application of an alternative fuel/power supply
system. This can either be given by the tutor or chosen by the learner.
Learners should describe the system (eg LPG, natural gas, hydrogen, hybrid) and the
way that traditional components have been adapted and/or any necessary additional
components. They should also describe the relevant aspects of legislation that apply
to these alternative fuel/power supplies. This should be set within the context of a
particular vehicle.
P7 and P8 are closely linked and require learners to consider the fundamental
differences between common cooling and lubrication systems. They can also be
extended through to M2.
For P7, learners need to explain the principles of operation of, and differences
between, an air and a water-cooled engine. Learners need to identify the types of
system being considered as per the unit content (eg for an air cooled engine the
cylinder construction, fan, shutters etc, for a water cooled engine the radiator,
radiator cap, expansion tank etc). For each engine learners will need to consider the
cooling control systems used and the relevant aspects of the engine management
system with respect to engine cooling.
For P8, learners need to explain the system components, layout and operation of two
different engine lubrication systems. This should include the respective system
components (eg wet/dry sumps, oil pump, pressure relief valve), engine oil types and
filtration methods, lubrication control systems, pressure sensors and low pressure
safety system.

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P9 and P10 form the focus of the practical assessment for this unit. Learners need to
carry out a routine engine service and a major engine repair following given
instructions. Examples of typical routine servicing and major repairs are given in the
unit content, although these are not exclusive. Other service activities or repairs of
an equivalent level of difficulty would be acceptable.
Assessment evidence for P9 and P10 is likely to be in the form of the learner’s
personal log/record of the work undertaken plus relevant tutor observation records.
Learners may also wish to use photographic evidence that they have suitably
annotated to support both their log/record and tutor observation. The evidence must
indicate the service and repair procedures carried out, the instructions followed, the
tools and equipment used and the safe working procedures followed, including safe
disposal of waste products.
To achieve M2, learners need to build on their understanding of fuel, cooling and
lubrication systems (P4 to P8) to identify and compare the advantages and
disadvantages of two engines.
For M3, learners need to prepare a work schedule for a major engine repair
procedure, carry out the repair and evaluate the effectiveness of the work schedule.
Learners are expected to carry out a second (and different) major engine repair to
achieve the merit criterion. It is not sufficient for learners just to prepare the work
schedule and carry out a single repair in order to achieve P10 and M3. The object of
the assessment at pass level is to establish whether learners can competently
complete a given major repair under supervision/guidance. However, at merit level
they are expected to demonstrate independence and reflection.
For D1, learners need to evaluate and justify the choice of an engine for a current
vehicle application. This should be done in terms of the engine’s layout, operation
and performance. It is expected that the evidence presented will include a detailed
evaluation of the particular vehicle’s engine (eg type, power, layout, main
components, fuel, lubrication systems). Having evaluated the engine in this way
learners should then arrive at a reasoned justification for the manufacturer’s choice
based upon their own findings.
Evidence for D1 is most likely to be in a written format but learners could also
include diagrams, photographs or other visual means to illustrate their work. Where
images are not learners’ own work credit must be given to the originator. Learners
should have suitably annotated such images to indicate how they support their
report.
For D2, learners should compare a conventional fuel system with that of an
alternative fuel/power source. This can be linked with the work undertaken for P4,
P5 and P6 and M2 (in part). The comparison should be in terms of the same aspects
covered for the pass criteria (eg the fuel/power principles, combustion process,
adapted/additional components, effects of pollutants/causes of undesirable
emissions, fuel/power supply methods, fuel/power system components, relevant
legislation). Again, evidence for this criterion is likely to be in the form of a written
report and learners may make use of suitable images, as detailed for D1 above.

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Links to National Occupational Standards (NOS), other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly:
• Unit G1: Contribute to Workplace Good Housekeeping
• Unit MR01: Carry out Routine Vehicle Maintenance
• Unit MR05: Conduct Pre and Post Work Vehicle Inspections
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR08HV: Diagnose and Rectify Commercial Vehicle Chassis System Faults
• Unit MR11: Overhaul Mechanical Units.
The unit also provides some of the knowledge and understanding for the following
units in the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards in Automotive
Engineering:
• Unit 101: Stripping and Rebuilding Engines for Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit 102: Building Engines for Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit 105: Dressing Engines for Motorsport Vehicles.
This unit can be linked with Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification, Unit 8:
Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines, Unit 9: Diesel Fuel Injection
Systems for Compression Ignition Engines and Unit 11: Vehicle Engine Management
Systems.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide learners with access to a suitably equipped vehicle
workshop, equipped to modern standards with live vehicles, test rigs and components
that reflect current technology and working practices.

Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology

(Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748780823
Nunney MJ — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
ISBN 0750680377

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• taking measurements of N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
engine bore, strokes, swept information from relevant sources.
and clearance volume, wear N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
calculations stage calculations to do with:
• preparing feedback on a amounts or sizes
calculations and test
b scales or proportion
procedures.
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the principles of operation of least two documents about the same
an internal combustion subject.
engine, fuel, lubricating and Each document must be at least 1000
servicing/repair procedures words long.
• preparing written evidence C3.3 Write two different types of documents
on the principles of operation each one giving different information
of an internal combustion about complex subjects.
engine, fuel, lubricating and One document must be at least 1000
servicing/repair procedures. words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching the principles of ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
operation of an internal sources, and multiple search criteria in at
combustion engine, fuel, least one case.
lubricating and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
servicing/repair procedures derive new information.
• preparing and presenting ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
evidence on the principles of text with image, text with number,
operation of an internal image with number.
combustion angine, fuel,
lubricating and servicing/
repair proceduresresearch
completed for assessments.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing for and carrying LP3.1 Set targets using information from
out servicing and repair appropriate people and plan how these
procedures, following given will be met.
instructions. LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
your achievements.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a routine engine WO3.1 Plan work with others.
service and major repair, WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
following given instructions. progress towards your agreed objectives.
WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
of improving collaborative work in the
future.

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Unit 42: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and

Rectification
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Although technological advances have led to increasingly reliable mechanical,
electrical and electronic vehicle systems, for a variety of reasons these systems still
fail. When a fault develops it is more important than ever from an operational, safety
and often a legal standpoint, to carry out a quality repair.
This unit aims to provide learners with the skills, knowledge and understanding
needed to recognise fault symptoms, apply fault diagnosis and rectification
procedures and confirm system integrity, in a range of vehicle systems.
Learners will be expected to diagnose and undertake work on faults in vehicle
mechanical and electrical/electronic systems regardless of the manufacturer or
vehicle type (eg light or heavy vehicle, passenger carrying vehicle, motorsport
vehicles). Learners will identify, select and use a range of diagnostic tools and
equipment, checking that they are in a safe and useable condition before use.
For the purpose of this unit, a fault may be considered to be a component failure or
system malfunction relating to mechanical or electrical and electronic systems,
individually or in combination.
When diagnosing faults, learners will need to work in a logical manner, working to
instructions obtained from appropriate sources. Safe working practices and good
house-keeping will be a recurrent theme throughout the unit.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to identify vehicle system faults
2 Be able to select and use diagnostic equipment and procedures to identify and
confirm faults
3 Understand alternative rectification procedures
4 Be able to rectify faults and confirm system integrity.

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Unit content

1 Be able to identify vehicle system faults

Mechanical system: systems eg engine (such as pistons, belts, chains, bearings,

shafts), ancillary systems (such as fuel, lubrication, cooling), transmission (such
as clutch, torque converter, gearbox, rear axle, differential), steering and
suspension, braking; faults eg internal engine component failure, failed head
gasket, failed seal, fuel blockage, contamination (such as oil, fuel, coolant,
hydraulic and pneumatic fluid), non-starting, low/high oil pressure, faulty coolant
system, clutch malfunction, damaged clutch linkages, bearing failure (such as
engine, clutch, pump, rear axle/differential), selector mechanisms malfunction,
gear selection difficult, faulty torque converter hydraulic components, worn gear,
worn drive shaft/joint, misalignment (such as drive shafts, steering/suspension),
defective steering/suspension components, inoperative braking system (such as
faulty caliper, worn disc); symptoms eg unusual sounds, noisy bearings, leaks,
smoke, metallic particles in lubricants, loss of power, exhaust gas contamination,
misfire, engine overheating/overcooling, water contamination, clutch (such as
slip, grab, judder, difficult selection), vibration, unusual tyre wear, poor brake
efficiency, brake noise and judder, braking imbalance, excessive brake pedal
travel, poor road handling, oversteer, understeer
Electrical/electronic system: systems eg starting, charging, ignition, lighting and
auxiliary, control systems (such as electronic, instrumentation, engine); faults eg
starting system sluggish or non-operational, battery faults, alternator
malfunctioning, diode faults, electronic control not working, fuse problems,
damaged or loose wire, inoperative ignition components, ignition timing faults,
inoperative systems, headlamp misalignment, instrumentation malfunction, driver
information malfunction, engine management malfunction, chassis control system
malfunction (such as ABS, stability control, transmission control), security and
alarm systems failure; symptoms eg noisy operation, no charge, over charging,
short circuit, open circuit, misfire, non-starting, incorrect information,
inaccurate displays, confused control

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2 Be able to select and use diagnostic equipment and procedures to identify and
confirm faults

Preparation: regulations eg Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations

(PUWER) 1998, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations
2002, Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998, Manual Handling
Operations Regulations 1992, Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations
1992, Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, Electricity at Work Regulations 1989,
Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005, Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and
Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995, Health and Safety (First Aid)
Regulations 1981, motorsport specific; positioning eg use of ramps, jacks, stands;
vehicle protection eg covers, sheeting; component/system access eg removal of
bodywork, fairings and covers, removal of excessive oil, dust, grease and dirt,
competition/road debris
Diagnostic equipment: mechanical equipment eg dial gauges, micrometers, feeler
gauges, pressure gauges, temperature gauges, diagnostic analysers, emission
testers, auto transmission test equipment, steering geometry and suspension
alignment equipment, wheel balancing and brake testing equipment; electrical
and electronic equipment eg meters, multimeters, oscilloscopes, diagnostic
analysers, data logging/self-diagnosis equipment, emissions testers, computer
systems
Diagnostic procedures: reference to considerations of safety and vehicle/system
protection; procedures eg visual, aural, performance monitoring, road and roller
tests, procedures used with electrical, electronic and systems diagnostic
equipment; assessing vehicle information systems and data in a variety of formats
eg workshop manuals, diagnostic information, CD ROMs, IT-based data retrieval
systems and fault code analysers

3 Understand alternative rectification procedures

Rectification procedures: eg
- dismantling, inspection and assessment: comparison against specifications
(manufacturer, vehicle data, auto data, computer-based systems), factors
influencing rectification choice (operational, cost, safety and legal
requirements)
- adjustments: associated with the range of vehicle systems, manufacturers’
specifications (tolerances, operational limits), safety, performance and legal
considerations
- replacement: using new, overhauled and factory or third party reconditioned
components and units
- repair: in-house or third-party specialist repair options, comparison of cost of
replacement/repair including consideration of service life expectancy,
reliability and warranty status
- substitution/alteration: use of adapted, redesigned or re-engineered
components and/or units and effects of substitution (based on comparisons of
specifications, manufacturers’ bulletins, safety and service recommendations)

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4 Be able to rectify faults and confirm system integrity

Rectify faults associated with mechanical systems: eg engine and ancillary

systems, transmission, steering, wheels and tyres, suspension and braking systems
Rectify typical faults associated with electrical/electronic systems: eg starting,
charging, ignition, lighting and auxiliary systems, vehicle instrumentation, driver
information, engine management, chassis control (such as ABS, stability control,
transmission control), security and alarm
Equipment: hand tools; MOT equipment; product specific equipment; for
mechanical systems eg measuring equipment, analysers, on-board diagnostics,
alignment equipment, balancing equipment; for electrical/electronic systems eg
scanning equipment meters
Documentation to confirm system integrity: carry out testing and compare results
against manufacturers’ specifications and data; legal requirements; performance
test data

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify faults on four different systems M1 justify the use of the equipment chosen D1 analyse a system’s test results and
(two mechanical and two electrical), on to diagnose selected system faults with recommend actions needed to rectify
each of two different vehicles from given reference to the expected accuracy of problems
symptoms the results obtained
D2 review one vehicle diagnostic and
P2 select, prepare and use appropriate M2 describe the advantages and rectification procedure carried out and
diagnostic equipment and procedures to disadvantages of two diagnostic make recommendations for
diagnose faults on four different systems procedures including the use of improvement.
(two mechanical and two electrical) on dedicated test equipment
each of two different vehicles
M3 justify the selection of a rectification
P3 describe a different rectification procedure in terms of safety, cost,
procedure for each of two different performance and legal considerations.
faults, one fault on each of two different
mechanical systems
P4 describe a different rectification
procedure for each of two different
faults, one fault on each of two different
electrical/electronic systems

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Unit 42: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 carry out rectification procedures on two
different faulty mechanical systems,
conforming with manufacturers’
specifications and safety and legal
requirements
P6 carry out rectification procedures on two
different faulty electrical/electronic
systems, conforming with manufacturers’
specifications and safety and legal
requirements
P7 use appropriate equipment, procedures
and documentation to confirm system
integrity.

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 Unit 42: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Learners will need an understanding of the purpose, function, and principles of

operation of specific vehicle components and systems before starting this unit. Tutors
will need to consider this level of prior knowledge and skills carefully considered
before starting to deliver this unit.
The delivery approach used should be sufficiently varied to provide learners with the
underpinning knowledge and skills needed to assist with fault-finding operations on
any vehicle type.
Emphasis should be placed on developing practical diagnostic and rectification skills.
Videos, simulations and rigs will be effective learning aids, since provision of ‘live’
examples of the range of system faults is likely to be impracticable. Learners should
be given opportunities to compare the advantages and disadvantages of alternative
procedures. It is therefore strongly recommended that most of the unit is delivered
in a relevant workshop environment using practical investigation and appropriate
equipment, rigs, units, components and vehicles.
The four learning outcomes are ordered logically and could be developed sequentially
through practical demonstration and practice. This will help learners understand the
logic and routine behind effective fault-finding and rectification procedures before
attempting to diagnose and rectify the faults themselves.
The best way for learners to develop fault identification and diagnostic skills is to
practise the procedures involved. Although an understanding of rectification
procedures is needed for learning outcome 3 it may be best to develop this
understanding through practical use. This may mean that the majority of time is
devoted to the practical requirement of learning outcomes 1, 2 and 4.
Although the unit content attempts to range faults and symptoms it is appreciated
that in some cases faults will actually be symptoms and in some cases symptoms will
be faults. If this is explained during delivery if it then occurs during assessment
learners will feel confident about what they are doing.
The use of ‘eg’ is to give an indication and illustration of the breadth and depth of
the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’ needs to be taught or
assessed.

Assessment

This unit is likely to be assessed through a combination of assignments and practical

workshop investigations. These will develop learners’ investigative skills and can
provide opportunities to develop key skills.
It is expected that learners will have carried out practical work on vehicles to
support the underpinning knowledge. Evidence will include test data, printouts and
records of the diagnostic procedures carried out. These records may be witness
statements/observation records supplemented by annotated photographs.

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Unit 42: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification

The emphasis in this unit is on developing practical fault diagnostic and rectification
skills across a range of mechanical and electrical/electronic vehicle systems.
Learners should be given opportunities to diagnose typical faults, recommend repair
strategies and carry out fault rectification, based on diagnostic information and other
criteria such as safety, cost and operational and legal requirements. It is expected
that learners will be given opportunities to use and compare alternative diagnostic
procedures and equipment in practical situations.
To achieve P1, learners should identify faults on two mechanical and two electrical
systems, on each of two different vehicles from given symptoms. It is likely that only
one symptom for each fault will be sufficient. However it may be beneficial to
learners if more symptoms can be given or arranged. This means there will be a total
of eight faults to identify.
For P2, learners will need to prepare two vehicles for diagnostic checking and
identify the faults prior to rectification. Learners should be able to select and access
sources of data to help with the fault diagnosis and also select, prepare and use the
appropriate diagnostic equipment to carry out the tasks.
To achieve P3 and P4, learners need to describe rectification procedures for different
faults on two mechanical systems and two electrical/electronic systems. Although
the rectification procedures described for the two electrical/electronic systems or
two mechanical systems need to be different, procedures described for P3 can be
used again in P4. The rectification strategies described could relate back to the
different faults identified for P2.
For P5 and P6, learners will apply their knowledge by carrying out the rectification
process, conforming with the manufacturer’s specifications, safety and legal
requirements, for two different mechanical and two different electrical/electronic
systems.
When confirming system integrity for P7, the equipment that could be used is ranged
within the unit content under learning outcome 4, although other equipment, such as
that listed under learning outcome 2 as diagnostic equipment, is also appropriate.
Confirmation of system integrity should include comparing results against
manufacturers’ specifications and data, legal requirements and performance test
data.
Throughout the assignments it is expected that each of the faults will be on different
systems and may be on different vehicles at different times. The vehicles could,
however, be of the same type (eg both goods vehicles or motorsports vehicles if this
is appropriate) or different types. The intention is to give learners experience of a
diverse range of vehicle system faults across different vehicles so that they have the
opportunity to satisfy all the grading criteria with sufficient depth and rigour.
To achieve M1, learners should justify the use of the equipment selected to diagnose
system faults, with reference to the expected accuracy of the results obtained.
This should demonstrate learners' ability to progress from knowing how to select and
use the equipment to justifying the reasons for using the correct equipment and
possible consequences of not doing so. A task to do this could be set after the
activities for P1 and P2 have been carried out.

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For M2, learners should identify and describe the advantages of alternative diagnostic
procedures, including the use of dedicated test equipment within the context of the
fault diagnosis being carried out. Opportunities for this could be provided after P2
has been achieved. Learners should also be able to justify the selection of a
rectification procedure (M3) in terms of safety, cost, performance and legal
considerations. Again a task could be set after P3, P4 and P5 have been carried out.
All responses to tasks set for the merit criteria are likely to be in the form of written
outcomes.
To achieve a distinction, learners should analyse test results and recommend actions
needed to rectify the problems associated with systems and components (D1).
Learners will also need to review a diagnostic and rectification procedure and make
recommendations for improvement (D2). These criteria can be met through responses
to written tasks after all pass criteria have been carried out and data obtained from
the practical tasks for D1.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports, and can be linked with, any of the practical systems-based units in
the qualification.
The unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly:
• Unit AE 4: Diagnose and Rectify Engine Electrical Faults
• Unit AE 6: Diagnose and Rectify Auxiliary Equipment Electrical Faults
• Unit MR 6: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR 7: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Engine and Component Faults
• Unit MR 8: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Chassis System Faults
• Unit MR 11: Overhaul Mechanical Units
• Unit MR 13: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Transmission and Drive Line System
Faults
• Unit MR 58: Setting up Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 59: Carrying out Motorsport Vehicle Inspection During Competition
• Unit MR 62: Removing and Refitting Suspension Systems on Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 63: Removing and Refitting Braking Systems on Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 64: Removing and Refitting Steering Systems on Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 65: Removing and Refitting Chassis Sub Assemblies and Components on
Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 66: Removing and Refitting Fuel Systems on Motorsport Vehicles
• Unit MR 67: Carrying out Fault Diagnosis and Rectification Activities on Motorsport
Vehicles
• Unit MR 69: Removing and Refitting Electrical/Electronic Equipment on
Motorsport Vehicles.

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Essential resources

A range of vehicle types and equipment are needed for the delivery of this unit. This
will include manufacturer/vehicle-specific equipment (eg for engine management,
ABS, security and other advanced systems) and non-manufacturer/vehicle-specific
equipment (eg meters, oscilloscopes). A variety of data sources will also be required
to support the range of vehicles, systems, equipment and procedures used.

Indicative reading for learners

Bonnick A — Vehicle Electronic Systems and Fault Diagnosis (Butterworth-Heinemann,

2004) ISBN 0340706309
Chowanietz E — Automotive Electronics (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995)
ISBN 0750618787
Hillier V A — Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics, 2nd Edition (Nelson Thornes,
1996) ISBN 0748726950
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
ISBN 0750680377
Whipp J — Transmission, Chassis and Related Systems (Thomson Learning, 2001)
ISBN 186152806X

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using appropriate equipment, PS3.3 Apply agreed methods to check if the
procedures and problem has been solved, describe the
documentation to confirm results and review your approach to
system integrity. problem solving.

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492 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for

Spark Ignition Engines
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Most modern vehicles are fitted with fuel injection systems that allow the engine to
work more efficiently and usually result in greater power and cleaner exhaust
emissions. These systems work by forcing pressurised fuel through a tiny nozzle that
atomises the fuel, allowing it to burn more quickly when mixed with air. This unit
will introduce learners to petrol injection systems and give them an appreciation of
how these systems operate.
Learners will study a variety of fuel injection systems in order to appreciate their
function, their operation and the differences between systems. The unit will enable
learners to understand the air and fuel supply systems and the operation of the
engine control systems and components. Learners will also gain an understanding of
the equipment and methods used to test, maintain and repair petrol fuel injection
systems.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the operational differences of petrol injection systems
2 Understand the function and operation of air and fuel supply components and
systems
3 Understand the operation of electronic control systems and components
4 Understand the methods used to test, maintain and repair petrol fuel injection
systems.

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Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

Unit content

1 Understand the operational differences of petrol injection systems

Petrol injection system: principles of fuel combustion eg composition of

atmospheric air, calorific value of fuel, mixture strength and the range of
combustibility, influence of air/fuel ratio on engine power output; vaporization of
fuel and cooling effects on charge density; injector layout (single point, multi-
point, phased and continuous injection); mechanical and electronic control (open
and closed loop systems); specification eg technical improvements relative to
performance, emissions and costs
Fuel Injector positioning: single/multi-point injectors; positioning of injector
within the induction manifold eg up-stream, down-stream or direct into the
cylinder; quality of the homogeny of the charge and volumetric efficiency eg
requirements for compensatory enrichment, effects of fuel condensation on
manifolds walls
Stoichiometric and lean burn technology: phasing of injection eg induction cycle
injection (stoichiometric cycle), compression stroke injection (direct injection,
stratified engine operation); fuel injection strategies eg continuous injection,
intermittent injection, semi sequential and sequential injection, asynchronous
and grouped injection; operational conditions eg cold starting, idling, maximum
power; thermal efficiency and the formation of pollutants; exhaust gas
composition eg composition of the exhaust gases under rich, lean and
stoichiometric conditions, legal requirements

2 Understand the function and operation of air and fuel supply components and
systems

Air supply system components: air intake tract; air cleaner; air throttle valve
(butterfly valve); throttle body; use of an electric throttle; induction manifold
and plenum chamber; variable geometry induction manifolds
Fuel supply components: fuel tank construction eg steel with soldered joints,
welded joints, moulded plastic, use of internal baffles and swirl pots; electric
fuel pump eg vane, roller gear, plunger; valves eg pressure relief, non return;
fuel lines eg accumulator, pipelines, fuel pipe connections, fuel filter; continuous
injection mechanical systems; pressure regulator with induction manifold
pressure correction; common fuel rail injection (direct injection) eg low pressure
supply pump, low pressure sensor, high pressure pump, high pressure injectors,
high pressure sensor; methods employed to reduce fuel vapour escape eg charcoal
canister, purge control valve

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 Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

3 Understand the operation of electronic control systems and components

Sensors, switches and actuators: sensors eg crankshaft position, camshaft

position, coolant temperature, ambient air temperature, fuel temperature, mass
air flow (vane type, thermal type (hot wire and hot chip), manifold pressure
sensors (manifold absolute pressure (MAP) sensor, exhaust gas oxygen sensor (step
response lambda, broad band lambda), engine speed and throttle position sensor;
switches eg thermo-time switch, idle speed switch, inertia switch; actuators eg
solenoid injectors, variable manifold butterfly actuators, electrical throttle valve
actuator
Electronic control unit (ECU): input and output processes; injector driver circuits;
fuel mapping; basic programming theory eg use of input parameters to enable the
software to calculate correct fuel quantity for injection; software updating eg use
of specialised software to change fuel map setting at varying engine/operational
conditions; software self diagnostics; controller area network (CAN) data bus eg
single wire, twin wire, fibre optic
Emission control principles and components: exhaust gas oxygen sensing;
catalytic converter eg reduction, oxidising, nitrogen oxide (NOx); exhaust gas
recirculation (EGR) and components eg outline of the process to reduce NOx
formation, operation strategies, EGR valve, vacuum modulator, vacuum sensing
valve; air injection and components eg air pump, air injector, pulse air injection,
electronic control of EGR and air injection systems; effect of engine operating
conditions eg cranking, cold start enrichment, hot start enrichment, cold idle,
hot idle, light load, full load, acceleration, deceleration, engine speed limitation

4 Understand the methods used to test, maintain and repair petrol fuel injection
systems

Diagnostic equipment, tests and adjustments: exhaust gas analysis eg use of

exhaust gas analysers, lambda values, air/fuel ratio, idle speed adjustments; on-
board diagnostics (OBD) eg fault code reading, data logging, use of break out box
to locate faults, data link connection to dedicated code readers; vacuum pump eg
induction system leakage, simulation of manifold depression to check fuel
pressure regulator; multimeter eg system voltage and circuit tests, circuit
resistance, circuit integrity; pressure gauge eg fuel line pressure and regulator
settings; injector delivery and spray pattern eg injection quantity, spray pattern
and leakage; oscilloscope eg engine/camshaft speed sensor patterns, injection
duration, lambda sensor output
Injection systems faults and symptoms: eg throttle position sensor, mass air flow
sensor, coolant sensor, crankshaft/camshaft speed/position sensor, exhaust
oxygen sensor, idle speed control valve

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Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain and compare the operation of M1 compare the relative advantages and D1 evaluate two typical modern petrol
two different petrol injection systems disadvantages of port injection and injection systems in terms of their legal,
used on modern fuel injected engines direct injection with reference to timing environmental and operational
of the injection process requirements
P2 describe the methods used to position
the fuel injector for an induction port M2 compare the injection, combustion cycle D2 evaluate the use of diagnostic tests
injection and a direct injection into the and exhaust emissions within a using standard workshop equipment in
cylinder stoichiometric air fuel ratio engine and a comparison to dedicated on board
lean burn stratified charge engine diagnostic facilities, equipment and
P3 describe the principles of stoichiometric
software used with modern petrol
and lean burn technology with reference M3 evaluate and compare the diagnostic
injection systems.
to petrol injection engines tests and repair strategies that can be
performed on two different modern
P4 identify and explain the function and
petrol injection systems, including the
operation of the air and fuel supply
equipment that may be used.
components of a given fuel injection
system

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 Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the function and operation of
four major input sensors, their related
switches and actuators and how the
electronic control unit uses feedback
from these devices to calculate quantity
of fuel injected
P6 explain the emission control measures
and associated components used for a
given fuel injected engine system
P7 describe the diagnostic equipment
required and the tests that need to be
carried out to check the satisfactory
operation of two different fuel injection
systems
P8 describe the symptoms associated with
three different injection system faults
found in modern engines and the repair
strategy for each.

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Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit should be delivered using a balance of theoretical and practical study.
Where possible the function, operation and principles of injection systems should be
demonstrated through investigation using rigs, units, vehicles, components and
equipment.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in order. This will allow learners to
develop an overall understanding of the operational differences of a range of systems
before going into too much detail. Learners would then understand the design
principles and requirements of petrol injection prior to targeting the complexities of
specific components, testing, maintenance and repair.
Although the unit does not require the use of diagnostic equipment to carry out tests
and fault diagnosis, it would be good practice to provide learners with an opportunity
to do so where such equipment is available.
Formative assessment, with effective feedback and support, will play an important
part in the development of learners throughout this unit, particularly for their
achievement of the merit and distinction grades. Learners should be encouraged to
compare and consider relative advantages and disadvantages of stoichiometric and
lean burn technology. In particular, they should consider how current and proposed
changes in emission requirements will impact upon fuel injection technology.
Learners should also consider the interrelationship of all components that contribute
to mixture correction and hence the emission control process.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A variety of evidence could be used to support assessment. For example, a mixture of

written tests and practical investigative assignments could be used requiring learners
to explain, describe, identify, compare and evaluate as required by the criteria.
Although all of the pass criteria require descriptive evidence, it is not expected that
centres will only use written tests to achieve this. The unit lends itself to an
investigative approach and this should be reflected in the assessment strategy
wherever possible.
For P1, learners need to explain and compare the operation of two different petrol
injection systems used on modern fuel injected engines. A task could be developed
requiring learners to inspect two different types of systems (selected from those
outlined in the unit content) in a practical environment.
P2 requires learners to describe the methods used to position the fuel injector for an
induction port injection and a direct injection into the cylinder. P1 and P2 are closely
linked and could be assessed together. The same vehicles could then be used for both
criteria.

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There are similar close links between P3 and P4. For P3 learners need to describe the
principles of stoichiometric and lean burn technology with reference to petrol
injection engines. This should include phasing of injection, fuel injection strategies,
operational conditions, thermal efficiency and the formation of pollutants including
exhaust gas composition. It is expected that learners will make reference to more
than one type of petrol injected engine in order to cover the requirements of the
unit content. They will need to demonstrate an understanding of the combustion of
fuel within an engine and the differences between the homogenous/stoichiometric
charge and the stratified, overall lean mixtures associated with modern direct
injected engines. To achieve P4, learners need to identify and explain the function
and operation of the air and fuel supply components of a given fuel injection system.
This relates with P3 and both should be covered within a single activity. Learners
will, by necessity, need to make reference to open and closed loop control methods
and their relevance to the function, operation and fundamental principles affecting
fuel delivery.
For P5, learners need to describe the function and operation of four major input
sensors, their related switches and actuators and how the electronic control unit uses
feedback from these devices to calculate quantity of fuel injected. This criterion
should not be fragmented into sensors, switches, actuators and ECU. One activity
should be designed to enable the whole criterion to be covered at the same time.
Learners should include, for each major input sensor considered, suitable references
to the interrelationships between each of the components within the systems.
P6 requires learners to examine and explain the emission control measures and
associated components used for a given fuel injected engine system. Learners should
consider exhaust gas sensing, catalytic converter, EGR and associated components
and the effect of engine operating conditions on emissions.
P7 and P8 focus on system defects, symptoms and the testing procedures necessary
used for maintenance and repair processes. It is likely, although not essential, that
the three faults in P8 will be associated with the two systems considered for P7. It is
expected that faults associated with more than one system will be considered.
Wherever possible the descriptions associated with P7 and P8 should be the product
of a practical investigation undertaken by the learner. Where centres do not have the
equipment to do this they may wish to consider work-based evidence if practicable.
For M1, learners will need to compare the relative attributes of port injection and
direct cylinder injection. They should also clearly define the point at which injection
commences relative to the engine cycle.
M2 is linked to P3, P4, P5 and P6 in as much as learners need to explore in more
detail the differences in combustion strategy to meet the close limits set by
environmental legislation. It is expected that learners will refer to the use of closed
loop control and the use of step response and/or broadband (or both) oxygen sensors
to enable accurate reduction and oxidation to occur within the catalytic converter.
M3 is linked to P7 and P8. Learners need to evaluate and compare the effectiveness
of the tests that can be used to locate faults and the appropriate repair strategies.
This should draw on and bring together the understanding gained at pass level
enabling them to demonstrate a coherent understanding of testing and fault finding
methods.

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Unit 43: Petrol Injection Systems for Spark Ignition Engines

For D1 learners need to evaluate two typical modern petrol injection systems in
terms of their legal, environmental and operational requirements. For D2, they will
need to evaluate the use of diagnostic tests. Emphasis should be placed on the
comparison with diagnostic algorithms using standard workshop test equipment and
on-board diagnosis (OBD) which require dedicated test equipment. Learners should
cite examples of actual testing.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Automotive Skills Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Maintenance and Repair,
particularly:
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR07: Diagnose Rectify Vehicle Engine and Component Faults
• Unit MR10: Identify and Agree Customer Vehicle Needs
• Unit AE04: Diagnose and Rectify Engine Electrical Faults.
• The unit can be linked to Unit 2: Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service
and Repair, Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification and Unit 6: Vehicle
Electrical and Electronic Principles.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a range of components, assemblies and rigs and,
wherever possible, access to the diagnostic equipment identified in the unit content.
Access to suitable vehicles and tools will need to be provided along with a range of
relevant information sources and operational manuals.

Indicative reading for learners

Bonnick A — Vehicle Electronic Systems and Fault Diagnosis (Butterworth-Heinemann,

1998) ISBN 0340706309
Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology
(Nelson Thornes, 2006) ISBN 0748780998
Hillier V — Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics (Nelson Thornes, 1996)
ISBN 0748726950
Stan C — Direct Injection Systems: The Next Decade in Engine Technology (SAE
International, 2002) ISBN 0768010705
White C — Automotive Engine Management and Fuel Injection Systems Manual
(Haynes, 1997) ISBN 1859603440

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

They should be able to develop the following

When learners are: key skills evidence:

• researching the various C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at

petrol injection systems least two documents about the same
subject.
• describing and comparing
petrol injection systems, Each document must be at least 1000
diagnostic equipment and words long
fault finding/repair methods. C3.3 Write two different types of documents
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the various petrol injection sources, and multiple search criteria in at
systems least one case.
preparing their descriptions, ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
comparison and explanations derive new information.
of petrol injection systems, ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
diagnostic equipment and text with image, text with number, image
fault finding/repair methods with number.
and presenting their results.

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502 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for

Compression Ignition Engines
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Advances in technology and a tightening of exhaust emissions requirements have led
to a considerable improvement in the performance of diesel engines. Once
exclusively used in large heavy vehicles, plant or marine applications, diesel engines
are now an acceptable alternative to petrol engines in light vehicles. To compete
effectively as an alternative, the light diesel engine must have similar attributes to
the petrol. Modern fuel injection systems in diesel engines enable improved engine
performance and economy and control of emissions, enabling parity with the petrol
engine. This unit aims to give learners an understanding of the design and operation
of different types of light and heavy vehicle diesel fuel injection systems.
Learners will study a variety of fuel injection systems in order to appreciate their
function, their operation and the differences between systems. The unit will enable
learners to understand the air and fuel supply systems and the operation of the
engine control systems and components. Learners will also gain an understanding of
the equipment and methods used to test, maintain and repair diesel fuel injection
systems.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the operational differences of diesel fuel injection systems
2 Understand the function and operation of air and diesel fuel supply components
and systems
3 Understand the operation of diesel engine control systems and components
4 Understand the methods used to test, maintain and repair diesel fuel injection
systems.

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Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Unit content

1 Understand the operational differences of diesel fuel injection systems

Diesel injection system: principles of diesel fuel combustion, combustion phases,

turbulence and the compression of induced air, composition of fuels used in
diesel engines, abnormal combustion and its causes; conventional diesel fuel
injection systems eg inline, rotary fuel injection pump, high pressure common
rail injection system using electronic injector control, low pressure common rail
injection system using combined pump and injector, electronic diesel control
using conventional fuel injection pump; operational factors eg technical
improvements relative to performance and emissions
Diesel fuel supply: fuel supply pumps eg types (diaphragm, gear vane and
plunger), multi-stage pressure development, provision for hand priming, single
and double pumping action; means of operation, eg fuel pump camshaft, engine
camshaft auxiliary drives, electrical drives; fuel supply pressure regulating valves
(control of fuel flow rates in high-pressure systems); fuel heaters and coolers eg
waxing prevention methods, cooling of returned fuel before entering fuel tank;
procedures for venting diesel fuel injection systems eg requirements to bleed air
from the system, self venting systems, faults associated with entrapment of air in
the fuel injection system; fuel injection system settings eg phasing and
calibration of fuel injection pumps, requirements to seal maximum fuel and
maximum speed stops, methods used to identify injection timing marks/position
for refitting to engine, adjustment of plunger travel or torque methods on
combined pump and injector types

2 Understand the function and operation of air and diesel fuel supply
components and systems

Air supply system components: air cleaners; induction manifold design; use of
resonance chambers to improve engine volumetric efficiency; variable geometry
induction manifolds and variable geometry turbo chargers
Diesel fuel supply components: fuel tank eg construction, methods used to
minimise aeration of the fuel; filtration of the fuel eg requirements to filter the
fuel, effects of low temperature wax formation on fine filters, filter placement,
effects of water ingress, methods used to trap and remove water, construction
and position of primary and secondary filters, effect of blocked filtration system
(loss of power, misfire, engine shut down); control valves eg delivery valves with
anti-dribble control, manual shut down, solenoid shut down valves and reverse
flow valves (used on electronically governed inline pumps to ensure engine shut
down), application of electronic control; injector nozzles eg single hole, multi-
hole, pintle, pintaux; fuel injection pump eg in-line fuel injection pumps, single
and multi-cylinder, drive couplings, mechanical advance/retard system,

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 Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

electronic control of injection timing, firing order control, anti-reverse cams,

methods used to meter quantity of fuel injected; high and low pressure pipes eg
high pressure injection pipes, factors that govern internal and external diameter,
length of high pressure pipes, factors that affect injection timing, size and affects
on volume flow rates (low pressure pipes), need for adequate clamping of pipes

3 Understand the operation of diesel engine control systems and components

Sensors and actuators: sensors eg engine speed, air mass, coolant temperature,
throttle position, fuel pressure intake manifold pressure, intake manifold
temperature, governor control rod position, throttle position; actuators eg
electrical/hydraulic servo units, glow plugs (methods to reduce diesel knock),
injectors, fuel pressure regulating valve, rotary injection pumps (distributor type
injection pumps, drive methods and engine timing), auto-advance system,
method to ensure correct firing order
Control systems: common rail, electronically controlled, low pressure systems eg
combined pump and injector, drive mechanism for injector, control strategies,
operation of the injector on its cycle, fuel supply pump operation pump drive and
timing arrangements; common rail electronically controlled high-pressure system
eg fuel supply circuitry, operation of the supply pump, fuel rail pressure sensors,
pressure limiting valve, construction and operation of the injector, pre-injection
phase, main injection phase; diesel fuel injection cold start devices eg
retardation of injection timing, excess fuel device (including the legal
implications of its use), manifold combustion heaters, heater plugs, ether
injection, decompression devices; single, two and variable speed governing eg
governor cut in/cut out, maximum speed, over-run, hysteresis, over-shoot, speed
droop; hydraulic and electrical governors eg components and operation under
idling, maximum speed, over-run and variable speed
Electronic control unit (ECU): input and output processes; injector driver circuits;
fuel mapping; basic programming theory eg use of input parameters to enable the
software to calculate correct fuel quantity for injection; software updating eg use
of specialised software to change fuel map setting at varying engine/operational
conditions; software self diagnostics; controller area network (CAN) data bus eg
single wire, twin wire, fibre optic
Emission control principles and components: exhaust gas emissions under normal
and abnormal running conditions eg methods employed to reduce emissions
(exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), urea injection into exhaust using selective
catalytic reduction); legal requirements for emissions (EURO 4/5); effect of diesel
engine operating conditions eg cranking, cold/hot start, cold idle, hot idle, light
load, full load, acceleration, deceleration, engine speed limitation

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Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

4 Understand the methods used to test, maintain and repair diesel fuel injection
systems

Diagnostic equipment, tests and adjustments: exhaust gas analysis eg use of

smoke meters for exhaust gas opacity, idle speed adjustments and maximum
speed settings; on-board diagnostics (OBD) eg fault code reading, data logging,
use of break out box to locate faults, data link connection to dedicated code
readers; checking common rail operational pressures, effects of low rail pressure
on starting and performance; induction system leakage, affects of changes in
boost pressure on turbocharged engines, affects of fuel injection quantities of
changes in boost pressure; use of multimeter eg system voltage and circuit tests
on injector control solenoids, circuit resistance, circuit integrity; pressure gauge
eg fuel line pressure and regulator settings; oscilloscope eg engine/camshaft
speed sensor patterns and injection duration
Injection systems faults and symptoms: removal and refitting of main fuel
injection system components eg removal and refitting of injectors including
common rail, removal and refitting of a fuel injection pump; servicing of fuel
system eg fuel filters, bleeding and rectification of leaks; checking the operation
of the fuel injection system eg in situ adjustments of fuel quantities injected and
speed, checking of injection timing, producing fault finding algorithms; testing of
injectors eg safety factors associated with high pressure fluids and vapour, spray
patterns, setting pressures, nozzle back leakage, nozzle tip leakage, specialised
equipment to test combined pump and injector types; maintenance of fuel
systems eg fuel filter condition, condition of pipes and securing clamps, leaks,
checking the condition and security of fuel injection pumps and drive couplings,
security of maximum fuel and speed seals, check indication of visible vapour from
the exhaust; test rectification techniques eg location of misfire on conventional
injection system and/or on common rail using dedicated software, poor
performance through lack of power, excess exhaust gas opacity, fuel leaks, air
ingress, probable causes of black, blue and white smoke; legal implications of
defects on diesel fuel injection systems, eg excessive smoke, loss of power weight
ratio and fuel leaks onto the road surface

506 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain and compare the operation of M1 compare the relative advantages and D1 evaluate two typical modern diesel
two different diesel fuel injection disadvantages of a conventional fuel injection systems in terms of their legal,
systems used on modern diesel engines injection system with a high pressure environmental and operational
common rail system requirements
P2 describe two different types of diesel
fuel supply methods M2 compare two governor types used on D2 evaluate the use of diagnostic tests using
modern automotive diesel engines in standard workshop equipment in
P3 identify and explain the function and
terms of their modes of operation comparison to dedicated on board
operation of the air and diesel fuel supply
and levels of sensitivity diagnostic facilities, equipment and
components of a given diesel fuel
software used with modern diesel
injection system M3 evaluate and compare the diagnostic
injection systems.
tests and repair strategies that can
P4 describe the function and operation of
be performed on two different
four major diesel injection system input
modern diesel injection systems,
sensors, the related actuators and their
including the equipment that may be
relationship with the engine electronic
used.
control unit
P5 explain the emission control measures
and associated components used for a
given diesel fuel injected engine system

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Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the diagnostic equipment
required and the tests that need to be
carried out to check the satisfactory
operation of two different diesel fuel
injection systems
P7 describe the symptoms associated with
three different diesel fuel injection
system faults found in modern engines
and the repair strategy for each.

508 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit should be delivered using a balance of theoretical and practical study.
Where possible the function, operation and principles of injection systems should be
demonstrated through investigation using rigs, units, vehicles, components and
equipment.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in order. This will allow learners to
develop an overall understanding of the operational differences of a range of systems
before going into too much detail. Learners would then understand the design
principles and requirements of diesel injection and combustion principles prior to
targeting the complexities of specific components, testing, maintenance and repair.
Although the unit does not require the use of diagnostic equipment to carry out tests
and fault diagnosis, it would be good practice to provide learners with opportunities
to do so where such equipment is available.
Formative assessment, with effective feedback and support, will play an important
part in the development of learners throughout this unit, particularly for their
achievement of the merit and distinction grades. Learners should be encouraged to
compare and consider relative advantages and disadvantages of conventional
injection systems with the high pressure, electronically controlled, common rail
system. In particular, they should consider how current and proposed changes in
emission requirements will impact upon fuel injection technology. Learners should
also consider the interrelationship of all components that contribute to mixture
correction and hence the emission control process.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A variety of evidence could be used to support assessment. For example, a mixture of

written tests and practical investigative assignments could be used requiring learners
to explain, describe, identify, compare and evaluate as required by the criteria.
Although all of the pass criteria require descriptive evidence, it is not expected that
centres will only use written tests to achieve this. The unit lends itself to a practical
investigative approach and this should be reflected in the assessment strategy
wherever possible.

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P1 and P2 are closely linked and could be assessed together. The same vehicles could
then be used for both criteria. For P1, learners need to explain and compare the
operation of two different diesel injection systems used on modern diesel engines. A
task could be developed requiring learners to inspect two different types of systems
(selected from those outlined in the unit content) in a practical environment. P2
requires learners to describe two different types of diesel fuel supply methods.
Ideally, one will be a conventional fuel lift pump with hand priming and the other a
two-stage high-pressure pump and flow control valve for a common rail system.
For P3, learners need to identify and explain the function and operation of the air
and diesel fuel supply components of a given diesel fuel injection system. This should
include an explanation of the principles of induction system design used to improve
engine volumetric efficiency. Specifically this should be the use of acoustic design on
normally aspirated engines to aid the induction ram effect and the use of geometrical
variable manifolds and turbochargers to improve engine performance characteristics.
Included within this criterion, the learner should consider the effects of turbo
charger boost pressure on fuel quantities injected and emissions would enable the
learner to appreciate the control strategies involved.
For P4, learners need to describe the function and operation of four major diesel
injection system input sensors and related actuators used to monitor engine
parameters and enable the fuel and timing of injection to be controlled with
accuracy through the ECU. P5, for which learners need explain emission control
measures and associated components can be linked with P3 and P4.
P6 and P7 can be linked through a practical assessment during a workshop session or
at the learner’s own place of work. If work-based evidence is used care must be
taken to ensure may its validity and authenticity.
For M1, learners need to compare the relative advantages and disadvantages of a
conventional fuel injection system and the high-pressure common rail system. This is
closely linked to P1, P2, P4 and P5.
For M2, the learner is required to compare two different engine governing systems. It
is important that the related operational characteristics of these governors are
analysed and compared in relation to their operation and levels of sensitivity.
M3 requires learners to evaluate and compare the diagnostic tests and repair
strategies performed on two different diesel injection systems. This builds on the
knowledge gained through P6 and P7 and could be built in to the same practical
assignment.
For D1, learners need to evaluate two modern diesel injection systems in terms of
their legal, environmental and operational requirements.
D2 requires them to evaluate the use of diagnostic tests using standard workshop
equipment in comparison to dedicated on board diagnostic facilities, equipment and
software used with modern diesel injection systems. Emphasis should be placed on
the comparisons with diagnostic algorithms using standard workshop test equipment
and on-board diagnosis (OBD), which require dedicated test equipment. Learners will
need to give examples of actual testing.

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 Unit 44: Diesel Fuel Injection Systems for Compression Ignition Engines

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Automotive Skills Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Maintenance and Repair,
particularly:
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR07: Diagnose Rectify Vehicle Engine and Component Faults
• Unit MR10: Identify and Agree Customer Vehicle Needs
• Unit AE04: Diagnose and Rectify Engine Electrical Faults.
The unit can be also linked to Unit 2: Vehicle Engine Principles, Operation, Service
and Repair, Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification and Unit 6: Vehicle
Electrical and Electronic Principles.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a range of components, assemblies and rigs and,
wherever possible, access to the diagnostic equipment identified in the unit content.
Access to suitable vehicles and tools will need to be provided along with a range of
relevant information sources and operational manuals.

Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology

(Nelson Thornes, 2006) ISBN 0748780998
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
ISBN 0750638273

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching the various diesel C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
injenction systems least two documents about the same
• describing and comparing subject.
diesel injection systems,
Each document must be at least 1000
diagnostic equipment and words long
fault finding/repair methods.
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
the various diesel injection sources, and multiple search criteria in at
systems. least one case.
• Preparing their descriptions, ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
comparison and explinations derive new information.
of diesel injection system, ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
diagnostic equipment and text with image, text with number, image
fault finding/repair methods with number.
and presenting their results.

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 Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission

Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will provide learners with an understanding of the various designs,
constructional details and fundamental operating principles of a range of
transmission systems currently fitted to both production and motorsport vehicles.
The unit covers the conventional aspects of vehicle transmission systems, their
function, principal components and operating principles. This will include a detailed
examination of the three major systems — a vehicle’s clutch mechanism, gearbox and
the driveline and final drive systems.
Learners will be introduced to the most recent developments in the use of
electronics for the control and operation of transmissions systems in both standard
production vehicles and motorsport applications. These developments are now
frequently integrated into the overall electronic management of the vehicle and can
provide significant improvements in terms of driveability, economy and performance.
Learners will appreciate the fundamental operating principles of these
developments, their integration within transmission systems and their significance in
the maintenance of a vehicle’s transmission system.
Finally, learners will carry out specific tests and checks to identify transmission
system faults such as clutch slip, gearbox linkage problems and failing constant
velocity joints. Learners will use these tests and checks, together with on-board
diagnostic equipment, in order to maintain a vehicle’s transmission system. This will
include the maintenance requirements relating to driver/passenger safety and
component reliability, whilst ensuring that learners work in a safe manner.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle clutch mechanism
2 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle gearbox
3 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle driveline system and final
drive
4 Be able to maintain a vehicle’s transmission system.

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Unit content

1 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle clutch mechanism

Principal clutch components: pressure plate, disc, flywheel (including bearings

and bushes); release bearings; release systems eg production vehicles (hydraulic,
mechanical and cable), motorsport vehicles (push/pull and electro-hydraulic
actuating mechanisms)
Types of clutch mechanisms: eg production clutches (coil and diaphragm spring,
single plate, wet and dry types), automatic clutches (torque converter, fluid
flywheel, one way clutch), motorsport clutches (paddle, slipper and multi-plate)
Operating principles of clutch: constructional design and use of materials (linings,
drive plates and friction surfaces, springs); engagement and disengagement of
clutch (single and multiplate, one way clutches and automatic clutches);
provision for adjustment/self-adjustment; torque calculations and coefficient of
friction; power flow; common faults eg wear, misalignment; fault symptoms (slip,
drag, judder, overheating); fluid flywheels

2 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle gearbox

Principal gearbox components: gear design (spur and helical); bearings, shafts,
casing, selector and sealing arrangements; gear locking and interlock
mechanisms; gear speed synchronisation and engagement mechanisms eg sliding
mesh, synchromesh and dog type
Types of gearboxes: eg manual (single stage, double stage, sliding mesh, constant
mesh), automatic (epicyclic gear train, hydraulic control systems); layout eg
transverse, longitudinal and transaxle
Operating principles of gearbox: manual gearbox — gear ratios, power flow eg
constant mesh single and double stage; torque and speed calculations; gear ratio
characteristics and number of available gears; selection and engagement methods
eg synchromesh and dog type, selector forks, interlocks and linkages, remote
control mechanisms, motorsport (sequential, electro-hydraulic); automatic
gearbox — torque converters (lock-up mechanism); epicyclic gear trains (simple
and compound); brake bands; multiplate and unidirectional clutches; power flow
paths; function of key hydraulic components (pump, governor, actuators, servos,
regulator and shift valves); electronic control system including mode selection;
electronic selection of conventional gear arrangements; lubrication eg method
(splash and pump assisted); oil requirements and types (mineral, synthetic); seals
and sealing arrangements (static and dynamic types)

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 Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

3 Understand the construction and operation of a vehicle driveline system and

final drive

Principal components of driveline system: propeller shaft arrangement eg single,

divided; driveline arrangements eg front, rear and four wheel; universal joints eg
Hooke type and rubber; constant velocity joints, sliding joints; drive systems eg
two-wheel, four-wheel (transfer box, centre differentials, viscous couplings,
differential locks, automatic and manual)
Principal components of final drive: axle types and support arrangements eg
transaxles, live and independent; final drives eg bevel, spiral and hypoid;
differentials eg planetary gears, limited slip systems; axle types eg semi, three
quarter and fully floating; bearings
Operating principles of driveline: universal joints (Hooke type and rubber);
constant velocity joints (angular limitations and conditions required to achieve
constant velocity, basic consideration of balance requirements, alignment and
torque capacity of hollow and solid shafts); suspension and transmission
characteristics giving rise to the requirement for sliding joints and centre
propshaft bearings
Operating principles of final drive: gear ratio, speed reduction and torque
multiplication in the final drive; final drive arrangements for transaxles; driving
thrust and torque reaction; differential (effects on torque/speed at the driven
wheels, limited-slip differentials); lubrication methods (final drive and rear
axles); oil requirements and types (mineral, synthetic); oil seals and sealing
arrangements (static and dynamic)

4 Be able to maintain a vehicle’s transmission system

Transmission system faults: eg clutch (slip, drag, judder, loss of drive, excessive
noise, wear, misalignment, operating mechanism faults), gearbox (gear selection,
oil leaks, linkages and fittings), driveline and finals drives (prop/drive shafts,
universal and CV joints, bearings, gaiters and seals), use of on-board diagnostic
(OBD) equipment, reporting methods (inspection records, oral report to
supervisor)
Maintenance operations: working to manufacturers’ maintenance and service
procedures eg manuals, job cards, direct supervision; maintenance operations eg
clutch adjustments/alignment, gearbox oil change, gear selection linkage repair,
driveshaft gaiter condition check/replacement, security of mountings and
fittings; context of the maintenance operations eg routine maintenance, repair or
adjustment due to a system failure, alternative service procedures for adverse
condition (vehicles operating in dry, dusty environments, race/rally vehicles and
vehicles working in extreme temperature environments)
Critical safety considerations: procedures relating to maintenance operations
carried out eg materials handling (protection against dust, oil and chemical
exposure), vehicle and system protection (application of four-wheel drive diff
locks, lifting and supporting vehicles), personal protective equipment (PPE),
control of substances hazardous to health regulations (COSHH), component and
environmental waste disposal

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Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe the function of the M1 compare two different vehicle clutch D1 justify the use of a specific clutch type
principal components of two different types in terms of their principal for two different vehicle applications in
types of clutch mechanism components and operating principles terms of purpose, function and
performance
P2 explain the operating principles of one M2 explain the advantages and disadvantages
type of clutch of increasing the number of available D2 justify the use of a specific type of
gears in a gearbox driveline and final drive arrangement for
P3 identify and describe the function of the
two different vehicle applications in
principal components of one type of M3 compare two different vehicle driveline
terms of purpose, function and
gearbox and final drive arrangements.
performance.
P4 explain the operating principles of two
different types of vehicle gearbox
P5 identify and describe the principal
components in a vehicle driveline and
final drive
P6 explain the operating principles of a
vehicle’s driveline and final drive
arrangement

516 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 inspect a vehicle’s transmission system,
report faults and attribute symptoms to
the faults identified
P8 carry out a maintenance operation on a
vehicle’s transmission system
P9 explain and apply critical safety
considerations relating to the inspection
and maintenance of a vehicle’s
transmission system.

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Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered in the context of the learners’ chosen area (eg light
vehicle, motorsport), although a generic approach is also suitable. The term
‘maintenance’ in this unit is used in a generic way and can be taken to mean either
routine maintenance (a regular service) or less routine work (a repair due to a
component failure or adjustment to correct a misalignment).
Delivery of this unit would ideally include a balance of theoretical and practical
study. Whatever approach is taken, the learners’ experience should be sufficiently
varied to give them the knowledge and skills needed to perform routine motor
vehicle workshop operations. In addition, learners need to develop the skills and
understanding needed to diagnose transmission system faults in an industrial setting.
Health and safety considerations should be given appropriate emphasis when learners
are undertaking practical activities.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in the order they are listed. In this way,
learners will begin to understand the function and operating principles of the
relevant parts of the power train from the clutch to the gearbox and through the
driveline to the final drive.
Learners should be introduced to the range of clutches — production, automatic and
motorsport variations. However, centres may wish to specialise on a specific clutch
type to meet local needs and cover the others in a more general way. The approach
taken with clutches could be replicated with gearboxes, the driveline and final drive.
However, tutors should ensure that learners gain sufficient understanding of all types
and delivery should not be limited to just the one or two required to meet the
assessment criteria.
For the final learning outcome learners will need access to vehicles and workshop
facilities. The delivery of this part of the unit could consist of lectures to introduce
the transmission system and likely faults, learner-led research into the maintenance
requirements followed by practical application on vehicles in the workshop. Again,
learners should experience a range of routine maintenance operations in line with
those suggested in the unit content.
During practical work, the critical safety aspects of each operation need to be
emphasised. Learners should be encouraged to recognise and explain these aspects of
safety during their practical workshop activities to reinforce the importance to
themselves and others.
The use of a record of practical work carried out should be standard practice. This is
likely to be in the form of a workshop logbook. Such a record will enable learners to
capture and reflect on their experience and will provide support and guidance during
the activities chosen for the final assessment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and an illustration of
the breadth and depth of the area of topic. As such, not all content that follows an
‘eg’ needs to be taught or assessed.

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 Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Assessment
This unit provides opportunities for assessment evidence to be generated from a
combination of assignments, projects and practical work. Centres may wish to devise
tests that require learners to describe, explain, compare or justify, as required by
the criteria. However, although most of the pass criteria require identification,
explanation and descriptive evidence it is not expected that centres only use tests to
achieve this. The unit lends itself to an investigative, practical approach and this
should be reflected in the assessment strategy wherever possible. The range of
evidence presented could include notes, diagrams, investigative test data and the
records of the maintenance and diagnostic procedures carried out.
Proving authenticity and plagiarism is always a problem, particularly with open
written report-type assignments. The assessment of P1 and P3 is suited to and could
be carried out through ‘on-the-job’ oral questioning or through a written time
constrained assessment to ensure authenticity.
To achieve a pass, learners will need to identify and describe the function of the
principal components of two types of clutch mechanism (P1), one gearbox (P3) and a
vehicle’s driveline and final drive (P5). In addition, learners need to explain the
operating principles of one of the clutches (P2), two types of gearbox (P4) and one
vehicle’s driveline and final drive (P6). The unit content for each of these areas
provides a range of choices through the examples listed. For clutches, this includes
production, automatic and motorsport, and within these groupings there are further
examples. Tutors are expected to cover as wide a range of these as possible during
delivery of the unit but need only select the one or two of these, as indicated by the
criteria, for assessment purposes. This will enable tutors to concentrate on a specific
specialisation as the main focus of assessment (eg motorsport paddle clutch). Where
a criterion identifies that learners must consider two types then this is to ensure that
the learning process is sufficiently wide. For example whilst a centre may specialise
in motorsport it is important that learners are equally aware of a production
vehicle’s clutch or vice-versa. The purpose here is to make sure that learners’
employment potential is not limited. The range of choices available should mean that
for any one group, each learner could be considering the function of the principle
components for a different type of vehicle and clutch type. This can be beneficial
when considering the issue of authenticity of learner evidence.
At pass level, learners should also be able to inspect a vehicle’s transmission system
(P7), carry out a routine maintenance operation (P8) and explain and apply critical
safety considerations (P9). P7 and P8 would be best assessed through investigation
and practical examination of a live vehicle layout and configuration. P9 should be an
integral part of the assessment for P7 and P8. It is strongly recommended that the
‘explain’ part of P9 is assessed before learners start any work on either P7 or P8. The
assessment evidence for P9 could be in two forms. Firstly, a written assessment of
the critical safety considerations relating to the inspection and maintenance
operation to be carried out, followed by oral questioning to ensure an understanding
of the dangers associated with the task before starting work.

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Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

A suitable transmission system fault may need to be simulated for P7 and learners
provided with the typical symptoms of the fault, as would be reported by a driver of
the faulty vehicle. Assessment of this criterion is likely to be in three parts — a
written inspection record completed by learners at the time of the inspection, a
verbal report back to the supervisor/customer (tutor record of oral
questioning/observation) and tutor observation of the process (eg use of logical and
efficient diagnostic techniques, safe working). A similar approach could be taken
with P8 and it would be sensible to link these two criteria together — identify the
fault and carry out the maintenance operation to effect the necessary adjustment or
repair. The main assessment evidence for P8 would be the final product — the
completed maintenance task. However, a record of tutor observation will also be
necessary to cover the process aspects of the task (eg working to the manufacturer’s
procedures, correct and safe working). The final link is with P9 and the application of
critical safety considerations relating to the maintenance operation being carried
out. For example, tutors will need to observe learners handling materials correctly,
using relevant system protection, using appropriate PPE, working to COSHH
regulations and correctly disposing of waste, as required by the task undertaken.
To achieve a merit, learners need to compare the constructional differences of two
different clutch types (eg production diaphragm spring versus motorsport paddle or
production wet versus production dry types). The two clutches could be the same as
those considered for P1, or if tutors wish to encourage learners to have wider
experience then one or two completely different clutches could be used. The focus
of the comparison should be based on the understanding developed through P1 and
P2. Learners must also explain the advantages and disadvantages of multiple gear
ratio applications (eg 3 speed versus 4 speed, 5 speed versus 6 speed). Finally, they
need to compare two different vehicle driveline and final drive arrangements (eg
longitudinal, in line versus transverse or rear engine, rear wheel drive versus rear
engine four wheel-drive). Again, one of these could be the driveline and final drive
considered for P5 and P6.
To achieve a distinction, learners need to justify the use of two different clutch
types and two different types of driveline and final drive arrangements for differing
applications (eg production, fast road, motorsport track, motorsport rally), in terms
of purpose, function and performance. Once again, these could be the same
clutches, driveline and final drives that learners have been working with through the
pass and merit criteria.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding for the NVQ Level 3 in
Vehicle Maintenance and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR13: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Transmission and Driveline System Faults
• Unit MR13HV: Diagnose and Rectify Commercial Vehicle Transmission and
Driveline System Faults.
The unit builds on the knowledge gained from Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle Systems
and supports Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification.

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 Unit 45: Light Vehicle Transmission Systems

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a range of transmission types (clutches, gearboxes and
driveline/final drives) and their components for this unit. A variety of information
and data sources specific to the transmission systems will also be required. The
necessary special tools and equipment will be needed for investigation and routine
maintenance of the selected transmission systems as defined in the unit content and
grading criteria.

Indicative reading for learners

Denton T — Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)

ISBN 0750669918
Heisler H — Advanced Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002)
ISBN 0750651318
Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology: Book
1 (Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748780823

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting materials and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
researching information on least two documents about the same
vehicle transmission systems subject.
(eg safety, maintenance and Each document must be at least 1000
diagnostic data) words long.
• explaining the operating C3.3 Write two different types of documents
principles of vehicle each one giving different information
clutches, gearboxes, about complex subjects.
drivelines and final drives.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
specific vehicle transmission sources, and multiple search criteria in at
systems least one case.
• preparing and presenting
ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
technical reports on the derive new information.
various aspects of vehicle
transmission systems and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
their components and text with image, text with number,
arrangements image with number.
• completing maintenance
documents and records.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, planning and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
carrying out diagnostic and appropriate people and plan how these
maintenance procedures will be met
• evaluating maintenance, LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
diagnostic and repair using your plan to help meet targets and
strategies. improve your performance
LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
your achievements.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out diagnostic PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
procedures and attributing ways of tackling it.
symptoms to faults. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, planning and WO3.1 Plan work with others.
carrying out diagnostic and
WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
maintenance procedures with
progress towards your agreed objectives.
colleagues and supervisors.
• evaluating maintenance, WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
diagnostic and repair of improving collaborative work in the
strategies with colleagues and future.
supervisors.

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524 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems

Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension,

Steering and Braking Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Advances in engine and transmission design mean that modern vehicles have an
increased need for suspension, steering and braking technology that can cope with
the forces associated with modern vehicle performance.
Some suspension systems have different modes for the driver to select according to
personal demands or that of the terrain. The most sophisticated suspension systems
can self level, have yaw control and adjust to the type of terrain being encountered.
Steering systems are now mostly power-assisted, in some cases to counter the effects
of wider tyres and suspension that has been set to enhance the vehicle’s road
holding. Most tyres are now low profile in order to ensure that performance, control
and stability are maximised.
Sports vehicles, family saloons, multi-purpose vehicles, off-road vehicles, passenger
service vehicles and haulage vehicles all require different things from these systems
in order to perform well in the environment for which they are intended. It is vital
that these systems interrelate with, and complement each other to ensure maximum
comfort and safety of the driver and passengers.
This unit will give learners a knowledge of the operating principles of light vehicle
suspension, steering and braking systems enabling them to carry out inspection and
fault-finding on these systems. Learners will develop an understanding of the main
system components and their relationship to the efficient operation of the vehicle.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the function and operation of different types of suspension systems
2 Know about the function and operation of steering system components
3 Know about the function and operation of vehicle braking system components
4 Be able to carry out inspection and fault-finding procedures on steering, braking
and suspension systems.

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Unit content

1 Know about the function and operation of different types of suspension

systems

Suspension systems: types of independent front suspension eg unequal length

wishbones, transverse link and strut; types of independent rear suspension eg
trailing arm, pure and semi, unequal transverse links, transverse link and strut,
air suspension; dampers (construction, operation and typical faults); suspension
requirements eg sprung weight, unsprung weight; impact of chassis design on
suspension type eg ladder, monocoque, space frame, welded shell constructions
Adaptive suspension system main components: ECU; regulator; solenoid valve;
sensors; dampers; system operation

2 Know about the function and operation of steering system components

Power-assisted steering main components: hydraulic pump; control valve; power

cylinder; reservoir; filter; pressure relief valve; pipes; steering gear; types eg
integral, semi-integral, rack and pinion, worm and follower, speed sensitive
Steering characteristics: understeer; oversteer; neutral steer; roll axis; roll
centre; centre of gravity
Road wheels: wheel type eg alloy (cast or forged), steel, well based, specialist
(such as wire spoke, flat-edge, double hump, divided, detachable flange); rim
codes; wheel retention methods
Tyres: types of tyres eg belt and brace construction, ply construction; tyre profile
and tyre markings eg width, aspect ratio, type of construction, load index, speed
index, ply ratings, direction indicators; applications eg high performance,
light/heavy vehicles, motorcycle, agriculture, industrial; valve types

3 Know about the function and operation of vehicle braking system components

Main components: types of system eg single piston disc brakes, multi-piston disc
brakes; brake fluid characteristics; brake bleeding componentry; brake pad
warning systems; types of brake circuits (construction and operation) eg tandem
master cylinders, vacuum servo units, pressure apportioning valves
Anti-lock braking systems main components: wheel speed sensors; ECU; system
modulator; reservoir; electronic control system

4 Be able to carry out inspection and fault-finding procedures on steering,

braking and suspension systems

Fault-finding: identification of typical faults and corrective action to be taken for

each of the above systems; adjustment and servicing of the main components for
each of the systems; protection of units against the usual hazards during use or
fault-finding; safe working practice

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the function and operation of M1 compare the relative advantages and D1 evaluate two different braking system
two independent front and two disadvantages of an adaptive suspension applications for efficiency and safety
independent rear vehicle suspension systems and one other type of suspension when used in conjunction with an anti-
systems, including suspension system lock braking system.
requirements and the impact of chassis
M2 explain the effect of understeer,
design
oversteer and neutral steering
P2 describe the function and operation of characteristics, vehicle roll axis, roll
the main components of an adaptive centre and centre of gravity on
suspension system wheel/tyre function and operation.
P3 describe the function and operation of
the main components of power assisted
steering
P4 distinguish between understeer, oversteer
and neutral steering characteristics,
vehicle roll axis, roll centre and centre of
gravity

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 explain the functional differences
between two different wheel and tyre
combinations
P6 describe the function and operation of
the components found in a given type of
braking systems and in an anti-lock
braking system
P7 carry out basic fault-finding on a
suspension system to check for
satisfactory operation and produce a list
of the faults found and state the
corrective action to be taken
P8 carry out basic fault-finding on a steering
system to check for satisfactory operation
and produce a list of the faults found and
state the corrective action to be taken
P9 carry out basic fault-finding on a braking
system to check for satisfactory operation
and produce a list of the faults found and
state the corrective action to be taken.

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 Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should ensure that learners have a thorough understanding of
steering, suspension and braking system components and their interrelationship with
each other.
Wherever possible, learners should carry out practical investigations of components,
and a balance of theoretical and practical study is recommended. Systems and
operating principles should be demonstrated using rigs, units and components. Safe
working practices should be emphasised in any practical training programme.
Learners should have access to appropriate information sources (eg manufacturer’s
manuals and data books, CD ROM-based technical data, online sources) and tools and
equipment.
There is no defined order of delivery but it is recommended that learning
outcomes 1, 2 and 3 are delivered before learning outcome 4, as learners need to
apply knowledge gained within the first three.
While a detailed understanding of the main types of suspension systems is required
for learning outcome 1, emphasis should be placed on the adaptive system and its
main components.
Similarly for learning outcome 2, where a detailed understanding of road wheel and
tyre characteristics is required, emphasis should be placed on power-assisted steering
components and the characteristics of steering such as understeer and oversteer.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.
Assessment
This unit could be assessed through three written assignments and one practical
assignment.
The first written assignment could give learners opportunities to meet the
requirements of P1, P2 and M1. A task could be set asking learners to describe the
function and operation of two main types of independent front and two types of
independent rear vehicle suspension design (P1). Different types of rear suspension
could be given to different learners from the range listed within the unit content.
The task should ensure that learners cover dampers, the suspension requirements and
the impact of chassis design.
For P2, a task should be given asking learners to describe the function and operation
of the main components of an adaptive suspension system. The main components
that need to be covered are listed within the unit content. A further written task
could be set asking learners to carry out the comparison between an adaptive
suspension system and one other suspension system (M1).

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A second assignment could be given to meet the requirements of P3, P4, P5 and M2.
An initial task, covering P3, could require learners to describe the function of the
components in a power-assisted steering system. Tutors can give different types of
steering system to different learners.
A second task in this assignment could ask learners to show the differences between
the range of steering characteristics in P4.
A third task, covering P5, would again give the opportunity for tutors to give
different wheel and tyre combinations to different learners. Consideration should be
given to wheel types, rim codes and retention methods, valve and tyre types
including profile and markings and applications. A further task could be set asking
learners to explain the effect of steering characteristics, vehicle roll axis, roll centre
and centre of gravity on wheel/tyre function and operation (M2).
A third written assignment could be used to meet the requirements of P6 and D1.
Initially learners could describe the function and operation of the components found
in braking systems and anti-lock braking system components (P6). A further task
could then be set asking them to evaluate two braking system applications when used
in conjunction with an anti-lock braking system (D1). Although the components used
in the anti-lock braking system are clearly listed within the unit content tutors can
vary what is given to each learner. It is important that the type of system is fully
explored and that brake bleeding componentry and brake pad warning systems are
considered in the descriptions.
A final practical assignment could be set to meet the requirements of P7, P8 and P9.
Learners would need to be given a particular vehicle to carry out a fault-finding
exercise on its suspension, steering and braking systems. In doing so learners will
need to establish which components are operating satisfactory and which are not. At
least one fault in each system must be present to allow corrective action to be
identified and at least one main component in each system should require
adjustment during the exercise. A record of hazard protection and safe working
needs to be made.
Depending on the resources available different learners could work on different
vehicles. Evidence for this practical assignment is likely to be in the form of a witness
statement/observation record, supplemented by annotated photographs and a list of
the faults found and suggested corrective action for each.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the following units in
the Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards for Vehicle
Maintenance and Repair:
• Unit MR 04: Remove and Replace Vehicle Chassis Units and Components
• Unit MR 08: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Chassis System Faults.
The unit can be linked to Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle Systems and Unit 3: Vehicle
Fault Diagnosis and Rectification.

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 Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems

Essential resources

A range of suspension, steering and braking components and equipment will be

required for delivery of this unit. Learners will need access to vehicles in order to
carry out fault-finding on the different systems.

Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Rogers D — Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology (Nelson Thornes,

2007) ISBN 0748784357
Killingsworth J, Godfrey E and Haynes J — Suspension, Steering and Driveline Manual
(Haynes, 1998) ISBN 1563922932
Nunney N J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
ISBN 0750604778

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Unit 46: Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• describing the function and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
operation of two independent at least two documents about the
front and two independent rear same subject.
vehicle suspension systems Each document must be at least 1000
including suspension words long
requirements and the impact of
C3.3 Write two different types of
chassis design
documents each one giving different
• describing the function and information about complex subjects.
operation of an adaptive
One document must be at least 1000
suspension system’s main
words long.
components
• describing the function and
operation of the main
components of power assisted
steering
• explaining the functional
differences between two
different wheel and tyre
combinations
• describing the function and
operation of the components
found in a given type of braking
system and in an anti-lock
braking system.
Problem solving Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the
following key skills evidence:
• carrying out basic fault-finding on PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
suspension, steering and braking solving the problem.
systems to check for satisfactory
operation.

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 Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics

Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science

and Mathematics
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Mathematical and scientific principles are an inherent part of many areas of motor
vehicle technology. This unit will develop learners’ knowledge of these principles and
their application in the automotive engineering environment. These can be in a
variety of vocational areas, such as the fine detail needed in the calculations in
motorsport or the crucial calculations required when working with large commercial
vehicles.
Learners will carry out data collection and manipulation in vehicle-related areas such
as speed, acceleration and power. They will also complete a variety of practical
activities including carrying out an engine performance test and comparing the
outcomes to scientific calculations.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to apply mathematical and statistical methods to vehicle-related tasks
2 Be able to apply fundamental algebraic laws and trigonometric ratios to solve
vehicle-related tasks
3 Be able to apply scientific principles related to heat, force and machines to solve
vehicle-related tasks
4 Be able to carry out engine testing and apply scientific principles related to
vehicle and engine performance.

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Unit content

1 Be able to apply mathematical and statistical methods to vehicle-related tasks

Data for vehicle-related tasks: data eg engine speed, stopping distance, miles per
gallon, brake pad life, vehicle speed, acceleration, wheel bearing life; sources eg
manufacturers, workshop experiments, publicly available figures, (such as media,
internet); considerations eg types of error, accuracy, representation
Mathematical: methods eg addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, use of
brackets, order, estimation techniques, use of calculators, expressing numbers
using standard form and scientific notation eg 5.6 x 105, 12 x 103W, 12kW;
features eg ratio and proportion, percentage, real and integer numbers, binary
systems, vulgar and decimal fractions, ratios, direct and inverse proportion, roots
and powers (such as v = √2gh, I = P , s = ut + ½at2, v2 = u2 + 2as, ½mv2 = mgh
R
find v, ½QV = ½CV2 find V)
Data manipulation and graphical representation: data represented in graphical
format eg bar charts, pie charts, frequency distributions, class boundaries and
class width, frequency table, variables (discrete and continuous); histogram
(continuous and discrete variants); cumulative frequency curves
Statistical information: arithmetic mean; median; mode; discrete and grouped
data

2 Be able to apply fundamental algebraic laws and trigonometric ratios to solve

vehicle-related tasks

Linear equations and straight line graphs: linear equations eg y = mx + c; straight

line graph (coordinates on a pair of labelled Cartesian axes, positive or negative
gradient, intercept, plot of a straight line)
Factorisation and quadratics: multiply expressions in brackets by a number,
symbol or by another expression in a bracket; by extraction of a common factor
eg ax + ay , a ( x + 2 ) + b( x + 2 ) ; by grouping eg ax − ay + bx − by ; quadratic
expressions eg a 2 + 2ab + b 2 ; roots of an equation eg quadratic equations with
real roots by factorisation, and by the use of formula
Trigonometric ratios: basic ratios eg sine, cosine, tangent; Sinθ/Cosθ = Tanθ
Vehicle-related tasks: algebraic application eg Ohm’s law, pair of simultaneous
linear equations in two unknowns, acceleration 30 to 50 mph, time taken to cover
a given distance when subjected to constant acceleration, volume and area of
combined shapes eg swept, clearance volume, loading capacity, workshop areas;
trigonometric application eg steering and suspension angles, valve timing, wiper
motion angles

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 Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics

3 Be able to apply scientific principles related to force, heat and machines to

solve vehicle-related tasks

Force: laws of friction; friction in a clutch; stress and strain; Young’s modulus;
forces in tension/compression; vehicle component subjected to
tension/compression eg tie rod, cylinder head bolt, push rod, valve stem, piston,
connecting rod, braking components
Heat: gas laws eg Boyle’s law, Charles’ law, general gas equation pV/T = C, ideal
gas equation pV = mRT; change of dimension eg linear, superficial, cubical, heat
dissipation; pressure eg fluid, gas, air; gauge pressure, atmospheric pressure
Machines: ratios eg steering box, gear ratio, final drive ratio, compression ratio;
vehicle mechanism eg alternator and power steering, pulleys, winches, levers eg
handbrake lever, brake operation, cylinder, gearbox

4 Be able to carry out engine testing and apply scientific principles related to
vehicle and engine performance

Vehicle performance: equations of motion; Newton’s laws; performance eg work,

power, velocity, acceleration, retardation
Engine testing: safe use of equipment eg rolling road, dynamometer rig, engine
analyser; collection of data eg torque, power (indicated and brake), fuel
consumption
Engine performance: performance to report on eg torque, power (indicated and
brake), mechanical efficiency, thermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency, specific
fuel consumption, brake mean effective pressure, indicated mean effective
pressure; presentation within report eg engine indicator diagrams, calculations
using data (such as efficiency, frictional loss, temperature variations)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 gather different data from two different M1 solve a pair of simultaneous linear D1 compare and analyse actual data and
sources and explain the considerations to equations in two unknowns calculated data for engine or vehicle
make before using this data performance.
M2 solve a quadratic equation by
P2 use mathematical methods for different factorisation and one by the formula
features to manipulate collected data to method
present statistical information in a
M3 explain, with examples, the importance
graphical format
of the accuracy of data that is used to
P3 solve a linear equation by plotting a solve a range of problems related to
straight line graph, using given engine and vehicle performance.
experimental data, and use it to deduce
the gradient, intercept and equation of
the line for a vehicle-related task
P4 factorise by extraction and grouping of a
common factor from expressions with
two, three and four terms respectively
P5 use trigonometric ratios to solve two
vehicle-related tasks

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 Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 use the laws of friction to find the
friction in a clutch and determine
Young’s modulus for a given
tension/compression on a given vehicle
component
P7 use a gas law to determine the change in
dimensions of the gas
P8 describe how ratios help a given vehicle
mechanism function properly
P9 calculate vehicle performance using
Newton’s laws and the equations of
motion
P10 carry out engine testing to obtain data
and report on engine performance.

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Unit 47: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit would be best delivered at an early stage in the qualification. It should be
linked with other technical units to demonstrate the practical application of science
and mathematics within vehicle technology.
Before starting the unit, learners should be able to demonstrate proficiency in basic
mathematical concepts and in the use of an electronic scientific calculator to carry
out a variety of functions. As a guide to the level required, tutors should consult
Unit 10: Vehicle Science and Mathematics from the Edexcel Level 2 BTEC First in
Vehicle Technology.
It is essential that the unit content is delivered in a vehicle context. Ideally this will
be achieved through integration with other units which will also help reduce the
assessment burden on learners. There are natural links with other units in the
qualification. For example, electrical units that use algebraic application of Ohm’s
law, units involving calculation of engine ratios and volumes or trigonometric
applications to do with steering and suspension. For example when studying Unit 14:
Light Vehicle Suspension, Steering and Braking Systems, learners could investigate
specific components, tyres, wheels or ride height. They could then use the data
collected during their investigation for the mathematical content of this unit.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

For P1, the collation of data should be made vocationally relevant by using vehicle-
related subject areas such as engine power to stroke or fuel consumption to capacity.
A variety of sources should be used, for example manufacturers or internet sites, and
an explanation of the considerations to be taken into account before using the data
should be included.
For P2, the methods (eg add, subtract etc) and features (eg ratio or percentages etc)
need to be completed prior to graphical presentation. This can be in a variety of
formats (eg bar and pie charts, frequency distribution tables). This could be achieved
by using computer-based software packages, although care must be taken to ensure
authenticity of the evidence provided. Learners need to calculate mean, median and
mode for discrete and grouped data. The graphical format used must include at least
one from bar charts, pie charts, frequency distributions, and frequency table. It
should also include a histogram (continuous and discrete variants) and a cumulative
frequency curve.
The evidence for P3 could be generated using vehicle speed and timing and the task
set should ensure that gradient, intercept and the equation of the line can be
presented in the evidence. P4 should also use vehicle-related formulae where
possible.

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Assessment of M1 and M2 can be linked to that for P3 and P4. If a vehicle context is
difficult to apply, then P4, M1 and M2 could be achieved through a purely
mathematical context. However, P4 will require a range of tasks that allows
expressions with two, three and four terms. Each task is therefore likely to have a
different vehicle-related algebraic application or mathematical scenario.
For P5, the use of steering geometry or piston displacement could give vocational
relevance when using one basic ratio and Sinθ/Cosθ = Tanθ to calculate angles and
length of steering components. This could be integrated with other units that cover
vehicle componentry applications.
The evidence for P6 would naturally link to clutch or brake linings and the use of
components for applying loads, such as handbrake cables, to determine Young’s
modulus.
Assessment of P7 could be integrated with that of other units. The task used should
focus on vocational gas applications, such as within engine technology, suspension or
brake systems. The task should enable learners to use one of the gas laws outlined in
the unit content and must include data on pressure.
Using a system application such as the handbrake, complete with its lever
mechanism, would enable learners to generate evidence for P8. There needs to be
clear direction to ensure that responses include a description of how mechanical
ratios help the system function.
For P9, learners will need to produce evidence of calculating vehicle performance
using Newton’s laws and the equations of motion. This should be contextualised to
their intended vocational area (eg light vehicle, heavy vehicle, motorsport).
For P10, learners will need to complete engine testing to obtain a range of
performance data, as set out in the unit content. Assessment of P10 could be linked
to that for M3 and D1 and would need to be completed after achievement of P1.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides underpinning knowledge for, and can be integrated with, most of
the other units within this qualification.
The unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with some of
the units in the Automotive Skills Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Vehicle
Maintenance and Repair and the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards in
Automotive Engineering.

Essential resources

It is anticipated that this unit will be integrated with other units in the qualification
and therefore centres should consider the resource requirements of these other
units.
As a minimum centres will need to provide learners with access to workshop facilities
to enable practical investigation and assessment of friction, Young’s modulus, ratios,
measuring bores and complete calculations linked to gas laws etc.

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Indicative reading for learners

Greer A, Fuller A and Taylor G W — BTEC National Mathematics for Technicians

(Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748779493
Twigg P — Science for Motor Vehicle Engineers (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995)
ISBN 034064527X

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• gathering data from two N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
different sources and information from relevant sources.
explaining the considerations N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
to make before using this stage calculations to do with:
data
a amounts or sizes
• using mathematical methods
b scales or proportion
for different features to
manipulate collected data to c handling statistics
present statistical d using formulae.
information in a graphical
format N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
• solving a linear equation by methods.
plotting a straight line graph
using given experimental
data and using it to deduce
the gradient, intercept and
equation of the line for a
vehicle-related task.

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 Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems

Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle

Electronic Ignition Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Electronic ignition systems have developed in line with the advancement of engine
technology and engine management systems. Modern electronic ignition systems have
improved vehicle reliability, performance and efficiency of operation. Recent
advances in spark plug design, manufacture, operation and longer working life have
also improved electronic ignition systems.
It is important that all motor vehicle technicians are aware of these systems and are
able to recognise and confirm faults. This unit will enable learners to understand the
fundamental operating principles of electronic ignition systems and will give them
the knowledge and understanding needed for accurate diagnosis and repair. Learners
will develop an understanding of the main components and their relationship to the
efficient operation of the engine unit and sub-systems.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the function and operation of conventional ignition system
components
2 Understand the operation of programmed electronic ignition and distributor less
ignition systems
3 Know about the function and operation of pulse generators and control modules
4 Be able to undertake tests on electronic ignition system to verify system faults.

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Unit content

1 Know about the function and operation of conventional ignition system

components

Ignition system components: circuits (diagrams, primary, secondary); contact

breaker; coil; leads; distributor and cap; rotor arm; spark plugs; mechanisms
(mechanical advance, retard, vacuum advance)
Ignition system functions: ignition timing (static and dynamic); dwell (angle,
time, variation); ignition scope patterns eg spark Kv, primary circuit, secondary
circuit, dwell, coil output

2 Understand the operation of programmed electronic ignition and distributor

less ignition systems

Programmed electronic ignition: components, functions and operation; electronic

control unit; sensors eg manifold absolute pressure, crankshaft, camshaft, engine
temperature, knock, air temperature; ignition coil; distributor; ignition switch;
reluctor disc; discharge eg capacitor, inductive
Distributor less ignition system: components, functions and operation;
transformer; capacitor; ignition coil(s) eg waste spark, direct acting; spark plug;
sensor eg manifold pressure, crankshaft, camshaft, knock; primary current
switching modules, waste spark, direct acting

3 Know about the function and operation of pulse generators and control
modules

Generators: Hall effect eg Hall voltage, Hall IC, vanes, magnet, control module;
inductive pick-up eg permanent magnet, inductive windings, trigger wheel;
optical pulse eg light emitting diode, phototransistor
Transistor assisted contacts: transistor operation; Darlington amplifier;
advantages of breaker less systems
Control modules: eg pulse shaping, dwell period control, voltage stabilisation,
primary switching, pulse processing, secondary output control, ignition amplifier,
air gap, electronic spark advance, spark advance map, read-only memory (ROM),
erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), knock control

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4 Be able to undertake tests on electronic ignition system to verify system faults

Test components/circuits for satisfactory operation: equipment eg on-board

diagnostics, test instruments, voltage drop tester, electronic control unit tester;
spark advance and retard tester; safe working practice; components and circuits
eg fuses, wiring, connectors, coil, spark plug, leads, rotor arm, distributor cap,
pulse generator, sensors (such as crankshaft, camshaft, knock), break out box,
ignition switch, reluctor air gap; checking for faults eg moisture, dirt, corrosion,
fault code reading, gap, data link connection, output and resistance, spark plug
leads condition and resistance, rotor arm condition and leakage, distributor cap
condition and leakage, dwell angle, spark plug condition, pulse generator module
resistance, ignition timing, sensor output, sensor operation

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Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P1 explain, with the aid of appropriate M1 compare the relative advantages and D1 explain how the conventional ignition
diagrams, the function of the main disadvantages of a typical conventional system, programmed electronic ignition
components and the operation of a ignition system, a programmed and distributor less ignition system
typical conventional ignition system electronic ignition and a distributor less operate in a variety of cold start and
ignition system acceleration situations
P2 distinguish between dwell angle, dwell
time and dwell variation M2 suggest methods for dealing with typical D2 analyse test results to diagnose defects,
faults on the electronic ignition system. wear and maladjustment in the ignition
P3 explain the functions of the main
system from given data and symptoms.
components and the operation of a
programmed electronic ignition system
P4 explain the functions of the main
components and the operation of a
distributor less ignition system
P5 describe the Hall effect, the operation of
an inductive pick-up module and an
optical pulse generator

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 Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P6 describe the advantages of a breaker less
system when used within transistor
operation and a Darlington amplifier
P7 describe the use of two control modules
P8 use appropriate equipment to carry out
basic tests on five components/circuits
to verify faults in an ignition system.

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Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should ensure that learners have a thorough understanding of
conventional and electronic ignition system components and their interrelationship
with each other. A balance of theoretical and practical study is recommended and
systems and operating principles should be demonstrated using rigs, units and
components.
Safe working practices should be followed in any practical activities, which should
also reflect current commercial practice within learners’ vocational areas.
The learning outcomes are ordered in a logical way and could therefore be delivered
sequentially. Learning outcome 4 requires practical investigation and as such learners
will need the underpinning knowledge and understanding obtained through studying
learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 beforehand.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit will normally be carried out through a combination of

assignments, projects, and practical investigations. The unit can be linked to other
units such as Unit 5: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics and Unit 6:
Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles and it would be appropriate, where
possible, to combine assessments. Alternatively this unit could be assessed using four
assignments.
The first assignment could assess P1 and P2, with written tasks for each criterion. For
P1 the use of diagrams is essential in the assessment process, and learners should
explain both the function and operation of the main components of a typical
conventional ignition system. This should include the type of circuit, contact breaker,
coil, leads, distributor and cap and rotor arm. For P2 a simple description including
the differences between the indicated elements could be assessed at the same time.
A second assignment could cover P3, P4, P5, P6 and M1. This could also provide an
opportunity to direct learners to D1. Separate written tasks could be given for each
criterion and the responses are likely to be in the format of a report.
P7 could be assessed independently in a third assignment, or could be linked to the
second assignment.
A final assignment covering P8, M2 and D2 could be assessed with the aid of task
sheets that track authenticated, reliable and current practical activities on five
components/circuits. The structure of this assignment is critical and tutors should
ensure that there are opportunities to diagnose faults (P8), suggest methods for
dealing with faults (M2), and analyse test results on defects, wear and

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maladjustment (D2). The data and symptoms should be given to each learner. The
evidence provided must include the test results involved and would typically
incorporate printouts from test equipment. A witness statement/observation record
would be a suitable form of evidence to show what the learner did and the
equipment they used when carrying out tests.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the following units in the Level 3 Automotive Skills National
Occupational Standards for Vehicle Maintenance and Repair:
• Unit MR 01: Carry out Routine Vehicle Maintenance
• Unit MR 05: Conduct Pre and Post Work Vehicle Inspections
• Unit AE 04: Diagnose and Rectify Engine Electrical Faults.
The unit can also be linked to other BTEC units such as Unit 5: Applications of
Vehicle Science and Mathematics and Unit 6: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic
Principles.

Essential resources
Learners will need access to vehicle workshops equipped with modern vehicles, rigs,
components and appropriate test equipment.

Indicative reading for learners

Bosch R — Automotive Electrics/Automotive Electronics (Professional Engineering

Publishing, 2004) ISBN 1860584365
Hillier V A — Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics (Nelson Thornes, 1996)
ISBN 0748726950

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Unit 48: Operation and Testing of Vehicle Electronic Ignition Systems

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining functions and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
operation of ignition systems least two documents about the same
subject.
• describing the Hall effect,
operation of an inductive Each document must be at least 1000
pick up module and an words long.
optical pulse generator C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• describing the use of control each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
modules
One document must be at least 1000
• writing up results of testing words long.
for faults.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using appropriate equipment PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
to carry out basic tests on ways of tackling it.
five components/circuits PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
• verifying test results. solving the problem.

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 Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic

Principles
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give any aspiring automotive engineer an understanding of the
underlying principles governing the operation of electrical and electronic devices and
circuits used within a modern vehicle. The unit aims to build on prior knowledge and
provide learners with a firm foundation for further study of vehicle electrics and/or
electronics.
Learners will gain an understanding of electrical and electronic principles through the
analysis of direct current (DC) motor vehicle electrical circuits. Learners will also be
introduced to the principles and properties of magnetism as applied to motor vehicle
circuit devices.
Learners will then examine the concepts of digital electronic principles and
microprocessor applications in motor vehicles. Finally, learners will be introduced to
single-phase alternating current (AC) theory as applied to vehicle alternators. They
will consider waveform characteristics and determine the values (using phasor and
algebraic representation and actual waveform measurements using an oscilloscope)
of alternating quantities.
The unit has been designed to encourage learners to take an investigative approach
through practical construction, measurement and testing of circuits and, where
applicable, the use of computer-based circuit analysis and simulation.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to use circuit theory to determine voltage, current and resistance in
direct current (DC) motor vehicle circuits
2 Understand the principles, properties and motor vehicle applications of
magnetism
3 Understand the concepts of digital principles and applications of microprocessors
in motor vehicles
4 Be able to use single-phase alternating current (AC) theory to determine vehicle
alternator performance.

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Unit content

1 Be able to use circuit theory to determine voltage, current and resistance in

direct current (DC) motor vehicle circuits

DC circuit theory: voltage eg potential difference, electromotive force (emf);

resistance eg conductors and insulators, resistivity, temperature coefficient,
internal resistance of a DC source; circuit components (power source eg battery,
stabilised power supply; resistors eg function, types, values, colour coding; diodes
eg types, characteristics, forward and reverse bias modes); circuit layout (DC
power source, resistors in series, resistors in parallel, series and parallel
combinations); Ohm’s law, power and energy formulae eg V = IR, P = IV, W = Pt,
application of Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws
DC motor vehicle circuits: circuits to include a DC power source, four components
including circuit protection and switching arrangement; vehicle applications eg
lighting circuits (side and rear lamp, main and dip headlamp, front and rear fog
lamps, stop lamp, reverse lamp, indicator and hazard warning system), auxiliary
circuits (horn, window winding, central locking, interior heater, rear screen
heater), vehicle security systems, air-conditioning, use of relays, circuit
protection devices (DC power source circuit protection fuse and resistors
(series/parallel)) operating component(s) such as motor assembly; diode resistor
circuit with DC power source, series resistors and diodes eg bulb failure circuit,
low oil pressure circuits, alternator rectifier
Measurements in DC motor vehicle circuits: safe use of a multimeter eg setting,
handling, health and safety; measurements (circuit current, voltage, resistance,
internal resistance of a DC power source; testing a diode’s forward and reverse
bias)

2 Understand the principles, properties and motor vehicle applications of

magnetism

Characteristics of magnetic field: field patterns eg flux, flux density (B),

magnetomotive force (mmf) and field strength (H), permeability, B/H curves and
loops; ferromagnetic materials; reluctance; magnetic screening; hysteresis
Electromagnetic induction: principles eg induced emf, eddy currents, self and
mutual inductance; motor vehicle applications (electric motor/generator eg
series and shunt motor/generator, transformer eg primary and secondary current
and voltage ratios); motor vehicle applications of Faraday and Lenz’s laws eg
electrical induction in an alternator, electromagnetic coil

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 Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

3 Understand the concepts of digital principles and applications of

microprocessors in motor vehicles

Digital principles: binary system eg binary notation and algebra, bits and bytes,
input/output (I/O) voltage levels; logic system eg AND, OR, NOT NAND and NOR
gates; truth tables, memory circuits, sequential and clocked circuits, flip flops,
read only memory (ROM)/random access memory (RAM) structures and
organisation; timers; digital to analogue (D/A) and analogue to digital (A/D)
converters; types of integrated circuits eg classification, operation, performance
characteristics and identification; vehicle applications eg fault diagnosis, code
readers, data logging, visual/audio output, speed sensor processing, engine
timing control, satellite navigation
Microprocessors: microprocessor system eg programmes, language, I/O interface,
memory; construction of microprocessor eg control section, arithmetic and logic
sections, register section, memory, I/O section buses, fetch and execute cycle,
control by clock pulses; motor vehicle application of microprocessors eg engine
management, antilock braking systems (ABS), climate control, suspension
settings, transmission modes

4 Be able to use single-phase alternating current (AC) theory to determine

vehicle alternator performance

Single-phase AC circuit theory: waveform characteristics eg sinusoidal and non-

sinusoidal waveforms, amplitude, period time, frequency, instantaneous,
peak/peak-to-peak, root mean square (rms), average values, form factor;
determination of values using phasor and algebraic representation of alternating
quantities eg graphical and phasor addition of two sinusoidal voltages, reactance
and impedance of pure resistor (R), inductor (L) and capacitor (C) components
Alternator performance: safe use of an oscilloscope eg setting, handling, health
and safety; measurements (periodic time, frequency, amplitude, peak/peak-to-
peak, rms and average values)

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Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 use DC circuit theory to calculate M1 use Kirchoff’s laws to determine voltage D1 analyse the operation and the effects of
current, voltage and resistance in three and current in a motor vehicle circuit varying component parameters of a
motor vehicle circuits that has at least five nodes and the motor vehicle power supply circuit that
power dissipated in a load resistor includes at least a transformer, diode
P2 use a multimeter to carry out circuit
containing two voltage sources and resistor
measurements in DC motor vehicle
circuits M2 compare the function and principles of D2 evaluate the performance of a motor and
operation of two different vehicle a generator used within a motor vehicle
P3 compare the forward and reverse
applications of microprocessors system by reference to electrical and
characteristics of two different types of
electronic theory.
semi-conductor diode M3 compare the results of adding and
subtracting two sinusoidal AC waveforms
P4 describe the characteristics of a
graphically and by phasor diagram.
magnetic field and explain the
relationship between flux density (B) and
field strength (H)
P5 explain how the principles of
electromagnetic induction apply to a
given motor vehicle application

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 Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe two different vehicle system
applications of digital principles
P7 describe the function and operation of
two vehicle system integrated circuits
P8 describe the function and principles of
operation of a vehicle system
microprocessor
P9 use single-phase AC circuit theory to
explain and determine the
characteristics of a sinusoidal AC
waveform
P10 use an oscilloscope to measure and
determine the performance of a vehicle
alternator.

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Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

It is important that learners receive the appropriate induction, development and

support whilst working on this unit. They may also need a certain level of computer
skills in order to use computer-based software for circuit simulation.
The four learning outcomes of this unit are linked and the delivery strategy should
ensure that these links are maintained.
Learning outcome 1 is the most likely starting point for delivery, as it will establish
much of the underpinning knowledge and skills required for the remaining learning
outcomes. The unit could be delivered through a combination of theory lessons and
demonstrations, reinforced through practical work in a vehicle laboratory or
workshop. It is important that learners have a thorough understanding of circuit
theory if they are to be able to recognise, understand and apply their knowledge to
the relevant components.
Initially, delivery could use paper-based or computer-based exercises (eg calculating
the required value of a second resistance in a series circuit to give a current flow of
2A with a 12V DC power source). However, even at this stage it may be beneficial to
introduce learners to real circuit components. A task that requires learners to
practise the theoretical calculations and then check a vehicle circuit in a practical
environment would stimulate the learning process, aid development and reinforce
relevance.
The ability of learners to lay out circuits is an important part of learning outcome 1
and will support the other learning outcomes. Most tutors might start with paper-
based methods of drawing simple circuits (eg power source and series/parallel
combination of resistors such as voltage and current divider circuits). It is likely that
they will move on to computer simulation and the use of real circuits/components,
using either bread boarding techniques or soldered circuits. It would be appropriate
at this time to use vehicle wiring diagrams.
Learners should be given the opportunity to practise using the formulae identified in
the unit content, although they are not required to memorise them. However, they
should be expected to select the most appropriate formulae to determine the
required circuit values of current, voltage or resistance. In addition, learners should
have the confidence to transpose equations to meet their needs (eg use Ohm’s law
V = IR and the power equation P = IV to arrive at P = I2R, use R = R1+R2 to arrive at
R1 = R — R2). Because the ability to transpose formulae is a mathematical skill tutors
will need to ensure that appropriate support is provided during both the delivery of
this learning outcome and the unit as a whole. Centres should carefully consider how
best to integrate the learning that takes place in this and other
mathematical/science based units.

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 Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

During the delivery of this unit, learners should be given the opportunity to
experience as wide a range of measurement and computer-based simulation software
as possible. However, it would not be appropriate to use computer-based simulation
packages without any actual practical use or development of vehicle electrical and
electronic circuits and components. Tutors are therefore encouraged to relate theory
to real vehicle engineering applications wherever possible. Industrial visits or work
experience could be used to support learning and give learners an appreciation of the
industrial applications of electrical and electronic principles.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Much of the evidence for the pass criteria could be generated through practical
experimentation and investigation with real components and circuits and computer-
based software packages.
It is likely that at least four assessment instruments will be needed for this unit. If
practical work and tests are also used then the total number of pieces of assessed
work could be more. This should be carefully considered so as to not place an unduly
high assessment burden on learners or the tutor.
Wherever possible, practical work should lead to a final product that can be handed
in for assessment at the end of the session without further need for report writing.
Alternatively, practical work could be observed by the tutor/witness and a record of
observation used for assessment evidence. Both of these methods will help in
ensuring authenticity of evidence and also keep the assessment activities short, sharp
and relevant.
Evidence of the use DC circuit theory to calculate current, voltage and resistance in
three motor vehicle circuits (P1) could be produced by using paper- or computer-
based methods. Between them, the three motor vehicle circuits need to be chosen to
cover the required aspects of the unit content. However, it is essential that any
simulation (paper- or computer-based) is combined with practical hands-on
experience of real circuits and components. Prototyping circuits using simulation
software to establish theoretical circuit values, followed by learners building the
circuit and physically checking theory against actual results by measurement, could
achieve this. Whichever method is used, tutors need to ensure that there is sufficient
product evidence of the circuit being used/developed and the formulae selected to
determine the required current, voltage or resistance values. This is particularly
important where computer software is used that does not have a facility to print
results or where printouts do not show sufficient detail to meet the criterion.
The ability to use a multimeter to carry out circuit measurements in DC motor
vehicle circuits (P2) will require process evidence (ie it will need to be observed by
the tutor or assessor during relevant practical activities on motor vehicle
applications). This could be the end product measurement of circuits being assessed
for P1. Tutors could capture this evidence by using an appropriate record of
observation and oral questioning of each learner during the practical activities used
for delivery.

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Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

The comparison of the forward and reverse characteristics of two different types of
semiconductor diode (P3) will require the use of a multimeter, power supply,
ammeter with shunt, and a switch resistor box. This could be a progression from
P1/P2 and could be set up on a vehicle for learners to build, test and compare
against data and detail provided.
The characteristics of magnetic fields (P4) could be demonstrated on an OHP by using
magnets and iron filings. Learners could sketch or be provided with a handout of the
results and then make appropriate comparisons with expected theoretical results.
The relationship between flux density (B) and field strength (H), may be set within
the context and use of different materials such as silicon iron and mild steel in
vehicle examples such as coil, relay and starter operation.
Evidence for P5 will be descriptive and learners will need to consider the movement
of a conductor within a magnetic field in vehicle examples such as alternators,
starters and solenoids.
For P6, learners need to describe two different vehicle system applications of digital
principles. It is expected that one of these will involve the application of a binary
system and the other a logic system including D/A and A/D converters, as appropriate
to the particular vehicle application. There is a strong link between P6 and P7, which
could be used to good effect if the vehicle system applications of digital principles
(P6) includes and enables learners to describe the function and operation of two
vehicle system integrated circuits (P7).
For P8, a practical investigation of a microprocessor application for a selected
vehicle system, combined with a descriptive task, could be used. The investigation
and report needs to focus on the microprocessor system being applied and its
construction. Typical motor vehicle applications of microprocessors could be engine
management, anti-lock braking systems, climate control, suspension settings or
transmission modes.
P9 requires learners to use single phase AC circuit theory to explain and determine
the characteristics of a sinusoidal AC waveform. This should include waveform
characteristics and the determination of values using phasor and algebraic
representation of alternating quantities. There is a useful link here with P10 and an
assignment could be structured to provide a relevant link between the theory and
application of AC to a vehicle.
All the merit and distinction criteria have close links with the pass criteria and tutors
should try to design their assignments around these links.
M1 relates to the use of Kirchoff’s laws and naturally follows on from learners’ use of
DC circuit theory to calculate current, voltage and resistance in P1. To achieve M1,
learners need to be able use Kirchoff’s laws to determine voltage and current in a
motor vehicle circuit that has at least five nodes, and the power dissipated in a load
resistor containing two voltage sources. Learners should be encouraged to use
computer-based simulation to check their calculations.
M2 links to P8 and is designed to encourage learners to taker a wider and deeper look
at the application of microprocessors in motor vehicles. It is important to keep in
mind that the comparison should be based on the original findings for P8 (ie the
microprocessor system being applied and its construction).

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M3 is an extension of P9 and P10, for which learners will have demonstrated an

ability to work with a single sinusoidal AC waveform. To achieve M3 learners need to
compare the results of adding and subtracting two sinusoidal AC waveforms
graphically and by phasor diagram. There are possible links outside of this unit, for
example to Unit 5: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics.
For D1, learners must analyse the operation and the effects of varying component
parameters of a motor vehicle power supply circuit that includes at least a
transformer, diode and a resistor. To achieve this, a basic power supply could be
simulated to allow all the respective properties to be investigated without the
hazards of damaging a vehicle’s system. This could be achieved using a function
generator, alternating voltage or variable power source, along with a small isolating
transformer, diode rectifiers (half wave and bridge) and load resistors in circuits such
as, alternator applications, bulb failure warning systems or data input devices.
D2 requires learners to evaluate the performance of a motor and a generator used
within a motor vehicle system by reference to electrical and electronic theory. This
can be achieved practically using appropriate experimental rigs that allow learners to
compare their results with known characteristics for specific machines eg alternator
output, motor applications such as door or window operating systems.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly:
• Unit AE 4: Diagnose Rectify Engine Electrical Faults
• Unit AE 6: Diagnose Rectify Auxiliary Equipment Electrical Faults
• Unit MR 7: Diagnose Rectify Vehicle engine and Component Faults.
This unit relates strongly to Unit 5: Applications of Vehicle Science and Mathematics
and it would be useful to study these units concurrently. Data from experiments
within this unit can be manipulated mathematically and so provide evidence for both
units.

Essential resources

It is essential that learners have access to a vehicle workshop equipped with test rigs,
vehicles and up-to-date electrical/electronic instruments such as digital and
analogue multimeters, function generators and oscilloscopes. Centres will also need
to provide appropriate circuit components, as identified in the unit content together
with the means to physically construct circuits. With the increased use of computer-
based methods for circuit design and simulation, centres are strongly advised to
consider the provision of suitable hardware and software for computer-based circuit
simulation and analysis.

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Unit 49: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles

Indicative reading for learners

Bird J O — Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology, Second Edition

(Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750665505
Bird J O — Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750657847
Denton T — Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004) ISBN 0750662190

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• solving vehicle electrical and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
electronic problems and information from relevant sources.
interpreting results using N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
conventional methods and/or stage calculations to do with:
computer-based software
approaches. a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and using a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
variety of different sources sources, and multiple search criteria in at
for vehicle electrical and least one case.
electronic products and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
component information derive new information.
• developing and presenting ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
information on electrical and text with image, text with number,
electronic principles to meet image with number.
the unit criteria/content, eg
magnetic field.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• solving problems in DC and PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
AC circuits using ways of tackling it.
conventional methods and PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
computer-based software solving the problem.
simulation and analysis
packages. PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems

Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and

Starting Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The application of electrical technology in modern motor vehicle systems is under
constant development. This has resulted in an ever-increasing electrical load being
placed on a vehicle’s charging and starting systems. This unit aims to develop
learners’ understanding of the processes and technology that support vehicle
electrical systems. The unit will give learners the opportunity to determine faults in
a vehicle’s battery, charging and starting systems, identify and confirm the specific
component that has failed and undertake suitable rectification procedures.
Learners will investigate the chemical process within a battery and understand how
to specify a battery for a particular vehicle. They will also gain an understanding of
the operation and conversion of energy within the charging and starting systems of a
modern motor vehicle. The unit will enable them to apply this knowledge to both
charging and starting systems and undertake diagnostic and rectification work on a
range of vehicles.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to specify a battery for a given motor vehicle application
2 Understand a vehicle’s starting system
3 Understand a vehicle’s electrical charging system
4 Be able to diagnose and rectify engine electrical system faults on a vehicle’s
charging and starting systems.

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Unit content

1 Be able to specify a battery for a given motor vehicle application

Chemical processes of lead acid batteries: chemical to electrical conversion,

water to electrolyte process eg charge and discharge cycles, use of chemical
symbols, changes to specific gravity and components chemical state; health and
safety eg gases produced, acid content
Battery performance and construction: performance eg cold cranking amperage,
amp/hour rating (10/20 rating); construction eg casing, plates (lead dioxide and
spongy lead), separators; connections eg series/parallel, vehicle earthing,
corrosion protection; electrolyte eg sulphuric acid, distilled water; battery
calculations eg amp/hour system requirement, cold cranking usage, plate area,
maximum load; battery specification eg manufacturer’s recommendations, type,
make, performance; specify battery by comparing system
calculations/performance tests to battery capabilities

2 Understand a vehicle’s starting system

Function of starting system: energy conversion eg electrical to mechanical

rotation, rotational to linear translation; starter solenoid eg provide mechanical
movement by use of electro-magnetic application; ignition key/push button
switch eg provide timely electrical supply to starting system; principles of starter,
motor eg conversion of electrical energy to mechanical movement, creation and
use of magnetic effect to create mechanical movement (Fleming’s left hand rule)
Starting system components: electrical supply (battery); circuit protection
methods eg fuse, immobiliser, key recognition, relay; ignition switch eg key or
manual operation; wiring looms; warning system eg visual and audible; solenoid;
starter motor assembly eg casing, magnets, armature, brush box, gear, roller
clutch drive
Circuit diagrams: switched supply system; permanent feed system; recognition of
circuit components/circuit symbols; types of circuit diagrams eg use of workshop
manuals, manufacturer’s diagrams, wiring diagrams and schematics

3 Understand a vehicle’s electrical charging system

Voltage generation, rectification and regulation: function of generator eg

alternator to create electro-motive-force using Fleming’s right hand rule; system
components eg stator, rotor, rectifier, voltage regulator, slip ring, brushes,
bearings, cooling fan; warning device; bridge rectifier; drive belts eg single- or
multi- ‘V’ design
Multi-phase electrical output: principles of three-phase electricity eg excitation,
magnetic inductance, sinusoidal pattern, full wave rectification; use of
oscilloscope to observe wave patterns; AC-DC voltage conversion

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4 Be able to diagnose and rectify engine electrical system faults on a vehicle’s

charging and starting systems

Battery tests and faults: testing eg relative density, battery capacity, condition
testing; equipment eg hydrometer, multimeter, dedicated test equipment,
inductive amp clamp; typical battery faults eg dead cell, shorting out, low
specific density, failing under heavy discharge, physical damage (overcharged
causing heat distortion, corrosion/degradation, mechanical damage/defects)
Starting system tests and faults: system operation; circuit testing eg continuity,
feed, voltage drop; component test eg ignition switch, solenoid operation, starter
motor operation and internal components (armature, brushes, windings, circuit
protection eg relays, overload relay, immobiliser); use of test equipment eg
multimeter, dedicated test equipment, oscilloscope, inductive amp clamp;
typical starting system faults eg internal short on armature, failed solenoid
operation, inhibitor switch failed
Charging system tests and faults: system operation; circuit testing eg continuity,
feed, voltage drop; component test eg diodes, bearings, rotor, windings; output
test eg voltage, current, waveform; typical charging system faults eg diode
failure (indicator light on), faulty voltage control (overcharging), bearing fault
(noisy or excessive free play), faulty brush box/rotor (no charge); use of test
equipment eg multimeter, dedicated test equipment, oscilloscope, inductive amp
clamp

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the chemical processes of a lead M1 compare the performance characteristics D1 evaluate the engine electrical systems of
acid battery of two different batteries two different vehicles in terms of the
ease of carrying out diagnostic and
P2 perform calculations to select a battery, M2 justify the choice of starting system
rectification procedures.
based on performance and construction, diagnostic tests and rectification
for a given motor vehicle application methods
P3 explain the function of the components M3 justify the choice of charging system
and operating principles of a vehicle’s diagnostic tests and rectification
starting system methods.
P4 use a circuit diagram to identify the
electrical components of a vehicle’s
starting system
P5 explain the process of voltage generation
and regulation for a given vehicle
application
P6 describe the application of multi-phase
electrical output in relationship to a
vehicle’s charging system

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 Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 carry out diagnostic tests to identify two
different vehicle battery faults
P8 carry out diagnostic tests and
rectification of two different vehicle
starting system faults
P9 carry out diagnostic tests and
rectification of two different vehicle
charging system faults.

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Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Before starting this unit learners should, ideally, have an understanding of the
fundamentals of each system to be considered. This may have come from previous
study (eg BTEC First Diploma Unit 2: Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles) or
hands-on experience within the industry. Learners should at least be able to identify
the components of the systems covered (battery, starting system, charging system)
and have an appreciation of the need to carry out diagnostic and repair procedures to
rectify system faults. Where learners do not have this level of understanding centres
will need to ensure that sufficient underpinning knowledge is provided before
delivering the unit content.
The unit would be best delivered using a practical, hands-on approach. For example,
a laboratory demonstration of the chemical processes within a battery for learning
outcome 1 and the evaluation of changes in the electrolyte and the state of charge
within each cell. Most of the delivery of the unit will rely on the use of rigs or
vehicles to aid learners’ understanding of both starting and charging systems. This is
particularly important with such concepts as mechanical movement created by
magnetic influence on components, commutation applications and flawed actuation
as a direct result of a failed component.
All practical work should reflect both current industry practice and also consider the
benefits of covering a range of industry applications (eg 6/12/24 volt systems) for
specific groups.
Learners will be required to apply some mathematical and scientific skills throughout
the unit. Therefore when planning the delivery of this unit, tutors may need to
consider the timing of delivery with respect to other units that support the skills
required.

Assessment

Assessment evidence is most likely to be gathered from practical work on vehicles

and test rigs. Tutors will need to provide or simulate a range of system faults on
vehicles to ensure authenticity of individual evidence for large groups of learners.
Work-based evidence of the application of theory and fault-finding skills would also
be acceptable.
P1 and P2 are linked and should be assessed together. For P1, learners will need to
explain the chemical processes of a lead acid battery. In particular this should
consider the chemical to electrical conversion, water to electrolyte process and
relevant health and safety issues when working with a battery.
P2 requires learners to be able to consider the performance and construction of a
battery for a given or chosen vehicle application. When considering performance,
learners should typically look at the impact of cold cranking, other draws on the
power of the battery (eg the demand from modern computer and security systems
when the vehicle is idle) and issues such as amp/hour rating. When looking at

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 Unit 50: Engine Electrical Charging and Starting Systems

construction, learners should be considering the battery’s casing, plates and

separators. They will also need to include how connections are achieved and
electrolyte is used. The essential aspect of this criterion will be the learners’ ability
to perform the required battery calculations and establish the required battery
specification for the application. It is expected that learners will draw from and
make suitable references (eg manufacturer’s recommendations, types, makes and
performance capabilities) when specifying the battery and use their system
calculations/performance tests to determine battery capabilities.
The assignment used for P1 and P2 could be extended to cover M1. This will require
learners to compare the performance characteristics of two different batteries. One
of the batteries used could be the one already dealt with for P2 and compared
against another (completely different) battery.
A second assignment could be used to cover P3 and P4. This will require learners to
explain the function of the components and operating principles of a vehicle’s
starting system (P3). The components to be covered include the battery, circuit
protection methods, ignition switch, wiring looms, warning system, solenoid, starter
and motor assembly. The explanation should consider the relevant energy conversion
methods (eg electrical to mechanical rotation, rotational to linear translation), the
operation of the starter solenoid and ignition key/push button switch and the
operating principles of the starter motor. In explaining the function of components
learners could also identify them using a circuit diagram in order to achieve P4.
P5 and P6 can also be linked with learners covering both the processes involved in
voltage generation, rectification and regulation and the application of multiphase
output. For P5, learners will need to provide suitable explanations of the function of
a generator, relevant system components and the related drive belts. P6 requires
learners to describe the application of multi-phase electrical output in relationship to
a vehicle’s charging system. This should include the general principles of multi-phase
electrical output, the use of an oscilloscope to observe wave patterns (screen shots
or sketches may be used to evidence the patterns observed under specific
conditions), and the application of AC-DC voltage conversion in a vehicle setting. The
assessment evidence for P6 should be firmly linked back to the task set for P5 to
enable the learner to cover.
P7, P8 and P9 will require learners to demonstrate their practical skills with respect
to diagnostic tests and rectification for batteries, starter and charging systems. P7
requires learners to carry out diagnostic tests to identify two different vehicle
battery faults. Assessment of rectification is not required as this would simply mean
replacing the faulty battery. However P8 and P9 will require learners to carry out
both diagnostic tests and rectification of two different vehicle starting system faults
and two different vehicle charging systems.
The assessment of P7 could be linked back to P1 and P2. Typical battery faults might
include dead cell(s), shorting out, low specific density, failing under heavy discharge
or physical damage. Learners will need to select and use suitable equipment when
carrying out the diagnostic tests.
For P8 and P9, the diagnostics tests should consider the respective system operation,
appropriate circuit testing and component tests. The rectification procedures should
be completed and systems checked to confirm integrity. Appropriate work records
should also be completed.

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It is likely that relevant observation records/witness statements will form the

evidence of learners using a range of equipment for each system to confirm diagnosis
before undertaking rectification. A short report (or logbook entry) outlining the
details of the diagnostic procedures carried out would also be expected. The report
does not have to be a full technical report but should reflect industry practice of
reporting back to supervisor/customer. To ensure authenticity centres will need to
provide a variety of faults so that each learner is able to carry out a series of
diagnostic and rectification procedures unique to them.
The practical activities carried out for P8 and P9 will link directly with M2, M3
and D1.
To achieve M2 and M3, learners must be able to justify the choice of starting and
charging system diagnostic tests and rectification methods used (on each of the of
the two different vehicle system faults for each criterion), respectively.
For D1, learners should be able to evaluate the engine electrical systems of two
different vehicles in terms of the ease of carrying out diagnostic and rectification
procedures. The systems considered could be the same ones used for P8 and P9.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Automotive Skills Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR07: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Engine and Component Faults
• Unit MR11: Overhaul Mechanical Units.
This unit supports, and is supported by Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle Systems,
Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification and Unit 6: Vehicle Electrical and
Electronic Principles.

Essential resources

Learners will need to be given access to suitable motor vehicle workshop facilities.
This should include equipment for working with dangerous acids, voltage generation
equipment and test equipment including oscilloscopes. A range of components and
vehicles should be provided as well as a variety of data sources and technical
information.

Indicative reading for learners

Denton T — Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (Butterworth-Heinemann,

2004) ISBN 0750662190
Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology
(Nelson Thornes, 2006) ISBN 0748780998

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting materials and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
researching information (eg least two documents about the same
safety, maintenance and subject.
diagnostic data) Each document must be at least 1000
• explaining operating words long.
principles and functions of C3.3 Write two different types of documents
vehicle electrical systems each one giving different information
and components. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• undertaking diagnostic PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
procedures and attributing ways of tackling it.
symptoms to faults. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved
and review your approach to problem
solving.

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572 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and

Information Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Significant technological developments within the motor vehicle industry have
resulted in modern vehicles being equipped with a vast array of additional ancillary
and information systems. From anti-lock braking systems (ABS) and stability control,
to condition monitoring computers and satellite navigation, these systems contribute
to the overall safety and comfort of the vehicle’s occupants.
This unit will enable learners to understand the operating principles and
constructional details of vehicle electronic ancillary and information systems.
Through practical investigation, learners will gain an understanding of the function of
these systems and their key components. The unit will also focus on the ways in
which ancillary and information systems interrelate with each other and how they
interact with a vehicle’s driver or passengers.
Learners will carry out inspections on different vehicle ancillary and information
systems in order to confirm their correct operation and system integrity.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the operating principles and characteristics of vehicle electronic
ancillary and information systems
2 Know about the function of key units and components of vehicle electronic
ancillary and information systems
3 Understand the interrelationships and interaction of vehicle electronic ancillary
and information systems
4 Be able to carry out practical investigations into vehicle electronic ancillary and
information systems.

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Unit content

1 Understand the operating principles and characteristics of vehicle electronic

ancillary and information systems

Systems model: use of systems model (input — process — output); characteristics

of control strategies employed eg open-loop, closed-loop
Operating principles and characteristics: control systems eg analogue, digital,
programmable, non-programmable; main elements of a digital processing system
and principal functions eg central processing unit (CPU), memory devices (such as
volatile, non-volatile), buses, input/output ports, multiplexing, controller area
network (CAN) systems; characteristics eg purpose and applications of the
system, operating conditions (such as conditions in which the system is operative
or inoperative, ‘fail-safe’ features), system evaluation to identify benefits,
comparative cost, performance, safety, convenience, efficiency
Vehicle electronic ancillary and information systems: electronic ancillary systems
eg anti-lock braking systems (ABS), vehicle stability control systems, security and
alarm systems, central body electronic systems (such as seat positioning, seat
belt tensioning, secondary restraint systems, cargo/cabin compartment climate
control); information systems eg driver information (condition monitoring and trip
computers), navigation — global positioning system (GPS), communication
systems, entertainment systems, proximity (reversing) sensors and road
positioning
Operating principles of sensors and actuators: transducers used in vehicle
ancillary and information systems eg electromagnetic, Hall-effect, photoelectric,
resistive, inductive, capacitive; factors affecting performance and application eg
sensitivity, accuracy, linearity and stability; influence of environmental factors eg
heat, vibration, moisture, contaminants

2 Know about the function of key units and components of vehicle electronic
ancillary and information systems

Key units and components of vehicle ancillary systems: functions (input data eg
temperature, speed, position; process data eg mapping to input; output data eg
electronic/mechanical actuation); key units and components eg sensors (such as
temperature, speed, position), processors (such as ABS, electronic climate control
unit) actuators (such as resistive, switches, inductive, capacitive, direct current
(DC) motors, stepper motors when used for throttle poisoning or ventilation
control), solenoids when used on ABS, air conditioning or for multi-position; legal
considerations eg modifications to vehicle specification that may affect
sensor/system performance (such as fitment of larger wheels/tyres affect on
speedometer accuracy, fitment of passenger airbag isolation switches)

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Key units and components of vehicle information systems: functions (input data
eg temperature, speed, position, levels, electrical values; process data; visual
output eg lights, display screen, gauges; audible output eg buzzer, speaker); key
units and components (sensors eg temperature, fluid level, speed, GPS;
processors eg satellite navigation, on-board diagnostics when used as comfort
computing; output units eg display screen, speakers, buzzers, gauges, lights);
legal considerations eg fitment of radar detectors

3 Understand the interrelationships and interaction of vehicle electronic

ancillary and information systems

Interfacing and signal processing: compatibility between components and

systems; characteristics of devices which give rise to the need for signal
processing (inductive pick-ups, analogue to digital (AD), digital to analogue (DA));
control of output devices eg energy transfer, power output stages, buffer circuits
Representation methods: circuit type eg electrical, electronic, hydraulic,
pneumatic; connections; diagrams eg circuit, flow, block, systems
Functional interrelationships: location eg units and components within the
vehicle, position/location of components relative to others in the system;
functional relationships between the elements of the system; effects eg failures
on other components within the system, the operation of the system and on
external systems (such as effect of speed sensor failure)
System interaction: ways in which the system under consideration interacts with
other vehicle systems and functions eg integration of anti-lock braking and
stability control (anti-skid), systems, stability control system obtains information
from the steering system, ABS system components interacts with the braking and
engine control systems
Driver/passenger interaction: driver/passenger influence on the operation and
characteristics of the system (such as seat pad recognition); effects of the system
on the driver’s/passengers’ behaviour, comfort and safety (such as temperature
effect on stress levels)
Vehicle interaction: ways in which the system affects the vehicle in relation to
other vehicles eg proximity detection; external factors influencing the
operation/function of the system eg satellite navigation, ground positioning
systems

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

4 Be able to carry out practical investigations into vehicle electronic ancillary

and information systems

Inspections: location of systems and key components; means of identification;

testing and diagnostic procedures as appropriate to the system under
consideration
Safety: relating to the operation, inspection, maintenance and testing of the
system
Practical confirmation of system operation and characteristics: observation of
the system in operation; examination of system responses to external conditions
as appropriate to the system under consideration
Testing considerations: factors affecting performance/reliability and application
eg sensitivity, accuracy, linearity and stability; influence of environmental factors
eg heat, vibration, moisture, contaminants

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 use a systems model to help explain the M1 explain how the malfunction of key units D1 compare the selection of two different
operating principles and characteristics and components can influence the sensors, with respect to position and
associated with vehicle electronic operation of a vehicle electronic environment control
ancillary and information systems ancillary and information system
D2 analyse characteristics of two vehicle
P2 describe the operating principles of M2 select a vehicle application of vehicle electronic ancillary and information
sensors and actuators ancillary and information systems and systems in terms of function,
describe specific benefits of the performance, safety and cost.
P3 describe the functions of the key units
interaction of the systems.
and compo0nents of two vehicle
ancillary systems, including legal
considerations
P4 describe the functions of key units and
components of two vehicle information
systems, including legal considerations
P5 describe interfacing and signal
processing in ancillary and information
systems

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 use representational methods to help
describe the functional interrelationship
and interaction between systems
P7 explain driver/passenger and vehicle
interactions for one ancillary and one
information system
P8 carry out inspections, in a safe manner,
to confirm system operation and
integrity on one ancillary and one
information system
P9 identify the testing considerations to
make when carrying out a practical
investigation into vehicle electronic
ancillary and information systems.

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should be designed to give learners an understanding of the

operating principles and characteristics of vehicle electronic ancillary and
information systems. This should then progress on to a representative selection of the
electronic ancillary and information systems found in current vehicles.
Detailed investigation (including function/operation at component level) is likely to
only be possible for a limited number of systems (eg ABS, central body systems). For
more complex systems a ‘black-box’ approach (with the emphasis on functions) will
be more appropriate (eg GPS navigation systems).
A balance of theoretical study and practical investigation is likely to provide
maximum opportunity for learners to understand systems of this complexity. Videos,
simulations and rigs will be effective aids to learning, since ‘live’ demonstration of
the operation of some of the systems (eg vehicle stability control) could be
impractical. Practical application/investigation should reflect industry processes and
procedures and should be linked to other units wherever possible.
The learning outcomes are ordered in a logical way and could therefore be delivered
sequentially. Learning outcome 4 requires practical investigation and as such learners
will need the underpinning knowledge and understanding obtained through studying
learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 beforehand.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

This unit could be assessed using three assignments.

The first assignment could cover P1, P2, P3, the ancillary part of M1 and D1. Learners
will need to generate evidence of using a systems model to explain both the
operating principles and characteristics (P1) and application of two ancillary systems
(P3). Learners will also need to describe the operating principles of sensors and
actuators (P2) relating to the ancillary systems described, comparing different
sensors in respect of position and environment (D1). This could be combined with a
task for attaining the part of M1 explaining ancillary system malfunction. All evidence
for this first assignment is likely to be in written form and may include diagrams and
sketches.
The second assignment could cover P4, P5, P6 and P7. Learners would need to
describe the key units and components of two vehicle information systems (P4). To
meet P5 the description of interfacing and signal processing should include
compatibility, inductive pick-ups, analogue to digital and digital to analogue, and
control of output devices. The inclusion of an appropriate circuit diagram for each
system would meet P6 and would need to include the description of functional
interrelationship and interaction of systems.

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 Unit 51: Vehicle Electronic Ancillary and Information Systems

Learners could then be asked to explain driver/passenger and vehicle interactions.

Further tasks could be set to extend to the information system element of M1, M2
and D2.
The third assignment will need to be based on practical sessions with learners
carrying out inspections on both ancillary and information systems (P8) to industry
standards. A written task could ask learners to identify testing considerations for
both types of system (P9).
Evidence should include notes, diagrams, test data, and records of the maintenance
and diagnostic procedures carried out. Witness statements/observation records,
supplemented by annotated photographs, could also form part of the evidence for
these practical elements.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding for the Automotive Skills
National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR3: Remove and Replace Electrical Auxiliary Units and Components.
The unit supports, and is supported by Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle Systems, Unit 6:
Vehicle Electrical and Electronic Principles and Unit 7: Engine Electrical Charging
and Starting Systems.
It also provides an opportunity for learners to develop further the knowledge and
understanding gained from Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification.

Essential resources

A range of components, vehicles and equipment will be required for practical

investigation, along with an accompanying variety of data sources.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Denton T — Automobile Electrical and Electronic Systems (Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004) ISBN 0750662190
Hillier V A W — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Automotive Electronics (Nelson Thornes,
1997) ISBN 0748726950

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• using a systems model to explain C3.3 Write two different types of
the operating principles and documents about complex subjects.
characteristics associated with One piece of writing should be an
vehicle electronic ancillary and extended document and include at
information systems least one image.
• describing the operating
principles of sensors and
actuators
• describing the function of key
units and components of vehicle
ancillary and information
systems, including legal
considerations
• using representational methods
to describe the functional
interrelationship and interaction
between systems
• explaining driver/passenger and
vehicle interactions.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• carrying out inspections in a safe PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one
manner to confirm system option for solving the problem,
operation and integrity ancillary review progress and revise your
and information systems. approach as necessary.
PS3.3 Apply agreed methods to check if the
problem has been solved, describe
the results and review your approach
to problem solving.

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 Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will enable learners to gain an understanding of the operating principles of
heavy vehicle braking systems. The unit will develop learners’ knowledge and
understanding of the specialist braking systems found on heavy vehicles, public
service vehicles and plant.
Learning outcome 1 will introduce learners to air compression and storage for heavy
vehicle braking systems. This will include the operation of the air supply and storage
components, together with the function and operation of pressure protection devices
such as pressure regulating valves, switches and sensors.
Learning outcomes 2 and 3 will introduce learners to the actuation, control and
operation of heavy vehicle braking and auxiliary braking systems. Learners will gain
an in-depth understanding of the function and operation of the components used for
these systems.
The final learning outcome will provide hands-on experience of maintaining a heavy
vehicle’s braking system safety in accordance with legal requirements. This will
include familiarising learners with relevant safety precautions such as braking
efficiency, brake balance and pressure build-up time. Learners will also be
introduced to the legislation and regulations that apply to heavy vehicle braking
systems.
Learners will apply maintenance procedures including drum/disc brake adjustment,
brake tests, leakage tests, pressure monitoring and the maintenance of appropriate
maintenance records.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the compression and storage of air for a heavy vehicle braking system
2 Understand the actuation and control of heavy vehicle air brakes
3 Understand the operation and application of a heavy vehicle auxiliary braking
system
4 Be able to maintain the safety of a heavy vehicle’s braking system in accordance
with legal requirements.

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Unit content

1 Understand the compression and storage of air for a heavy vehicle braking
system

Air supply: air filter eg induction manifold, inlet filter; air compressor eg method
of drive, single/twin cylinder, liquid/air cooled air compressor, internal unloading
mechanisms; air drier eg single/twin tower air drier, purge tanks; electronic air
processing system (APS) eg integrated air driers, multi-circuit protection valves,
electronic control to adjust reservoir charge pressures; antifreeze system eg
alcohol evaporator/injector, heater units on air drier components; safety valve eg
location and reasons for fitting; pressure control system eg governor valve and
integral un-loader mechanisms in compressor and air drier units, remote un-
loader valve
Air storage: number and size of air reservoirs; testing and inspection; factors that
affect serviceability
Pressure protection: circuit pressure control and monitoring valves eg single and
double check valves, pressure regulating valve, pressure protection valve (single
and multi), automatic drain valves; warning devices eg low pressure warning
devices, pressure gauges, pressure switches and pressure sensors

2 Understand the actuation and control of heavy vehicle air brakes

Actuation system: air brake actuators eg single, double and spring brake units
(diaphragm and piston types), methods used to release spring tension in the
absence of air pressure; parking brake systems eg remote and integrated spring
brake units, application with drum and disc brake units; brake clearance
adjustment eg slack adjuster (manual and automatic), foundation brake expander
mechanisms (wedge, S-cam, strut (Z-cam), disc brake); auxiliary air valves eg
quick release valves, solenoid valves, test couplings, manual release valves,
exhaust silencing devices; safety precautions and procedures eg risks associated
with compressed gas, trapping hands in actuation mechanisms
Control system: foot valve eg single and dual units, position within the pneumatic
circuit; hand control valve eg up-right and inverse pressure types, position within
pneumatic circuit; relay valve eg function and operation, single and multi-input
relay valves, trailer control valve, trailer emergency relay valve, supply dump
valve; pressure protection systems eg brake protection valve (for use with
vehicles using load sensing and air suspension); interlock valve eg spring brake-
parking protection in the event of parking brake lever set in OFF position on the
air pressure build up causing the brakes to release; electronic control of air
braking eg principles associated with electronic braking systems (EBS), anti-lock
braking system (ABS), electronic stability programmes (ESP) and traction control
(anti-spin regulation (ASR))

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Full air and air/hydraulic braking systems: full air system eg service and
secondary circuits; split and dual braking systems employing upright and inverse
air pressure, differential protection systems for drum brakes employing spring
brake units; load sensing valves eg mechanically and pneumatically actuated,
adjustment and testing; spring brakes applied to trailers (parking brake circuits);
anti-jack knife devices eg causes of jack-knifing, methods to reduce the
occurrence, controlled fifth wheel coupling, use of anti-lock braking on tractor
drive axle; vehicle configuration eg two-axle and multi-axle layouts (including air
suspension, pneumatic circuits, convention for port labelling), 2-line drawbar and
articulated vehicle systems
Air over hydraulic braking systems: eg hydraulic circuit interfaced with air
pressure circuits, hydraulically operated expander mechanism, hydraulic tandem
master cylinder with air assistance, hydraulic load sensing valves, arrangement of
parking brake, use of remote spring brake and application compliance with
trailers using full air braking systems

3 Understand the operation and application of a heavy vehicle auxiliary braking

system

Engine auxiliary brake: exhaust manifold and engine compression types;

operational cycle, construction (method used to cut fuel injected), effectiveness
Transmission auxiliary brake: hydraulic retarder eg remote and integral
construction with gearbox, control system, arrangements for cooling; friction
retarder and provision for cooling; electric retarder eg principles (using eddy
current braking with reference to Lenz’s law), control system, effects of heat
generation on the operational efficiency, method used to dissipate heat energy

4 Be able to maintain the safety of a heavy vehicle’s braking system in

accordance with legal requirements

Safety precautions: braking efficiency eg definition, calculation of braking

efficiency from data (service, secondary and parking brake test); brake balance
eg definition from testers’ manual, calculation of brake balance from data
obtained under test; pressure build-up time eg definition, test procedure, likely
causes of poor build-up performance
Legal requirements: major legal documents affecting heavy vehicle braking
standards eg Motor Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations (including
community directives), Goods Vehicles (Plating and Testing) Regulations, Public
Service Vehicles (Condition of Fitness, Equipment, Use and Certification)
Regulations
Maintenance: drum/disc brake adjustment; brake test eg roller brake testers, use
of retardation meter under road test conditions; leakage test eg pressure loss
over set time, use of leak detection device/fluids; pressure monitoring eg
checking load sensing valve settings, pressure balance on dual footbrake valves,
operation of the trailer control valve dump function, trailer relay emergency
valve operation; maintenance records eg legal requirements to keep and store
records, paper-based records, use of wall charts, service sheets, defect notices,
prohibitions, computer-based service and maintenance logging

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Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the operation of the air supply M1 describe the construction of the air D1 evaluate data derived from a braking
and storage components of a heavy supply and storage components of a high system test and identify the required
vehicle high pressure braking system pressure braking system for a heavy maintenance procedure
vehicle
P2 describe the function and operation of D2 explain the effect that two different
the pressure protection components M2 compare and contrast the construction, wear or maladjustments may have on the
within a heavy vehicle’s pressure storage operation and application of a heavy effectiveness and legality of a heavy
system vehicle full air braking system with that vehicle’s braking system.
of an air/hydraulic system
P3 describe the function and operation of
the components used for the actuation M3 compare and contrast the application
and control of a full air braking system and effectiveness of an engine-activated
auxiliary braking system with that of a
P4 describe the function and operation of a
transmission type auxiliary braking
braking system using air/hydraulic
system.
control
P5 explain the operation of an engine
auxiliary braking system
P6 explain the operation of a transmission
auxiliary braking system

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 Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 explain the safety precautions and legal
requirements for a heavy vehicle brake
system
P8 describe the main requirements for
heavy vehicle braking systems
maintenance
P9 carry out and record the results of a
drum/disc brake adjustment and one
other heavy vehicle braking system
maintenance procedure.

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Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

It is expected that learners will have a working knowledge of general vehicle

systems, such as the theory associated with vehicle braking and various foundation
brake configurations including leading, trailing, twin leading and disc brakes. It is
important that learners understand the methods used to operate the major braking
systems used on vehicles. They also need an understanding of heavy vehicle
suspension and steering systems so that they appreciate the connection between the
applications of air braking technology and air suspension.
It is recommended that this unit is delivered using a balance of theoretical and
practical study. Learners should have access to manufacturers’ technical information
that uses the current port numbering convention. Systems and operating principles
are best demonstrated using a combination of vehicles, air brake demonstration rigs
and components.
Tutors will need to ensure that learners have an appreciation of the safety and legal
aspects relevant to compressed air braking systems.
Practical workshop sessions should develop learners’ ability to carry out accurate
brake testing and to deal with combinations of system faults which may affect more
than one system on the same vehicle. More complex system faults, including air-
braking systems that use electronic control and computer-based fault diagnosis could
be introduced where practical, or possibly be demonstrated through the support of a
vehicle manufacturer or main dealer.
The order in which the learning outcomes are delivered is largely dependent on the
level of prerequisite knowledge of various related topics. However, most centres are
likely to consider the compression and storage of air first. Included within this
section are aspects of air brake technology associated with servicing and
maintenance. Examples include air driers, alcohol injection systems, reservoir
charging times and predominant charging of specific circuits. The legal requirements
imposed on heavy vehicle systems can also be covered in part.
It is anticipated that most learners will have access to live heavy vehicles to work
with or to at least observe the basic charging process. Where centres do not have
access to running vehicles then it may be possible to organise a group demonstration
with a local vehicle dealer or operator.
Actuation and control of air braking systems are best covered using an integrated
approach of theory and practice. Testing of individual valves and components on
training rigs will help learners identify the main characteristics. Integrated theory
and practice sessions will enable a step-by-step approach for learners to assemble
complete air braking circuits.

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 Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

The use of training rigs, where learners have to connect valves and pipes to assemble
the circuit, is probably the most effective method to assimilate the circuit and valve
configuration. During these practice sessions it would be appropriate to demonstrate
simple faults and fault-finding techniques that relate closely to basic servicing and
maintenance. For example, air leaks from pipes and unions or air leaks from exhaust
ports on an operating valve.
Factors that affect vehicle stability and control (such as jack-knifing) can be
demonstrated by using simple vehicle models, locking axles or individual wheels and
observing their behaviour when rolling down a slight gradient. The task can be made
into a simple learner exercise which reinforces the more abstract concepts
associated with stability of rigid and articulated vehicles.
An introduction to the operating principles of vehicle retarders, such as the eddy
current type, can be covered by practical observation of the effects of eddy current
formation on a non-ferrous disc rotating within an electromagnetic field. This can be
extended to observe the effects of increasing the current flowing through the
electromagnet. Learners should then progress onto an actual retarder, relating the
theory associated with Lenz’s law and the retarder’s operation. Engine braking,
hydraulic and friction retarders can similarly be explained in terms of the principles
providing the retarding forces and the requirements to dissipate substantial heat
energy once in operation.
Where centres do not have access to a roller type vehicle brake tester then they are
advised to arrange a visit to a test station, local vehicle dealer or operator for a
demonstration. This will significantly help to reinforce the concept of vehicle braking
efficiency to stated minimum legal limits.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and an illustration of
the breadth and depth of the area of topic. As such, not all content that follows an
‘eg’ needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A range of assessment methods can be used and it likely that evidence will be
collected from a combination of activities/assignments, investigative projects and
practical work.
Assignments and projects should be designed to develop learners’ basic knowledge of
braking systems and provide opportunities to assess their understanding of system
testing. Centres may also consider the use of periodic short tests. These could
comprise short answer questions or set-piece workshop tasks that enable learners to
demonstrate specific aspects of the required practical skills. A variety of assessment
strategies should be used to give learners the opportunity to demonstrate their full
ability and to add diversity to the subject and learning environment.
Learners should be encouraged to carry out research and use a range of resource
materials during their investigations. Tutors should provide guidance on how material
can be referenced and used as part of learners’ own work so as not to infringe
guidelines on authenticity of evidence.

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Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

For P1, learners should describe the operation of the main components used for the
compression and storage of air. This can be achieved with the aid of suitably labelled
circuit/component diagrams and/or copies of manufacturers’ diagrams (whether
redrawn/sketched by the learner or electronically copied). Electronically copied
diagrams are acceptable provided learners have annotated the work adequately, the
source of the information is acknowledged and they are used to aid learners’ own
description.
Having achieved P1 learners could extend their description of the operation of a high
pressure braking system to include the system’s construction to meet the
requirements M1.
P2 can be linked with P1, as learners need to describe the function and operation of
the pressure protection components within a heavy vehicle’s pressure storage
system. The braking/storage system could be the same for both criteria. Learners
should describe the circuit pressure control, monitoring valves and warning devices
that apply to the system being considered. The description should include a clear
indication that learners have understood the need to use a pressure protection
system. In particular, learners must appreciate that failure of one circuit or device
might result in the loss of pressure and so adversely affect the level of vehicle safety.
P3, P4, P5 and P6 relate to the different heavy vehicle braking systems. This section
is likely to form the core of the unit assessment strategy and provide most of the
underpinning knowledge and understanding needed for the other criteria.
For P3, learners need to describe the function and operation of the components used
for the actuation and control of a full air braking system (service and secondary
circuits). Learners should make use of circuit and component diagrams to support
their description of full air braking systems (including trailers). They should also draw
from the actuation and control system components listed in the unit content, as
appropriate to the system considered. The operation of the major control valves
should include reference to how the progressive control of braking is obtained.
Descriptions of multi-function valves should include both normal operation and
situations where failure of individual circuit(s) may occur.
For P4, learners need to describe the function and operation of an air/hydraulic
control braking system. This should include a clear description of how air pressure is
used to generate large hydraulic pressure at the wheel cylinders plus the operation of
the parking brake using air/hydraulic systems.
There is an opportunity to link the work carried out at pass level with the merit
criteria. To achieve M2, learners need to use their understanding from P3 (a full air
braking system) and P4 (an air/hydraulic system) to compare and contrast the
construction, operation and application of the two systems as used on heavy vehicles.
The comparison should consider aspects such as the types of compressor, internal and
external un-loading methods, air driers including the electronic controlled air
processing systems (APS) and the storage arrangements for each system.
For P5, learners need to explain the operation of an engine auxiliary braking system.
It is expected that they will be able to comment on the manner in which the vehicle
energy of motion is converted by the engine to provide a retarding force.

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To achieve P6, learners need to explain the operation of a transmission auxiliary

braking system, including the method of energy absorption and dissipation. Learners
should provide an explanation of a system’s hydraulic retarder, friction retarder or
electric retarder and any related provision for cooling/heat dissipation for a given or
chosen system.
Learners could extend the work done for P5 and P6 by comparing the application and
effectiveness of an engine-activated auxiliary braking system with that of a
transmission type auxiliary braking system, in order to meet the requirements of M3.
For P7, learners need to explain the safety precautions and legal requirements for a
heavy vehicle braking system. They must identify the major legal documents
affecting the vehicle relating to the braking system being considered. It is expected
that the work for this criterion will be linked to that undertaken when considering
the braking systems in P3, P4, P5 and P6.
It is expected that P8 and P9 will be linked. Learners should first describe the
requirements for heavy vehicle braking systems maintenance, before carrying out and
recording the results of a drum/disc brake adjustment and one other braking system
maintenance procedure. The second procedure should be selected from those listed
in the unit content — a brake test, leakage test or pressure monitoring.
Evidence for both criteria is likely to be the learner’s log of the procedures carried
out together with a description of the system’s maintenance requirements. The work
will also require verification by a competent assessor, whether carried out in the
learner’s workplace or the centre’s workshop. This verification will provide further
evidence of learners’ achievement and is likely to be in the form of a record of
observation. Annotated photographic evidence can also be used to record the stages
of the maintenance procedure, tools, environment, etc.
Both distinction criteria link with the last three pass criteria, particularly the
practical aspects of P9. However, learners will need to draw on their understanding
of all the pass criteria to achieve D1 and D2. Learners should evaluate data derived
from a braking system test and identify the required maintenance procedure to meet
the requirements of D1.
For D2, learners must explain the effects that two different maladjustments or
excessive wear faults can have on the effectiveness and legality of a heavy vehicle
braking system.

Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance
and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR 06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR 08HV: Diagnose and Rectify Commercial Vehicle Chassis System Faults.

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The unit also supports the following units in the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational
Standards in Automotive Engineering:
• Unit 4: Assembling Sub-Assembly Units to Vehicles
• Unit 8: Assembling Braking Systems to a Vehicle
• Unit 45: Conducting and Monitoring Static Tests on Vehicles
• Unit 52: Fitting Pipework Systems to Commercial and Passenger Carrying Vehicles.
The unit can be linked to Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle Systems, Unit 3: Vehicle Fault
Diagnosis and Rectification and Unit 17: Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension
Systems.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide learners with access to vehicle workshop facilities
equipped to deal with heavy vehicles. A range of heavy vehicle braking components
and rigs will also need to be available.

Indicative reading for learners

Heisler H — Advanced Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002)

ISBN 0750651318
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
ISBN 0750638273
The Stationery Office — Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations
ISBN 0110670787
The Stationery Office — The Goods Vehicles (Plating and Testing) Regulations
ISBN 011087478
The Stationery Office — The Public Service Vehicles (Condition of Fitness,
Equipment, Use and Certification) Regulations ISBN 011016257
Vehicle and Operator Services Association (VOSA) — Vehicle Testing Manuals and
Guides:
• HGV Inspection Manual
• Preparing Your HGV for Brake Tests — A Best Practice Guide

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning how to capture results N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
from heavy vehicle braking information from relevant sources.
system maintenance N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
procedures, take stage calculations to do with:
measurements and record
results a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
• carrying out calculations to
determine braking efficiency c handling statistics
and brake balance d using formulae.
• interpreting and present N3.3 Interpret the results of your
braking efficiency and brake calculations, present your findings and
balance data. justify your methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching the function and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
operation of the range of least two documents about the same
braking systems subject.
• reading maintenance manuals Each document must be at least 1000
to plan maintenance words long
procedures C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
• describing the function and each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
operation of the range of
braking systems One document must be at least 1000
words long.
• recording the results of brake
tests, maintenance procedures
and reporting findings.

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 Unit 52: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, developing and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
presenting reports, projects or sources, and multiple search criteria in
assignments on the functions at least one case.
and operation of braking ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
systems derive new information.
• preparing maintenance ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
procedure reports. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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 Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission

Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the design, constructional details and
fundamental operating principles of a range of transmission systems currently fitted
to heavy vehicles.
The unit covers the conventional aspects of heavy vehicle transmission systems, their
function, principal components and operating principles. This will include a detailed
examination of a heavy vehicle’s clutch mechanism, its gearbox and the driveline and
final drive systems.
Learners will be introduced to recent developments in the use of electronics for the
control and operation of transmission systems in a range of heavy vehicles. These
developments are frequently integrated into the overall electronic management of
the vehicle and can provide significant improvements in terms of driveability,
economy and performance. Learners will appreciate the fundamental operating
principles of these electronic systems, their integration within transmission systems
and their significance in the maintenance of a vehicle’s transmission system.
Learners will carry out specific tests and checks to identify transmission system faults
such as clutch slip, gearbox linkage problems and failing universal joints. They will
use these tests and checks, together with the use of on-board diagnostic equipment
to maintain a vehicle’s transmission system. This will include maintenance
requirements relating to driver/passenger safety and component reliability, whilst
ensuring that learners works in a safe manner.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle clutch mechanism
2 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle gearbox
3 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle driveline system
and final drive
4 Be able to maintain a heavy vehicle’s transmission system.

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Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Unit content

1 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle clutch

mechanism

Principal clutch components: pressure plate, disc, flywheel (including bearings

and bushes); release bearings; release systems eg production vehicle servo
mechanisms, air assisted clutch release mechanism
Types of clutch mechanisms: eg production clutches (coil and diaphragm spring,
single plate, multi-plate wet and dry types), automatic clutches (torque
converter, fluid flywheel, one way clutch)
Operating principles of clutch: constructional design and use of materials (linings,
drive plates and friction surfaces, springs); engagement and disengagement of
clutch (single and multi-plate, one way clutches, clutch brakes and automatic
clutches); provision for adjustment/self-adjustment; torque calculations and
coefficient of friction; power flow; common faults eg wear, misalignment; fault
symptoms (slip, drag, judder, overheating); fluid flywheels

2 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle gearbox

Principal gearbox components: gear design (spur and helical); bearings, shafts,
casing, selector and sealing arrangements; gear locking and interlock
mechanisms; gear speed synchronisation and engagement mechanisms eg sliding
mesh, synchromesh and dog type
Types of gearboxes: eg manual (single stage, double stage, sliding mesh, constant
mesh, twin layshaft); auxiliary gearbox, eg splitter gearboxes, range change
gearboxes automatic and semi-automatic (epicyclic gear train, hydraulic control
systems); layout eg transverse, longitudinal and transaxle
Operating principles of gearbox: manual gearbox — gear ratios, power flow eg
constant mesh single and double stage; torque and speed calculations; gear
characteristics eg ratio, number of available gears, suitable gear ratios to enable
hill climbing ability; gear selection and engagement methods eg synchromesh and
dog type, selector forks, interlocks and linkages, remote control mechanisms,
automatic gearbox — torque converters (lock-up mechanism); epicyclic gear
trains (simple and compound); brake bands; multi-plate and unidirectional
clutches; power flow paths; function of key hydraulic components (pump,
governor, actuators, servos, regulator and shift valves); electronic control system
including mode selection; electronic selection of conventional gear arrangements;
lubrication eg method (splash and pump assisted); oil requirements and types
(mineral, synthetic); seals and sealing arrangements (static and dynamic types)

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3 Understand the construction and operation of a heavy vehicle driveline system

and final drive

Principal components of driveline system: propeller shaft arrangement eg single,

divided (use of centre bearings); driveline arrangements eg front, rear twin and
all wheel drives; universal joints eg Hooke type and rubber; constant velocity
joints, sliding joints; drive systems eg two-wheel, four-wheel (transfer box,
centre differentials, viscous couplings, differential locks, automatic and manual)
Principal components of final drive: axle types and support arrangements eg live
and independent, single and twin-drive axles; final drives eg bevel, spiral, worm
and wheel, hypoid and double reduction; differentials eg planetary gears, limited
slip systems; axle types eg three quarter, fully floating and double reduction hub
arrangements; bearings and drive shaft loadings
Operating principles of driveline: universal joints (Hooke type and rubber);
constant velocity joints (angular limitations and conditions required to achieve
constant velocity, basic consideration of balance requirements, alignment and
torque capacity of hollow and solid shafts); suspension and transmission
characteristics giving rise to the requirement for sliding joints and centre
propshaft bearings
Operating principles of final drive: gear ratio, speed reduction and torque
multiplication in the final drive; final drive arrangements for transaxles; driving
thrust and torque reaction; differential (effects on torque/speed at the driven
wheels, limited-slip differentials); lubrication methods (final drive and rear
axles); oil requirements and types (mineral, synthetic); oil seals and sealing
arrangements (static and dynamic)

4 Be able to maintain a heavy vehicle’s transmission system

Transmission system faults: eg clutch (slip, drag, judder, loss of drive, excessive
noise, wear, misalignment, operating mechanism faults), gearbox (gear selection,
oil leaks, linkages and fittings), driveline and finals drives (prop/drive shafts,
universal and constant velocity (CV) joints, bearings, gaiters and seals), use of on-
board diagnostic (OBD) equipment, reporting methods (inspection records, oral
report to supervisor)
Maintenance operations: working to manufacturers’ maintenance and service
procedures eg manuals, job cards, direct supervision; maintenance operations eg
clutch adjustments/alignment, gearbox oil change, gear selection linkage repair,
driveshaft gaiter condition check/replacement, security of mountings and
fittings; context of the maintenance operations eg routine maintenance, repair or
adjustment due to a system failure, alternative service procedures for adverse
condition (vehicles operating in dry, dusty environments and vehicles working in
extreme temperature environments)
Critical safety considerations: procedures relating to maintenance operations
carried out eg materials handling (protection against dust, oil and chemical
exposure), vehicle and system protection (application of four-wheel drive diff
locks, lifting and supporting vehicles), personal protective equipment (PPE),
control of substances hazardous to health regulations (COSHH), component and
environmental waste disposal

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Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe the function of the M1 compare two different heavy vehicle D1 justify the use of a specific clutch type
principal components of two different clutch types in terms of their principal for two different heavy vehicle
types of clutch mechanism components and operating principles applications in terms of purpose,
function and performance
P2 explain the operating principles of one M2 explain the advantages and
type of clutch disadvantages of increasing the number D2 justify the use of a specific type of
of available gears in a heavy vehicle’s driveline and final drive arrangement for
P3 identify and describe the function of the
gearbox two different heavy vehicle applications
principal components of one type of
in terms of purpose, function and
gearbox M3 compare two different heavy vehicle
performance.
driveline and final drive arrangements.
P4 explain the operating principles of two
different types of gearbox
P5 identify and describe the principal
components in a heavy vehicle driveline
and final drive
P6 explain the operating principles of a
heavy vehicle’s driveline and final drive
arrangement

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 Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 inspect a heavy vehicle’s transmission
system, report faults and attribute
symptoms to the faults identified
P8 carry out a maintenance operation on a
heavy vehicle’s transmission system
P9 explain and apply critical safety
considerations relating to the inspection
and maintenance of a heavy vehicle’s
transmission system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered in the context of learners’ chosen areas (eg heavy vehicle
or passenger vehicle), although a generic approach would be equally suitable. The
term ‘maintenance’ in this unit is used in a generic way and can be taken to mean
either routine maintenance (a regular service) or less routine work (a repair due to a
component failure or adjustment to correct a misalignment).
Delivery of this unit would ideally be a balance of theoretical and practical study.
Whatever approach is taken, learners’ experience should be sufficiently varied to
provide them with the knowledge and skills needed to perform routine heavy vehicle
workshop operations. In addition, learners need to develop the skills and
understanding needed to diagnose transmission system faults in an industrial setting.
Health and safety considerations should be emphasised whenever learners undertake
practical activities.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in the order they are listed. In this way,
learners will gain a progressive understanding of the function and operating
principles of the relevant parts of the power train from the clutch (through the
gearbox and driveline) to the final drive.
Learners should be introduced to a range of clutches used on modern heavy and
passenger carrying vehicles. However, centres may wish to focus on a specific clutch
type to meet local needs and cover the others in a more general way. The approach
taken with clutches could be replicated with gearboxes, driveline and the final drive.
However, centres should ensure that learners gain a sufficient understanding of all
types and delivery should not be limited to just the one or two required to meet the
assessment criteria.
For the final learning outcome learners will need access to heavy vehicles and
workshop facilities. The delivery of this part of the unit could consist of lectures to
introduce the transmission system and likely faults, learner-led research into the
maintenance requirements followed by practical application on vehicles in the
workshop. Again, learners should experience a range of routine maintenance
operations in line with those suggested in the unit content.
During practical work, the critical safety aspects of each operation should be
emphasised. Learners should be encouraged to recognise and explain these aspects of
safety during their practical workshop activities on the various parts of the
transmission systems to reinforce the importance to themselves and to others.
The use of a record of practical work carried out during the delivery phase of the unit
should be standard practice. This is likely to be in the form of a workshop logbook.
This will enable learners to capture and reflect on their experience and will provide
support and guidance during the activities chosen for the final assessment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and an illustration of
the breadth and depth of the area of topic. As such, not all content that follows an
‘eg’ needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

This unit provides opportunities for assessment evidence to be generated from a

combination of assignments, projects and practical work. Centres may wish to devise
some written tests that require learners to explain, compare or justify as required by
the criteria. However, although the pass criteria require learners to identify and
explain by providing descriptive evidence, it is not expected that centres will only
use tests to achieve this. The unit lends itself to an investigative, practical approach
and this should be reflected in the assessment strategy wherever possible. The range
of evidence presented could include notes, diagrams, investigative test data, the
records of the maintenance and diagnostic procedures carried out plus tutor
observation and oral questioning.
Proving authenticity and guarding against plagiarism can be a problem, particularly
with open, written assignments. The assessment of P1 to P6 is particularly suited to,
and could be carried out through, either ‘on-the-job’ oral questioning/observation,
or through a written time constrained assessment. Both of these methods can assure
high levels of authenticity. P7, P8 and P9 require individual practical work and as
such are less problematic when it comes to authenticity. Centres should note
however, that whichever method is chosen, they will need to ensure that each
criterion and its related content is met in full.
To achieve a pass, learners will need to identify and describe the function of the
principal components of two different types of heavy vehicle clutch mechanisms (P1),
one type of gearbox (P3) and a heavy vehicle’s driveline and final drive (P5). In
addition, learners need to explain the operating principles of one of the clutches
(P2), two types of gearbox (P4) and one heavy vehicle’s driveline and final drive (P6).
The content for each of these areas (clutches, gearboxes, driveline/final drives)
provides a range of choices through the examples listed. For clutches, this includes
production single and multi-plate and automatic, and within these groupings there
are further examples. Centres are expected to cover as wide a range of these as
possible during delivery of the unit but need only select the one or two of these, as
indicated by the criteria, for assessment purposes. This will enable centres to
concentrate on a specific specialisation as the main focus of assessment (eg
computer-aided gear changing).
Where a criterion identifies that learners must consider two types this is to ensure
that the learning process is sufficiently wide. For example, whilst a centre may
specialise in goods vehicles it is important that learners are equally aware of a light
commercial vehicle’s clutch. The purpose is to make sure that learners’ employment
potential is not limited. The range of choices available should mean that for any one
group, each learner could be considering the function of the principal components for
a different type of vehicle and clutch type. This can be beneficial when considering
the issues that surround authenticity of evidence.

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P7 and P8 would be best assessed through investigation and practical examination of

a live vehicle layout and configuration. P9, the explanation of critical safety
considerations, should be an integral part of the assessment for P7 and P8. It is
strongly recommended that the ‘explain’ part of P9 is assessed before learners start
work on either P7 or P8. The assessment evidence for P9 could be in two forms.
Firstly, a written assessment of the critical safety considerations relating to the
inspection and maintenance operation to be carried out followed by oral questioning
to ensure an understanding of the dangers associated with the task before starting
work.
A suitable transmission system fault may need to simulated for P7 and learners
provided with the typical symptoms of the fault, as would be reported by a driver of
the faulty vehicle. Assessment of this criterion is likely to be in three parts: a written
inspection record completed by learners at the time of the inspection, a verbal
report back to the supervisor/customer (tutor record of oral questioning/observation)
and tutor observation of the process (eg use of logical and efficient diagnostic
techniques, safe working).
A similar approach could be taken with P8 and it would be sensible to link these two
criteria together — identify the fault and carry out the maintenance operation to
effect the necessary adjustment or repair.
The main assessment evidence for P8 is the final product — the completed
maintenance task. However, a record of tutor observation will also be necessary to
cover the process aspects of the task (eg working to the manufacturer’s procedures,
correct and safe working). The final link is with P9 and the application of critical
safety considerations relating to the maintenance operation being carried out. For
example, tutors will need to observe the learner handling materials correctly, using
relevant system protection, using appropriate PPE, working to COSHH regulations and
correctly disposing of waste, as required by the task undertaken.
To achieve a merit, learners need to compare the constructional differences of two
different clutch types (eg production diaphragm spring and a coil spring type). The
two clutches could be the same as those considered for P1, or if centres wish to
encourage learners to have a wider experience then one or two completely different
clutches could be used. The focus of the comparison should be based on the
understanding developed through P1 and P2. Learners must also be able to explain
the requirement of multiple gear ratio applications (eg splitter gear box and range
change gearboxes giving multiple ratios, 8 speed versus 10 speed) to provide the
necessary hill climbing ability. Finally, they need to compare two different heavy
vehicle driveline and final drive arrangements (eg longitudinal, in line versus
transverse or rear engine, rear wheel drive versus rear engine four-wheel drive).
Again, one of these could be the driveline and final drive considered for P5 and P6.
To achieve a distinction, learners need to justify the use of a specific clutch type
(D1) and justify the use of a specific type of driveline and final drive arrangement
(D2) for two different heavy vehicle applications in terms of purpose, function and
performance. Once again, these could be the same clutches, driveline and final
drives that the learner worked with through the pass and merit criteria.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the knowledge and understanding for the Level 3 National
Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR 13: Diagnose and Rectify Vehicle Transmission and Driveline System
Faults
• Unit MR 13HV: Diagnose and Rectify Commercial Vehicle Transmission and
Driveline System Faults.
The unit also builds on the knowledge gained from Unit 1: Operation of Vehicle
Systems and supports Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a range of transmission types (clutches, gearboxes and
driveline/final drives) and their components for t this unit. A variety of information
and data sources specific to the transmission systems will also be required. The
necessary special tools and equipment will be needed for the investigations and
routine maintenance operations on the selected transmission systems as defined in
the unit content and grading criteria.

Indicative reading for learners

Denton T — Advanced Automotive Fault Diagnosis (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)

ISBN 0750669918
Heisler H — Advanced Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002)
ISBN 0750651318
Hillier V — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology (Nelson Thornes,
2004) ISBN 0748780823
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
ISBN 0750638273

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Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information on N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
the range of gear ratios used information from relevant sources.
on a typical heavy vehicle N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
gearbox stage calculations to do with:
• using vehicle data to carry a amounts or sizes
out multi-stage calculations
b scales or proportion
to verify the gear ratio steps
using geometric progression c handling statistics
formulae d using formulae.
• interpreting the results of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
their calculations and present your findings and justify your
presenting findings and methods.
justifying their methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting materials and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
researching information on least two documents about the same
vehicle transmission systems subject.
(eg safety, maintenance and Each document must be a minimum of
diagnostic data) 1000 words long.
• explaining the operating C3.3 Write two different types of documents
principles of vehicle each one giving different information
clutches, gearboxes, about complex subjects.
drivelines and final drives.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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 Unit 53: Heavy Vehicle Transmission Systems

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
specific heavy vehicle sources, and multiple search criteria in at
transmission systems least one case.
• preparing and presenting ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
technical reports on the derive new information.
various aspects of heavy ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
vehicle transmission systems text with image, text with number,
and their components and image with number.
arrangements
• completing maintenance
documents and records.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, planning and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
carrying out diagnostic and appropriate people and plan how these
maintenance procedures will be met
• evaluating maintenance, LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
diagnostic and repair using your plan to help meet targets and
strategies. improve your performance
LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
your achievements

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out diagnostic PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
procedures and attributing ways of tackling it.
symptoms to faults. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, planning and WO3.1 Plan work with others.
carrying out diagnostic and WO3.2 Seek to develop co-operation and check
maintenance procedures with progress towards your agreed objectives.
colleagues and supervisors
WO3.3 Review work with others and agree ways
• reviewing maintenance, of improving collaborative work in the
diagnostic and repair future.
strategies with colleagues
and supervisors.

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 Unit 54: Heavy Vehicle Steering and Suspension Systems

Unit 54: Heavy Vehicle Steering and

Suspension Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the design, constructional details and
fundamental operating principles of a range of heavy vehicle steering systems,
suspension layouts, wheels and tyres.
The unit will cover vehicle steering and suspension systems, their function, principal
components and operating principles. This will include a detailed examination of the
steering system including hydraulic power assistance, a variety of suspension layouts
currently used on heavy vehicles, including the leaf, rubber and pneumatic
suspension systems.
Learners will be introduced to the range of heavy vehicle designs and body types
used to meet the diverse and varying operational conditions experienced by goods
vehicles and passenger carrying vehicles.
Finally, learners will carry out specific tests and checks to identify steering and
suspension system faults such as failure of power assistance or excessive tyre wear.
Learners will use these tests and checks, together with the legal information
applicable to the class of vehicle, to maintain a vehicle’s roadworthiness. This will
include the maintenance requirements relating to driver/passenger safety and
component reliability, whilst ensuring that learners work in a safe manner.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the construction and operation of heavy vehicle manual and power-
assisted steering systems
2 Understand the various types of heavy vehicle body and suspension systems
3 Understand the construction, application and legal requirements for heavy
vehicle wheels and tyres
4 Be able to carry out maintenance procedures on a heavy vehicle’s steering and
suspension systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand the construction and operation of heavy vehicle manual and

power-assisted steering systems

Manual steering system principles/construction: single and twin steer axles eg all
connective linkage and geometry to obtain true rolling when cornering; rear axle
steering systems applied to large heavy vehicles; steering systems on articulated
passenger vehicles; application of Ackerman steering principles to large vehicles;
effects of imposed loads on the steering compliance when cornering; effects of
load on the accuracy of steering settings
Manual steering components: steering boxes eg recirculating ball, hour glass
worm and roller; steering linkage on single and twin steering systems eg drag
links, track rods, drop arms, ball joints, king pins and bushes; steering wheels and
columns eg use of universal joint to facilitate cab tilting, ergonomic and
anthropometrical factors of steering wheel position with or without power-
assisted steering
Power-assisted steering system principles/construction: single and twin steer
vehicles; integral type power-assisted steering boxes; externally fitted power
rams and strut type reaction member; methods employed to apportion assistance
eg torsion bar and rotary hydraulic valve, shuttle type, principles underpinning
the method of obtaining assistance
Power-assisted steering components: hydraulic pump (position and operation);
drive arrangements; pump reservoir; pressure control valves eg pressure relief,
flow control; pipes, hoses, seals and gaiters; integral and external power servo
rams; filtration; prevention of moisture and dirt ingress eg fluid cleanliness,
checking fluid filters and reservoir condition, periodic replacement of hydraulic
fluid, bleeding of the system
Steering geometry: non-steer eg wheel alignment requirements of single and twin
drive axles; steering geometry eg caster, camber, king pin inclination, positive
and negative off-set; wheel alignment checks on single and twin steer eg methods
used to measure correct alignment between twin steer axles, effects of vehicle
loads on the accuracy of the settings

2 Understand the various types of heavy vehicle body and suspension systems

Chassis and cab design: rigid and articulated vehicles; trailer systems eg semi and
draw bar trailers; axle layouts eg two, three and four axle vehicles; drive
arrangements eg twin drive and all wheel drive; body types eg flat bed tankers,
refrigerated, box, municipal waste disposal, bus/coach; ergonomics of cab design
eg vibration control, instrument positioning, driver controls and facilities

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Leaf spring suspension system: springs eg fixed and variable rate, helper springs;
centre bolt, bump stops, shackles eg fixed, swinging, shackle pins and bushes;
load compensation mechanisms eg balance beam, interactive linkages;
transmission of torque, axle location eg use of torque rods, A-frames, Panhard
rods, trunnion bearing assemblies; vibration dampers eg function and location,
single and double acting telescopic hydraulic dampers; trailing arm suspension;
independent suspension eg double wishbone, anti-roll bars; forces acting on
suspension members eg reactive and non-reactive systems
Rubber suspension: layout eg configuration of suspension unit to provide energy
absorption (positioning in compression and shear); single and multi-axle; methods
employed to enable the transmission of braking and driving torque; hub
arrangements eg fully floating showing bearing arrangements, pre-packed bearing
cassettes; lubrication eg type of lubricants and properties, means to ensure
adequate lubricant at the contact faces; sealing methods eg use of lip seals, O-
rings, sealing compounds
Pneumatic suspension system: axle layout eg two, three, four or more axles;
components eg levelling valves, mechanically and pneumatically operated, air
suspension pneumatic circuit components eg air springs using involute and rolling
diaphragm; axle-lifting equipment eg suspension layout to enable dead axle to be
lifted from the road surface, overweight protection, adjustment of trim height;
electronic levelling control (ELC) eg electronic levelling sensors, control unit,
self-diagnosis

3 Understand the construction, application and legal requirements for heavy

vehicle wheels and tyres

Construction of heavy vehicle wheels: wheel rims eg two-piece, three-piece, one-

piece (well based) rims
Tyre construction: tyre type eg radial ply, cross ply, super single tyres, re-cut
tyres; tyre inflation valves eg types, remote sensors, position of the valves when
fitted to the vehicle; causes and symptoms of defects eg irregular wear patterns,
damage to tread, wall and bead region
Design features: operational factors eg ply ratings, load carrying capacities and
load rating index, tubed/tubeless tyres, tread patterns and application, tread
depths, aspect ratios, inflation pressures
Legal requirements: eg prescribed mixing of tyre construction on large vehicles,
fitness for purpose, general condition as prescribed in the legislative source and
the vehicle tester’s manual

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4 Be able to carry out maintenance procedures on a heavy vehicle’s steering

and suspension systems

Maintenance of steering and suspension systems: removal and refitting of main

components; adjustment of main components eg alignment of axles, checking of
suspension geometry; servicing/lubrication of main units eg using manufacturers’
inspection sheets, awareness of the effects of harsh working environments on the
service intervals; personal safety and protection of units against usual hazards
during use or repair eg dangers associated with working on air suspension units,
overstressing power steering systems during pressure tests; performance tests for
the systems eg undertake a manufacturer’s test of air suspension or power
steering unit; completing report documentation; interpretation of results eg from
given data make an interpretation of the systems condition; identification of
symptoms and probable causes eg axle mal-alignment, excessive internal leakage
in power steering box, failure to self trim on air suspension, poor handling under
load, excessive tyre wear
Repair cycles: preventative and corrective action eg inspection procedures for the
different systems (manufacturers’ inspection sheets, tester’s manual); statutory
requirements eg for large goods vehicles (LGV), passenger carrying vehicle (PCV);
annual tests eg appreciation of the wear limits imposed on components and
systems as stated in the tester’s manual, inspection of tyres/wheels and the
effects of ply/load index on the plated vehicle weights

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles of M1 compare and contrast the constructional D1 diagnose and analyse the cause and
operation/construction and components details of two different heavy vehicle effect of defects, wear and
of a manual heavy vehicle steering steering systems maladjustment in a heavy vehicle’s
system steering system, including wheels and
M2 compare and contrast the constructional
tyres, from given symptoms and data
P2 describe the principles of operation/ details of two different heavy vehicle
construction and components of a heavy suspension systems D2 diagnose and analyse the cause and
vehicle steering system with power effect of defects, wear and
M3 evaluate and compare two different
steering maladjustment in a heavy vehicle’s
types of heavy vehicle body construction
suspension system, including wheels and
P3 describe and compare the steering and layout.
tyres, from given symptoms and data.
geometry and wheel alignments checks
for a single and a twin steer system
P4 describe two different types of heavy
vehicle chassis and cab designs
P5 describe the basic principles of
operation/construction and components
of a heavy vehicle suspension system
employing leaf springs

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the basic principles of
operation/construction and components
of a heavy vehicle suspension system
employing rubber
P7 describe the basic principles of
operation/construction and components
of a heavy vehicle suspension system
employing pneumatics
P8 explain the construction, design features
and legal requirements of a heavy
vehicle wheel and tyre
P9 carry out a maintenance procedure on a
heavy vehicle’s steering system and
describe a typical repair cycle for that
system
P10 carry out a maintenance procedure on a
heavy vehicle’s suspension system and
describe a typical repair cycle for that
system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered in the context of learners’ chosen areas (eg heavy goods
vehicle or passenger vehicle), although a generic approach is also suitable. The term
‘maintenance’ in this unit is used in a generic way and can be taken to mean either
routine maintenance (a regular service) or less routine work (a repair due to a
component failure or adjustment to correct a misalignment).
Delivery of this unit would ideally be a balance of theoretical and practical study.
Whatever approach is taken should provide learners with the knowledge and skills
needed to perform routine heavy vehicle workshop operations and diagnose steering
and suspension system faults in an industrial setting. Health and safety considerations
should be emphasised whenever learners undertake practical activities.
The learning outcomes could be delivered in the order they are listed. In this way,
learners will gain an understanding of the function and operating principles of the
relevant parts of steering systems, the configuration of heavy vehicle chassis and
suspension types and layouts.
For the final learning outcome learners will need access to heavy vehicles and
workshop facilities. Delivery of this part of the unit could consist of lectures to
introduce the steering/suspension system and likely faults, learner-led research into
the maintenance requirements followed by practical application on vehicles in the
workshop. Learners should be given opportunities to experience a range of routine
maintenance operations in line with those suggested in the unit content.
During practical work, the critical health and safety procedures of each operation
need to be emphasised. Learners should be encouraged to recognise and explain
these safety aspects during their practical workshop activities to reinforce the
importance to themselves and to others.
The use of a record of practical work carried out during the delivery phase of the unit
should be standard practice. This is likely to be in the form of a workshop logbook.
Such a record will enable learners to capture and reflect on their experience and will
provide support and guidance during the activities chosen for the final assessment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and an illustration of
the breadth and depth of the area of topic. As such, not all content that follows an
‘eg’ needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A range of assessment methods can be used for this unit and evidence can be
collected from a combination of activities/assignments, investigative projects and
practical work.

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Centres may use short tests for the summative assessment of learners’ knowledge or
practical skills. These could comprise of short answer questions or set-piece
workshop tasks that enable learners to demonstrate specific aspects of the required
practical skills (eg steering alignment). A variety of assessment strategies should be
used to give learners with differing learning styles the opportunity to demonstrate
their full ability and to add diversity to the subject.
Learners should be encouraged to research and use a range of resource materials
during their investigations. However, tutors should provide guidance on how material
can be referenced without infringing guidelines on authentic evidence, eg annotation
of images, diagrams used to support/clarify their own text.
To achieve a pass, learners will need to identify and describe the operation and
components of a manual heavy vehicle steering system (P1) and a power-assisted
heavy vehicle steering system (P2).
For P3, learners will need to describe the principles of steering geometry and wheel
alignment on single and twin steering heavy vehicles.
Two different and contrasting vehicle chassis and cab designs should be used for P4,
for example the draw bar and articulated vehicle combinations.
Learners will need to understand the operating principles and construction of
suspension systems using leaf springs (P5), rubber (P6) and pneumatics (P7). Evidence
for these criteria will also need to include descriptions of the relevant components.
For P8, learners should explain the construction, design features and legal
requirements of wheels and tyres used on heavy vehicles.
For P9 and P10, learners need to carry out practical maintenance activities
preferably on live heavy vehicle systems. For P9 they will need to carry out a
maintenance procedure on a heavy vehicle steering system and describe a typical
repair cycle (eg checking fluid levels and operational pressures in hydraulic power-
assisted system). Similarly for P10 they need to carry out a maintenance procedure
on a heavy vehicle suspension system and describe a typical repair cycle for that
system (eg checking for excess wear in pins and bushes and rectifying accordingly).
A suitable steering and suspension system fault for may need to be simulated for P9
and P10 and learners provided with the typical symptoms of the fault, as would be
reported by a driver of the faulty vehicle. Assessment of these criteria is likely to be
in three parts — a written inspection record completed by learners at the time of the
inspection, a verbal report back to the supervisor/customer (tutor record of oral
questioning/observation) and tutor observation of the process (eg use of logical and
efficient diagnostic techniques, safe working).
Criteria P1 and P2 can be assessed together and linked through an additional task to
M1, which would require learners to compare and contrast two different steering
systems used on heavy vehicles. This can also be linked to some extent with P3 with
respect to turning circles and steering geometry.
P4, dealing with heavy vehicle chassis layouts and cab designs, may be best covered
as a piece of personal research, such as a project or presentation given to a group of
peers. This would also offer opportunities for learners to achieve M3.
Criteria P5, P6 and P7 all relate to suspension types used on heavy vehicles and are
best assessed together and can be linked to M2.

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To achieve a distinction, learners need to diagnose and analyse the cause and effect
of defects, wear and maladjustment in a heavy vehicle’s steering system, including
wheels and tyres, from given symptoms and data (D1). They will also need to analyse
the cause and effects of the same for defects, wear and maladjustment in a heavy
vehicle’s suspension system (D2). Evidence for these criteria will draw on knowledge
gained through the pass and merit criteria.

Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports aspects of the Level 3 Automotive Skills National Occupational
Standards in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair, particularly:
• Unit MR01: Carry Out Routine Vehicle Maintenance
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles
• Unit MR04 HV: Remove and Replace Commercial Vehicle Chassis Unit and
Components
• Unit MR08 HV: Diagnose and Rectify Commercial Vehicle Chassis System Faults.
It can also provide some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards in Automotive Engineering:
• Unit 4: Assembling Sub-Assembly units to Vehicles
• Unit 7: Assembling the front Suspension Sub-Assembly
• Unit 52: Fitting Pipe work Systems to Commercial and Passenger Carrying
Vehicles.
The unit can be linked with Unit 3: Vehicle Fault Diagnosis and Rectification and
Unit 15: Heavy Vehicle Braking Systems.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a range of steering and suspension components for this
unit. A variety of information and data sources specific to the steering and
suspension systems covered will also be required. The necessary special tools and
equipment will be needed for investigations and routine maintenance operations on
the selected vehicles as defined in the unit content and grading criteria.

Indicative reading for learners

Heisler H — Advanced Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002)

ISBN 0750651318
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1998)
ISBN 0750638273
The Stationery Office — Road Vehicles (Construction and Use) Regulations
ISBN 0110670787

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The Stationery Office — The Public Service Vehicles (Condition of Fitness,

Equipment, Use and Certification) Regulations ISBN 011016257
Vehicle and Operator Services Association (VOSA) — Vehicle Testing Manuals and
Guides:
• HGV Inspection Manual
• Passenger Carrying Vehicle Inspection Manual

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the principles of C3.1a Contribute to a group discussion about a
operation and components of complex subject.
heavy vehicle steering C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
systems eight minutes using an image or other
• describing and comparing support material.
steering geometry and wheel C3.2 Read and synthesise information from two
alignments extended documents about a complex
subject.
• describing different types of
heavy vehicle cab and chassis Each document must be a minimum of
design 1000 words long.
• describing the principles of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
operation and components of each one giving different information
heavy vehicle suspension about complex subjects.
systems Each document must be at least 1000 words long.
• explaining the construction,
design features and legal
requirements of heavy
vehicle wheels and tyres.

Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• diagnosing defects, wear and LP3.1 Set targets using information from
maladjustment in heavy appropriate people and plan how these
vehicle steering and will be met.
suspension systems. LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
using your plan to help meet targets and
improve your performance.
LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
your achievements.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• diagnosing defects, wear and PS3.1 Explore a complex problem and identify
maladjustment, in heavy different ways of tackling it.
vehicle steering and PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way for
suspension systems. solving and review your approach to
problem solving.

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 Unit 55: Fabrication Processes and Technology

Unit 55: Fabrication Processes and

Technology
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Fabricated structures have been around from the earliest times, with one of the first
being a simple frame made from tree branches covered with leaves. The fabrication
process consisted of a number of steps: preparing the branches by measuring and
cutting to length, joining them together using fixings such as rope and wooden pegs
and then covering with leaves.
Exactly the same principles are used today when assembling or welding together an
engineering structure made up from a number of different parts. For example, a car
exhaust system consists of a number of metal pipes and boxes which have been bent
to shape and then joined together by welding so that they form a complete assembly.
Another example of a fabricated structure is the body of an aeroplane which is
constructed by first producing a frame and then joining curved aluminium panels
onto it using rivets and adhesives.
Producing products using fabrication methods is very cost effective because there is
much less material wastage compared to cutting from solids and lower energy costs
when compared to casting or forging.
This unit will allow learners to develop their knowledge and understanding of the
main processes and methods used to fabricate engineering structures. It investigates
the health and safety legislation and safe working practices applicable to fabrication
processes. This knowledge will be put to good use when learners carry out practical
activities later in the unit.
Learners will be expected to manufacture a fabricated product to a specification
which will be given to them in the form of an engineering drawing.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about health and safety legislation, regulations and safe working practices
in fabrication
2 Understand the process of marking out and preparing the materials used to
produce fabricated structures
3 Understand the forming and assembly methods used to produce fabricated
structures
4 Be able to interpret the specification of a fabricated structure and plan and carry
out its manufacture.

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Unit content

1 Know about health and safety legislation, regulations and safe working
practices in fabrication

Legislation: legislation eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, Employment Act
2002, Factories Act 1961, Fire Precautions Act 1971; regulations eg Management
of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, Provision and Use of Work
Equipment Regulations 1998, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulations 2002, Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998,
Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992, Personal Protective Equipment at
Work Regulations 1992, Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, Electricity at Work
Regulations 1989, Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005, Reporting of
Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995, Working
Time Regulations 1998, Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992,
Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981
Safe working practices: fire prevention; accident prevention and reporting; risk
assessment; manual handling; checking conditions eg gas leaks, voltage and
amperage, correct fuses, leads; personal protective equipment (PPE); ventilation
and extraction; closing down eg equipment safety, storing equipment, safe
disposal of waste materials

2 Understand the process of marking out and preparing the materials used to
produce fabricated structures

Marking out: measuring and marking out equipment eg rule, protractor, tee
square, set square, tape measure, compass, dividers, templates, marker pen,
scriber, laser level; detailed drawing eg dimensions, tolerances; reference points
eg edge datum, centre line datum; setting out eg radial line, triangulation,
projection, true lengths; calculations eg bend allowance, allowance for
springback, intersection points, overlap
Fabricated structures: eg equipment storage (such as tool rack, tool box), work
bench, car maintenance equipment (such as axle stand, ramp, crawler board),
ventilation ducting (such as collector hood, reducing section, tee connector)
Preparing materials: obtain materials eg sheet, bar, plate, section, standard
bought out condition; prepare to size eg cutting (such as flame, plasma, powder,
water jet, laser, band saw, hacksaw, reciprocating saw), shearing (such as hand,
bench, rotary, reciprocating), guillotining (such as bench, power), nibbling (such
as hand, power), presswork (such as piercing, blanking, punching), material
removal (such as chiselling, drilling, trepanning, filing, grinding), automated
methods (such as numerical control (NC), computer numerical control (CNC),
direct numerical control (DNC), mechanical copying using templates)

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3 Understand the forming and assembly methods used to produce fabricated

structures

Forming: principles eg spring back, bend allowance; forming eg by hand (such as

hammer and former, fly press, bench mounted bending machine), by machine
(such as folding machine, press brake), tooling (such as rolling rolls, pyramid
rolls, slip rolls, cone rolls, angle ring-bending), swaging, deep drawing and
pressing, web stiffeners, edge preparation, pipe bending, use of templates and
patterns, automated methods (such as numerical control (NC), computer
numerical control (CNC), direct numerical control (DNC))
Fabricated structures: eg equipment storage (such as tool rack, tool box), work
bench, car maintenance equipment (such as axle stand, ramp, crawler board),
ventilation ducting (such as collector hood, reducing section, tee connector),
workshop clamps (such as mitre joint, toggle), support stand for a bicycle
Assembly: trial assembly eg offering up, alignment, clamping, dimensional
checks, adjustment, modification; joining methods eg welding (such as spot,
continuous, laser), brazing, soldering, adhesives, riveting, fixings (such as nuts,
bolts, screws, clamps, pipe connectors), web stiffeners; inspect and check against
specification

4 Be able to interpret the specification of a fabricated structure and plan and

carry out its manufacture

Structure specification: engineering drawing eg assembly, detailed, development;

material eg steel, aluminium, polymer; material supply forms eg plate of
appropriate thickness, hollow section, solid section, pipe, tube; reference points
eg edge datum, centre line datum; dimensions eg overall, reference, installation,
tolerance; assembly method eg thermal, adhesive, riveting, fixings; finish eg
paint, polymer coat, electro-plate, polish; quantity eg one off, small batch, large
volume
Plan and manufacture: calculations eg bend allowance, allowance for springback,
intersection points, quantity of material required, minimisation of waste
material; select suitable equipment eg marking out, preparation, templates,
patterns, forming and assembly; mark out; produce manufacturing aids eg
former, jig, template; prepare and form individual parts of the assembly eg cut to
size, edge prepare, pierce, bend; assemble the fabrication and join parts
together eg trial assembly, modification, weld, braze, rivet, fixings; meet the
required accuracy as specified eg dimensions, tolerances, finish, visual
appearance, joint quality; inspect and check against specification

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 Unit 55: Fabrication Processes and Technology

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe aspects of health and safety M1 explain the effect, including aspects of D1 justify the selection of fabrication
legislation and regulations and safe safety and quality, of using incorrect processes and methods to be used when
working practices applicable to equipment and processes to produce a manufacturing a given fabricated
fabrication fabricated structure structure.
P2 describe the process of marking out M2 explain the factors that influence the
when producing fabricated structures choice of assembly method to be used
when producing a fabricated structure.
P3 describe the process of materials
preparation when producing fabricated
structures
P4 describe how material is formed before
it is assembled into a fabricated
structure
P5 describe the assembly process for a
given fabricated structure
P6 interpret the specification for a given
fabricated structure to plan its
manufacture

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 manufacture a fabricated structure to a
given specification.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

To establish the context of this unit, delivery should begin with a general overview of
what is meant by a ‘fabricated structure’ and the reasons for producing it by this
method. The starting point could be to look at how low-value material such as steel
plate can be turned into a higher value product by using a series of relatively simple
processes. It might be useful at this point to provide a brief overview of the
production of motor car bodies, so that learners appreciate how the use of highly
automated fabrication processes has resulted in a significant reduction in
manufacturing costs.
Learning outcome 1 covers legislation and safe working practices and links to Unit 7:
Health, Safety, Risk Assessment and Welfare in the Engineering Workplace. However,
care should be taken to ensure that the delivery concentrates only on the specific
issues relating to fabrication processes. There is a huge amount of data available and
when learners are required to carry out research they should be given structured
tasks which lead them to the relevant information. Learning outcome 1 may be best
assessed using a single assignment which covers just P1.
Tutors must ensure that learners understand the hazards and safe working practices
associated with fabrication equipment before they are allowed to use the processes.
Learners should be introduced to the processes using a series of graded formative
tasks which enable them to demonstrate their competence before attempting the
summative practical task associated with learning outcome 4.
Grading criteria P2, P3, P4 and P5 require evidence to be presented in the form of
written reports derived from a range of activities. The unit may therefore be best
delivered using tutor-led demonstrations followed by practical tasks, during which
learners can gain experience of working with appropriate tools and equipment.
Underpinning knowledge can be delivered by integrating practical demonstrations
with classroom based theory sessions and directed research.
Centres may wish to consider industrial visits so that learners can investigate and
observe fabrication processes not generally available within the centre (eg
automated material handling, preparation and bending, laser welding). The internet
is also a good resource for obtaining information and short video clips of these
processes.
Learning outcomes 2, 3 and 4 follow a natural progression which should enable
learners to develop an understanding of the fundamental stages involved in the
production of fabricated structures, irrespective of the process used. Job instructions
should be written in a logical format that will lead learners to consider all aspects of
the task. These should include interpretation of technical drawings and
specifications, safety, selection of tools, equipment and materials, correct use of
process, and inspection.

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Work-based learners should be encouraged to gain a wider knowledge of the

fabrication processes used across industry, not just the processes and techniques
used at their place of work. It may be helpful if centres can relate tasks to the needs
of local industries so that learners who are not currently employed gain appropriate
skills and knowledge.
Learners will require instruction in the safe application of fabrication processes, and
should have access to a wide range of publications, reference data, manufacturers’
products/information and computer facilities. The centre should have access to an
appropriate range of fabrication equipment.
There is scope within the content of learning outcome 4 to select a joining method
appropriate to the materials being fabricated. For learners who are producing a steel
fabrication but are not studying Unit 23: Applications of Welding Technology, the use
of spot welding may be appropriate for joining assembled parts, as this is an easy
process to learn.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be achieved through the use of five assignments.
The first assignment could cover P1, with learners being asked to produce a written
report. Evidence presented for P1 should be specific to fabrication processes and
learners will need to be given clear guidelines about what to present. There is a huge
amount of generic material which learners will have access to and care should be
taken to ensure that what they present is not just directly copied from the internet.
Grading criteria P1 and M1 complement each other and it may be that centres wish to
cover them both in the first assignment. However, learners might do better if M1 is
assessed later once they have a better understanding of the problems associated with
using the wrong equipment and processes. If this is the case then M1 could be
assessed through the assignment which addresses grading criterion P5.
Criteria P2 and P3 complement each other and could be assessed through a second
assignment. Evidence could be in the form of a written report supported by diagrams
and images of formative practical work carried out by learners as they investigated
the various marking out and materials preparation techniques. Transcripts of
responses to oral questioning by the tutor may also be appropriate.
A third assignment to cover P4 could follow the same format as assignment 2, with
much of the evidence being based on practical investigations carried out by learners.
Grading criteria P5 and M2 are linked and could be assessed by a fourth assignment.
Alternatively it could be assessed in the third assignment in order to reduce the
number of assignments given. To achieve P5 learners will present evidence derived
from working with a given fabricated structure. For learners who are employed it
may be appropriate to let them choose the fabricated structure in agreement with
the tutor. As stated earlier, M1 could be incorporated into this assignment as it draws
together knowledge gained across the whole unit.

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A fifth assignment could cover P6, P7 and D1. Care should be taken when designing
the assignment brief to make sure that it does not just become a test of the learners’
practical skills. Due to the time constraints of delivering the unit, it is not reasonable
to expect learners to carry out joining processes at an expert level.
There is scope to assess learning outcome 4 as a group activity so that a larger more
interesting fabrication can be produced. Each learner could be given a part to work
on, although care needs to be taken to ensure that evidence presented by each
learner addresses the whole of the unit content and can be substantiated. Digital
annotated photographic images together with witness statements/observation
records should be used to consolidate learner evidence of practical competence.
To achieve D1 learners will need to produce a piece of detailed evaluative writing
with consideration being given to the effectiveness of the processes selected. They
should be drawing on their own experiences and care must be taken to ensure that
what they present as evidence is authentic. All aspects of the process need to be
taken into account, such as heath and safety, preparation, forming and assembly
methods.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 23: Applications of Welding Technology and Unit 27: Welding
Principles.
The unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Fabrication and Welding Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 22: Marking Out Components for Metalwork
• Unit 23: Cutting Sheetmetal to Shape Using Hand and Machine Tools
• Unit 24: Forming Sheetmetal Using Hand and Machine Tools
• Unit 25: Producing Sheetmetal Assemblies
• Unit 27: Developing and Marking Out Templates for Metalwork
• Unit 28: Joining Fabricated Components using Mechanical Fasteners
• Unit 32: Cutting Plate and Sections using Shearing Machines
• Unit 33: Cutting and Shaping Materials using Portable Thermal Cutting Equipment
• Unit 34: Cutting Materials using Saws and Abrasive Discs
• Unit 35: Bending and Forming Plate using Press Brakes or Bending Machines
• Unit 36: Forming Platework using Power Rolling Machines
• Unit 37: Producing and Finishing Holes using Drilling Machines
• Unit 38: Producing Platework Assemblies.

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Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that the centre has, or has access to,
the fabrication equipment and related materials and consumables as specified in the
unit content. Applications of fabrication componentry should be appropriate to the
learners’ particular pathway within welding materials. Learners will also need access
to relevant British and International Standards and health and safety publications.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Kenyon W — Basic Welding and Fabrication (Longman, 1987) ISBN 0582005361
Smith B — Welding Practice (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0340614064

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the process of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
materials preparation when each one giving different information
producing fabricated about complex subjects.
structures. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• interpreting the specification PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
for a given fabricated ways of tackling it.
structure to plan its
manufacture.

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 Unit 56: Applications of Welding Technology

Unit 56: Applications of Welding

Technology
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The diverse range of welding processes used within the engineering industry includes
manual, mechanised and machine-based techniques. The selection and application of
the most suitable joining process is vital not only in terms of quality but also to the
economic viability of the finished product.
This unit has been designed to include not only manual and mechanised applications
of welding processes but also machine-based processes including laser, friction and
resistance welding. The emphasis is on the production of high quality welded
joints/components based on the selection of the most appropriate process. To enable
learners to make an informed choice they will be required to select joining processes
to satisfy a given application.
Learners will perform a range of practical tasks that will include the preparation of
the work area and ensuring that health and safety legislation and safe working
practices are understood and followed at all times. Before starting to use the
process, learners will select and check the condition of appropriate equipment. This
stage in the process is particularly important when it is considered that, subject to
the process selected, learners may be working with electric currents, combustible
gas mixtures or parts rotating at high speed.
Learners will be expected to interpret written, graphical and verbal instructions
while carrying out the practical tasks, which will be delivered using tutor-led
demonstrations and supervised practise. Learners will inspect their work with
reference to relevant quality standards, thus ensuring that they are not only able to
produce acceptable welds/components but they are also able to recognise defects.
This unit is designed to accommodate the needs of learners who are either employed
or who are being trained to enter an engineering environment in which joining by
welding is an integral part of the manufacturing process.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about health and safety legislation, regulations and safe working practices
in welding
2 Be able to use information sources and select and prepare tools and equipment
for welding
3 Be able to produce welded joints to a quality standard
4 Understand how quality inspection processes are applied to welded joints/
components.

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Unit content

1 Know about health and safety legislation, regulations and safe working
practices in welding

Legislation and regulations: legislation eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974,
Employment Act 2002, Factories Act 1961, Fire Precautions Act 1971; regulations
eg Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999, Provision and Use
of Work Equipment Regulations 1998, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
(COSHH) Regulations 2002, Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations
1998, Manual Handling Operations Regulations 1992, Personal Protective
Equipment at Work Regulations 1992, Confined Spaces Regulations 1997,
Electricity at Work Regulations 1989, Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005,
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)
1995, Working Time Regulations 1998, The Workplace (Health, Safety and
Welfare) Regulations 1992, Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981,
Carriage of Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment
Regulations 2004, Simple Pressure Vessels (Safety) Regulations 1991 (SI
1994/3098)
Safe working practices: fire prevention; accident prevention and reporting; risk
assessment; manual handling; checking conditions eg gas leaks, voltage and
amperage, correct fuses, leads; personal protective equipment (PPE); ventilation
and extraction; closing down eg equipment safety, storing equipment, safe
disposal of waste materials

2 Be able to use information sources and select and prepare tools and
equipment for welding

Information sources: safety instructions; job instructions; engineering drawings;

quality control documentation eg weld procedure specification (WPS), assessment
sheet
Tools and equipment: check equipment availability, function and condition
relevant to the welding process eg cables, hoses, torches/electrode holders, gas
pressure regulators, flowmeters; assembling welding equipment eg cables, weld
return clamps, electrode holders, gas cylinders, regulators, valves, safety devices
Welding parameters: setting and adjusting eg:
- for manual processes: gas pressure, flow rates, voltage, current (either
alternating (AC) or direct (DC))
- for mechanised processes: safety devices, welding speed, other parameters
(electrical parameters, flux dispensing and recovery mechanisms, wire feed
rate, gas shielding system, mechanical functions (handling, loading,
workholding, transfer))
- for resistance welding machines: welding current, welding and squeeze times,
electrode pressure cycle, welding speed (seam), weld pitch (spot),
mechanical functions

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- for laser welding machines: electrical parameters, welding speed, weld

alignment and characteristics, beam tracking, beam characteristics (focal
spot), gas shielding, mechanical mechanisms for workholding, traversing and
transfer
- for friction welding machines: friction and forge cycle time, friction and forge
loads (forces), rotational speed or other friction conditions (orbital, frictional
burn-off characteristics, forge displacement, braking effort), weld appearance
(correct upset)
Welding processes: manual eg manual metal-arc (MMA), metal inert gas (MIG),
metal active gas (MAG), metal-arc gas shielded, cored wire, tungsten inert gas
(TIG), plasma-arc, gas welding; mechanised eg MIG/MAG, cored wire, TIG,
plasma-arc, submerged arc; machine based eg resistance welding machines (spot,
seam, projection), laser welding machines, friction welding machines

3 Be able to produce welded joints to a quality standard

Safely: fire prevention; accident prevention and reporting; using risk assessment;
manual handling; checking conditions eg gas leaks, voltage and amperage, fuses,
leads; wearing PPE; using ventilation and extraction; closing down equipment
safely after use
Joints/components: eg:
- for manual processes: butt, fillet, autogeneous weld (without filler wire)
- for mechanised processes: two different joint configurations, two different
material groups
- for resistance welding machines: two different material thicknesses, two
different joint configurations
- for laser and friction welding machines: two different components, two
different material groups
Welding positions: to a relevant standard eg British Standard (BS) EN 287 flat
(PA), horizontal vertical (PB), horizontal (PC), vertical upwards (PF), vertical
downwards (PG), overhead (PE), inclined tube/pipe (H-L045 or J-L045)
Consumables: appropriate to process eg electrode (rutile, basic, nickel alloy,
cellulosic, stainless steel, other electrodes), filler wire, gases (oxygen, acetylene,
shielding gases), flux/agglomerated flux
Material: forms eg plate (various thickness appropriate to process, up to 6 mm for
resistance welding), section, pipe/tube, sheet (<3 mm), other forms; types eg
carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminium
Quality standard: minimum weld quality standard equivalent to the level given in
the relevant standard eg European/International Standard EN25817/ISO 5187,
EN30042/ISO 10042, EN/ISO 13919; meet the required accuracy as specified eg
dimensions, tolerances, weld quality, spot and projection welds are correctly
located

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4 Understand how quality inspection processes are applied to welded

joints/components

Quality standard: minimum weld quality standard equivalent to the level given in
the relevant standard eg European/International Standard EN25817/ISO 5187,
EN30042/ISO 10042, EN/ISO 13919; meet the required accuracy as specified eg
dimensions, tolerances, weld quality, spot and projection welds are correctly
located; non-destructive inspection eg dye penetrant, ultrasonic, radiographic (x-
ray, gamma ray), pressure tests (hydraulic, pneumatic), fluorescent particle,
magnetic particle

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe aspects of health and safety M1 explain the effect, including aspects of D1 justify the selection of a welding process
legislation, regulations and safe working safety and quality, of incorrect use of for a given application
practices applicable to welding parameters for a welding process when
D2 evaluate the benefits and limitations of
producing a given welded
P2 using appropriate information sources, non-destructive inspection on a given
joint/component
select and prepare tools, equipment and welded joint/component.
welding parameters to safely perform a M2 compare the advantages and
welding process disadvantages of two welding processes
for a given application including the
P3 use one manual or mechanised welding
impact on quality standards.
process safely to produce two welded
joints/components, using appropriate
welding positions, consumables, forms
and types of materials
P4 use one machine-based welding process
safely to produce two welded
joints/components, using appropriate
welding positions, consumables, forms
and types of materials

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 use one manual or mechanised welding
process to produce two welded
joints/components to a given quality
standard
P6 use one machine-based welding process
to produce two welded
joints/components to a given quality
standard
P7 select and describe two welding
processes for a given application
P8 describe the quality inspection process
performed on a given combination of
welded joints/components and
materials.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit could be delivered using tutor-led demonstrations followed by practical tasks
during which learners can gain experience of working with appropriate tools and
equipment. Underpinning knowledge can be delivered by integrating practical
demonstrations, classroom-based theory sessions and directed research, using all
available learning resources including information technology. Centres may wish to
consider industrial visits so that learners can investigate and observe joining processes
not generally available within the centre (eg laser and friction welding machines).
Tutors must ensure that learners understand the hazards and safe working practices
associated with welding equipment before they are allowed to use the processes.
Learners should be introduced to the process using a series of graded formative tasks
to enable them to demonstrate their competence before attempting the summative
tasks.
Learners should be encouraged to evaluate their performance in the formative tasks
using a combination of both tutor and self/peer assessment. The use of inspection
within the workshop will encourage self-assessment. Tutors can relate the results of
the inspection process to the adjustment of process parameters to enable learners to
improve weld quality.
The four learning outcomes follow a natural progression which should enable learners
to develop an understanding of the fundamental stages involved in the production of
welded joints/components, irrespective of the process used. Job instructions should
be written in a logical format that will lead learners to consider all aspects of the
task from safety, selection of tools, equipment and materials, process set-up and
operation through to production and inspection of the welded joint/component.
The summative tasks will assess learners’ competence in the use of certain welding
processes and their ability to control process parameters to produce
welds/components that meet a specified quality standard.
Work-based learners should be encouraged to gain a wider knowledge of welding
processes used in industry, not just the processes and techniques used at their place of
work. Centres can relate tasks to the needs of local industries to prepare learners not
currently employed to enter employment with the appropriate skills and knowledge.
Learners will require instruction in the safe application of welding processes and
need access to a wide range of publications, reference data, manufacturers’
products/information and computer facilities. The centre should have access to an
appropriate range of welding equipment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

There are a number of options available to centres when designing tasks for the
production of evidence.
In a practical activity to produce two joints/components, the following could be
included in the task description of an assignment:
• describe aspects of health and safety legislation and safe working practices
applicable to welding (P1)
• using appropriate information sources, select and prepare tools, equipment and
welding parameters to safely use a given welding process (P2)
• use a manual or mechanised welding process safely to produce two welded
joints/components, using the welding positions, consumables, forms and types of
material appropriate to the process (P3) and to a given quality standard (P5)
• describe the quality inspection process performed on a given combination of
welded joints/components and materials (P8).
The evidence for P1 is likely to be achieved by a response to a written task. The
satisfactory achievement of P2 will precede tasks targeting criteria P3 and P5. To
achieve criteria P8, it is recommended that learners describe the inspection of the
welds produced to achieve P3 and include reference to the standards, accuracy and
non-destructive inspection methods used. Witness statements/observation records
used to show the evidence for criteria P2, P3 and P5 are best supported by annotated
photographs and a table of quality outcomes for the two welded joints/components.
Care must be taken to consult the content section of the unit to ensure that the
range of welding positions, joints/components, materials and consumables are
appropriate to the joining process being assessed. The choice of whether a manual or
mechanised process should be used is left to the centre and may be decided by the
pathway that learners are following in their workplace. Obviously, more freedom of
choice exists with centre based learners but attention should be given to likely local
employment opportunities.
A similar assignment can be used to give opportunities to meet criteria P4 and P6.
This could involve machine-based processes and would also give a further opportunity
to assess P1 and P2 if the first assignment was not achieved successfully in these
respects. Again, witness statements/observation records used to show the evidence
for criteria P2, P4 and P6 are best supported by annotated photographs and a table of
quality outcomes for the two welded joints/components.
Once learners have experienced a range of processes, consideration can be given to
achieving the outstanding pass criteria (P7) and the higher grading criteria. A task
needs to be given asking learners to select and describe two welding processes for
given applications. The expectation within this task is that all areas of the two
processes will be described. Obviously the practical experience will influence
learners’ ability to answer this task.

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To achieve a merit grade, learners will need to explain the effect of incorrect use of
parameters on a welding process for a given welded joint/component (M1). This
evidence would be best demonstrated by a written task, which could be related to the
activities carried out to meet either P3 and P5 or to meet criteria P4 and P6. Similarly,
M2 could be a written task that asks learners to compare the advantages and
disadvantages of two welding processes for a given application. Care needs to be taken
when selecting the given application to ensure learners have opportunities to carry out
this comparison. Although it is not compulsory to have a manual and mechanised
process, this is where opportunities may be maximised during a comparison.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners will need to demonstrate their knowledge of
both joining processes and the properties of engineering materials when justifying
the selection of a process for a given application. The task used to provide evidence
to satisfy D1 is likely to be a written answer that extends the task designed to meet
P3/P5 or P4/P6, M1 and M2. Again, care should be taken when selecting the given
application to ensure opportunities exist to justify and say why the process is
appropriate and others are not. D2 will require learners to use the results of the
practical work carried out to achieve P5 and P6 and the written outcome from M2,
enabling them to evaluate non-destructive inspection.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 22: Fabrication Processes and Technology and Unit 27:
Welding Principles. It also has links with the following units from the Level 3 SEMTA
National Occupational Standards in Fabrication and Welding Engineering:
• Unit 4: Welding Materials by the Manual Metal Arc Process
• Unit 5: Welding Materials by the Manual MIG/MAG and other Continuous Wire
Processes
• Unit 6: Welding Materials by the Manual TIG and Plasma Arc Welding Process
• Unit 7: Welding Materials by the Manual Gas Welding Process
• Unit 16: Welding Materials with Mechanised Arc Welding Equipment
• Unit 17: Welding Materials using Resistance Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
Machines
• Unit 18: Welding Materials using Laser Welding Machines
• Unit 20: Welding Materials using Friction Welding Machines.

Essential resources

Centres will need access to appropriate welding equipment and related materials and
consumables as specified in the unit content. Applications of welded componentry
should be appropriate to the learners’ particular pathway within welding materials.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Davies A — Science and Practice of Welding, Volume 1 (Cambridge, 1993) ISBN
052143565X
Davies A — Science and Practice of Welding, Volume 2 (Cambridge, 1993) ISBN
0521435668
Raj B, Shankar V and Bhaduri A — Welding Technology for Engineers (Alpha Science
International Ltd, 2005) ISBN 1842651943
Smith B — Welding Practice (Butterworth-Heineman, 1995) ISBN 0340614064
Weman K — Welding Processes Handbook (CRC Press, 2003) ISBN 0849317738
Zhang H — Resistance Welding (CRC Press, 2005) ISBN 0849323460

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• using appropriate PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify
information sources to select different ways of tackling it.
and prepare tools,
equipment and welding
parameters to safely use in a
welding process.

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 Unit 57: Motorsport Workshop Practices

Unit 57: Motorsport Workshop Practices

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the safe operating procedures of a
trackside/temporary vehicle workshop and enable them to appreciate relevant
health and safety issues in terms of risk to self and others. Learners will also
develop the skills needed to use various tools, fasteners, materials and
manufacturing processes when servicing, preparing and maintaining a motorsports
vehicle.
The unit is designed to prepare learners for trackside operations and reinforce their
understanding of the need for safe working practices. Learners will develop an
understanding of the ways that actions can reduce the risk to employees, others and
vehicles in a temporary workshop at an outdoor motorsport event. In addition,
learners will gain an appreciation of the procedures required to deal with trackside
incidents.
Learners will also develop the skills needed to use tools and equipment, including
hand and power tools, through carrying out disassembly and reassembly tasks. This
will involve an understanding of fasteners and materials used in motorsport vehicle
construction, and their appropriate usage.
Finally, the unit introduces learners to the properties of engineering materials and
their specific applications for motorsport engine and chassis components.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand how to maintain good housekeeping and health and safety
procedures at an outdoor motorsport event
2 Be able to select and use appropriate tools and equipment for the disassembly
and reassembly of motorsport vehicle components
3 Understand how and why temporary and permanent fasteners are used for
specific motorsport applications
4 Be able to select an appropriate material for specific motorsport applications.

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Unit content

1 Understand how to maintain good housekeeping and health and safety

procedures at an outdoor motorsport event

Actions to reduce risk: risk to employees eg correct use of personal protective

equipment (PPE), safe use of tools and equipment, safe use of fuels and
lubricants; others eg containment of hazardous substances, working areas clearly
marked, warning signs correctly used and clearly visible; vehicles eg correct use
of lifting and supporting equipment; housekeeping eg relevant regulations/codes
of practice (Health and Safety at Work Act, Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health (COSHH)), workshop areas kept separate from pedestrian areas at all
times
Dealing with incidents: emergencies eg personal injury, fire, spillage, equipment
failure, area evacuation, inhalation of noxious fumes; accidents eg slips, trips,
falls, collision; immediate actions eg evacuate/cordon off area, report/fight
fire, quarantine emergency; follow-up actions eg clear away spillage and dispose
of waste, document incident, administer first aid, inform emergency services
Outdoor motorsport event: eg rallying, go-karting, closed-circuit competition,
off-road racing, motocross, sprint, hill climbs

2 Be able to select and use appropriate tools and equipment for the
disassembly and reassembly of motorsport vehicle components

Tools and equipment: hand tools eg spanners, screwdrivers, ratchets and sockets
(metric and imperial); tool size recognition; power tools relevant to speed and
efficiency at trackside eg pneumatic/electric ratchets, drills; measuring tools eg
micrometer, vernier callipers, gauges; lifting and stabilising equipment eg hoists,
trolley jacks, axle stands
Disassembly/reassembly: components eg body and chassis components in the
event of a crash (panels and steering components), engine disassembly and
reassembly; tasks eg maintenance, servicing consumable components at
trackside, repair

3 Understand how and why temporary and permanent fasteners are used for
specific motorsport applications

Temporary fasteners: for components requiring frequent maintenance or

replacement eg ‘R’ clips, split pins, nuts and bolts, quick release fasteners
Permanent fasteners: for components that do not require regular replacement or
removal for maintenance eg rivets, locking nuts, stretch bolts, shear bolts;
alternative methods eg the bonding of polymers, glass fibre and carbon, plastic
welding, glue

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4 Be able to select an appropriate material for specific motorsport applications

Material selection: mechanical properties eg strength, hardness, ductility,

durability, density and mass; performance versus weight; finish eg professional
appearance for chassis components, weight and aerodynamic properties;
aesthetic, ergonomic and durable properties; types of material eg metallic alloys
and non-metallic materials used in engine tuning, Kevlar, glass fibre; special
treatments to obtain required properties eg shot/laser peening, heat treatment,
specialised coatings; effects of loading eg compressive/tensile stress, fatigue,
stress corrosion
Motorsport engine component: eg pistons, connecting rods, crankshafts,
camshafts, valves, engine mounting brackets
Motorsport chassis components: eg steering components (such as steering racks
and uprights), braking components (such as callipers and discs), suspension
components and body panels

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the ways that actions can M1 take the necessary action to deal with an D1 evaluate a temporary workshop at an
reduce the risk to employees, others incident at an outdoor motorsports event outdoor motorsport event for potential
and vehicles in a temporary workshop at hazards and recommend action to be
M2 select and justify the use of two different
an outdoor motorsport event taken
fasteners for use in motorsport
P2 describe the immediate and follow-up competition critical applications D2 compare the differences in the material
actions to be taken to deal with two selection criteria for a specific vehicle
M3 explain and justify the differences in
different types of incidents at an component used on both production and
surface finishing techniques used for a
outdoor motorsport event motorsport vehicles.
motorsport engine compared to a mass
P3 select and use the most appropriate produced engine.
tools and equipment to efficiently
disassemble a motorsport vehicle
component
P4 select and use the most appropriate
tools and equipment to efficiently
reassemble a motorsport vehicle
component

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 identify and describe the use of three
different temporary fasteners with
regard to suitability for purpose in
motorsport applications
P6 identify and describe the use of three
different permanent fasteners with
regard to suitability for purpose in
motorsport applications
P7 research and select a material for a
given motorsport engine component
application
P8 research and select a material for a
given motorsport chassis component
application.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit is likely to follow the sequential order of the learning outcomes.
The unit as a whole however, could also be viewed as having two quite distinctive
halves which could be delivered separately.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 cover workshop practice within the context of an outdoor
event (ie working in a temporary/field workshop as opposed to a fixed permanent
facility). Unit 28: Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection covers very similar
ground but from the perspective of a permanent facility.
Learning outcomes 3 and 4 are more general and look specifically at temporary and
permanent fastenings used for motorsport vehicles and also at material properties in
terms of how materials are selected for motorsport vehicle applications.
Because of the very nature of motorsport events, delivery of learning outcome 1 must
immerse learners in a wide range of health and safety issues. Many more people could
potentially be involved in an incident at a motorsports event than within a confined
automotive workshop. Therefore, learners must have a competent working knowledge
of the required safety procedures to ensure the safety of personnel, spectators and
vehicles.
Delivery must focus on ensuring learners understand the actions required to
proactively reduce risk to those involved with motorsports vehicles and others (eg
spectators, guests, visitors). This will involve raising learners’ awareness of the
importance of tools, equipment and consumables being kept in their rightful place, so
as not to cause hazard by way of obstacle, slips or trips. Also, that even in ‘self-
contained’ temporary workspaces at events, it is still important that relevant codes of
practice for safety and materials storage and handling (eg Health and Safety at Work
Act, COSHH) are strictly adhered to in order to ensure minimum risk.
In particular, high-speed vehicles are a constant hazard to service and support crew
unless health and safety procedures are rigidly observed. Service personnel must be
aware of how to deal with an incident and the relevant safety procedures to be
observed in the event of a collision (vehicle/vehicle or personnel/vehicle) or other
incident. Delivery of the unit must ensure that learners are aware of the appropriate
action to be taken in such incidents to ensure the safety of personnel, spectators and
vehicles.
The delivery of the ‘dealing with incidents’ section of the unit must also ensure that
learners are aware of the regulations regarding fire safety (eg which extinguisher to
use on what type of fire, actions to be taken in the event of a fire). For example,
motorsport vehicles may use materials that pose specific risks when burning (eg
magnesium, fibre glass and other non-metallic materials), give off noxious fumes, or
require specialist treatment (eg burns from burning rubber or plastic components).
Post-incident procedures and effective incident documentation must also be
effectively in place to ensure the continued safety of personnel and spectators (eg
disposal of harmful waste, spillage control).

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Learners must be made aware that for each individual motorsport event, there are
specific and general risks which apply whether the event is tarmac-based, off-road,
rallying, karting, or any other outdoor motorsport event. Centres should ensure that
the methods of delivery are such that each learner has a working knowledge of the
risks and how to deal with them irrespective of the type of event.
Learning outcome 2 considers tools, equipment and there use to disassemble and
reassemble components. The focus of this unit is set within the context of trackside
work and this should be reflected in the delivery methods used for this section of the
unit. During a motorsports event speed is vital and the vast majority of work is time-
critical. However, this should not be at the expense of accuracy.
Delivery of this section must ensure that learners are able to select and use the
correct tool to complete any job and without compromising either the tools or the
components. Hand tool selection should cover the range of tools listed in the content
(eg spanners, screwdrivers, ratchets and sockets). Learners should be given sufficient
practise with tools to ensure tool size recognition, as this can be a critical factor in
the speed with which a job is completed. This section should also deal with the use of
power tools, which are critical for speed at trackside and to complete service and
disassembly/reassembly swiftly during events. Again, it is expected that delivery will
introduce learners to tools such as air powered/electric ratchets and drilling
machines.
In addition to the use of hand and power tools, it is expected that the range of
measuring tools (eg micrometer, vernier callipers, gauges), lifting and stabilising
equipment (eg hoists, trolley jacks, axle stands) will also need to be covered during
delivery.
Learning outcome 3 focuses on the fasteners used for assembly and disassembly. For
applications where service adjustments or component substitution must be frequently
made, temporary fasteners must be used. There are many factors involved in the
selection of such fasteners, such as the load placed on the fastener, the frequency
and required ease of removal and replacement, the type of material to be joined, and
the required joint strength of the fastener. During delivery learners should be
encouraged to compare the relative merits, suitability and purpose of a variety of
temporary fasteners and joining methods (such as nut/bolt, r-clips, split pins, cable
ties, push rivets and quick release fasteners).
For situations where components are removed and replaced infrequently, if at all,
fastenings that are more permanent may be required. Once again, delivery should
ensure that learners have the widest possible experience of such fastenings. For
example, learners should gain experience with rivets, self clinching fasteners, self-
tapping screws, vibration-proof and self locking fasteners, tamper-proof or shear bolts
and screws. Some of the fasteners may overlap (such as, nuts and bolts) but in such
cases it is important to focus on the key aspects of the fastenings (eg thread size,
pitch, material construction and properties such as tensile strength, shear strength
and hardness) through workshop/classroom-based investigations.
Learners should also be given an opportunity to investigate and apply alternative
permanent joining techniques for a variety of materials (such as polymers, glass fibre
and carbon) which are now frequently used in modern motorsport vehicles.

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Delivery of learning outcome 4 should focus on the materials used for motorsport
components. Learners must be given the opportunity to develop their ability to select
materials based upon the mechanical properties, required finish, the type of material
and its suitability for a particular task. For most motorsport applications performance
versus weight will always be an important factor in final choice. Providing learners
with an opportunity to work with materials (eg cutting, bending, fabricating) would be
an excellent delivery approach that would reinforce the theoretical aspects of
material properties. There is also a link back to learning outcome 1 that could be
reinforced here in terms of the health and safety issues surrounding the use of
materials in an engineering environment (eg working with fibre glass, metals such as
aluminium, steel and stainless steel, and alloys).
Learners should also be given an opportunity to investigate the surface treatment of
motorsports engine components. For example how shot peening, laser peening, heat
treatment and the use of specialised coatings increase capability to withstand
compressive stress and reduce the effects of fatigue or stress corrosion, and protect
against oxidation will be investigated.
The range of materials to be covered during delivery will very much depend upon the
main motorsport focus in a centre. In general, when looking at how metals are used in
motorsports vehicle construction, learners should investigate the types of alloys
typically used (eg duralumin, alclad and magnalium) and the various applications of
these materials (eg use for body skins, spars and stiffeners). Also, to look at
applications where stronger more lightweight metals are required (eg magnesium,
stainless steel and titanium alloys) and alternative non-metallic materials (eg carbon
fibre, Kevlar and fibre glass).
The most important aspect about the delivery of learning outcome 4 will not be
coverage of an extensive range of materials but that learners have a good grasp of the
important features of material properties and their range of applications in
motorsport engine and chassis components.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit is likely to be through the use of four assignments, one for
each learning outcome.
The first assignment could cover learning outcome 1 and the respective criteria (P1
and P2). The assignment could also be designed to provide an opportunity to work
towards M1 and D1. To achieve P1 learners must be able to explain the ways that
actions can reduce the risk to employees, others and vehicles in a temporary
workshop at an outdoor motorsport event. The evidence for this criterion could be
achieved through a time-constrained test. However, it is recommended that a much
better approach would be for learners to produce their own observation record during
their time at one or more actual events. The record could be in the form of a logbook
in which learners record their observations in such a way as to cover risks to
employees, others and vehicles and housekeeping.
P2 could be dealt with in a similar way to P1. For this criterion, the learner might be
an observer of an emergency/accient or alternatively, a ‘what if’ scenario could be
used.

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The merit criterion M1 — take the necessary action to deal with an incident at an
outdoor motorsports event, can be linked to P1 and P2 and requires the learner to put
into practice their understanding demonstrated for the pass criteria. The evidence for
this merit criterion is likely to be tutor observation of the learner’s performance
during a particular incident, which could real or simulated. There is a further link
through to D1 — evaluate a temporary workshop at an outdoor motorsport event for
potential hazards and recommend action to be taken. For this distinction criterion,
the learner is required to use their understanding from P1, P2 and M1 to carry out a
risk assessment. It is important that the situation used provides the learner with an
opportunity to make recommendations for ‘action to be taken’ (ie there needs to be
some real or simulated problems in the temporary workshop). In order to gain this
distinction grade, the learner must attend a competition event and undertake the risk
assessment and centres must be aware of this and make adequate provision for this to
happen.
There are two pass criteria associated with learning outcome 2 — P3 and P4, which
are different only in that one cover disassembly and the other reassembly of
components. To achieve P3 — select and use the most appropriate tools and
equipment to efficiently disassemble a motorsport vehicle component, the learner
will require a specific task to be set for them to disassemble a motorsport vehicle
component. The tools that the learner selects and uses will be determined by the task
and therefore, not all the content is necessarily going to be covered. Centres should
ensure that the choice of component however, demands the use of a reasonable
number of items listed in the content (eg hand tools, power tools, measuring tools,
lifting and stabilising equipment). The same would apply to P4 but for reassembly.
The evidence for P3 and P4 is likely to be in the form of a tutor observation record
supported by the learner’s own records of how they dealt with the set tasks. This
could be in the form of a technical report or a logbook style of record.
Learning outcome 3 is assessed through the two criteria P5 and P6, which relate to
temporary and permanent fasteners. For P5 the learner must identify and describe
the use of three different temporary fasteners with regard to suitability for purpose in
motorsport applications. For P6, identify and describe the use of three different
permanent fasteners with regard to suitability for purpose in motorsport applications.
It would be possible to assess these criteria using a test but approaches that are more
practical are recommended. Clearly there is an opportunity to link the work
undertaken for P3 and P4 with this learning outcome since it is likely that as the
learner disassembles and reassembles components they are going to come across such
fastenings. An integrated approach to the assessment of learning outcomes 2 and 3 is
to be encouraged.
Such an integrated approach would then be beneficial for linking the merit criterion
M3 — select and justify the use of two different fasteners for use in motorsport
competition critical applications. An extension task could be built onto the work for
P3–6 to require the learner to select and justify fastening within a maintenance or
repair task.
Finally, learning outcome 4 is assessed by the pass criteria P7 and P8. It also links with
M3 and D2. In order to gain a pass at P7 and P8, evidence of independent research of
the materials involved must be shown, as a large part of the criteria is research. For
both P7 and P8, the learner is expected to research and select a material for a given
motorsport engine and chassis component application,

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respectively. The components selected for this task must enable the learner to
investigate the mechanical properties of a material, performance versus weight
issues, finish and aesthetic, ergonomic and durable properties as appropriate to the
component. The types of material investigated could be chosen from the list of
examples in the content (eg metallic alloys and non-metallic materials used in engine
tuning, Kevlar, glass fibre) or any other relevant material. It is expected that special
treatments to obtain required properties and the effects of loading will be dealt with
for at least one of the components (ie either for the engine component or chassis
component). This could then link through to M3 — explain and justify the differences
in surface finishing techniques used for motorsport engine compared to a mass
produced engine; and D2 — compare the differences in the material selection criteria
for a specific vehicle component used on both production and motorsport vehicles.

Links to National Occupational Standards (NOS), other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit contributes towards some aspects of the Automotive Skills Level 3 National
Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair.

Essential resources

Centres will need to be able to provide the learner with access to outdoor motorsports
events and at which they can take an active part in field/temporary workshops.
Centres will also need to have workshop facilitates and provide the learner with
access to the range of tools and equipment listed in the content. In addition, centres
will need to have access to a range of fastenings and components (engine and chassis)
for demonstration purposes and for the learner to work with. Finally, centres will also
need to provide the learner with sufficient data and access to research resources (eg
computers, text books and data) to enable the learner to study and research
engineering materials for motorsports applications.

Indicative reading for learners

Health and Safety Executive — A Short Guide to Personal Protective Equipment at

Work Regulations 1992 (HSE Books, 1995) ISBN 07176b08891
Health and Safety Executive — Essentials of Health and Safety at Work, Third Edition
(HSE Books, 1994) ISBN 07170716X
Health and Safety Executive — Five Steps to Risk Assessment (HSE Books, 1998)
ISBN 0717615650

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• carrying out calculations on N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
material properties and information from relevant sources.
behaviour
N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
• selecting materials based stage calculations to do with:
upon mechanical properties.
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.
Communication Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• reading relevant regulations C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
and codes of practice to least two documents about the same
establish guidelines for subject.
workshop housekeeping and
Each document must be at least 1000
health and safety
words long.
• preparing technical reports
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
on health and safety issues,
each one giving different information
disassembly/reassembly
about complex subjects.
tasks, fastenings and
materials. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• searching for relevant ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
information on regulations sources, and multiple search criteria in at
and codes of practice to least one case.
establish guidelines for
ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
workshop housekeeping and
derive new information.
health and safety
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
• searching for information and
text with image, text with number,
preparing technical reports
image with number.
on health and safety issues,
disassembly/reassembly
tasks, fastenings and
materials.
Problem solving Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• researching and selecting a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
material for a motorsport ways of tackling it.
engine/chassis component.
PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 58: Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection

Unit 58: Motorsport Vehicle Preparation

and Inspection
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate to
the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The preparation and inspection of motorsport vehicles plays a vital part in their
overall safety, performance and reliability. Any motorsport vehicle must be prepared
to withstand the environment it is subjected to, and to conform to the standards
relevant to the arena in which it operates.
The correct preparation of a vehicle’s structure, brakes, engine or transmission is
imperative if it is going to perform at its best. Preparation is also a vital aspect in
maintaining the safety requirements of a vehicle involved in competitive activities.
Each form of motorsport requires specific types of preparation but there are also
aspects of preparation that span the whole spectrum of the sport. Vehicle inspection
is a critical part of the process, ensuring conformity to both set standards and safety
requirements. It also goes a long way in ensuring a vehicle’s reliability, which is an
extremely important factor for any motorsport vehicle. Inspections should be carried
out post build, pre-competition, during competition and post competition.
This unit focuses on both the technical and practical aspects of preparation and
inspection. It will enable learners to gain the skills required of a competent member
of a motorsport team. The areas covered will include preparing a motorsport vehicle
to a given standard and ensuring that the correct documentation has been gathered
and completed, during the inspection process. It will also cover the documentation
required by the sports governing bodies.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the vehicle and competitor documentation required to compete at a
motorsports event
2 Be able to prepare a competition vehicle to a recognised specification
3 Be able to carry out inspections before, during and after a motorsports event.

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Unit content

1 Understand the vehicle and competitor documentation required to compete at

a motorsports event

Vehicle documentation: ministry of transport (MOT) test (if required); motorsports

association (MSA) logbooks; road tax; vehicle and competition insurance; driver
and vehicle licensing agency (DVLA) log books, pre-inspection documentation, set-
up sheets; collation of competition data eg from DVLA, MSA, manufacturer
Competitor documentation: club/membership cards; MSA licences eg clubman,
national A, international, race, rally, speed medical certificate; doctor’s medical
report; collation of competition data eg entry applications and acceptances, final
instructions, road books, circuit diagrams
Motorsports events documentation: eg MSA permits, insurance waivers, land
registry, final instructions, regulations (race/rally)

2 Be able to prepare a competition vehicle to a recognised specification

Competition vehicle preparation: tool use eg spanners, sockets, screwdrivers,
torque wrenches, pressure gauges; specialist tools eg camber, caster, tracking,
spring compression gauges, gas analysers; equipment use eg hoists and stands,
auxiliary engine starting devices; safe operation of tools and equipment eg
serviceable condition, correctly stored and accounted for (shadow boards, tool
control methods), correct tool/equipment used in an appropriate manner;
preparation routines eg conformation of class, scrutineering
Specifications: MSA blue book requirements eg technical regulations, competitor
safety (cage mountings, cage design, fire extinguishers); yellow book eg technical
regulation, homologation (type of vehicle, year of make); single make and class
regulations eg engine cubic capacity (cc), design type

3 Be able to carry out inspections before, during and after a motorsports event

Health and safety: safe use and handling of lubricants/fluids eg fuel, oil, solvents,
grease; safe use of lifting equipment and handling techniques eg tested and
calibrated lifting equipment, manual handling regulations; safe working practices
eg motorsport specific applications of regulations and legislation (Health and
Safety at Work Act 1974, Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
Regulations 2002, Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998;
safe disposal of waste materials and components eg cleaning cloths, hydraulic
fluids, contaminated fuel, scrap components (tyres, brake and clutch linings)
Personal protective equipment (PPE): overalls, safety-shoes, gloves, specialist
motorsports equipment eg fire protection, hearing and eye protection,
communications equipment

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Pre-competition inspection: scrutineering; security of fastenings using a torque

wrench eg nuts, bolts, critical securing devices; fuelling vehicle eg correct
capacity, type of fuel; tyres eg suitability, condition, pressures; lubrication and
coolant system levels and pressures eg warm up, operating temperature; testing
throttle settings and operation eg idle, full throttle; hydraulic fluid system levels,
check for leaks and operation eg for clutch, steering, brakes; vehicle brake
balance settings; setting suspension dampers to suit event; transmission system
operation eg function of clutch and gearbox through all gears; electrical system
operation; running gear eg spherical bearings, wheel bearings; reporting of faults
eg loss of fluid, abnormal pressure, excessive wear
Pre-competition set-up: event analysis eg data from previous event, analysed set-
up of car, gearing and suspension, ride height set-up sheets; corner weightings;
steering geometry; gearing
Inspections during an event: scheduling of inspections; types of inspections
eg routine service, check lists, spanner checks, suspension checks
Post-competition inspection: initial post-competition assessment, parts
requisitions, set-down sheet, planning and scheduling of vehicle preparation for
next event
Post-competition vehicle rectification: type of rectification eg repair, adjustment,
replacement; estimation of repair costs; invoicing for accidental damage

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify, record and collate vehicle, M1 compare the specifications required D1 analyse and compare the differences in the
competitor and event documentation between two different classes of tools and equipment used in a motorsports
for a motorsport event motorsport events workshop against those used at a
competitive event
P2 select and use tools and equipment to M2 carry out a survey of a service/pit
prepare a competition vehicle to a given area and identify strengths and D2 evaluate your own and your team’s
specification threats to the health and safety of performance after a motorsports event and
self and others recommend an improvement strategy.
P3 describe the health and safety
procedures to be followed when M3 produce a ‘set-down’ schedule and
inspecting a motorsports vehicle check list for post inspection and
rectification.
P4 select and use personal protective
equipment
P5 carry out pre-competition vehicle
inspection and set-up
P6 carry out vehicle inspections during a
motorsports event
P7 carry out a post–competition inspection
following a motorsports event
P8 identify and record vehicle rectification
work required.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit will need to focus on learners’ understanding of the varied event
structures and their documentation processes. The importance of meticulous
preparation will need to be emphasised, along with interpreting relevant regulations
and standards.
The ultimate focus of the unit will be a real motorsports event where all the
knowledge and skills learned will be put to use. This may be through learners’ own
participation in an event, through working with an established motorsports team or
through the centre’s own motorsports activities.
Attendance at a number of different events (initially just to observe and eventually
in an active role) is highly recommended. Supervised workshop sessions and practise
of routines is vital in ensuring that learners gain the required skills and knowledge of
procedures. In particular, learners need to adhere to relevant health and safety
requirements and demonstrate that they can competently apply their skills in a real
motorsports situation.
Centres will need to ensure that learners have experience (through controlled
simulation, if necessary) of all aspects of the unit content. Careful consideration will
need to be given as to how to best cover post-event evaluations and critical
evaluation of whole events.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of the unit should predominantly focus on learners demonstrating their

skills and knowledge during motorsports events. It is expected that each learner will
prepare their own portfolio of evidence to cover all the assessment criteria through
participation in real motorsport activities. Centres will need to consider how this can
be supported and managed on an individual-by-individual basis. Some simulation may
be appropriate for assessment purposes, although this should be kept to an absolute
minimum wherever possible.
The three learning outcomes cover documentation, pre-motorsport activity vehicle
preparation and pre/during/post event inspection. Assessment is likely to follow this
order although this is not essential. It should be noted that learning outcomes 1 and 2
only have one related pass criterion each, with the bulk of assessment relating to
learning outcome 3, with six pass criteria.
For learning outcome 1, learners must be able to identify, record and collate vehicle,
competitor and event documentation for a motorsport event (P1). It is important that
this criterion is not fragmented and that the assessment activity that is used allows
learners to collect all the required documentation at one event. The actual
documentation will very much depend upon the nature/type of event used, but

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centres must ensure that the chosen event provides sufficient coverage of the unit
content for the assessment to be valid and reliable.
Learning outcome 2 requires learners to select and use tools and equipment to
prepare a competition vehicle to a given specification (P2). This is one of the criteria
that could be simulated. However, whether simulation is used or the vehicle is
actually being prepared for an event, learners must be able to demonstrate their
ability to select appropriate general tools, specialist tools and equipment and use
them safely following a given specification. Evidence for this criterion is likely to be
in several forms. Firstly, a tutor observation record of the learner’s selection and use
of tools and equipment, plus a logbook record (maintained by the learner) of the
work carried out together with any data/information gathered. Finally, it is likely
that the tutor will carry out an observation/inspection of the success of the vehicle’s
preparation against the specification together with the use of oral questioning of the
learner.
Merit criterion M1 can be effectively linked to P2. One of the specifications used for
the comparison is likely to be that used for the vehicle preparation undertaken for
P2. A second, and quite different specification should be used to add depth and
breadth to the learner’s assessment evidence.
All the remaining pass criteria relate to learning outcome 3. The pass criteria P3 and
P4 could be simulated in the centre’s own workshops but it is expected that P5, P6,
P7 and P8 will be undertaken and assessed under actual motorsport activity
conditions.
To achieve P3 learners must describe the health and safety procedures to be
followed when inspecting a motorsports vehicle. This must include safe use and
handling of lubricants/fluids, safe use of lifting equipment and handling techniques,
safe working practices and safe disposal of waste materials and components.
Examples of each of these are given in the unit content but it is the actual task(s)
undertaken that will determine which of these examples is most appropriate. It is for
the centre to determine sufficiency of evidence but clearly, the task(s) used will
need to be chosen carefully to include opportunities to meet all the requirements of
the unit content. Since this is a descriptive criterion, a paper-based response could
be used, although it might be more appropriate for evidence to be gathered through
oral questioning of learners as they carry out relevant tasks.
M2 is related to P3 and provides an opportunity for learners to demonstrate and apply
the knowledge. The evidence for M2 could be a written report of the learner’s
findings or feedback from their survey in the form of a briefing. The tutor will need
to ensure that there are a number of typical health and safety issues (specifically
created for the purpose of assessment if necessary) for learners to report back on
under the heading ‘threats’.
For P4, learners should be observed selecting and using the range of equipment listed
in the unit content. With respect to the specialist equipment, it would not be
unreasonable to expect all the examples to be used but as a minimum learners should
select and use at least two under the appropriate conditions.
It is expected that P5, P6, P7 and P8 will be assessed during an actual motorsport
activity. Ideally, the criteria should not be fragmented and should all be covered at
one event. Once again, the assessment evidence for all of these criteria will be a mix

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of tutor observation and logbook records and data collection. It is essential for the
achievement of P8 that the motorsport vehicle requires rectification. For this reason,
it may be that this criterion can not be assessed at the same event as the others.
Although it is likely that some rectification will be required following an event, the
question for the tutor will be one of sufficiency for the learner’s achievement of P8.
M3 could be linked to the work of P7 and P8. The ‘set down’ schedule must cover the
post competition inspection and rectification and is expected to include timetables,
check lists, job cards, parts requisitions and invoicing/costing information.
It is likely that the evidence for D1 and D2 will come from the overview that the
learner has gained during their work towards P5, P6, P7 and P8. Although D1 could be
covered at the same event as that used at pass, it is more likely that a completely
different event is used when learners are less involved and can stand back and take a
broader view of the event. It is intended that the evidence for D1 will come from an
analytical exercise that allows learners to compare motorsport workshop equipment
to the types of tools and equipment used in the field during an event. Typically, this
would include lists of the types of tools and equipment used and the related costs,
safety and security considerations. It should also include an evaluation of which tools
can double up for both purposes and the reasons behind the choices.
Finally, for D2, learners should carry out a full evaluation of their team’s
performance following an event. The evaluation might include the learner’s
reflection on the team’s preparation, inventories, scheduling, loading lists,
movements and individual personal performance. The evaluation must include a
strategy for how the team can do things better and this is likely to touch on cost
efficiencies that can be made.

Links to National Occupational Standards (NOS), other BTEC units, other BTEC
qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit contributes towards the knowledge and understanding needed for the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Automotive Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 59: Carrying out Motorsports Vehicle Inspections During a Competition
• Unit 67: Carrying out Fault Diagnosis and Rectification Activities on Motorsports
Vehicles During a Competition.
It also supports the following unit from the Automotive Skills Level 3 National
Occupational Standards in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair:
• Unit MR06: Inspect Vehicles.

Essential resources

Learners will have to provided with access to actual motorsport activities and events.
In addition, centres will need to provide a realistic motorsport vehicle preparation
and inspection area, including relevant tools and equipment. Relevant health and
safety documentation and regulations relating to motorsport activities will also need
to be available.

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Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology

(Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748780823
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
ISBN 0750680377

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• preparing for vehicle C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
inspections, eg reading least two documents about the same
specifications, regulations subject.
and health and safety Each document must be a minimum of
guidance 1000 words long.
• writing vehicle inspection C3.3 Write two different types of documents
reports and collating relevant each one giving different information
evidence of vehicle/driver about complex subjects.
records.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.
Information and communication technology Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• researching information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
vehicle documentation, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
health and safety and least one case.
relevant regulations ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• preparing and presenting derive new information.
assessment evidence ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
including inspection report text with image, text with number,
write-ups. image with number.

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 Unit 59: Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports

Unit 59: Professional Practice and

Logistics for Motorsports
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate to
the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit has been designed to help learners prepare for a full-time career in
motorsports. Learners will investigate the organisations, administrative procedures
and professional bodies associated with motorsport activities. They will also look at
media communication methods, motorsport logistics and transportation and financial
management.
The unit examines the appropriate behaviour expected of high-profile drivers,
including their responsibilities to the media, fans, sponsors, officials, team members,
agents and managers. Learners will examine ways of dealing with the media, both in
terms of using the media to their advantage and minimising media intrusion. Learners
will also develop the skills needed to carry out an effective media interview.
Learners will also look at the logistics and transportation associated with motorsport
competitions both at national and international level. Some motorsport disciplines
demand that participants are involved in travelling considerable distances. This can
range simply from an individual driving to (and from) an event with a single vehicle,
to being a member of a large, multi-vehicle team. The unit will also look at transport
movement schedules, route planning, costing and motorsport team logistics.
The financial responsibilities of a motorsports team will also be looked at, as will the
potential sources of finance available through sponsorship for a full-time driver/team.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the organisation, administrative structure and associated professional
bodies of motorsport activities
2 Be able to communicate with the media to provide information about a motorsport
activity
3 Understand the logistics associated with motorsport vehicle transportation
4 Be able to plan the sponsorship and financial management of a motorsport team.

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Unit content

1 Understand the organisation, administrative structure and associated

professional bodies of motorsport activities

Organisation: types of organisation eg local motor club, regional associations,

national associations, international associations; level of competition eg local,
regional, national, international championships; forms of motorsport activity
eg motocross, rallying, formula 1 (F1), saloon racing, formula ford
Administrative structure: organisation eg structured administration charts,
officials and their responsibilities, related rules, regulations; schedules/frequency
of events; marketing methods
Professional bodies: eg Motor Sports Association (MSA), Federation International
de l’Automobile (FIA), Auto Cycle Union (ACU), National Association for Stock Car
Auto Racing (NASCAR)

2 Be able to communicate with the media to provide information about a

motorsport activity

Media: eg television, radio, internet, press (local, national, specialist magazines)

Media interview: planning eg purpose/aims/objectives, data research (available
resources, information gathering, use of information and communication
technology), content/message to be conveyed; preparation eg scripts/prompt
sheets, rehearsals, evaluation (strengths/weaknesses, use of feedback — peer and
tutor, video analysis, modifications to improve and/or change performance);
delivery eg speech (technical vocabulary, pace, tone, clarity) communication
style, body language, presentation methods, appearance, timing

3 Understand the logistics associated with motorsport vehicle transportation

Transport vehicles: purpose eg number/size, weight and types of vehicles to be

transported, spares, equipment, people/accommodation (cooking, eating,
sleeping), workshop facilities; types eg tow vehicle and trailer, adapted and
purpose-built light goods vehicle (LGV), passenger service vehicle (PSV); vehicle
construction eg materials, steel, aluminium, wood, glass-fibre, carbon fibre,
sheeting; wheels and tyres; chassis eg maximum weights (nose, axle, train,
towing); characteristics eg types of hitch, braking systems, loading methods,
positioning, centre of gravity, load security and limiting factors, bulk loads and
relative densities
Legislation: weight, dimensions (length, width, height), speed; security of load;
driving eg licence requirements, driving hours, insurance; lighting and markers;
health and safety eg weight distribution, risk assessments (responsibilities, safe
lifting, manual handling aids)

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Transport schedule and route planning: human and physical resource requirements
eg accommodation, equipment, vehicles, staffing; schedules eg schedules
(depart/arrival time, work loading), loading sheets, tool list and inventories,
ancillary equipment sheet, spares and consumable requirements; route plan eg use
of route planning software, alternative routes plans, costs eg fuel, wages, tolls

4 Be able to plan the sponsorship and financial management of a motorsport

team

Sources of income: prize money, loans, endorsed clothing/ equipment, advertising

eg vehicles, clothing, equipment; sponsorship eg use, purpose, advantages and
limitations; types of sponsorship eg clothing and equipment, individual and
corporate sponsorship
Business planning: team structure, income and expenditure eg capital
expenditure, wages, fees; financial management eg investments, royalties, tax,
expenses, insurance; use of experienced personnel to manage finances
eg accountant, financial advisor

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the organisation, M1 compare two different motorsport D1 evaluate the influence of a professional
administrative structure and associated professional governing bodies governing body for a motorsport activity
professional bodies of two different and their effect on professional drivers
M2 compare the legislation relating to
forms of motorsport activity and teams
driver’s hours and the respective codes of
P2 plan, prepare and deliver a media practice relating to vehicle construction D2 critically evaluate the effectiveness of a
interview for two given motorsport activities media interview, providing
recommendations for change and/or
P3 select appropriate transport vehicles for M3 evaluate a transport schedule and route
amendments.
two different types of motorsport plan for a specific motorsport activity and
activity identify and justify possible areas where
improvements could be made.
P4 identify and interpret the legislation
relating to a specific transport vehicle
and driver
P5 produce a transport schedule and route
plan for a specific motorsport activity
P6 describe the sources of income that are
available for a professional motorsport
team

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 prepare and present a sponsorship
proposal for a motorsport activity
P8 prepare a business plan to operate a
professional motorsport team for a
twelve month season.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A wide range of delivery methods can be used for this unit including individual
research, group research/discussion, case studies and role play.
The learning outcomes are generally related but are not linked in such a way as to
require a specific order of delivery. As such, each learning outcome could be
delivered without specific reference to the others. The only possible exception to
this could be the possible link between transportation costs covered in learning
outcome 3 and the business planning in learning outcome 4.
Learning outcome 1 requires learners to investigate and understand the organisation,
administration and professional bodies associated with motorsports. This might be
best covered through research and group discussion. One approach might be for
tutors to select a local motorsport event to evaluate and discuss with learners. A visit
and a talk could be organised, and learners could prepare for the visit by carrying out
research and writing a series of questions to be put to the speaker/organisers of the
event.
For learning outcome 2 learners will need to be prepared for media contact. This will
include an appreciation of what constitutes appropriate behaviour for high-profile
racing drivers and the expectations of a range of people including fans, media, team-
mates and sponsors. Learners should be shown examples of effective media
interviews from TV, radio and the press and have the opportunity to role-play a
variety of media situations.
Delivery of learning outcome 3 should encourage learners to investigate as wide a
range of motorsport transportation as possible, including different types of transport
vehicles, their construction and use. Learners should examine both the benefits and
drawbacks of schedules and route planning and the associated legislation and
responsibilities. This could be covered by a combination of taught material, group
discussions and individual research.
Finally, delivery of learning outcome 4 should enable learners to understand the
range of sources of income available for professional motorsport teams and drivers.
This should cover the relative importance of different sources of income and how
best to manage the funds through effective business planning. Tutors could arrange
for a financial manager with experience of motorsports activities to give a guest
lecture.

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Assessment

Because there are no direct links between the learning outcomes the order in which
they are assessed is unimportant. The unit does not necessarily require learners to
have access to motorsport events for assessment and most of the evidence produced
for assessment will probably be paper-based in one form or another (eg reports,
plans, schedules, etc). Exceptions to this might be the use of tutor observation for
the presentations for P2 (media interview) and P7 (sponsorship proposal). However
such observation should be suitably recorded and supported by additional written
evidence prepared by the learner (eg the interview plan and preparation, the data
collected for the proposal).
Learning outcome 1 has only one associated pass criterion (P1), for which learners
need an understanding of the organisation, administrative structure and professional
bodies associated with motorsport activities. This could be assessed through an
activity in which learners are required to research two motorsport activities, which
they could choose or which could be set by the tutor. The main issue for tutors will
be to ensure that a sufficient range of motorsport activities is covered by any one
group of learners to ensure authenticity of the evidence presented for assessment.
Evidence is likely to be collated and presented as a portfolio. Learners should also be
encouraged to work towards the related merit and distinction criteria (M1 and D1),
which could form a natural extension to the work required for P1.
Learning outcome 2 also only has one related pass criterion (P2) and learners need to
show that they can communicate with the media to provide information about a
motorsport activity. There is sufficient scope within this learning outcome to ensure
that each learner is preparing a different interview (eg TV, radio, internet, press)
and as such, authenticity of evidence should be less of an issue. However, it is
important that each learner provides evidence of their planning and preparation for
the interview as well as its actual delivery. The interview could be carried out by the
tutor or one of the learner’s peers. In addition to paper-based evidence of planning
and preparation, tutor observation records of the final interview will also be required
(eg the learner’s use of appropriate technical vocabulary, the pace, tone and clarity
of speech, communication style, body language, presentation methods, appearance
and timing).
A further task could be added to the assessment activity used for P2, giving learners
an opportunity to work towards D2. The interview evaluated could simply be one
delivered by one of their peers for P2. However, it is recommended that learners
evaluate the results of an interview carried out by a well known motorsports
driver/personality (eg a pre-recorded interview or an article from a newspaper or
magazine). This would give tutors more control over the potential for critical
evaluation and would avoid any issues that might arise from peer-on-peer evaluation.
Learning outcome 3 is covered by P3, P4 and P5 and it is recommended that a single
assignment be designed to cover all three criteria. Learners could choose one of the
two different types of motorsport activities considered for P3 and use it for P4 and
P5. However, tutors should check that learners’ choice of motorsport activity
provides sufficient scope to cover the requirements of the unit content for these
criteria. The assessment instrument used should also provide learners with an
opportunity to work towards M2 and M3, which build on P4 and P5 respectively.

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The remaining pass criteria cover learning outcome 4, which deals with financial
management and sponsorship. For P6, learners need to describe the sources of
income that are available for a professional motorsport team. It is expected that
evidence for this criterion would be drawn from a real example of a professional
motorsport team and should cover the key aspects of the unit content relevant to
that team (eg what prize money is available, is it typical for the team to use loans,
what about endorsed clothing/equipment and what opportunities are there for
sponsorship?).
P7 requires learners to prepare and present a sponsorship proposal for a motorsport
activity. The scenario for this is likely to be set using a relevant case-study that
includes sufficient background information for learners to build a case for a sponsor
to consider backing their team. The proposal should make clear how the team is
prepared to promote the sponsor (eg clothing, equipment, vehicles). The
presentation could be either a short oral presentation using visual aids or a written
proposal. Where an oral presentation is used, tutors should ensure that learners are
assessed on the content of their presentation and not the quality of the presentation
methods (eg how good specific images look, whether PowerPoint has been used or
just hand written overhead transparencies/flip chart notes).
Finally, P8 requires learners to prepare a business plan to operate a profession
motorsport team for a twelve-month season. This could be an extension of the
scenario used for P7. The business plan should include information on team structure,
income and expenditure, financial management and the use of experienced
personnel to manage finances (examples of each of these are give in the content
section of the unit).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 27: Motorsport Workshop Practices and Unit 28:
Motorsport Vehicle Preparation and Inspection.

Essential resources

There are no specific resource requirements for this unit although learners will need
internet access to aid their research on organisations, motorsport professional
bodies, legislation and sponsorship opportunities.

Indicative reading for learners

Hillier V and Coombes P — Hillier’s Fundamentals of Motor Vehicle Technology

(Nelson Thornes, 2004) ISBN 0748780823
Nunney M J — Light and Heavy Vehicle Technology (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2006)
ISBN 0750680377

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• preparing and presenting a N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
sponsorship proposal for a information from relevant sources.
motorsport activity N3.2 Use this information to carry out
• preparing a business plan to multi-stage calculations to do with:
operate a professional a amounts or sizes
motorsport team for a twelve
b scales or proportion
month season.
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your
calculations, present your findings
and justify your methods.
Communication Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• delivering a media interview C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
or presenting information on eight minutes using an image or other
their sponsorship proposal support material.
• reading information on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
organisations and legislation at least two documents about the
relevant to motorsport same subject.
activities Each document must be at least 1000
words long
• writing reports, proposals and
a business plan. C3.3 Write two different types of
documents each one giving different
information about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long

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Unit 59: Professional Practice and Logistics for Motorsports

Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using
motorsport organisations and different sources, and multiple search
relevant legislation and data criteria in at least one case.
• preparing and presenting ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information
information about motorsport and derive new information.
organisations, relevant ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
legislation. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

674 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology

Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical

Systems and Technology
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Mechanical engineering is a term that covers a wide range of activities. Mechanical
systems are found in land, sea and air transport, power generation, manufacturing
plant and domestic products. The design, manufacture and maintenance of such
systems is the concern of engineers and technicians who must be able to apply a
blend of practical and theoretical knowledge to ensure that these systems work
safely and efficiently.
Moving parts usually require some form of lubrication and learning outcome 1
examines lubricant types and lubrication systems. Pressurised systems often require
seals and gaskets to contain the lubricants and other working fluids. Rotating parts
require bearings and mechanical systems incorporate fixing devices to hold the
various components in position. A range of seals, bearings and fastenings are
examined in learning outcome 2.
A prime purpose of mechanical systems is to transmit motion and power. There are
many ways in which this can be achieved and learning outcome 3 examines a range of
power transmission systems and components. In the learning outcome 4 learners are
introduced to a range of plant equipment and systems. This includes an overview of
hydraulic and pneumatic systems, steam plant, refrigeration and air conditioning
plant and mechanical handling equipment.
The general aim of this unit is to broaden and extend learners’ practical knowledge
of mechanical engineering systems and provide a foundation for continuing work in
related units.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the purposes and uses of lubricants and lubrication systems
2 Know about the uses and applications of a range of engineering components
3 Know about the uses and operation of mechanical power transmission systems
4 Know about the uses and operation of plant equipment and systems.

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Unit content

1 Know about the purposes and uses of lubricants and lubrication systems

Lubricant purposes and types: purpose eg reduction of frictional resistance,

reduction of wear, heat dissipation, prevention of corrosion, prevention of
contamination; types eg mineral, vegetable and synthetic oils and greases,
graphite, compressed gases, cutting fluids
Lubrication systems and maintenance: operation of lubrication systems eg gravity
feed, forced feed, splash lubrication, capillary action, grease cups and nipples,
grease packing, compressed air/gas bearings; maintenance eg replenishment and
renewal of lubricants, safe storage and handling
Applications: eg automobile engine, automobile transmission, machine tool,
pump, compressor

2 Know about the uses and applications of a range of engineering components

Seals, packing and bearings: seals eg rotary lip seals, mechanical seals, piston
rings; packing eg packed glands, gaskets, shims; bearings eg plain journal, thrust,
ball, roller (such as parallel or tapered), needle
Fastenings: screwed fastenings eg metric bolts, studs and set screws, self-tapping
screws, locking devices; rivets eg snap head, pan head and countersunk heads,
bifurcated and pop rivets
Applications: eg automobile engine, automobile transmission, other automotive
sub-system, machine tool, pump, compressor, other mechanical system involving
rotation and fluid containment, component assembly, maintenance and
replacement

3 Know about the uses and operation of mechanical power transmission systems

Cams and linkage mechanisms: cams and followers eg radial plate cams,
cylindrical cams, face cams, knife-edge followers, flat plate followers, roller
followers; linkage mechanisms eg slider-crank and inversions, four-bar linkage and
inversions, slotted link quick return motion, Whitworth quick return motion
Belt, chain and gear drives: belt drives eg flat, V-section, synchronous, tensioning
device; chain drives eg roller (such as single, duplex, triplex), morse rocker-joint,
tensioning devices; gear trains eg gear types (such as spur, helical, herring bone,
bevel, spiral bevel, hypoid), simple, compound, worm, combinations, epicyclic
Transmission shafts, clutches and brakes: transmission shafts and couplings eg
sections (such as solid, hollow), flanged couplings, splined couplings, angle
couplings (such as Hooke universal, constant velocity); clutches eg dog, flat plate,
conical, centrifugal, fluid couplings; brakes eg friction (such as internal
expanding, external contracting), disc, dynamometers (such as friction, fluid,
electromagnetic)

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4 Know about the uses and operation of plant equipment and systems

Actuation and handling systems: pneumatic and hydraulic actuation systems eg

system layout for automated plant and process operations, system components;
safety and maintenance; mechanical handling systems eg belt conveyers, roller
conveyers, workshop gantry cranes, workstation jib cranes
Steam, refrigeration and air conditioning plant service systems: steam power
generation plant eg system layout for power generation and process operations,
system components, feed water treatment, safety and maintenance; refrigeration
systems eg system layout for vapour compression and absorption systems,
refrigerants, system components, safety and maintenance; air conditioning
systems eg system layout for full summer and winter cycle air conditioning,
system components, safety and maintenance

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Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the purpose and application of M1 compare and contrast the operation and D1 justify the use of a particular lubricant
three different types of lubricant uses of flat plate clutches, centrifugal and lubrication system in a given
clutches and fluid couplings in engineering application
P2 describe the operation and maintenance
mechanical power transmission systems
of three different lubrication systems D2 justify the choice of engineering
M2 compare and contrast the operation and components in a given engineering
P3 describe the operation of one seal, one
use of pneumatic and hydraulic actuation application.
type of packing and two different types
systems.
of bearing with a typical application for
each one
P4 describe two different types of screwed
fastening and two different types of rivet
giving a typical application for each one
P5 describe the operation of two different
types of cam and follower and two
different types of linkage mechanism

678 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the arrangement and operation
of two different kinds of belt drive, two
different kinds of chain drive and two
different kinds of gear train
P7 describe the arrangement and operation
of two different kinds of transmission
shaft and coupling, two different kinds
of clutch and two different kinds of
brake
P8 describe with the aid of diagrams the
general layout and operation of a
pneumatic actuation system, a hydraulic
actuation system and a mechanical
handling system
P9 describe with the aid of diagrams the
general layout and operation of a steam
power generation plant, a refrigeration
system and an air conditioning system.

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Unit 60: Applications of Mechanical Systems and Technology

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The learning outcomes of this unit can be delivered in any order, although it may be
best to leave learning outcome 4 until last. When delivering learning outcome 1 it
would be appropriate to start with an overview of the reasons for lubrication in
mechanical systems. Some time can then be spent on lubricant types, their origins,
additives, uses and classification. When explaining the function and maintenance of
lubricating systems it will be useful to present items of equipment and view their
applications in motor vehicles or workshop machinery if available. Much useful trade
literature is available from the major oil companies and equipment suppliers.
A similar approach can be adopted when delivering learning outcome 2. Initial
overviews of the purpose and uses of seals, packing, bearings and fastenings can be
followed by an examination of exemplar items. Time can then be spent in explaining
their specific function and applications. If facilities are available, practical assembly
and replacement exercises can enhance understanding of component use.
The content of learning outcome 3 is quite wide ranging and the order of delivery is a
matter of personal preference. Coverage of cam types, followers and input and
output motions should be qualitative. It is not necessary to enter into cam profile
design procedures as these are time consuming and may be covered in other units.
The emphasis should be on the identification of the different types and their typical
applications. The same applies to the delivery of linkage mechanisms which are
covered in detail in Unit 11: Further Mechanical Principles and Applications.
The range of transmission shafts, shaft couplings, clutches, brakes, belt, chain and
gear drives is quite extensive but, wherever possible, explanation of their functions
and applications should be accompanied by the presentation of exemplar items of
equipment. Descriptive printed material will be of value in the delivery of this
outcome, reinforced by the viewing of typical applications in motor vehicles,
workshop equipment and video footage where possible.
When delivering the pneumatic and hydraulic system content for learning outcome 4
the emphasis should be on system layout, major system components and the
comparison of operation and usage. It is not necessary to enter into the detailed
description of components such as valve types and their symbolic representation.
Similarly, with mechanical handling systems and steam, refrigeration and air
conditioning plant the emphasis should be on function and layout. An industrial visit
will be of value to reinforce delivery of this outcome.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

Criteria P1, P2 and D1 could be achieved through an individual assignment. This

should contain tasks to explain the purpose and application of three different types
of lubricant (P1) and the operation and maintenance of three different lubrication
systems (P2). To achieve D1, learners should be able to fully justify the use of a
particular lubricant and lubrication system in a given engineering application. This
might be the lubrication system of a vehicle engine or transmission, a machine tool,
pump or compressor. Alternatively, a mechanical system required to operate in a
hostile service environment such as extremes of temperature may be considered.
A second assignment could be used to assess P3, P4 and D2. This would require
learners to describe the operation and application of one type of seal, one type of
packing and two different types of bearing (P3). Another task would need to cover
two different types of screwed fastener and two different types of rivet (P4). The
applications should be general, rather than product specific, to demonstrate an
understanding of purpose. Diagrams and sketches could be used to complement the
descriptions. To achieve D2 learners should be able to fully justify the choice of
bearings, seals, packing and fastenings in a given engineering system. This again
might be a sub-system of a vehicle, a machine tool or any mechanical system where
rotation and the containment of fluid is involved.
Criteria P5 and P6, which relate to learning outcome 3 on mechanical power
transmission systems, could be achieved through a third assignment. This should
require learners to describe methods of transmitting/converting motion from one
form to another by means of two different types of cam and follower and two
different linkage mechanisms. It will also need to include two different kinds of belt
drive, two different kinds of chain drive and two different kinds of gear train. As with
the previous assessment, learners should be encouraged to illustrate the descriptions
with diagrams and freehand sketches.
Criteria P7 and M1 relate to learning outcome 3 and could be achieved through a
fourth assignment. This should contain tasks requiring learners to describe the
arrangement and operation of two different kinds of transmission shaft coupling, two
different kinds of clutch and two different kinds of brake (P7). To achieve M1,
learners should compare and contrast the operation of manually operated and
automatic friction clutches and fluid couplings. The comparisons should be of a
general nature, although they may be accompanied by typical applications to
illustrate usage.
A final time-constrained assignment could be used to assess P8, P9 and M2. This
should contain tasks requiring learners to describe, with the aid of diagrams, the
general layout and operation of pneumatic and hydraulic actuation systems (P8), a
steam generation plant, a refrigeration system and an air conditioning system (P9).
Learners will also need to provide a reasoned comparison of the operation and use of
pneumatic and hydraulic actuation systems to achieve merit criterion M4. As with the
previous assessment, the comparison should be general in nature but may be
accompanied by typical applications to illustrate usage.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has close links with Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and Applications, Unit 11:
Further Mechanical Principles and Applications and Unit 15: Electro, Pneumatic and
Hydraulic Systems and Devices.
The unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Mechanical Manufacture, Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance and Level 3 NVQ in
Engineering Technical Support.

Essential resources

Centres should have access to a range of engineering components, demonstration

equipment and engineering and motor vehicle workshops.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Darbyshire A — Mechanical Engineering BTEC National Option Units (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750657618
Neale M J — Lubrication and Reliability Handbook (Newnes, 2000) ISBN 0750651547
Smith E H — The Mechanical Engineer’s Reference Book (Butterworth-Heinemann,
1998) ISBN 0750642181

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing, with the aid of C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
diagrams, the general layout least two documents about the same
and operation of a pneumatic subject.
actuation system, a hydraulic One document must be at least 1000
actuation system and a words long.
mechanical handling system
• describing, with the aid of
diagrams, the general layout
and operation of a steam
power generation plant, a
refrigeration system and an
air conditioning system.

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684 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Unit 61: Principles and Applications of

Fluid Mechanics
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Hydraulic and pneumatic power is widely used in the operation of engineering
systems. The brakes on motor vehicles, railcar doors and hydraulic jacks and presses
are typical examples. Fluid power is also widely used on aircraft, particularly for
lowering and raising the undercarriage and for operating the control surfaces. Fluids
often need to be stored and transported in vessels able to withstand high internal
pressure. The design of sea defences and harbour installations also require a
knowledge of the forces that can be exerted by a fluid. Water, oil and gas need to be
transported by pipeline and each of these operations requires the design of suitable
systems and the solution of engineering problems.
This unit builds upon the basic principles covered in Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and
Applications and will introduce learners to a wider range of concepts and
applications of fluid mechanics. In learning outcome 1 learners will be introduced to
the properties of surface tension and viscosity. This is then followed by consideration
of fluids at rest and the problems associated with hydrostatic systems.
Learning outcome 3 is concerned with the flow of fluids, particularly in pipelines and
with the measurement of fluid flow. Learning outcome 4 introduces learners to the
basic concepts of model testing and aerodynamics that find use in the design and
testing of motor vehicles and aircraft.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the physical properties and characteristic behaviour of fluids
2 Be able to determine the forces acting in hydrostatic systems
3 Be able to determine the parameters of pipeline flow and impact of a fluid jet
4 Be able to determine the parameters of dynamic fluid systems.

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Unit content

1 Know about the physical properties and characteristic behaviour of fluids

Surface tension: surface tension coefficient; capillary action

Viscosity: viscous behaviour eg dynamic viscosity, kinematic viscosity, effect of
shearing in Newtonian fluids (water, lubricating oils) and non-Newtonian fluids
(pseudoplastic, Bingham plastic, Casson plastic, dilatent); bearings eg plain
journal, plain thrust; system parameters eg bearing dimensions, speed, viscosity
of lubricant, viscous resistance, power loss

2 Be able to determine the forces acting in hydrostatic systems

Hydraulic devices: devices eg hydraulic jack, hydraulic press, hydraulic braking

system; system parameters eg cylinder dimensions, input and output forces,
internal pressure, input and output motions
Immersed surfaces: surfaces eg retaining walls of tanks and reservoirs, lock and
sluice gates, immersed rectangular and circular inspection covers and hatches;
system parameters eg surface dimensions, depth of immersion, hydrostatic
pressure and thrust, position of centre of pressure

3 Be able to determine the parameters of pipeline flow and impact of a fluid jet

Pipeline flow: fluid principles eg equation of continuity of mass, equation of

continuity of volume for incompressible flow, Bernoulli’s equation, D’Arcy’s
equation; systems and devices eg pipes of varying section and level (such as an
inclined tapering pipe), differential pressure flow measuring devices (venturi
meter, orifice meter, Pitot-static tube)
Fluid jets: force exerted by a jet issuing from a stationary nozzle that impinges
normally on a stationary vane eg flat plate, hemispherical cup; reaction of jet
nozzle

4 Be able to determine the parameters of dynamic fluid systems

Model testing: wind-tunnel testing eg laminar and turbulent flow, flow around
bluff bodies, dynamic pressure, theoretical and measured drag force, drag
coefficient, application of Reynold’s number, operation and use of the Pitot-
static tube; test data eg measured drag force, model dimensions, air density,
Pitot-static tube reading, density of manometer fluid
Aerodynamic systems: aerofoil applications eg aircraft lift surfaces, helicopter
rotor blades, formula 1 racing cars; system parameters eg span, chord, angle of
attack, plan area of lift surfaces, pressure distribution, stalled condition, lift
force, drag force, lift and drag coefficients, airspeed, propeller efficiency, engine
power requirements for an aircraft in level flight

686 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 determine the surface tension M1 calculate the viscous resistance and D1 compare and explain the behaviour of
coefficient for a given liquid on glass power loss in a lubricated plain thrust the range of non-Newtonian fluids when
from its rise in a capillary tube bearing from given data they are subjected to shearing forces
P2 calculate the viscous resistance and M2 determine whether the difference in D2 compare and evaluate the uses of the
power loss in a lubricated plain journal levels between reservoirs connected by a venturi meter, orifice meter and Pitot-
bearing from given system parameters pipe of given length and diameter is static tube for the measurement of fluid
sufficient to supply a given flow rate flow.
P3 determine the output force and motion
of a hydraulic device from given system M3 determine the value of Reynold’s
parameters number at which a particular flow
pattern occurs around a model structure
P4 determine the thrust on an immersed
from given test data and the flow
vertical retaining surface whose top edge
velocity at which the same pattern is
is below the free surface of the retained
likely to occur around the actual
liquid and the position of its centre of
structure
pressure
M4 explain the change in the flow pattern,
P5 determine the flow velocities at the inlet
pressure distribution and the lift and
and exit sections of an inclined tapering
drag coefficients for an aerofoil as its
pipe from differential pressure readings,
angle of attack is increased.
and the volume and mass flow rates

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Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 determine the resultant thrust when a
jet of fluid impinges normally on a
stationary vane and the reaction of the
jet nozzle
P7 determine the dynamic pressure exerted
on a wind-tunnel model and its drag
coefficient from given test data
P8 determine the lift and drag forces
experienced and the engine power
required for an aircraft travelling in level
flight from given data.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of learning outcome 1 might start with a general description of compressible

and incompressible fluid properties. The phenomena of surface tension and
calculation of capillary effects can then be explained in detail and reinforced by a
practical investigation, if time and facilities permit.
The definition of dynamic and kinematic viscosity and its measurement in SI units
(International System of units) might be accompanied by mention of other measuring
systems eg SAE classification for lubricating oils and systems specific to particular
items of apparatus, such as the Redwood viscometer.
The identification of common Newtonian fluids and their behaviour should lead to the
calculation of viscous resistance and power dissipation in machine slides and plain
bearings. The range of non-Newtonian fluids, their behaviour and rheograms should
be treated qualitatively with typical examples of each type.
Delivery of learning outcome 2 might start with a review of the work done in Unit 6:
Mechanical Principles and Applications, where the concept of second moment of area
may have been encountered for beam analysis. It may also have been used as an
application of integral calculus in Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians. Failing this,
its expressions will need to be derived for a rectangle and a circle about a plain axis
through the centroid and about a parallel axis, making use of the parallel axis
theorem. An expression for the depth of the centre of pressure of an immersed plane
surface can then be derived.
Associated problems should include determination of the thrust and its line of action
for immersed rectangular and circular retaining surfaces. These might be inspection
covers, sluice gates etc which are immersed at some distance below the free surface
of the retained liquid, requiring calculation of the load on their fixings.
After revision of the equations of continuity of flow covered in Unit 6: Mechanical
Principles and Applications, delivery of learning outcome 3 can start with
consideration of the energy forms that may be present in a fluid. Learners will be
familiar with the expressions for gravitational potential energy and kinetic energy,
but the concept of pressure-flow energy may need to be explained and developed.
There are different approaches to the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation but it may
be beneficial to begin by developing the full steady flow energy equation. This will
be particularly useful to learners intending to take Unit 14: Principles and
Applications of Thermodynamics. Bernoulli’s equation may be derived directly from
this and applied to the solution of problems on pipeline flow and differential pressure
flow measuring devices.
Problems on pipeline flow should include the consideration of head loss due to pipe
friction. This will warrant a discussion of laminar and turbulent flow, fluid viscosity
and the associated boundary layer effects. D’Arcy’s formula should be introduced as
a means of estimating friction head loss and be applied to problems involving the
steady flow due to gravity between reservoirs at different levels.

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Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

A revision of Newton’s laws may be necessary before applying them to determine the
reaction of a jet nozzle and the thrust of an impacting fluid jet. The derived
expressions may be applied successively to problems involving the impact of a jet on
a stationary flat plate, hemispherical cup, and a pipe bend. If time and facilities
permit, practical investigations of differential pressure flow measurement, laminar
and turbulent flow and the impact of a jet would be of value to reinforce delivery of
this learning outcome.
The description of laminar and turbulent flow in the final learning outcome might be
reinforced with video footage showing the onset of turbulence and formation of flow
patterns in wind-tunnels and flow tanks. The effects of inertia and viscous resistance
could then be discussed, leading to the concept of Reynold’s number. Its value for
fully developed laminar flow in pipes should be identified and its use in flow tank and
wind-tunnel testing explained. Flow around a cylindrical body might also be
described, giving the values of Reynold’s number associated with changes of flow
pattern.
Delivery of the final learning outcome might continue with a description of the Pitot-
static tube and its operation in measuring flow velocities. This could be followed by
identification of the factors that contribute to the drag force on a bluff body in a
fluid stream. The relative effects of form drag and skin friction drag should be
discussed followed by derivation of the expressions for dynamic pressure and drag
coefficient. Problems to determine drag coefficient from wind-tunnel test data can
then be solved.
An explanation of aerofoil geometry should be confined to the basic profile and the
symbols commonly used for chord, span, projected plan area and angle of attack.
Pressure distribution and airflow diagrams for normal flight and stalled condition
should be presented and explained. Expressions may then be derived for the lift and
drag forces in terms of the dynamic pressure, projected plan area the lift and drag
coefficients. Typical values of lift and drag coefficient for increasing angle of attack
up to the stalled condition, might be presented graphically. Problem solving should
include calculation of the lift and drag forces on aircraft and the engine power
required in level flight.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be achieved through the use of four assignments.
The first assignment could cover criteria P1, P2, M1 and D1. A task to achieve P1
could require learners to develop and apply the expression used to determine surface
tension coefficient from the rise of liquid in a capillary tube.
A second task to achieve P2 might involve consideration of a plane journal bearing,
where learners are progressively required to determine the lubricated area and
shearing velocity to meet the viscous resistance and power loss requirements.
A third task to achieve M1 could require the application of integral calculus to
determine the above parameters for a plain thrust bearing.
A final task to achieve D1 could require learners to compare and explain the
behaviour of non-Newtonian fluids, supported by the appropriate rheograms.

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 Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

The second assignment could provide the opportunity to achieve pass criteria P3 and
P4 which are associated with learning outcome 2. A task to achieve P3 should involve
calculation of the output parameters of a hydraulic press, jack or braking system. A
further task to cover P4 would involve consideration of the thrust and its line of
action on an immersed rectangular or circular surface whose top edge is below the
free surface of a liquid.
Criteria P5, P6 and M2 could be assessed by separate tasks in a third assignment. The
task to achieve P5 should ask for the simultaneous solution of the continuity equation
and Bernoulli’s equation to determine flow velocities in an inclined and tapering
pipe. These can then be used to determine flow rate. The task to achieve P6 should
require calculation of the input and output velocities for a jet nozzle from a given
value of either the volume flow rate or supply head. The nozzle reaction and the
normal force exerted by the jet on a stationary vane can then be determined.
M2 could be covered by a task involving the calculation of likely head loss along a
pipe connecting two reservoirs using D’Arcy’s formula. The pipe friction coefficient
should be given and the estimated friction head loss compared to the potential head
difference between the reservoirs. A judgement can then be made as to whether the
required flow rate is feasible without the installation of a pump.
A final assignment could provide the opportunity to achieve criteria P7, P8, M3, M4
and D2. The task to achieve P7 should require calculation of dynamic pressure from
either a given flow velocity or Pitot-static tube reading. The theoretical drag force
and drag coefficient for a bluff body can then be calculated using given values of
projected area and measured drag force.
To achieve P8 learners will need to calculate lift and drag forces acting on an aircraft
from given values of lift and drag coefficient, airspeed and projected area of the lift
surfaces. The required engine power can then be determined, taking into account
propeller efficiency.
The test data required for a task to achieve M3 should include the control dimensions
of the test model and actual structure. The model could be of any bluff body such as
a cylinder or bridge pier around which a turbulent flow pattern is seen to occur at
some particular value of flow velocity. The dynamic viscosity and density of the fluid
should also be supplied.
A further task to achieve M4 should require learners to provide an evaluation of
aerofoil performance supported by appropriate diagrams. The final task to achieve
D2 should require learners to evaluate the uses of the ranged flow measuring devices,
making reference to typical applications, flow impedance, ease of installation, cost
and sensitivity.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit builds on the fluid mechanics covered in Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and
Applications. It has links with Unit 14: Principles and Applications of
Thermodynamics and lays the foundation for further study at BTEC Higher National
Certificate/Diploma level.
The unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Mechanical Manufacture, Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance and Level 3 NVQ in
Engineering Technical Support.

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Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Essential resources

Centres should be equipped with laboratory facilities containing the investigation and
demonstration equipment necessary for delivery of the unit content. In particular, a
metered hydraulics bench with attachments to investigate differential pressure flow
measurement, fully developed laminar flow in pipes and the impact of a jet would be
of value.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Darbyshire A — Mechanical Engineering BTEC National Option Units (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750657618
Douglas J, Gasiorek J and Swaffield J — Fluid Mechanics (Prentice Hall, 2005)
ISBN 0131292935
Douglas J and Mathews R — Solving Problems in Fluid Mechanics (Longman, 1996)
ISBN 0582239877
Hannah J and Hillier M J — Mechanical Engineering Science (Prentice Hall, 2000)
ISBN 0582326753

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 Unit 61: Principles and Applications of Fluid Mechanics

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the surface N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
tension coefficient for a information from relevant sources.
given liquid on glass from its N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
rise in a capillary tube. present your findings and justify your
methods.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the flow PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
velocities at the inlet and ways of tackling it.
exit sections of an inclined PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
tapering pipe from given solving the problem.
differential pressure
readings, and the volume and PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.
mass flow rates.

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694 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

Unit 62: Principles and Applications of

Thermodynamics
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
We are reliant on fossil and nuclear fuels for the majority of our energy needs and
this is likely to be the case for many years to come. It is also likely that resources will
become more scarce and that we shall have to use them more efficiently. In addition
to this, it is becoming apparent that the use of fossil fuels is contributing to global
warming, giving further cause for increased fuel efficiency.
Fossil and nuclear fuels provide heat energy which is in turn converted into useful
mechanical and electrical energy. Thermodynamics is the study of heat energy
production, its transfer and conversion into more useful forms.
The aim of this unit is to introduce learners to the basic concepts and principles of
work and heat transfer and their application. The basic laws concerned with the
expansion and compression of gases and associated heat and work transfer will be
introduced. These will then be then applied to quantify the heat and work transfer
that occurs in closed and open thermodynamic systems.
The combustion of fuels will be examined and methods of determining calorific value
explained. Learners will be introduced to the properties of steam as a working
substance and to the use of thermodynamic property tables. These will then be used
to determine heat and work transfer in steam-generating plant.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to apply thermodynamic principles to the expansion and compression of
gases
2 Be able to quantify energy transfer in thermodynamic systems
3 Know about combustion processes and the calorific value of fuels
4 Be able to quantify energy transfer in steam plant.

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Unit content

1 Be able to apply thermodynamic principles to the expansion and compression

of gases

Polytropic processes: process parameters and relationships eg absolute pressure,

absolute temperature, volume, universal gas constant, molecular weight,
characteristic gas constant, general gas equation (pV/T = Constant),
characteristic gas equation (pV = mRT), polytropic process equation
(pV n = Constant), value of ‘n’ for isobaric processes (n = 0), isothermal processes
(n = 1), adiabatic processes (n = γ)

2 Be able to quantify energy transfer in thermodynamic systems

Closed thermodynamic systems: work transfer eg general expression for a

polytropic process, isothermal work transfer; heat transfer eg specific heat
capacities at constant volume and constant pressure, application of first law of
thermodynamics, expression for change of internal energy, closed system energy
equation, relationship between system constants cv, cp, γ and R; systems eg
internal combustion engine cylinders, positive displacement compressors
Open thermodynamic systems: work transfer eg general expression for a
polytropic process, isothermal work transfer; heat transfer eg application of first
law of thermodynamics, expression for change of enthalpy, open system energy
equation; systems eg gas turbines, rotary compressors, coolers

3 Know about combustion processes and the calorific value of fuels

Combustion process: stoichiometric equations for complete combustion of fuel

elements eg hydrogen (2H2 + O2 = 2H2O), carbon (C + O2 = 2CO2), sulphur
(S + O2 = SO2), theoretical air requirements, products of combustion
Calorific value: determination of calorific value eg Schole’s bomb type
calorimeter to determine gross calorific value of solid fuels and fuel oil, Boys’ gas
type calorimeter to determine gross and net calorific value of gaseous fuels

4 Be able to quantify energy transfer in steam plant

Steam plant: heat and work transfer in major steam plant elements eg boiler,
superheater, turbine, condenser, thermal efficiency of elements; conditions eg
feed water temperature, steam temperatures and pressures, dryness fraction,
steam flow rate, fuel consumption rate, power output; use of thermodynamic
property tables to determine enthalpy values eg feed water, saturated water,
wet steam, dry saturated steam, superheated steam
Throttling process: use of simple throttling calorimeter to determination dryness
fraction of wet steam

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 Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 determine the mass of a gas and its final M1 determine the polytropic process index D1 evaluate and compare the work and heat
condition parameters after undergoing a ‘n’ from the initial and final condition transfer that occurs when a fixed mass of
given polytropic process parameters of a gas gas undergoes a given increase in volume
according to Boyle’s law and according
P2 determine the work and heat transfer M2 determine the specific heat capacities at
to Charles’ law from the same initial
during a thermodynamic process in a constant volume cv, and constant
conditions
closed system pressure cp, for a gas from given values
of the adiabatic index γ, the universal gas D2 prepare a complete analysis by mass of
P3 determine the rate of work and heat
constant and its molecular weight the products of combustion when unit
transfer during a thermodynamic process
mass of a given fuel is completely burned
in an open system M3 determine the gross and net calorific
with an excess air supply.
values of a gaseous fuel from given test
P4 use stoichiometric equations to
data obtained using a Boys’ gas type
determine the theoretical mass of air
calorimeter
required for complete combustion of a
given mass of fuel M4 determine the efficiency of a boiler from
given feed water and output steam
P5 determine the gross calorific value of a
conditions and the fuel consumption
solid or liquid fuel from given test data
rate.
obtained using a bomb type calorimeter

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 determine the rates of heat transfer in a
boiler and superheater from given feed
water and output steam conditions and
steam flow rate
P7 determine the thermal efficiency of a
steam turbine from given input and
output steam conditions, steam flow rate
and power output
P8 determine the dryness fraction of a
steam sample from test data obtained
using a simple throttling calorimeter.

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 Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

There is some overlap between learning outcome 1 of this unit and Unit 6:
Mechanical Principles and Applications. Unless the units are delivered consecutively,
some time will be required to revise this material and revisit problems involving use
of the general and characteristic gas equations. The general gas constant and
concept of the kilogram-molecule can then be considered and used to determine
values of the characteristic gas constant for common gases.
Learners should be made aware of the range of polytropic processes by which the
expansion and compression of a gas can occur. In introducing the polytropic process
equation pV n = Constant, it should be explained that the value of the index ‘n’ is
dependent on the extent and direction of the heat transfer taking place. The values
of the index for isobaric, isothermal and adiabatic processes should be identified.
Problems on the expansion and compression of gases with a higher degree of
complexity can then be considered. If time permits and the facilities are available, it
might be profitable to demonstrate determination of the adiabatic index γ, for air,
using Clement and Desormes’ method.
Delivery of learning outcome 2 could start with the definition of closed and open
thermodynamic systems. Integral calculus should be applied to derive the general
expression for work transfer in a closed system together with the particular
expression for an isothermal process. Definition of the specific heat capacities of a
gas at constant volume cv, and constant pressure cp, can be given followed by the
concept of internal energy.
The first law of thermodynamics can then be introduced and applied to derive the
expression for heat transfer during a thermodynamic process in a closed system and
the expression for change of internal energy. It might be appropriate at this point to
show proof of the relationships R = cp — cv and γ = cp /cv from a consideration of
isobaric and adiabatic expansion in a closed thermodynamic system. Some time may
then be spent on the solution of closed system problems that involve the calculation
of work and heat transfer.
Consideration of open thermodynamic systems could start with derivation of the
general expression for work transfer and comparison with that obtained for a closed
system. It should be explained why the particular expression for isothermal work
transfer is the same for closed and open systems. The concepts of pressure-flow
energy and enthalpy can then be introduced followed by application of the first law
of thermodynamics to derive the full steady flow energy equation. Neglecting
potential and kinetic energy terms will then provide the expression for heat transfer
in an open system. Some time may then be spent on the solution of open system
problems that involve the calculation of work and heat transfer rates.
The delivery sequence for learning outcomes 3 and 4 is a matter of personal
preference. Ideally, the consideration of calorific value in learning outcome 3 should
be reinforced by practical investigations but it is unlikely that many centres will have

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Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

the range of equipment required. This being the case, the apparatus and
experimental procedure should be described and exemplary data presented to enable
calculation of calorific value for a range of common fuels.
It is likely that learners will have scant knowledge of chemistry and some time will
probably be required to explain the reason why certain elements have an affinity for
oxygen resulting in an exothermic reaction. In particular, its combination with
hydrogen, carbon and sulphur should be explained and their calorific values
compared. The basic chemical reaction equations may then be applied to determine
the theoretical amount of oxygen and air required for complete combustion of a
given mass of fuel, whose constituents are known. Problems should also include
analysis of the products of combustion, including excess oxygen and nitrogen from
the air supply and any incombustible constituents.
Delivery of learning outcome 4 should start with an explanation of the terminology
used in steam generation. The major elements in a steam generating plant should be
described and a visit to an electricity generating station would be of value. It should
be explained that the steam generating circuit is in theory a closed system, made up
of a number of linked open systems. The general open system energy equation
derived in learning outcome 2 may be applied separately to these, but it should be
explained that the enthalpy values are now obtained from thermodynamic property
tables. Some time will be required to explain the layout of the tables and the
notation used.
Problems on work and heat transfer in steam plant elements can then be considered.
Delivery of learning outcome 4 might be concluded with an explanation of the
throttling process and use of the simple throttling calorimeter to determine the
dryness fraction of a wet steam sample. The limitations of this apparatus should be
explained.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Opportunity to achieve criteria P1 and M1 could be provided through a short, timed

test or individual assignment. If the latter method is chosen, steps should be taken to
ensure that the criteria are achieved autonomously and independently. A task to
achieve P1 should require use of the characteristic gas equation, the polytropic
process equation and the general gas equation to determine the mass of a given
quantity of gas and its final condition parameters after undergoing an expansion or
compression process.
A second task to achieve the M1 criterion would require determination of the process
index ‘n’, from the initial and final condition parameters of a gas and manipulation
of the polytropic process equation.
A second timed assessment or assignment could contain tasks to enable P2, P3, M2
and D1 to be achieved. It will be appropriate for the tasks to achieve P2 and P3 to
require calculation of final condition parameters prior to the determination of work
and heat transfer. The task to achieve M2 will require calculation of the
characteristic gas constant prior to manipulation of the relationship formulae to

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 Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

determine the specific heat capacities cv and cp. The final task to achieve D1 should
lead learners to conclude that the additional heat supplied during isobaric expansion
enables the pressure to be maintained and more external work to be done.
The criteria P4, P5, M3 and D2 relate to learning outcome 3. These could be assessed
by means of a third timed assignment in which a task to achieve P4 would require
calculation of the theoretical amount of air needed for complete combustion of a
given mass of fuel. A mass analysis of the fuel will need to be provided and ideally
this should contain the range of combustible constituents.
The distinction criterion D2 will require the preparation of a full analysis of the
products of combustion when a mass of fuel is completely burned with a given
percentage of excess air. In addition to the range of combustible elements, the given
mass analysis of the fuel might contain an oxygen content and a quantity of
incombustible material. Ideally, the data required to determine calorific value for
achievement of P5 and M3 should be obtained from experimental investigations.
Where this is not possible, exemplary data will need to be obtained and provided. In
the case of the Schole’s bomb type calorimeter this should include mass of fuel, mass
of water heated, water equivalent of the calorimeter and temperature versus time
data. In the case of the Boys’ gas type calorimeter this should include gas supply
pressure and temperature, prevailing atmospheric pressure, volume of gas metered,
water inlet and exit temperatures, mass of water collected and mass of condensate
collected.
A final timed assignment to achieve criteria P6, P7, P8 and M4 could enable learners
to demonstrate an understanding of steam generation, steam plant elements and the
use of thermodynamic property tables. Although separate tasks might be set to cover
the criteria they might relate to data provided in a single steam plant scenario.
Exemplary test data for the throttling calorimeter should include wet steam supply
pressure and the temperature and pressure immediately after throttling.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit builds on the material covered in Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and
Applications and can be linked to Unit 13: Principles and Applications of Fluid
Mechanics.
The unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Mechanical Manufacture, Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance and Level 3 NVQ in
Engineering Technical Support.

Essential resources

Ideally centres should be equipped with a bomb type calorimeter and a Boys’ gas
type calorimeter to determine the calorific value of fuels. Failing this, exemplary
simulation material and test data will need to be provided. Clement and Desormes’
apparatus for determination of the adiabatic index γ might also be of value in the
delivery of learning outcome 1. Learners will need to be provided with, or be
encouraged to purchase, a set of thermodynamic property tables.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Darbyshire A — Mechanical Engineering BTEC National Option Units (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750657618
Joel R — Basic Engineering Thermodynamics (Prentice Hall, 1996) ISBN 0582256291
Moran M — Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics (John Wiley and Sons,
2006) ISBN 0470030372
Sonntag R and Bourgnakke C — Introduction to Engineering Thermodynamics (John
Wiley and Sons, 2006) ISBN 0471737593

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 Unit 62: Principles and Applications of Thermodynamics

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the gross N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
calorific value of a solid or information from relevant sources.
liquid fuel from given test N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
data using a bomb type stage calculations to do with:
calorimeter.
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the work and PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
heat transfer during a ways of tackling it.
thermodynamic process in a PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
closed system. solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and

Hydraulic Systems and Devices
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
An understanding of how fluid power systems are used to control the operation of
machinery and equipment is important for anyone thinking of taking up a career in
engineering.
Pneumatic (pressurised air or gas) systems are widely used in manufacturing
engineering to operate equipment such as packaging machines, automated assembly
machines, clamping and lifting devices. There are many other everyday applications
where air operated equipment is found, eg for opening doors on buses. Hydraulic
(pressurised liquid) systems are used where greater amounts of power are involved, a
good example of this being the linear actuators that move the arms on excavators
and other types of earth-moving equipment.
This unit will give learners a broad understanding of the design and safe operation of
pressurised fluid systems that use electrical control devices to make them work. This
will include being able to read and produce simple fluid power circuit diagrams,
understanding the principles of maintenance, and the use of test routines to identify
faults in these systems.
Learners will investigate the impact that current legislation has on the design and
safe operation of fluid power circuits, so that when carrying out practical work they
are able to work safely. High pressure systems and devices, particularly air-based
ones have hidden dangers. Because hydraulic oil is carcinogenic learners will be made
aware of the regulations covering the handling and disposal/recycling of this
substance.
This is then followed by a look at a selection of the components used in fluid power
systems and how they can be represented using universally recognised circuit
diagram symbols. The components studied will include those used to generate a
supply of high pressure air or hydraulic fluid, prime movers such as linear actuators
(cylinders) and control devices such as valves and sensors.
Learners will also be introduced to some of the calculations that need to be carried
out before designing and setting up a system. These include, for example, some basic
pressure and volume calculations involving gases, determination of the correct size of
cylinder to produce a specified extending force, and calculation of fluid flow rates
needed to keep a system operating effectively. Learners will then investigate how
components can be linked together to form systems that have a specific purpose.

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The final section of the unit looks at how fluid power systems are maintained in
service and what happens if they develop faults. The emphasis here is on applying
safe working practices, using predetermined systematic schedules and keeping
accurate records for future reference.
The unit provides a good foundation for anyone interested in taking up a career in
the manufacturing industry, particularly where automated machinery is involved.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the legislation, regulations and safety precautions that apply when
working with fluid power systems
2 Understand the operation of fluid power devices and how they are represented as
symbols in circuit diagrams
3 Know how fluid power principles are used in the design of circuits
4 Be able to carry out simple maintenance, inspection, testing and faultfinding on
fluid power systems.

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 Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Unit content

1 Know about the legislation, regulations and safety precautions that apply
when working with fluid power systems

Legislation and regulations: legislation eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974,
Employment Act 2002, Factories Act 1961, Fire Precautions Act 1971, Deposit of
Poisonous Waste Act 1972, European Conformity (CE marking); regulations eg
Employment Equality (Age) Regulations 2006, Management of Health and Safety
at Work Regulations 1999, Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations 1998,
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002, Lifting
Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998, Manual Handling Operations
Regulations 1992, Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992,
Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, Electricity at Work Regulations 1989, Control
of Noise at Work Regulations 2005, Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations 1995, Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare)
Regulations 1992, Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981, Carriage of
Dangerous Goods and Use of Transportable Pressure Equipment Regulations 2004,
Simple Pressure Vessels (Safety) Regulations 1991 (SI 1994/3098), Supply of
Machinery (Safety) (Amendment) Regulations 2005 (SI 2005/831)
Safety precautions: risk assessment of fluid power systems; assembling and
testing electro, pneumatic and hydraulic systems and devices eg isolation of
services (such as electrical, air, oil), escape of fluids at high pressure which may
cause contact injury, hydraulic oil contact with the skin, sudden movement of
linear actuators causing entrapment injuries; personal protective equipment
(PPE) eg safety glasses, gloves, overalls, footwear

2 Understand the construction and operation of fluid power devices and how
they are represented as symbols in circuit diagrams

Fluid power devices: fluid conditioning eg supply tank, filter, pump, cooler,
compressor, dryer, receiver, accumulator; fluid supply eg pipework, fittings,
seals, drainage points; electrical supply systems eg mains, low voltage regulated
power supply units, AC, DC; fluid control valves eg directional (manual and
solenoid), pilot, 4 port, 5 port, pressure reducing, non-return, flow rate;
actuators eg linear, rotary; motors eg electric, air, hydraulic; position sensors eg
reed switch, pressure switch, inductive, micro-switch; system control eg
programmable logic controller (PLC), electro mechanical
Symbols: relevant and current standards eg BS3939, BS2917, ISO 1219, European
Fluid Power Committee (CETOP); symbols for common components eg fluid
conditioning, fluid supply, electrical supply, control valves, actuators, motors,
sensors, control
Circuit diagrams: diagrams eg pneumatic, hydraulic, block diagrams, system
layout, displacement step diagrams; reference material eg component and
equipment data sheets, ISO 1219-2, software (such as FluidSIM or Automation
Studio)

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3 Know how fluid power principles are used in the design of circuits

Fluid power principles: properties and behaviour of air and hydraulic fluids; gas
laws eg Boyle’s, Charles’, Gay–Lussac’s, general gas, dew point; fluid flow eg
Bernoulli’s principle, volumetric rate, receiver volume, actuator flow
requirements; fluid pressure eg units of measurement, Pascal’s law, inlet and
outlet pressure, pressure drop, actuator efficiency, clamping force; formulae
(P1V1T2 = P2V2T1, displaced volume = piston area x stroke, volumetric flow rate =
displaced volume/time, absolute pressure = gauge + atmospheric pressure, force
= pressure × area, actuator force = pressure × area × efficiency)
Circuits: pneumatic eg multi-cylinder sequential operation, single-cylinder
reciprocation with dwell, position and clamp an object using a two-cylinder
arrangement, rotary actuator with reversing action; hydraulic eg multi-cylinder
sequential operation, single-cylinder reciprocation with dwell and regeneration,
hydraulic motor with reversing action

4 Be able to carry out simple maintenance, inspection, testing and faultfinding

on fluid power systems

Maintenance: routines eg frequency of maintenance, manuals and reference

documentation, keeping of accurate records using paper- or software-based
systems; components (electro, pneumatic, hydraulic); systems eg electro-
pneumatic, electro-hydraulic
Inspection: functional eg at component level, as a system, performance against
specification; keeping of accurate records; report eg component drawing, system
circuit diagram, digital images, inspection checklist, record of visual observations
made against checklist, conclusions, recommendations
Testing: performance eg against specification, reliability; keeping of accurate
records; report eg system circuit diagram, system specification, test schedule,
list of test equipment, record test results, record visual observations, compare
test results with system specification, recommendations for future actions
Faultfinding: identify faults in fluid power systems eg manual diagnosis, visual
examination, unit substitution, input to output, injection and sampling, half-split
technique, six-point technique, self-diagnostic techniques using programmable
electronic equipment, effect of malfunctions; fault-finding aids eg functional
charts, diagrams, flow charts, troubleshooting charts, component data sheets,
operation and maintenance manuals, specialised equipment; record faults eg
paper based, software based, analyse data; report eg system circuit diagram,
record test results, record visual observations, compare test results with system
specification, record faults and cross reference to circuit diagram, identify type
of fault, strategy for rectification of fault

708 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe aspects of health and safety M1 explain and compare the construction D1 evaluate the use of self-diagnostic
legislation and regulations and safety and operation, including legislation and techniques to monitor the performance
precautions that apply when working safety precautions, of a pneumatic of fluid power systems used in industry
with fluid power equipment and systems system with that of a hydraulic system
D2 explain the importance of carrying out
P2 describe, with the aid of suitable M2 explain the procedures used when fault maintenance, inspection, testing and
diagrams, the construction and operation finding in electro-pneumatic and electro- faultfinding on fluid power systems.
of a given electro-pneumatic device and hydraulic systems.
a given electro-hydraulic device
P3 use standards to identify electro,
pneumatic and hydraulic components
shown as symbols in given circuit
diagrams and reference materials
P4 carry out calculations that relate to the
fluid power principles used in the design
of circuits

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 produce a circuit diagram to meet a
given pneumatic system specification
P6 produce a circuit diagram to meet a
given hydraulic system specification
P7 use routines and carry out maintenance
on given electro, pneumatic and
hydraulic components and a given
electro-pneumatic or electro-hydraulic
system
P8 carry out inspection, testing and fault
finding on a given electro-pneumatic or
electro-hydraulic system and produce a
report of their findings.

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 Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

To establish the context of fluid power systems, this unit should begin with a general
overview of their use in industry and the contribution they make to the effective
operation of a business. It might be useful to pick up on the complexity of producing
linear movement using a conventional electric motor and the reasons why a
pneumatic or hydraulic actuator do the job much more effectively. A video
presentation showing applications of fluid power systems would be a good way of
introducing learners to the unit.
Examples of where fluid power systems are used should focus on their use in
manufacturing industry, for example packaging machines, handling devices and
clamping equipment. However, breadth can be added if the discussion about
applications is widened to include situations which are of common knowledge to
learners, such as earth-moving equipment and power-operated doors on public
transport.
Learning outcome 1 covers legislation, regulations and safe working and links to
Unit 7: Health, Safety, Risk Assessment and Welfare in the Engineering Workplace.
Care should be taken to ensure that delivery concentrates only on the specific
legislation relating to fluid power systems. There is a huge amount of data available
and when learners carry out research they should be given structured tasks which
lead them to the relevant information. It is important that they are fully aware of
the safety issues relating to working with electrical control equipment, hydraulic oil
and compressed air before carrying out practical work later in the unit.
Before starting work on learning outcome 2 it would be beneficial if learners are able
to see fluid power systems in operation, preferably by visiting local industry. Because
of the health and safety issues this links with learning outcome 1. It could be that
some of the understanding and knowledge required to generate the evidence for
criterion P1 is gathered at this time.
Learning outcome 2 should involve some practical work so that learners can get their
hands on devices and take them apart to see how they are constructed. Learners are
not expected to produce detailed sectioned assembly drawings of the given devices.
To achieve P2 they are only required to produce evidence that relates to one electro-
pneumatic device and one electro-hydraulic device. Examples of suitable devices
might be a solenoid-operated pilot valve, a linear actuator with micro-switch position
sensors, an air compressor or a hydraulic pump.
Learning outcome 3 combines fluid power system calculations with the opportunity to
carry out some design work. The formulae used for calculations should be given and
it would add interest if one of the tasks for achieving P4 is contextualised and based
on the design specifications for simple circuits. An example might be the calculation
of pressure and flow rate requirements when a twin-cylinder clamping unit is
required to work at a given stroke rate and produce a specified rod force. This could
then lead on to the selection of a suitable power supply, control device and actuators
from equipment suppliers’ data sheets.

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Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

The second part of learning outcome 3 may be best delivered using a learner centred
activity that requires the use of a software package such as Automation Studio.
Learners will need to be given a basic list of component symbols to work with and the
aim would be to produce circuit diagrams which are operationally correct but not
necessarily to industry standard in terms of presentation. This aspect is better
covered in Unit 16: Engineering Drawing for Technicians and Unit 17: Computer
Aided Drafting. To check for correct operation, learners should be given the
opportunity to build up their circuits using hardware or, where this is not practical,
to carry out simulation using software. Sequential circuits can be limited to just two
actuators, each with a pair of limit switches.
When designing the delivery and assessment of learning outcome 4, it is important to
ensure that learners are only required to carry out simple procedures relating to the
maintenance, inspection, testing and fault finding of fluid power systems. Complex
arrangements should not be considered and any reference documentation given to
the learner should be tailored to the specific systems being looked at.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

It may be appropriate to structure the assessment of this unit as five assignments,

using four to cover the pass and merit criteria and the fifth one the two distinction
criteria.
The first assignment could cover P1 and should be structured so that learners remain
focused on the content of learning outcome 1. Learners are expected to use their
own words when referring to legislation and, whilst much of their research will be
done using the internet, it is important that what they present is not just a simple
cut and paste exercise. Evidence to support knowledge of safety precautions could be
generated by giving learners a list of situations/scenarios and then asking them to
detail what needs to be done to work safely. This leads into risk assessment and
learners could be asked to carry out an assessment for equipment which they will be
using later in the unit.
Grading criteria P2, P3 and M1 complement each other and could be assessed through
a second assignment which covers the whole of the content for learning outcome 2.
P2 asks for information about the construction and operation of equipment and,
provided that any written explanation is supported by diagrams, there is no
requirement for learners to present fully detailed drawings of the devices
considered.
To meet the requirements of P3 learners could be given a suitable set of circuit
diagrams and manufacturers’ reference material for the equipment described for P2.
This would determine the amount of components and symbols needed to meet the
requirement of P3. Examples of such devices are found in the unit content and
delivery guidance.

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P4, P5 and P6 are linked and could be assessed using a third assignment which will
involve calculation and the production of circuit diagrams which meet given design
specifications. These can be hand drawn but it is better if learners use a software
package, so that simulation can be carried out to ensure correct operation of the
circuits. This could be evidenced in the form of screen prints consolidated by a
witness statement or observation record.
Grading criteria P7, P8 and M2 could be assessed using a fourth assignment. Evidence
of learner competence when carrying out practical tasks will need to be recorded
using witness statements, observation records and digital images.
The tasks set to generate evidence for P7 should involve the use of a small range of
components and just one fluid power system (ie pneumatic or hydraulic). Similarly,
when producing evidence for P8 it is only necessary to work with one type of system.
Both criteria require learners to keep accurate records and use relevant
documentation in addition to carrying out the practical tasks. Learners who built the
circuits that they designed to achieve P5 and P6 could work on these when gathering
evidence for P7 and P8.
D1 and D2 build on the content from learning outcome 4but, to effectively explain
and evaluate, learners should make reference to the legislative and safety issues
covered in learning outcome 1. In particular, to achieve D2 learners will need to
present a very detailed piece of writing which considers not just the mechanical
problems associated with equipment failure but also the legislative and economic
implications.
A single assignment could be used to assess the distinction criteria with one of the
tasks set for achieving D2 being based on a scenario. For example, learners could
assume the role of a maintenance technician who has been tasked with investigating
the malfunction of a fluid power system. The malfunction has caused damage to
equipment, resulted in injury to an employee and is under review by the Health and
Safety Executive (HSE).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 7: Health, Safety, Risk Assessment and Welfare in the
Engineering Workplace, Unit 16: Engineering Drawing for Technicians and Unit 17:
Computer Aided Drafting.
The unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 6: Installing Electrical/Electronic Equipment
• Unit 9: Installing Fluid Power Equipment.

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Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that centres have access to the
following:
• industrial-standard electro, pneumatic and hydraulic equipment and systems
• fluid power circuit design software eg FluidSIM or Automation Studio
• test equipment and measuring instruments
• relevant British and International standards
• health and safety publications.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Parr A — Hydraulics and Pneumatics: A Technician’s Guide, Second Edition
(Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999) ISBN 0750644192
Stacey C — Practical Pneumatics (Elsevier, 1997) ISBN 0340662190
Turner I — Engineering Applications of Pneumatics and Hydraulics (Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1996) ISBN 0340625260

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 Unit 63: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that Learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the relevant C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
legislation and safety least two documents about the same
precautions that apply when subject.
working with fluid power One document must be at least 1000
equipment and systems. words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for the relevant ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
legislation and safety sources, and multiple search criteria in at
precautions that apply when least one case.
working with fluid power
equipment and systems.
Problem solving Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• carrying out inspection, PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
testing and fault finding on a ways of tackling it.
given electro-pneumatic or
electro-hydraulic system and
producing a report of their
findings.

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 Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications

Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles

and Applications
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will build upon learners’ knowledge of underpinning mechanical principles
and the way these affect the design, operation, testing and servicing of machines and
mechanisms.
The component parts of a mechanical system are very often subjected to loads and
may be used to transmit force. It is essential that they are fit for purpose if costly
breakdowns and accidents are to be avoided. Design engineers must thus be able to
predict the stresses to which they are subjected and ensure that an appropriate
factor of safety applies.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 of this unit will broaden learners’ knowledge of stress
analysis to include stress due to bending, stress due to torsion and the effects of
uniaxial and two-dimensional loading.
Learners sometimes have difficulty with the concepts of resultant and relative
velocity. Learning outcome 3 seeks to clarify how they are determined through the
techniques of vector addition and vector subtraction. These are then applied to the
operation of plane linkage mechanisms to determine the output characteristics for
given input conditions.
The aim of learning outcome 4 is to give an understanding of mechanical oscillations
in engineering systems. The concept of simple harmonic motion is introduced and
expressions derived for its parameters. These are then applied to freely vibrating
systems such as mass-spring systems and the simple pendulum.
The unit as a whole provides an opportunity for investigative, relevant and active
study that will enhance learners’ ability to solve engineering problems.

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UNIT 64: ADVANCED MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to determine the effects of uniaxial and complex loading on engineering
components
2 Be able to determine the stress due to bending in beams and torsion in power
transmission shafts
3 Be able to determine relative and resultant velocity in engineering systems
4 Be able to determine the characteristics of simple harmonic motion in
engineering systems.

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Unit content

1 Be able to determine the effects of uniaxial and complex loading on

engineering components

Uniaxial loading: expressions for longitudinal and transverse strain; application of

Poisson’s ratio; determination of dimensional changes in plain struts and ties
Complex loading: expressions eg strain in x and y directions due to 2D loading,
strain in x, y and z directions due to 3D loading; changes eg dimensional in
rectangular plates, dimensional and volume for cubic elements

2 Be able to determine the stress due to bending in beams and torsion in power
transmission shafts

Direct stress due to bending: expressions for second moment of area of solid and
hollow rectangular and circular beam sections; application of bending equation
(σ / y = M / Ι = E / R) to determine stress due to bending and radius of curvature at a
beam section; determination of factor of safety in operation
Shear stress due to torsion: expressions for polar second moment of area of solid
and hollow circular transmission shaft sections; application of torsion equation
(τ / r = T / J = Gθ / l) and expression for power transmitted (Power = Tω) to
determine induced shear stress and angle of twist; determination of factor of
safety in operation

3 Be able to determine relative and resultant velocity in engineering systems

Resultant and relative velocity: vector addition of velocities; resultant velocity of

a body with simultaneous velocities in different directions; vector subtraction of
velocities; relative velocity between objects moving simultaneously in different
directions; construction of space diagrams and velocity vector diagram
Plane mechanisms: eg slider-crank and inversions, four-bar linkage and inversions,
slotted link quick return mechanism, Whitworth quick-return mechanism,
construction of diagrams eg space, velocity vector, determining output motion

4 Be able to determine the characteristics of simple harmonic motion in

engineering systems

Simple harmonic motion generation: general equations for simple harmonic

motion derived from a consideration of uniform circular motion eg expressions for
circular frequency, displacement with time, velocity with time, velocity with
displacement, acceleration with time, acceleration with displacement, periodic
time, frequency of vibration; application to mechanical systems where output
simple harmonic motion is generated by input uniform circular motion eg scotch
yoke mechanism; parameters to be determined eg frequency of vibration,
periodic time, displacement, velocity and acceleration at a given instant

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Vibrating mechanical systems: systems (mass-spring, simple pendulum);

expressions for circular frequency in terms of system parameters; application of
general equations for simple harmonic motion eg natural frequency of vibration,
periodic time, velocity and acceleration at a given instant

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 Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 determine the dimensional effects of M1 determine the dimensional effects and D1 evaluate and compare the saving in
uniaxial loading on a plain structural change in volume for a given element of weight and the reduced torque
component and two-dimensional loading an engineering component when transmission capacity for a hollow power
on a rectangular plate subjected to three-dimensional loading transmission shaft as its internal
diameter is increased
P2 determine the maximum stress due to M2 compare the effects on a rectangular
bending, factor of safety in operation section beam’s load carrying capacity of D2 determine from test data the effective
and minimum radius of curvature for a increasing the breadth, and increasing contributory mass of the spring in an
simply supported beam carrying a given the depth by given amounts oscillating mass-spring system.
concentrated load and a uniformly
M3 determine the output velocity of a given
distributed load
quick-return mechanism for given input
P3 determine the maximum shear stress, conditions
factor of safety in operation and angle of
M4 evaluate the output motion of the slider
twist for a mechanical power
in a slider-crank mechanism with uniform
transmission shaft when transmitting
input motion of the crank, for
given power at a given speed
compliance with the conditions
necessary for it to describe simple
harmonic motion.

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UNIT 64: ADVANCED MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P4 determine the resultant velocity of an
object when moving simultaneously with
velocities in two different directions and
its velocity relative to a second object
moving in the same plane in a third
direction
P5 determine the output motion of a slider-
crank mechanism and a four-bar linkage
mechanism for given input conditions
P6 determine the periodic time and the
displacement, velocity and acceleration
at a given instant of the simple harmonic
motion generated by circular motion of
given parameters
P7 determine the circular frequency,
natural frequency of vibration and the
maximum velocity and acceleration for a
mass-spring system and a simple
pendulum with given parameters.

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 Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The delivery strategy for learning outcome 1 should progress in logical stages,
beginning with the definition of Poisson’s ratio. Calculation of longitudinal and
transverse strain for uniaxial loading can follow together with the associated
dimensional changes. This can lead on to development of the expressions for strain
and dimensional changes in the x and y directions for two-dimensional loading. These
can then be extended to derive the expressions for strain and dimensional changes in
the x, y and z directions for three-dimensional loading. Finally, the expression for
volumetric strain can be developed and applied to determine change in volume.
Although not essential, it might be appropriate at this stage to put forward the
concept of bulk modulus in preparation for work at a higher level.
A recap of previous work on bending moment distribution in simply supported beams
may be beneficial as an introduction to learning outcome 2. After explaining the
assumptions made in bending theory, an expression can be derived for bending stress
in terms of radius of curvature and modulus of elasticity. This can then be used in the
development of an expression for bending stress in terms of bending moment and
second moment of area of the beam section. Examination of the expressions will
indicate that stress due to bending is proportional to distance from the neutral axis.
After combining the expressions to give the full bending equation, proof should be
given that the neutral axis of bending passes through the centroid of the beam
section. Time can then be devoted to determination of the second moment of area of
solid and hollow rectangular and circular section beams. This links directly with the
integral calculus content in Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians, where prior work
might ensure that the topic is covered in preparation for its application in stress
analysis and fluid mechanics. Problem solving should involve determination of second
moment of area, maximum stress due to bending, factor of safety and radius of
curvature for a range of simply supported beam sections and loading. The
significance of second moment of area and modulus of elasticity in determining
resistance to bending should be stressed.
If time permits and beam apparatus is available, a practical investigation can be
included to determine the modulus of elasticity of a beam that is symmetrically
loaded outside its supports. The modulus of elasticity can be obtained from the
bending equation after calculation of the applied bending moment and the radius of
curvature between the supports. These can be obtained from the applied loads, the
distance between the supports, the overhang and the central deflection.
After explaining the assumptions made in torsion theory, the torsion equation may
also be derived in two stages, ie shear stress in terms of angle of twist, shaft length
and shear modulus and shear stress in terms of applied torque and polar second
moment of area. These can then be combined to give the full torsion equation,
examination of which will indicate that shear stress due to torsion increases
uniformly with radius. The expression for polar second moment of area may be
derived by integration, or by applying the perpendicular axis theorem to the

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UNIT 64: ADVANCED MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

expression derived in the bending theory for second moment of area of a circular
section beam about a diameter. Stationary torsion bars and power transmission shafts
may be considered when problem solving, together with the twin-design criteria of
allowable shear stress and allowable angle of twist.
If torsion apparatus is available, a practical investigation can be carried out to
determine the shear modulus of a shaft material from measurements of applied
torque, shaft length and angle of twist.
Delivery of learning outcome 3 could begin with the graphical or analytical solution of
simple problems to determine the resultant velocity of a body with simultaneous
velocities in different directions. This will demonstrate the vector addition of
velocities. Further problems to determine the relative velocity between bodies
moving in different directions will demonstrate the vector subtraction principle. With
this knowledge in place, learners can be introduced to the analysis of plane linkage
mechanisms. The operation and applications of the slider-crank, four-bar linkage and
quick return mechanisms should be described, and if possible also demonstrated.
Vector addition and subtraction techniques may then be applied to determine output
motion for given input conditions.
Delivery of learning outcome 4 should start with the definition of simple harmonic
motion and examples of its occurrence in mechanical systems. Learners will realise
that, because acceleration in the system is changing, new expressions need to be
derived for displacement, velocity and acceleration at any given instant. This is
traditionally achieved by a consideration of circular motion with uniform angular
velocity, and the application of differential calculus. The expressions derived can
then be applied in the solution of general problems on simple harmonic motion.
Finally, consideration can be given to simple harmonic motion in a mass-spring
system and simple pendulum. Derivation of the expressions for circular frequency
should be followed by problem solving and practical investigations. In the case of a
mass-spring system the influence of the mass of the spring on the frequency of
vibration might be investigated.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of achievement may be obtained from well-planned assignments and/or

unseen tests. Assuming that the unit is delivered in the order of the learning
outcomes, a first assignment could provide an opportunity to achieve the pass
criterion P1 by means of tasks to determine the dimensional effects of uniaxial and
two-dimensional loading. These could be followed by a task to determine the
dimensional effects of three-dimensional loading and corresponding change in volume
for achievement of the M1.
A second assignment might contain a task to determine the stress and curvature in a
loaded beam (P2) and a task to determine the shear stress and angle of twist in a
power transmission shaft for given operating conditions (P3). A third task, to achieve
criterion M2, could be to examine the effects of increasing the breadth and depth of
a rectangular beam section on its second moment of area and hence also on its load-

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 Unit 64: Advanced Mechanical Principles and Applications

carrying capacity. A fourth task to achieve D1 might be to compare and evaluate the
saving in weight and the reduction in torque transmission capacity as the internal
diameter of a hollow transmission shaft is increased.
P4 and P5 could be assessed through an assignment containing a task to determine
resultant and relative velocities in a system of moving bodies and a task to determine
the output motion of plain mechanisms for given input conditions. Both a slider-crank
and four-bar chain should be considered, whilst a third task to achieve M3 could be to
determine the output velocity of a slow-forward quick-return mechanism. In all three
criteria there is an expectation that the response will involve the construction of
diagrams to help determine the solution.
A final assignment for P6 and P7 should contain tasks to determine the parameters of
simple harmonic motion for a system generated by uniform circular motion, a mass-
spring system and a simple pendulum. These could be followed by a task to evaluate
the output motion of a slider-crank mechanism for uniform input rotation of the
crank to achieve merit criterion M4. The evaluation should conclude that the motion
is not simple harmonic but that it may be approached be lengthening the connecting
link. A final task to achieve distinction criterion D2 could involve the gathering and
analysis of test data to determine the contributory effect of spring mass on the
periodic time of a vibrating mass-spring system. The test data can be given in the
task.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit builds on the material covered in Unit 6: Mechanical Principles and
Applications and Unit 11: Further Mechanical Principles and Applications and lays the
foundation for further study at BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma level.
The unit also has links with Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians in the application of
differential and integral calculus.
The unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Mechanical Manufacture, Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance and Level 3 NVQ in
Engineering Technical Support.

Essential resources

Centres should have access to investigation and demonstration equipment, such as

simply supported beam apparatus, torsion test apparatus and apparatus for the
investigation of simple harmonic motion.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bird J — Science for Engineering (Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750657774
Bolton W — Engineering Science (Newnes, 2001) ISBN 0750652594
Darbyshire A — Mechanical Engineering BTEC National Option Units (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750657618
Tooley M and Dingle L — BTEC National Engineering (Newnes, 2002) ISBN 0750651660

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UNIT 64: ADVANCED MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the maximum N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
stress due to bending, factor information from relevant sources.
of safety in operation and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
minimum radius of curvature stage calculations to do with:
for a simply supported beam
carrying a given a amounts or sizes
concentrated load and a b scales or proportion
uniformly distributed load
c handling statistics
• determining the maximum d using formulae.
shear stress, factor of safety
in operation and angle of N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
twist for a mechanical power present your findings and justify your
transmission shaft for given methods.
operating conditions.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• determining the output PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
motion of a slider-crank and ways of tackling it.
a four-bar linkage mechanism PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
for given input conditions. solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

Unit 65: Further Mathematics for

Technicians
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Mathematics is an essential tool for any electrical or mechanical engineering
technician. This unit has been designed to further enhance learners’ knowledge of
mathematical principles, particularly for those considering progressing to a higher
education qualification in engineering. With this in mind, the learning outcomes offer
greater emphasis to the engineering application of mathematics. For example,
learners could use an integral calculus method to obtain the root mean square (RMS)
value of a sine wave over a half cycle.
The first learning outcome will extend learners’ knowledge of graph plotting and will
develop the technique of using a graph to solve (find the roots of), for example, a
quadratic equation.
Learning outcome 2 involves the use of both arithmetic and geometric progressions
for the solution of practical problems. The concept of complex numbers, an essential
tool for electrical engineers considering, is also introduced.
Learning outcome 3 considers the parameters of trigonometrical graphs and the
resultant wave when two are combined. The use of mathematical formulae in the
latter half of this learning outcome enables a mathematical approach to wave
combination to be considered.
Finally, in learning outcome 4, calculus techniques are further developed and used to
show their application in engineering.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to use advanced graphical techniques
2 Be able to apply algebraic techniques
3 Be able to understand how to manipulate trigonometric expressions and apply
trigonometric techniques
4 Be able to apply calculus.

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Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

Unit content

1 Be able to use advanced graphical techniques

Advanced graphical techniques: graphical solution eg of a pair of simultaneous

equations with two unknowns, to find the real roots of a quadratic equation, for
the intersection of a linear and a quadratic equation, non-linear laws such as
b
( y = ax 2 + b, y = a + ), by the use of logarithms to reduce laws of type
x
y = ax n to straight line form, of a cubic equation such as 2 x 3 − 7 x 2 + 3 x + 8 = 0 ,
recording, evaluating and plotting eg manual, computerised

2 Be able to apply algebraic techniques

Arithmetic progression (AP): first term (a), common difference (d), nth term eg
n
a + (n − 1)d ; arithmetic series eg sum to n terms, S n = {2a + (n − 1)d }
2
Geometric progression (GP): first term (a), common ratio (r), nth term eg a r n − 1 ;

geometric series eg sum to n terms, S n =

(
a r n −1 )
, sum to infinity S ∞ =
a
;
r −1 1− r
solution of practical problems eg compound interest, range of speeds on a drilling
machine
Complex numbers: addition, subtraction, multiplication of a complex number in
Cartesian form, vector representation of complex numbers, modulus and argument,
polar representation of complex numbers, multiplication and division of complex
numbers in polar form, polar to Cartesian form and vice versa, use of calculator
Statistical techniques: review of measure of central tendency, mean, standard
deviation for ungrouped and grouped data (equal intervals only), variance

3 Be able to understand how to manipulate trigonometric expressions and apply

trigonometric techniques

Trigonometrical graphs: amplitude, period and frequency, graph sketching eg sin

x, 2 sin x, ½ sin x, sin 2x, sin ½ x for values of x between 0 and 360°; phase
angle, phase difference; combination of two waves of the same frequency
Trigonometrical formulae and equations: the compound angle formulae for the
addition of sine and cosine functions eg sin (A ± B); expansion of R sin (wt + α) in
the form a cos wt + b sin wt and vice versa

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 Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

4 Be able to apply calculus

Differentiation: review of standard derivatives, differentiation of a sum, function

of a function, product and quotient rules, numerical values of differential
coefficients, second derivatives, turning points (maximum and minimum) eg
volume of a rectangular box
Integration: review of standard integrals, indefinite integrals, definite integrals
eg area under a curve, mean and RMS values; numerical eg trapezoidal, mid-
ordinate and Simpson’s rule

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 use a graphical technique to solve a pair M1 use the laws of logarithms to reduce an D1 using a graphical technique determine
of simultaneous linear equations engineering law of the type y = axn to the single wave resulting from a
straight line form, then using logarithmic combination of two waves of the same
P2 solve a practical engineering problem
graph paper, plot the graph and obtain frequency and then verify the result
involving an arithmetical progression
the values for the constants a and n using trigonometrical formulae
P3 solve a practical engineering problem
M2 use complex numbers to solve a parallel D2 use numerical integration and integral
involving an geometric progression
arrangement of impedances giving the calculus to analyse the results of a
P4 perform the two basic operations of answer in both Cartesian and polar form complex engineering problem.
multiplication and division to a complex
M3 use differential calculus to find the
number in both rectangular and polar
maximum/minimum for an engineering
form, to demonstrate the different
problem.
techniques
P5 calculate the mean, standard deviation
and variance for a set of ungrouped data
P6 calculate the mean, standard deviation
and variance for a set of grouped data

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 Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 sketch the graph of a sinusoidal
trigonometrical function and use it to
explain and describe amplitude, periodic
time and frequency
P8 use two of the compound angle formulae
and verify their relationship
P9 find the differential coefficient for three
different functions to demonstrate the
use of function of a function and the
product and quotient rules
P10 use integral calculus to solve two simple
engineering problems involving the
definite and indefinite integral.

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Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Although this unit can be delivered on its own, it requires learners to have
successfully completed Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians or an equivalent before
attempting it. For this reason it should be delivered at a later stage in the course,
after a suitable foundation in mathematics and engineering principles has been
established.
Every opportunity should be taken to apply and contextualise the underpinning
mathematical principles to suit learners’ chosen engineering specialism. Tutors could
provide a selection of well-prepared, vocationally relevant examples and assignments
that are tailored to area-specific programmes of study, as well as selecting specific
applications from the suggested option.
Regular opportunities (eg classroom exercises) to address the relevant techniques
should be provided as part of formative assessment. Constant feedback, using
additional formative tests and coursework that falls outside the formal summative
assessment, may be used to aid learning without necessarily being graded.
The unit content does not need to be taught or assessed in order and it is left to
centres to decide on their preferred order of delivery.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

P1 and M1 are probably best assessed through an assignment with learners being
given different equations for a meaningful task (eg two operatives producing a
certain number of assemblies) for P1.
For M1 learners will need to provide evidence that they can reduce an engineering
law (eg gas pressure and temperature T = αp y , current and voltage I = VR k ) to
straight line form, then use logarithmic graph paper to plot the graph and obtain
values for the constants. This is probably best achieved with an assignment in which
learners are each given different values.
P2 and P3 can be combined into one assignment, again relevant to an engineering
problem (eg the drilling of bore holes for an arithmetic progression solution and the
calculation of drill speeds for a geometric progression solution).
For P4 learners could be given different values to demonstrate the two basic
operations and this could be linked to M2 to form one assignment.
P5 and P6 could also be linked and assessed by an assignment or short formal test
with a relevant application (eg values of resistors, quality control of a product,
overtime working).

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 Unit 65: Further Mathematics for Technicians

P7 and P8 could be assessed by a short formal class test. Alternatively an assignment

could be used with different values for the graphical output given to different
learners. Either approach would help ensure answers are authentic.
P9, P10 and M3 are possibly best assessed as a short exercise or assignment, with
learners being given a list of the standard differential coefficients and integrals to
use. For P9 each of the questions could be written to assess all the three rules in
turn. P10 requires a simple engineering problem (eg indefinite integral given
information to find value of constant and hence required equation, definite integral
such as area under a curve). M3 is possibly best linked to P9 and P10 with M3
assessing an engineering problem (eg use of differentiation to find the dimensions of
a rectangular box to give the maximum volume).
The merit criteria need to build upon the pass criteria, and as such may form an
extension to an assessment containing several of the pass criteria as already indicated.
Evidence for the distinction criteria needs to show that learners have a more in-depth
knowledge and understanding. Both the distinction criteria could be assessed by a
written assignment. For D1 learners firstly need to use a graphical technique to obtain
the single wave resulting from a combination of two waves of the same frequency. Each
learner could be given a slightly different equation by varying the values of A and B (eg
⎛ 2π ⎞ ⎛ 2π ⎞
V1 = A sin ⎜100πt + ⎟ , V2 = B sin ⎜100πt − ⎟ ). Learners should be encouraged to
⎝ 5 ⎠ ⎝ 9 ⎠
use a computer package for recording, evaluating and possibly plotting a range of
values (eg t from 0 to 0·02s). By using the double angle formulae (eg Sin ( A ± B ) ) and
the expansion of R sin (wt ± α ) learners could verify their results.
Ideally D2 should provide a comparison between one, two or all three of the
numerical integration methods and integration by calculus (eg evaluation of the
distance traveled in the first second when a guitar string is plucked about its centre,
given an equation for its velocity).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians is an essential prerequisite for this unit and as
such must be studied prior to this unit. The unit also links with all other analytically-
based mechanical and electrical principles units. It is, therefore, important that
these links are reinforced by delivering appropriate specialist units for the learners’
own disciplines concurrently.
Learners completing this unit together with Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians will
be well equipped for progression onto BTEC Higher National Certificate/Diploma
courses and first year engineering degree qualifications.

Essential resources

Learners will need to use an electronic scientific calculator and have access to
software packages that support the concepts and principles and their application to
engineering.

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Indicative reading for learners

Bird J — Engineering Mathematics (Newnes, 2003) ISBN 0750657766

Tooley M and Dingle L — BTEC National Engineering (Newnes, 2002) ISBN 0750651660

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• producing and evaluating N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
solutions to engineering information from relevant sources.
problems using a range of N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
mathematical techniques stage calculations to do with:
• producing graphical solutions a amounts or sizes
to problems involving
b scales or proportion
statistical and scientific
data. c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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 Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Unit 66: Principles and Applications of

Electronic Devices and Circuits
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Electronics and electronic devices are used in a huge variety of manufactured
products. From everyday popular items such as cameras and thermometers to the
robotic welding machines used in industry, the use of electronics is continually
growing.
This unit provides a practical introduction to basic electronic devices and analogue
and digital electronic principles. It provides learners with an opportunity to
investigate the operation of diodes and transistors, two of the most important
building blocks in electronic circuits. Learners will then go on to build and test
circuits that make use of these devices and will consider the operation of integrated
circuits such as the operational amplifier. Logic gates and flip-flops are also
investigated both in practice and by using simple electronic principles, such as
voltage gain or truth tables.
Finally, the unit will introduce learners to computer-based circuit design and
simulation software packages that will allow them to build and test analogue and
digital circuits. This will enable learners to recognise the importance of simulation
software in the design of electronic circuits.
The overall aim of this unit is to build learners’ confidence in their ability to
construct and test simple electronic circuits. The emphasis is on prototyping,
constructing and measuring. The unit treats systems in terms of their functionality
and their input/output relationships.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the function and operation of diodes, transistors and logic gates
2 Be able to build and test operational amplifier-based analogue circuits
3 Be able to build and test combinational and sequential logic circuits
4 Be able to use computer-based simulation software packages to construct and
test the operation of analogue and digital circuits.

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Unit content

1 Understand the function and operation of diodes, transistors and logic gates

Diodes: types eg Zener, light emitting diode (LED), PN-junction; circuit

applications eg voltage stabiliser, indicator light, half-wave rectifier
Transistors: types eg NPN, PNP or field-effect transistor (FET); analogue circuit
(single-stage amplifier); digital circuit eg comparator, transistor as a switch
(automatic night light); operation eg analogue (voltage gain, phase inversion),
digital (set-point of operation); function of components in circuits
Logic gates: types of gates eg AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR; gate symbols eg
British Standards (BS), International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), American
National Standards Institute (ANSI); truth tables; Boolean expressions
eg A+B, Ā, A y B

2 Be able to build and test operational amplifier based analogue circuits

Building analogue circuits: method of construction eg prototype/bread-board,

printed circuit, strip-board; types of circuits eg oscillator, filter circuit,
comparator circuit, inverting and/or non-inverting amplifier
Testing analogue circuits: performance against given design requirement;
recording actual input and output voltages (tabulating data, plotting graph of
results); circuit measurements eg measurement of resonant frequency, cut-off
frequency, switching point, gain at mid-frequency, bandwidth

3 Be able to build and test combinational and sequential logic circuits

Building combinational and sequential logic circuits: types of combinational

circuit eg at least three gates and three input variables; types of sequential
circuit eg R-S bi-stables, JK bi-stable, 3-stage counter, 3-stage shift-register
based on JK or D-type bi-stables; types of logic family eg transistor-transistor
logic (TTL) and complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS);
characteristics of chips eg supply voltage, input and output operating voltages,
input and output impedance, propagation delay, power
Testing of logic circuits: records of performance against given design
requirement; input and output states; use of truth tables; use of test equipment
eg logic probe, signature analyser
Minimisation of logic circuits: eg use of De-Morgan’s theorem; Karnaugh maps

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4 Be able to use computer-based simulation software packages to construct and

test the operation of analogue and digital circuits

Simulation of analogue circuit: types of circuits eg transistor amplifier, op-amp,

active filter, rectifier; types of components eg resistor, capacitor, transistor,
diode; instrument simulation eg voltmeter, ammeter, oscilloscope; records of
performance against given design requirement eg screen print, input/output
waveforms (with scales), gain-frequency response
Simulation of digital circuit: types of circuit eg three input combinational circuit,
counter, shift register; types of gates/sequential circuit eg R-S bi-stables, JK bi-
stable, 3-stage counter, 3-stage shift-register based on JK or D-type bi-stables;
instrument simulation eg on/off indicator, logic probe, word generator, logic
analyser; records of performance against given design requirement eg screen
print, digital input/output waveforms (with scales)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the purpose of two different M1 modify an existing analogue circuit to D1 using a simulation package, analyse the
types of diode, each in a different achieve a given revised specification by effects of changing the values of circuit
electronic circuit application selecting and changing the value of one parameters on the performance of an
of the components analogue circuit containing an
P2 explain the operation of two different
operational amplifier or transistors
types of transistor, one in an analogue M2 modify a digital circuit to achieve a
and one in a digital circuit given revised specification by selecting D2 compare and contrast two different
and changing up to two logic gates types of logic family with reference to
P3 explain the operation of three different
five characteristics.
logic gates with appropriate gate M3 evaluate and minimise a three input
symbols, truth tables and Boolean combinational logic circuit containing
expressions three gates.
P4 build and test two different types of
analogue circuit using operational
amplifiers
P5 build and test a combinational logic
circuit that has three input variables
P6 build and test a sequential circuit using
integrated circuit(s)

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 Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 use a computer software package to
simulate the construction and testing of
an analogue circuit with three different
types of components
P8 use a computer software package to
simulate the construction and testing of
a digital logic circuit with three gates.

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Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit will require a predominantly practical approach to delivery. Emphasis

should be placed on well-planned practical activities that complement and reinforce
theory. The correct selection and use of equipment and measuring instruments is
essential and should be encouraged at every opportunity.
It is suggested that, wherever possible, delivery of learning outcome 1 is integrated
into the practical activities used for learning outcomes 2 and 3. The work on diodes
and transistors requires only very basic semiconductor theory, for instance giving the
main difference between p type and n type. Only superficial coverage should be
given to introduce the p-n junction, ie that this is an insulating layer which can be
removed by approximately 0.7 V forward bias. The depth of treatment should be that
of a low-level introductory topic, with emphasis on practical application. The diode
characteristic, forward and reverse bias modes and simple calculations of current
flow and voltage drops in a simple circuit should be included. The treatment of the
transistor should similarly be limited to basic coverage. It should include simple
biasing of a bipolar transistor and its use as an electronic switch and amplifier in
simple circuits.
The delivery of the unit could include the following examples of practical activities:
• a Zener diode-series resistor stabiliser, with records of input and output voltages
• calculation of the series resistor needed for a high-brightness LED
• a field-effect transistor (FET) amplifier (measure DC voltages and voltage gain at
1 kHz)
• a NPN transistor used as a switch, eg automatic alarm/night light
• an inverting and then a non-inverting operational amplifier (op-amp), measuring
their voltage gains
• building any type of logic circuit with three or more inputs and gates, recording
the output in a truth table to show it is working
• building a circuit such as a three-bit counter made from JKs and recording the
inputs and outputs.
The use of computer-based software packages is essential and it is assumed that
centres will use simulation techniques as part of the delivery and learning process of
this unit.
Activities, case studies and project work used for the delivery of this unit should,
where appropriate, focus on present industrial electronic engineering or
communication applications. Industrial visits or work experience, where appropriate,
would be of value in supporting the learning activities.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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 Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Assessment

The learning outcomes and related criteria can be assessed in any order. The criteria
P1, P2 and P4 are related and it would make sense to build a practical assignment or
project around them. The focus would be to build two different types of analogue
circuit (P4) that would allow learners to explain the purpose of two different types of
diodes (P1) and the operation of one of the two different types of transistor (P2).
Learners would then need to work on another circuit or simply explain the operation
of a transistor in a digital circuit.
A second assignment could be used to cover the practical work required for P5 and
P6. This could be linked to the explanation of theory that is necessary to achieve P3.
The last two pass criteria, P7 and P8, could be covered either before the build and
test exercise to prove the circuits, or afterwards, to simulate the circuit performance
and testing that learners have already experienced.
Opportunities for the achievement of the merit criteria can be set within the
assignments suggested above. For example, a task could be set for M1 that requires
learners to modify a circuit to produce a different voltage gain to the one used in P4,
or for a different resonant frequency for an oscillator. M2 could be obtained through
a task additional to that used for P5, such as to modify the circuit given for P5. M3
simply requires a minimisation (eg using a Karnaugh map).
D1 requires an analysis, using a simulation package, of the effects on the
performance of an analogue circuit containing an operational amplifier or transistors
of changing the values of circuit parameters (eg components or component values,
input/output voltages or signals). This could be a computer-based investigation of
how the feedback resistor in an operational amplifier changes not only the gain but
also the bandwidth. To meet the criterion it would require at least one other
parameter to be changed — possibly the supply voltage, or input voltage — and noting
how ‘clipping’ can occur. Part of the analysis could be to use calculations to show
how the theoretical results align with those actually obtained through simulation.
Again, careful selection of the circuits used for the pass/merit assignment could
enable this final step to be a natural development from the work already carried out.
Establishing firm links between the pass, merit and distinction criteria in this way will
encourage learners to work towards higher levels of achievement and will improve
the relevance and coherence of the assessment activities.
To achieve D2, learners need to compare and contrast two different types of logic
family with reference to at least five characteristics. The comparison, which can be
partly but not wholly achieved using a table, should consider common logic families
such as TTL and CMOS. Where a table is used for comparison then it is expected that
the meaning of any terms used (eg sink current) should be clearly explained. The
comparison as a whole (table, written explanations, diagrams etc) must make it clear
how one logic family can be differentiated from another.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles and Unit 34:
Electronic Circuit Manufacture.
The unit also contributes towards the knowledge and understanding for the SEMTA
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance, particularly Unit 17: Testing Electronic
Equipment and Circuits.
It also supports the following units within the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering:
• Unit 10: Selecting and Preparing Materials and Components for Manufacturing
• Unit 12: Monitoring and Analysing Data from Electronic Circuit Manufacturing
Processes
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production Electronic Components and Circuits.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to an appropriate electronics laboratory with a

range of measuring and test equipment, as listed in the unit content. For example,
facilities for circuit construction and proto-typing, a range of components, logic-tutor
boards, hardware and software to support computer-based analogue and digital
schematic capture and circuit simulation will be needed. Learners will also need
access to publications, reference data and manufacturers’ product information to
enable them to consider the different types of components listed within the unit.

Indicative reading for learners

Beasley J, Rico G and Bogart T — Electronic Devices and Circuits (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0131219901
Tooley M — Electronic Circuits — Fundamentals and Applications (Newnes, 2006)
ISBN 0750669233

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 Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• gathering information and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
preparing to collect circuit information from relevant sources.
test data N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
• checking test data against stage calculations to do with:
theoretical values and a amounts or sizes
preparing data for
b scales or proportion
presentation
c handling statistics
• interpreting and presenting
the results of circuit tests. d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your
calculations, present your findings and
justify your methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• presenting results of build C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
and test practical work and eight minutes using an image or other
explaining the types and support material.
operation of electronic Each document must be at least 1000
devices words long
• producing results and reports C3.3 Write two different types of documents
on practical work each one giving different information
undertaken. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Unit 66: Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits

Information technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching the internet, ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
CD ROMs and manufacturers’ sources, and multiple search criteria in
literature for electronic at least one case.
product information ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• preparing results and reports derive new information.
of practical work and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
combining data that has been text with image, text with number,
captured from circuit image with number.
simulation packages.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and

Testing
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Practical electronic engineering demands the extensive use of electronic test
equipment and measurement techniques. These range from basic measurements of
parameters such as voltage, current and resistance to highly sophisticated software-
controlled measurements based on advanced mathematical techniques such as Fast
Fourier Transformation (FFT).
This unit will give learners an understanding of a variety of electronic measurement
equipment such as voltmeters, ammeters, analogue/digital multimeters and
oscilloscopes. The unit also examines a range of electronic test equipment such as
signal generators, digital counter/frequency meter, alternating current (AC) bridge,
logic probe, logic pulser and current tracer.
Learners will develop an understanding of the function, features and characteristics
of electronic measurement and test equipment. They will also gain practical
experience of their use when carrying out electronic testing and measurements in a
wide range of electronic engineering applications. This will include selecting,
connecting and operating different types of test equipment and applying
measurement techniques.
Learners will demonstrate that they can apply common testing methods and be able
to assess errors inherent in the instruments used. Particular attention is paid to
ensure that the test procedure, as well as the test and measurement equipment used
is fit-for-purpose and properly calibrated. Learners will be expected to explain the
effects of instrument characteristics such as accuracy, display resolution and loading
and how these affect the measured quantity.
Finally, learners will be introduced to the use of virtual test instruments and
software to make measurements and analyse measurement data. They will examine
equipment such as a digital storage oscilloscope, spectrum analyser, digital
voltmeter, digital frequency meter, arbitrary waveform generator or logic analyser.
Learners will be expected to make measurements using virtual instruments and
analyse the captured data using appropriate software.

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Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the function, features and characteristics of electronic measurement
and test equipment
2 Be able to select and use electronic measurement and test equipment to make
meaningful measurements on an electronic circuit
3 Understand the principles of calibration and configuration of electronic test
equipment
4 Be able to select and use virtual test instruments and software to make
measurements and analyse measurement data.

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 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Unit content

1 Understand the function, features and characteristics of electronic

measurement and test equipment

Function of equipment: as appropriate to the measurement and test equipment

eg accurate measurement of alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC)
voltage and current, resistance, waveform and distortion measurement, accurate
measurement of waveform parameters (period, duty cycle, on-time, off-time,
rise time, fall time, frequency, pulse repetition frequency (PRF), impedance,
logic level)
Features of equipment: as appropriate to the measurement and test equipment
eg displays and display technology, input and output connectors, attenuators,
manual and automatic range selection (auto ranging), in-built calibration
facilities, portability, power sources, external bus interfaces
Characteristics of equipment: measurement and test equipment specifications eg
input impedance, output impedance, resolution, accuracy, distortion, bandwidth,
input signal range, output level, sample rate, trigger sources
Measurement instruments: meters (voltmeter, ammeter); analogue/digital
multimeter; oscilloscope
Electronic test equipment: signal generator eg audio frequency (AF), radio
frequency (RF) and pulse generators, waveform/function generators; digital
counter/frequency meter; AC bridge; logic probe; logic pulser; current tracer

2 Be able to select and use electronic measurement and test equipment to make
meaningful measurements on an electronic circuit

Selection of equipment: selection based on instrument specifications,

characteristics and limitations eg output, level, input sensitivity, frequency
range, accuracy, resolution and distortion
Measurement techniques: test-point voltage and waveform measurement; supply
voltage and current measurement; power, impedance and phase angle
measurement using variable loads; frequency and PRF measurement; rise and fall
time measurement; distortion and noise measurement (qualitative only); use of
test specifications eg in the case of a variable DC power supply, measurement of
the actual output voltage delivered at a specified load current when the power
supply has been set to a specified voltage under no-load conditions; in the case of
an audio amplifier, measurement of the output power delivered to an externally
connected load of specified resistance, using a specified test frequency and
waveform, and at a specified level of distortion

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Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Measurements: use of test points, test leads and probes; minimisation of loading
effects; use of appropriate instrument ranges; precautions to be taken when
measuring high voltages and currents; effect of DC levels on AC signals and
waveforms; effect of signals present at DC test points; effect of drift and
temperature; need for calibration; relevant test specification and measurement
techniques eg sampling, averaging
Electronic equipment: industrial/consumer electrical and electronic equipment
including low-voltage DC power supplies eg linear, switched-mode types;
amplifiers eg AF, RF, small-signal, power; oscillators eg sinusoidal, square wave,
crystal controlled; radio equipment eg radio receivers, low-power transmitters
and transceivers; digital electronic equipment eg microcontrollers,
microcomputers, programmable logic controllers; video equipment eg television
and video players/recorders

3 Understand the principles of calibration and configuration of electronic test

equipment

Calibration principles: procedures eg check, adjust, systematically standardise

measuring instrument, set-up arrangement; reference standards eg Weston
cadmium standard cell, standard resistors, standard inductor; theory eg accuracy,
uncertainty; impact of calibration on quality, productivity and safety;
applications eg during manufacture, following installation, periodic scheduled
maintenance, in response to identified deviation, after repair or change in
environment; terminology eg zero shift, range (or span) error, combined zero
shift and range error, non-linearity
Health and safety issues: eg precautions to be observed when setting and
adjusting mains supply voltages, replacing/charging/disposing of batteries,
dismantling and reassembling equipment, removal/replacement of external and
internal covers, making adjustments on ‘live’ equipment, continuity of earth
(grounding or bonding) of electrical equipment, safety cut-outs and residual
current device (RCD), earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
Configuration issues: pre-conditions and checks to ensure that system/equipment
is safe to test and instruments safe to use; test equipment set-up eg use of the
equipment manufacturer’s procedures, using commissioning guides

4 Understand the use of virtual test instruments and software to make

measurements and analyse measurement data

Virtual measurement and test system: eg digital storage oscilloscope, spectrum

analyser, digital voltmeter, digital frequency meter, arbitrary waveform
generator, logic analyser
Measurement techniques, connection, hardware and software: tests carried out
on electronic equipment using virtual test and measuring instruments; instrument
connection eg external/internal PC interface, instrument connection standards
(parallel port, serial port, USB, PCI/PXI bus, IEEE-488, PCMCIA); use of hardware
and software to carry out measurements eg voltage, frequency, frequency
spectra measurements (for sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal waveforms);
measurement software, data storage and data transfer eg to a spreadsheet,
automated measurement/data collection techniques

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 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the function, features and M1 explain the importance of resolution, D1 evaluate the accuracy of own test
characteristics of one measurement accuracy, sensitivity bandwidth and measurements and relate them to
instrument and three different pieces of input impedance on the performance of limitations of the test equipment, test
electronic test equipment a piece of test equipment procedures, or possible emerging fault
conditions
P2 select and use test equipment and M2 use a manufacturer’s recommended
measuring techniques to take procedure together with laboratory D2 devise and demonstrate a calibration
measurements from three different instruments and standards to calibrate procedure for an item of electronic test
pieces of electronic equipment and configure an item of electronic test equipment.
equipment
P3 explain the importance of test
specifications as an aid to ensuring the M3 use appropriate software to display and
validity and consistency of analyse voltage/time data captured from
measurements a virtual oscilloscope.
P4 describe the principles and need for the
calibration of an item of electronic test
equipment

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 explain the health, safety and
configuration issues that need to be
considered when connecting test
equipment to an item of electronic
equipment that requires testing
P6 use a virtual measurement and test
system to carry out a test on a piece of
electronic equipment and describe the
measurement techniques, instrument
connection, hardware and software
used.

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 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should concentrate on the practical application of electronic

measurement and testing of electronic equipment and systems. Learners should be
introduced to the applications of various types of test equipment by using them to
make measurements on laboratory made-up circuits or rigs. It is important to note
that, in the context of this unit, the term ‘electronic test equipment’ includes
instruments for making measurements (such as voltmeters) as well as instruments
that provide standard inputs for electronic circuits (such as signal generators).
It is expected that learners will already have a working knowledge of most of the
measurement instruments covered by this unit (voltmeter, ammeter,
analogue/digital multimeters, oscilloscope). If this is the case then more time can be
spent on the other aspects of the unit. However, it is appreciated that some learners
may not have this experience and tutors will need to make allowances for this in
their delivery planning.
Proper equipment calibration processes should be emphasised throughout delivery.
Learners should refer to calibration standards and standard signal sources and explain
how they are used in the calibration process. They should also appreciate that an
instrument’s calibration is only as accurate at the calibration of the reference
standards used.
Learners should be given opportunities to select and correctly use as many of the
types of test equipment listed in the content as possible, and make decisions on the
measuring techniques to be applied. It is also important that learners experience as
wide a range of available instrument functions and ranges as possible. As a result, it
is important to allocate sufficient hands-on time in order to develop the relevant
skills and understanding.
Ideally measurements will be made on real electronic or electronically controlled
systems/equipment. Examples might be power supplies, consumer electronic
equipment (such as video and audio equipment), computers and peripheral devices,
radio receivers and transceivers, power controllers, programmable logic controllers
etc. The type of equipment used could be chosen to meet local industrial
requirements. All measurements and test results should be recorded in an
appropriate logbook.
Due to the hazardous nature of equipment operated from an AC mains supply and the
presence of high voltages in certain types of equipment, attention must be given to
health and safety arrangements throughout the delivery of this unit.

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Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Assessment

To achieve P1, learners will need to describe the function, features and
characteristics of one measurement instrument and three different pieces of
electronic test equipment. The evidence for this could be block diagrams/sketches
(with appropriate annotation) and short notes. The actual function, features and
characteristics described will be dependent on the electronic test equipment
selected but examples of the of the types of things to consider are provided in the
unit content.
P2 requires learners to select and use test equipment and measuring techniques to
take measurements from three different pieces of electronic equipment. These can
be low-voltage dc power supplies, amplifiers, oscillators, radio equipment, digital
electronic equipment or video equipment. Further examples of each of these are
provided in the unit content.
Learners will need to perform practical measurements in an electronic laboratory or
electronic workshop. Given a particular measurement requirement (for example, to
investigate the frequency range of an oscillator) learners should then be able to
select the appropriate items of test and measurement equipment to carry out the
task. Both the selected item(s) of test equipment and the measuring technique(s)
should be appropriate to each measured quantity. For example, an oscilloscope and
x10 probe would not be appropriate for the accurate measurement of the output
frequency produced by an oscillator. The three different pieces of electronic
equipment should enable as wide a range of test equipment and measuring
techniques to be applied as possible. All three pieces could come from one category
(eg consumer electrical and electronic equipment) as long as the chosen equipment
provided for the use of a sufficient range of test equipment and measuring
techniques. It is expected that all the content listed under measurement techniques
and measurements will have been covered by the time learners has carried the
measurements on all three pieces of equipment.
Evidence for P2 is likely to take the form of tutor observations and learner records of
the selection and use of equipment and techniques employed. Suitably annotated
photographic records could also be used (eg a photograph of the equipment being
tested, the test equipment and the test set-up, all suitably labelled to highlight the
key features of the test/measurements).
For P3 learners should provide a written or verbal presentation to explain the
importance of test specifications as an aid to ensuring the validity and consistency of
measurement. Centres should ensure that learners have access to a variety of test
specifications for common measurements (eg determining the output impedance of a
power supply by voltage/current measurement when a suitably rated variable load is
applied). The achievement of this criterion could be effectively linked with the
practical work in any one of the tests carried out for P2.
P4 requires learners to describe the principles and need for calibration of an item of
electronic test equipment. Again, one of the tests undertaken for P2 could provide
the focus for this criterion. The description, which is likely to be a written report,
must include the electronic test equipment calibration procedures that need to be
carried out, the reference standards required and any relevant theory. Examples of

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 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

each of these and typical applications are given in the unit content. As an aid to
understanding the calibration process, centres should demonstrate the calibration
procedures for equipment used in the laboratory (eg oscilloscopes, digital
multimeters, signal generators, etc).
For P5 learners must be able to explain the health, safety and configuration issues
that need to be considered when connecting test equipment to an item of electronic
equipment that requires testing. The health and safety issues considered will depend
upon the equipment being tested. The configuration issues considered must, as a
minimum, enable the learner to take into account the required pre-conditions and
checks to ensure that it is safe to test the system/equipment. For example the
selection of an adequately rated load in terms of both impedance and power rating
when testing an audio amplifier or the need to check that an oscilloscope probe is
correctly matched to the oscilloscope that it is to be used with. Learners will also
need to ensure instruments are safe to use (eg use of a high-voltage probe when
measuring DC voltages in excess of 500 V) and test equipment set-up correctly eg use
of equipment manufacturer’s procedures, using commissioning guides. Again it would
make sense to link this criterion to one of the tests undertaken for P2.
To satisfy P6 learners should use a virtual measurement and test system to carry out
a test on a piece of electronic equipment. They should provide a written or verbal
description of the procedure used, explaining the connections made, the software
settings, and the measuring techniques used. A typical example would be the use of a
virtual digital storage oscilloscope used in conjunction with a personal computer
(PC). Learners should connect and configure the instrument in conjunction with the
software running on the PC and select, for example, appropriate sampling rates,
input ranges and display and data capture settings. Evidence of individual learner’s
work can most conveniently be presented in the form of a selection of screen dumps
that have been suitably annotated by the learner.
To achieve M1 learner need to explain the importance of resolution, accuracy,
sensitivity bandwidth and input impedance on the performance of a piece of test
equipment. This could be achieved as a natural extension to one of the tasks carried
out for P2.
For M2, learners are required to calibrate and configure a test instrument (such as a
waveform generator), using the manufacturer’s recommended procedures and
appropriate laboratory instruments and standards. Learners should be supplied with
relevant documentation (eg manufacturer’s handbook) and laboratory standards
(such as a standard frequency or time generator). Evidence is likely to be a logbook
record of the calibration exercise or a technical report of the calibration activity.
Tutor observation records should be used to support either of these forms of
evidence. There is a clear link between this merit criterion and P4.
To satisfy M3, learners should use a virtual storage oscilloscope (using a PC with
appropriate interface hardware and software) to display and analyse a waveform.
Note that the emphasis should be on the analysis of the waveform rather than its
display. A typical example might involve the production of a frequency spectrum for
the sampled waveform using FFT techniques. Once again, learners should keep a
record of their work in a logbook, supported by tutor observation records. Relevant
screen dumps and print outs that have been suitably annotated by the learner could
also be incorporated.

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The learner’s work towards D1 should require them to evaluate the accuracy of their
own test measurements and relate them to limitations of the test equipment, test
procedures, or possible emerging fault conditions. For example, learners should be
aware of the inability of an oscilloscope to accurately display a transient pulse due to
the oscilloscope’s own finite rise-time and bandwidth. Another example would be the
need to be aware of the effects of aliasing on the captured and displayed waveform
when sampling a fast waveform.
For D2, learners need to be able to devise and demonstrate a calibration procedure
for an item of electronic test equipment. A typical example might be a procedure to
calibrate a ‘x10’ oscilloscope probe using a fast-rise time square wave generator, a
high-speed oscilloscope, and a matching ‘x10’ probe. Evidence is likely to be in the
form of a technical report although it would be beneficial if the devised calibration
could be linked into the work done for P2, P3, P4 and M2.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 34: Electronic Circuit Manufacture.
The unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Engineering Maintenance, particularly:
• Unit 17: Testing Electronic Equipment and Circuits
• Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation and Control Systems.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to an electronic laboratory in which a range of

electronic test and measurement equipment (such as multimeters, signal generators,
oscilloscopes, etc) is available. A limited number of specialist items of electronic test
equipment and calibration sources (eg standard cells and off-air signal sources) will
be required. Specialist items of electronic equipment (such as, AC bridges, earth
continuity testers, logic analysers, component testers, etc) may be required as
appropriate to the needs of local industry.
A small number of computer-based virtual instruments should also be available
together with the appropriate hardware and software (eg LabVIEW, DASYLab, DADiSP,
MATLAB etc). Test and measurement applications should be installed on these
systems.

Indicative reading for learners

Hughes E, Hiley J, Brown K and Mackenzie-Smith I — Electrical and Electronic

Technology (Prentice Hall, 2004) ISBN 0131143972
Tooley M — Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications (Newnes, 2006)
ISBN 0750669233
Tooley M — PC Based Instrumentation and Control (Newnes, 2005) ISBN 0750647167

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 Unit 67: Electronic Measurement and Testing

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• taking measurements from N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
three different pieces of information from relevant sources.
electronic equipment. N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and describing C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the function, features and least two documents about the same
characteristics of a subject.
measurement instrument and Each document must be at least 1000
three different pieces of words long
electronic test equipment
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• explaining the importance of each one giving different information
test specifications. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
preparing technical reports sources, and multiple search criteria in at
on test and measurement least one case.
equipment. ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
derive new information.
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting and using PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
appropriate test equipment ways of tackling it.
and measuring techniques. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing

Engineering Equipment
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Engineers need to be able to monitor whatever they are doing, identify any problems
and report their findings. Most engineering companies have standard approaches to
monitoring and reporting on activities. If a problem is identified, engineers should
know what to do to rectify the problem within a reasonable time frame whilst
complying with relevant regulations, standards and guidelines. Because there are
risks involved in any engineering activity, it is also important that engineers are
aware of these risks and can make judgements about what to do based on outcomes
of a risk analysis.
This unit will enable learners to monitor an engineering activity and know how to
rectify any associated problems. The activity can be set in a variety of engineering
contexts to meet the needs of individual learners and can include production,
installation, operational, maintenance or capability/performance measurement. The
problems encountered will vary according to the engineering activity undertaken, but
may cover such things as equipment malfunction, environmental issues or be design
related.
Learners will know about the correct use of monitoring and rectification related
documentation, from reporting methods to ensuring compliance with relevant
regulations, standards and guidelines.
Finally, learners will have an opportunity to carry out and report on a risk analysis of
an engineering activity.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to monitor an engineering activity
2 Know how to rectify an engineering problem
3 Know how to use documentation for monitoring and rectification purposes
4 Be able to conduct and report on a risk analysis of an engineering activity.

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Unit content

1 Be able to monitor an engineering activity

Monitoring process: ensuring effective supply and use of resources eg equipment,

people, facilities, materials; verifying materials to be used are within
specification eg documentation (such as work orders, contracts, memos,
plans/designs, purchase orders), standard operating procedures (such as process
control sheets/charts, quality standards), equipment or materials supplier
information, schedules; recording any deviations; reporting problems which occur
during the monitoring process; measuring the outputs of the engineering process
and comparing these with specifications; confirming compliance with relevant
regulations and guidelines; methodology eg observation, sampling, data collection
Activity: in engineering context eg production (such as processing materials,
fabrication, finishing, assembly, joining), installation (such as
commissioning/decommissioning, site preparation, equipment installation),
operational (such as movement of materials, quality systems and audit, scheduled
safety audits and risk assessments), maintenance (such as planned preventive
maintenance (PPM), part or sub-assembly exchange, breakdown response
maintenance records systems, line setting), equipment capability/performance
measurement

2 Know how to rectify an engineering problem

Rectification process: consulting relevant people about the extent of the problem
and its impact on the engineering activity; gathering all appropriate information
to help identify or clarify the problem; evaluating possible solutions eg
temporary, short term, long term; selecting the most appropriate solution to
rectify the problem; communicating the proposed solution to the relevant people
(obtaining feedback where appropriate); preparing a plan of action for
implementation of the agreed solution; ensuring the agreed solution is
implemented correctly and promptly; monitoring outcomes of the rectification
activity and making any necessary revisions to the plan of action; ensuring that
the problem is rectified to the agreed level of acceptability
Engineering problems and disciplines: problems eg component/assembly,
material handling devices, deviation from component/product specification,
equipment malfunction, ergonomically related, utilities supply (such as gas,
electricity, water, air), scheduling, safety related, lack of resources/materials,
environmental (such as pollutants, temperature, irritants, waste materials),
customer request, design related, deviation from departmental procedure(s);
discipline eg production engineering, manufacturing operations, quality
engineering, installation engineering, maintenance/plant engineering

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 Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

3 Know how to use documentation for monitoring and rectification purposes

Monitoring report: confirming that the engineering methods used are

appropriate; confirming that the outputs and materials used are within the
required specification
Methods of reporting: verbal; other methods eg email, computer-based
presentation, written or typed, company-specific form
Rectification information and solution: data sources eg statistical data, historical
records, quality audits, operational procedures/manufacturing manuals, health
and safety information, environmental documents; solution’s compliance to
relevant regulations, standards and guidelines eg international, national,
manufacturer specific, company policy and procedures, industry specific,
statutory bodies; solution within agreed time frame eg temporary, short term,
long term

4 Be able to conduct and report on a risk analysis of an engineering activity

Analysing risks: equipment related eg process complexity, ergonomics,

instructions, procedures, safety functions, guarding and aids, transportation and
handling, substances and materials, power failure; environment related eg
ventilation, equipment condition, lighting, housekeeping; people related eg
competency, team working, physical demands, mental demands, training, stress;
actions eg implement a risk reduction process, allow a period to reduce risks,
implement a special monitoring process, implement an interim containment
action, do nothing (risk is acceptable), suspend operation and rectify immediately
Engineering activity: carry out a risk analysis eg production (such as processing
materials, fabrication, finishing, assembly, joining), installation (such as
commissioning/decommissioning, site preparation, equipment installation),
operational (such as movement of materials), maintenance (such as planned
preventive maintenance (PPM), part or sub-assembly replacement)
Risk analysis report: recommended action(s) to take; a description of the risk(s)
and their ranking; implication of a risk occurring; identification of regulations and
or guidelines applicable; company health and safety policy relative to the risk;
verbal communication of the report; other communication methods eg
written/typed, email, group presentation

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Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P1 carry out a monitoring process for a M1 explain the importance of carrying out a D1 evaluate the role monitoring an
given engineering activity monitoring process in an effective engineering activity has on rectifying a
manner problem with the activity
P2 describe the rectification process for two
engineering problems for a given M2 compare a verbal and one other method D2 compare two actions to take when
engineering discipline of communicating a monitoring report. analysing risks within a given engineering
activity.
P3 produce a report of the monitoring
process carried out for a given
engineering activity
P4 communicate a monitoring report both
verbally and using one other method
P5 use data from two sources for a given
engineering discipline to suggest a
solution that meets compliance needs
and a specific timeframe
P6 analyse the risks associated with a given
engineering activity
P7 produce and communicate a risk analysis
report.

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 Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Much of the assessment of this unit could culminate in the production of several
reports associated with learning outcome 3. However, it is important that learners
have opportunities to develop and practise the skills needed to monitor an
engineering activity and show that they know how to rectify an engineering problem.
A practical delivery approach could therefore be used to introduce learners to a
range of monitoring activities that would involve finding solutions to problems. This
approach would need to be supported by classroom-based activities to develop the
underpinning knowledge required by all the learning outcomes.
The learning outcomes can be delivered in any order. Learning outcome 1 includes a
wide range of activities, giving centres ample opportunity to demonstrate the
monitoring processes in a variety of settings. It is therefore important that centres
ensure learners are able to comment and make reference to supply of resources,
verify to specification, record deviations, ensure problems are reported, measure
outputs and confirm compliance. It may be best to use a practical demonstration on a
particular engineering activity to show learners all these aspects. It is important that
learners practise carrying out the monitoring of an engineering activity.
Similarly, learning outcome 2 involves a wide range of problems and disciplines,
giving ample opportunity for centres to demonstrate the rectification process in a
number of settings. The requirements of the rectification process are clearly laid out
in the unit content and centres should ensure that all aspects of this are covered in
any practical activity. However, learners only need to demonstrate that they know
how to rectify an engineering problem, rather than physically carry out a
rectification process.
For learning outcome 3 learners should have access to good examples of monitoring
and rectification reports. Time needs to be set aside to ensure learners can not only
produce a report but also communicate their report, both verbally and using another
method. Learners must therefore be encouraged to discuss what they do in both
monitoring an activity and rectifying a problem. Some classroom time could be spent
looking at the different types of data sources and relevant regulations, standards and
guidelines. It may be best to restrict coverage to those regulations and standards
applicable to the context learners are likely to come across during their assessment.
For learning outcome 4 learners will need to carry out and report on a risk analysis.
Again, there is a wide range of possible engineering activities, giving centres ample
opportunity to demonstrate and practise risk analysis and reporting in a variety of
settings. During the risk analysis learners should be aware of any health, safety and
environmental requirements applicable to the engineering activity being analysed.
The risks to be analysed must relate to equipment, environment and people and must
also involve an action or range of actions to be identified during the analysis.
Learners must also have opportunities to develop report-writing skills that again have
specific requirements as laid out in the unit content. It is important that learners
practise conducting and reporting on a risk analysis of an engineering activity to
confirm they have these skills.

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Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Assessment

Evidence for many of the assessment criteria is likely to be dependent on practical

activities, so these need to be designed very carefully.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must be able to carry out a monitoring process for
an engineering activity. They will also need to produce a report of the monitoring
process, describe the rectification process and use data to suggest a solution.
Learners will then need to carry out a risk analysis and produce and communicate a
report.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must be able to explain the importance of
carrying out a monitoring process and be able to compare methods of communicating
a report.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners must evaluate the role that monitoring an
activity has on rectifying a problem and be able to compare actions to take when
analysing risks.
This unit could be assessed using two assignments. The first assignment could cover
all the criteria associated with the first three learning outcomes. A practical activity
could be given to carry out a monitoring process for a given engineering activity (P1).
It is important that this activity has opportunities for making reference to the
supply/use of resources, verifying materials are within specification, recording
deviations, ensuring problems are reported, measuring outputs and confirming
compliance with regulations/guidelines. A witness statement/observation record
supplemented by annotated photographs and notes of what the learner did would be
appropriate evidence for this criterion.
If the engineering activity involved two engineering problems, a task could be set
asking learners to describe suitable rectification processes (P2). A third task could
ask learners to produce a report of the monitoring process and communicate this
both verbally and by another method (P3 and P4). A careful record of any verbal
communication will need to be made.
A further task addressing P5 could ask learners to use data from two sources to
suggest a solution that complies with relevant regulations, standards and guidelines
and to a specific time frame. The evidence for this is likely to be a mixture of copies
of the data used and a statement about the solution. Tasks requiring a written
response could be set to address each of the merit criteria M1 and M2 and the
distinction criterion D1.
A second assignment could be set for a given engineering activity and learners asked
to analyse the risks (P6). It is important that the activity has equipment,
environmental and people related risks and that actions can be suggested. A second
task could be set to produce and communicate a risk analysis report (P7). A further
task addressing criterion D2 could be set to compare any of two actions that could be
suggested for the engineering activity covered by the task for P6.

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 Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the following units in
the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards for Engineering Leadership:
• Unit 7: Rectify Engineering Problems
• Unit 8: Monitoring Engineering Activities
• Unit 9: Conduct Risk Analysis on Engineering Activities.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit will require access to a variety of engineering activities to
monitor and rectify. Copies of relevant documentation including reports will be
useful during delivery.

Indicative reading for learners

There are no particular textbooks suitable for this unit.

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Unit 68: Monitoring and Analysing Engineering Equipment

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• describing the rectification process C3.3 Write two different types of
for two engineering problems for a documents each one giving
given engineering discipline different information about
complex subjects.
• producing a report of the monitoring
process carried out for a given One document must be at least
engineering activity. 1000 words long

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• carrying out a monitoring process for PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify
a given engineering activity different ways of tackling it.
• using data from two sources for a
given engineering discipline to
suggest a solution that meets
compliance and a specific time
frame.

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 Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Unit 69: Principles and Applications of

Analogue Electronics
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Although digital circuits have become predominant in electronics, most of the
fundamental components in a digital system, particularly the transistor, are based on
analogue devices. Advances in technology mean that, as transistors get smaller, it
becomes more important when designing digital circuits to account for effects usually
present in analogue circuits. This unit will give learners an understanding of the key
principles and function of analogue electronics.
Analogue electronics is still widely used in radio and audio equipment and in a wide
range of applications where signals are derived from analogue sensors and transducers
prior to conversion to digital signals for subsequent storage and processing.
This unit will introduce learners to the basic analogue principles used in electronics
such as gain, loss and noise and the principles of a range of classes of amplifier. The
unit will also cover the operation of analogue electronic circuit systems and their
components such as integrated circuits (ICs) and the sensors required in analogue
(and some digital) circuits.
Learners will be able to apply their understanding of principles and operation in the
design and testing of analogue electronic circuits for specified functions using
electronic computer-based methods.
Finally, learners will build and test circuits such as a filter, amplifier, oscillator,
transmitter/receiver, power control, or circuits/systems with telecommunication
applications. This will include the use of circuit assembly and testing methods such as
circuit diagrams, interpreting/recording measurements, analysis of performance and
the use of a range of test equipment.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of analogue circuits
2 Understand the operation of analogue electronic circuit systems and their
components
3 Be able to use computer-based techniques to design and test analogue electronic
circuits for specified functions
4 Be able to build and test an analogue electronic circuit.

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Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Unit content

1 Understand the principles of analogue circuits

Gain and loss: definition and use of the decibel (dB), benefits of using the
logarithmic unit for voltage/power gain; decibel reference to one milliwatt (dBm)
Noise: types of noise eg thermal, cross-talk, shot; effects of noise on typical
circuits/components; signal-to-noise ratio
Transistor amplifier: classes of amplifier such as A, B, AB and C; feedback and its
effects on gain, bandwidth, input and output impedance, noise and distortion

2 Understand the operation of analogue electronic circuit systems and their

components

Analogue integrated circuit (IC): use of and interpretation of manufacturers’

data; IC operation eg gain, frequency, power consumption; typical IC systems eg
555 oscillators/timers, amplifiers (operational, power, instrumentation), voltage
regulators (linear or switch mode), filters (switched capacitor), phase locked loop
(PLL), power control (smart devices, MOSFET bridge driver), sensors (thermal,
opto, magnetic), analogue switches

3 Be able to use computer-based techniques to design and test analogue

electronic circuits for specified functions

Propose design solutions: use of integrated circuits; use of simulation program

with integrated circuit emphasis (SPICE)/electronic computer aided design (ECAD)
techniques to analyse and develop circuits
Circuits and systems: eg filters (anti-aliasing, mains, notch), amplifiers (specified
gain/frequency response, power), oscillators (voltage controlled oscillator (VCO)
for frequency shift keying (FSK) or frequency modulation (FM)), PLL for FSK or FM
demodulator, opto-transmitter/receiver (fibre link, remote control), power
supplies (DC/AC converter, non-interruptible), sensors (environmental), power
control (stepper motor driver), circuits and systems with telecommunication
applications
Circuit simulation and testing: functional testing using a supplied test
specification to determine circuit design inputs and outputs eg test-point
voltages, output signals

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 Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

4 Be able to build and test an analogue electronic circuit

Circuit assembly: use of prototyping methods eg breadboard, stripboard, printed

circuit board (PCB); typical circuits eg filter, amplifier, oscillator,
transmitter/receiver, power control, circuits/systems with telecommunication
applications
Circuit testing: use circuit diagrams; interpret/record measurements eg voltage,
frequency, noise, gain; analysis of performance; use of test equipment eg
oscilloscope, signal generator, digital multimeters, frequency meter/spectrum
analyser, virtual (computer-based) instruments, data capture

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the decibel as a measure of gain M1 compare the practical performance of D1 analyse the results of a designed
and noise two different classes of amplifier electronic circuit with reference to
measured signal in terms of both voltage
P2 describe two different classes of M2 justify the selection of specific analogue
and frequency
amplifier and explain four different integrated circuit devices to meet a
effects of feedback on the function of an given design specification D2 evaluate computer-based and practical
amplifier methods used to analyse the behaviour
M3 evaluate the performance of an analogue
of an analogue circuits with respect to
P3 explain the operation of three common circuit by interpreting measured results.
their effectiveness in the design process.
analogue integrated circuit devices and
describe two system applications of each
P4 use computer-based simulation methods
to produce a possible design solution for
three different analogue circuit systems
P5 use computer-based simulation methods
to simulate and test the performance of
a given analogue electronic circuit
P6 build and test an electronic circuit to a
given analogue circuit specification.

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 Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered as a stand-alone unit or can be co-delivered with Unit 61:
Construction and Applications of Digital Systems.
This unit assumes that learners already have a certain level of related knowledge and
are able to build circuits using a range of methods. It also assumes they have the
ability to use a range of test and measurement instruments. Tutors will need to
assess these skills at the beginning of the unit and either adjust their delivery style to
incorporate further training or ensure that the appropriate skills are achieved
through other units of study.
A practical approach to delivery will be most effective and tutors should reinforce
the more theoretical aspects through hands-on activities and practical assignments.
Ideally, centres will have strong links with local employers so that learners can apply
their knowledge to real work-based applications of the technology. Alternatively,
visits to appropriate exhibits, trade fairs and manufacturers can be used to help put
the unit into context.
When delivering the benefits of using the decibel (dB) — the need to simply
add/subtract gains should be pointed out.
The high practical content of this unit means that tutors must give appropriate
attention to health and safety. This is of particular importance when relatively large
groups may be working in an electronics workshop environment with minimal
supervision as would be expected at this level of work.
Learning outcome 4 could provide the focus for delivery by developing a range of
mini build and test projects. The content for learning outcome 3 provides a list of
example circuits that could be used as small projects which can be focused on. The
relevant theory, from learning outcomes 1 and 2 could then be integrated into the
projects so that it is taught and applied to reinforce relevance and application.
The use of ‘eg’ is to give an indication and illustration of the breadth and depth of
the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an 'eg' needs to be taught or
assessed.

Assessment

This unit could be assessed through a carefully structured series of activities and
assignments that link to each other and culminate in the building and testing of an
electronic circuit to a given analogue circuit specification.
P1 could be assessed with a short assignment to determine the voltage gain of a
transistor amplifier, expressing this first as a ratio and then converting the voltage
gain (or loss) into decibels (dB). Learners could also measure the output noise power
(in the absence of a signal) and use this to determine the signal to noise ratio for a
given input signal voltage.

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The assignment should ensure that it includes tasks to cover all the required aspects
of content — definition and use of the decibel (dB), benefits of using the logarithmic
unit for voltage/power gain and decibel reference to one milliwatt (dBm). The
assignment must also provide an opportunity to consider the required aspects of
noise — types of noise, effects of noise on typical circuits/components, signal-to-
noise ratio. Setting this within the context of the amplifier investigated by each
learner will provide scope for authentic evidence based on individual practical work.
Ensuring that each learner is working with a slightly different amplifier could further
reinforce this.
Assessment of P2 could build upon the learner’s work with transistor amplifiers by
considering and describing two different classes of amplifier (eg class A and class B).
The choice of amplifiers must ensure that between them, the learner is able to
explain at least four different effects of feedback on the function of an amplifier (eg
its effect on gain/bandwidth/input and output impedance/noise and distortion). This
assignment could be designed to also provide learners with an opportunity to work
towards M1 by comparing the practical performance of the two different classes of
amplifier. An alternative to using two separate amplifiers (one of each class) is that
of simply switching the bias of the output stage for operation in either class A or class
B mode.
The third assignment, to cover P3 could require learners to explain the operation of
three common analogue integrated circuit (IC) devices. One or more of these could
then be used in their final circuit for P6. The explanation will need to address the
learner’s use and interpretation of manufacturers’ data and the operation of each IC
for typical IC systems. In addition, learners are required to describe two system
applications of each IC. Again, one of these could be the focus of the build and test
project for P6. A further task could be added to cover M2, requiring learners to
justify the selection of specific IC devices to meet a given design specification. Note
the use of ‘devices’ in the criterion. This implies that the system has more than one
IC device operational.
Assessment of P4 and P5 can be through a fourth assignment. This will require
learners to use SPICE/ECAD to produce circuit designs, with annotated printouts of
three different circuits, eg filters, amplifiers, oscillators. A more extensive range of
examples is given within the content section for this criterion. Learners could then
simulate and test the performance of one of these in detail (eg for DC
levels/gain/frequency/bandwidth), which would give an opportunity to achieve P5. In
addition, evidence of learners’ ability to evaluate the performance of one of these
analogue circuits by interpreting measured results, could lead to achievement of M3.
If learners are also able to demonstrate their ability to analyse the results of a
designed electronic circuit with reference to measured signal in terms of both
voltage and frequency then they could achieve D1. Note that another opportunity
exists for M3 and D1 to be achieved during the build and test work for P6. However,
M3 or D1 only needs to be achieved once and it is not important whether this is
through simulated or real circuit evaluation and analysis.

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 Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Finally, P6 should bring all of the learner’s experience together within one practical
build and test of an actual circuit. This could be built using breadboard, stripboard or
printed circuit board (PCB) techniques. The circuit could well be one of the
simulated circuits used for P4 or P5. This could include an opportunity for learners to
reflect on the techniques carried out for P4, P5 and P6 and work towards
achievement of D2. For example the evaluation of the SPICE/ECAD-approach (P4/P5)
compared with the practical methods (P6) used to analyse the behaviour of an
analogue circuit with respect to their effectiveness in the design process.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit contributes towards the knowledge and understanding requirements of the
SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 15: Checking the Compliance of Electronic Components Against the
Specification
• Unit 16: Assembling and Checking Printed and Allied Electronic Circuits
• Unit 17: Assembling and Wiring Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production Electronic Components and Circuits.
The unit can be effectively linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles,
Unit 61: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems, Unit 34: Electronic Circuit
Manufacture and Unit 54: Electronic Measurement and Testing.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to an electronics workshop including facilities for
circuit construction using breadboards/stripboard/PCB methods together with the
relevant tools and equipment.
Centres will also need to provide the basic components and appropriate specialised
integrated circuits together with relevant catalogues, application notes and data
sheets. In addition, one or more internet-connected PCs should be available so that
learners can locate data and information using the worldwide web.
Access to SPICE/ECAD facilities that permit circuit simulation and testing is essential.
Electronic test equipment will also need to be provided to meet the requirements of
the unit content and assessment and grading criteria.

Indicative reading for learners

Storey N — Electronics: A Systems Approach (Prentice Hall, 2006) ISBN 0131293966

Tooley M — Electronics Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications (Newnes, 2006)
ISBN 0750669233

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using an oscilloscope and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
other test equipment to information from relevant sources.
make and record appropriate N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
measurements stage calculations to do with:
• carrying out circuit a amounts or sizes
calculations, interpreting and
b scales or proportions
presenting electronic circuit
test results. d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
describing/explaining the least two documents about the same
decibel as a measure of gain subject.
and noise, different classes Each document must be at least 1000
of amplifier and the words long.
operation of analogue
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
integrated circuit devices.
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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 Unit 69: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching the decibel as a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
measure of gain and noise, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
different classes of amplifier least one case.
and the operation of ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
analogue integrated circuit derive new information.
devices
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
• developing their reports and text with image, text with number,
presenting their findings. image with number.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using SPICE/ECAD to produce PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
design solutions for analogue ways of tackling it.
circuit systems. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Unit 70: Construction and Applications of

Digital Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Digital electronics play an integral part in modern society. Their wide application,
from washing machines and car management systems to street furniture devices (eg
turning street lighting on and off), means that there is an increased need for safe,
low maintenance, energy-efficient systems. These new systems also frequently make
use of alternative energy sources and have their eventual disposal (e-waste) taken
into account from their conception.
This unit will give learners an understanding of recent advances in digital electronics
and the new technologies that often replace older electrical and electronic systems
(legacy systems). Learners will also develop an understanding of how the components
of an electronic system are connected together (interfaced) to enable analogue
signals to be transmitted digitally. For example, interface circuit devices such as
optocouplers are useful devices that offer the ability to transfer an electrical signal
from one circuit to another while electrically isolating the two.
Learners will also have the opportunity to build and test different digital systems,
enabling them to understand circuit life cycles, circuit costs and build and test
methods.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand energy efficient use of modern digital electronics technology
2 Understand the transmission of analogue data in a digital system
3 Understand the selection and use of interface devices and logic devices for digital
circuits
4 Be able to build and test digital systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand energy efficient use of modern digital electronics technology

Small energy sources: source types eg solar (photovoltaic), batteries (lead-acid,

nickel-cadmium (NiCad), nickel-iron (NiFe)), alternative sources (small-scale
wind/water turbines); maintenance, handling and care eg recharging, testing,
replacement techniques, disposal
Extended system life: legacy systems and modern applications eg historical
technologies, impact of required energy levels, load evaluation and usage,
alternative systems, consideration of e-waste, use of ‘fuzzy logic’ techniques;
applications eg street furniture, charge regulators, thermostats, load diverting
controllers, calculators; lifetime costs, efficiencies, reliability, maintenance

2 Understand the transmission of analogue data in a digital system

Data transmission: digital-to-analogue converters (DACs) eg digital-ramp,

summing amplifier, current switches, R-2R ladder; analogue-to-digital converters
(ADC) eg counter, successive approximation, flash; integrated circuits eg slope,
dual slope; code converters and function generators (look-up tables);
optoelectronic display devices eg 7-segment, 14-segment (starburst), dot-matrix,
liquid crystal display (LCD), light-emitting diode (LED), organic light-emitting
diode (OLED), plasma, vacuum fluorescent display (VFD)
Tri-state devices: tri-state buffers and line drivers; control of data access to bus
or transmission channel; random bus arbitration access; ordered time division
multiplexed access

3 Understand the selection and use of interface devices and logic devices for
digital circuits

Standard data Interface: industry standards eg general applications (International

Standards Organisation (ISO), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), British
Standards Institute (BSI)), telecommunication applications (Telecommunications
Industry Association (TIA), International Telecommunication Union (ITU),
European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI), Office of
Communications (Ofcom)), electronic applications (Joint Electronic Device
Engineering Council (JEDEC)); standard interfaces eg RS232, RS422, RS562, V24,
V28, V10, V11; electrical current sourcing and heat sinking requirements; voltage
level adjusting; optocouplers/optoisolator; tri-state/bi-directional line driver
device in a multiplexed data bus transmission system
Logic devices families: characteristics eg power consumption and interfacing
(emitter-coupled logics (ECL), transistor-transistor logic (TTL), low-power
Schottley transistor-transistor Logic (LSTTL), complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor (CMOS), high-speed CMOS (HCMOS)); levels of integration and
benefits eg small/medium/large/very large/ultra large scale integration
(SSI/MSI/LSI/VLSI/ULSI), system-on-chip (SOC)

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4 Be able to build and test digital systems

Circuits and systems: combinational circuit eg logic encoder, decoder,

multiplexer, demultiplexer, code converter, function generator;
asynchronous/synchronous circuit eg counter, frequency divider, ring counter,
clock waveform generator, register, shift register, converters (serial-to-parallel,
parallel-to-serial); systems eg security (access control, intruder alarms, fire,
nurse call), safety (weight levels, proximity, sensor technologies), monitoring
(level indicators, flow rates, temperature), embedded (dedicated computers,
RAM/Flash memory)
Circuit testing: aids eg data sheets, test instruments, specialised tools; built-in
self-tests, in-circuit emulators; glitches eg electronic pulse of short duration
cross-talk, amplitude noise margins; race conditions eg input condition conflicts,
floating inputs; hazards (static, timing); test patterns; precautions when testing
components, datalines and systems

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Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe how two different types of M1 explain the benefits of combining a small D1 evaluate a digital system to consider how
small energy sources are used to support energy source together with modern a modern energy source and/or energy
two different digital electronic systems digital technologies reducing components might improve the
system’s future life cycle
P2 explain how modern technologies can be M2 compare the operation of two different
used to extend the life of an existing types of data transmission device D2 evaluate and suggest improvements to
electronic system the circuit operation of a digital system
M3 compare the operation of a
with respect to the method of data
P3 describe how analogue data is combinational logic device and a
acquisition and human interface
transmitted by a digital electronic circuit sequential logic device.
employed.
P4 explain the role and operation of a tri-
state device in analogue data
transmission
P5 describe the selection and use of two
different types of standard data
interfaces within working systems
P6 identify a logic device family, its current
levels of integration and the benefits of
using it

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 Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 build two different digital electronic
circuits to be used in different digital
systems
P8 carry out circuit testing of the two
constructed circuits to check system
performance against specification.

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Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should focus on practical investigation of digital electronic

systems and components.
Tutors should ensure that learners a understand how growth in new technologies and
the phasing out of legacy systems tends to increase efficiency and reliability of
operation. Industrial visits, employer support and use of the internet can help
learners obtain knowledge of the latest developments and trends.
The practical aspects of unit delivery should be used to enable learners to recognise
different components, circuits and complete systems. This will allow them to
appreciate how the various aspects fit together to produce an efficient, reliable and
safe device/system that can be used in a range of environments.
The importance of standards bodies for local and international markets is essential in
a global economy. Learners will need access to standards and related materials and
their importance should be highlighted when looking at existing devices/systems and
considering the development of new ones.
Learning outcome 4 requires learners to build a digital electronic circuit and test it
to ensure that it functions as expected. During delivery of these practical tasks
attention must be given to health and safety arrangements.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit could be collected from a mixture of written
technical reports and practical activities, supported by tutor observation records.
To achieve P1, learners need to consider two different given or chosen digital
electronic systems, each with a different small energy source. Learners are expected
to describe the type of energy source being used and the requirements of that system
in terms of the source’s maintenance, handling and care. When describing the type
of small energy source being used learners should also consider the operational
environment in which it operates and the expected energy levels required by the
system in order to maintain effective operation.
P2 considers similar aspects to that of P1 but from the perspective of a legacy
system. Once again, the system can be chosen by the learner or be given by the
tutor. The explanation learners provide needs to consider how current technologies
might be used to enhance the efficiency of operation and maintenance of the
existing system. This may draw from some or most of the examples given in the unit
content such as historical technologies, impact of required energy levels, load
evaluation and usage etc. Typical applications that may be considered are also listed
in the unit content although others may equally apply. The learner’s explanation
must cover aspects of lifetime costs, efficiencies, reliability and maintenance.
The work carried out for P1 and P2 will naturally prepare learners for achievement of
M1, when they are required to consider and explain the benefits of combining a small
energy source together with modern digital technologies.

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 Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

To achieve P3 and P4 learners need to consider the transmission aspects of data that
many systems require in order to effectively process data. P3 requires learners to
demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of how analogue and digital signals
can be transposed. P4 requires them to show how the data transmitted around the
system is controlled. Learners should consider at least one large complete circuit or a
series of smaller ones. The written explanations/descriptions should make use of
correct circuit/logic symbols that are based on an appropriate standard. Appropriate
standards should be used at all times and learners should provide a key/suitable
reference to indicate the standard to which they are working.
The work carried out for P3 and P4 can be extended to M2, when learners compare
the operation of two different types of data transmission device.
P5 requires learners to describe the selection and use of two different types of
standard data interfaces within working systems. They will need to look at two
different and currently operational devices/systems and describe the reasons why
they are the most appropriate for that situation.
P6 requires learners to identify a logic device family, the available levels of integration
and the benefits of that family. This could be achieved by learners taking a digital
image of a device/system and making a leaflet to identify the characteristics of the
device family and relevant levels of integration that can be achieved.
P7 and P8 should be linked together so that the two circuits that are built are the
same circuits that are tested.
P7 requires learners to build two different digital electronic circuits that are to be
used within different digital systems. It is expected that one of these would be a
combinational circuit eg logic encoder, decoder, multiplexer, demultiplexer etc. The
other digital electronic circuits should be either an asynchronous or synchronous
circuit eg counter, frequency divider, ring counter etc. These circuits may be given
by the tutor or selected by the learner, with tutor guidance to ensure coverage of
unit content. Typically, these circuits will be part of a digital electronic system such
as a security system, a safety system, a monitoring system or an embedded system. It
is not expected that the constructed circuit should actually be used within the
system but learners need to show they understand how it could be integrated within
the working system.
The focus of this unit is not on circuit building or testing and it is assumed that
learners have gained sufficient knowledge of these elsewhere, eg in Unit 34:
Electronic Circuit Manufacture. Assessment of P7 should therefore concentrate on
learners’ use of modern digital electronics, their understanding of analogue data
transmission and the selection and use of interface devices and logic devices.
P8 requires learners to carry out circuit testing of the two constructed circuits to
check system performance against specification. Between the two tests there should
be sufficient evidence to meet all the requirements of the unit content. This will
need to include a range of aids to testing, built-in self-tests, in-circuit emulators and
identification of circuit glitches, race conditions, hazards, test patterns and
precautions.
The need to fully meet the unit content requirements will inevitably influence the
choice of suitable circuits for P7 and P8. Where centres wish to allow learner
choice/employer involvement, it will be important to maintain sufficient tutor
guidance on the circuits chosen to ensure full unit content coverage.

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Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Assessment evidence for P7 and P8 is likely to be in the form of learner notes and
records of circuit construction and testing plus tutor observation records of the build
and test procedures. Annotated photographic records could also be used.
Achievement of M3 will build on the knowledge and understanding gained from P7
and P8. The two circuits to be compared could be the same as those built and tested
for P7 and P8, although this is not essential. Centres may decide that learners would
gain a wider understanding through the comparison of two different circuits provided
by the tutor. The comparison should be based upon the unit content as a whole, eg
energy source used, consideration of extended system life, data transmission
methods, data interfacing, application of a specific logic family, method of
circuit/system construction and how circuits have been/could be tested.
For D1 and D2, learners will need to demonstrate a deeper understanding of working
systems and the application of current and future technologies. D1 allows learners to
focus on small energy sources and energy-reducing aspects of a system. There is a
natural link between this criterion and the work undertaken for P1, P2, M1 and M2.
Learners should consider and review an existing digital system to establish how the
system works and how energy reducing components could potentially improve the
future life cycle of the system.
D2 is intended to allow learners to work in a way that may meet their own interests
or local needs with either employer or centre guidance. Learners should be directed
to consider the various aspects of circuit operation related to input and output for a
system, including a good range of circuit level considerations.
Centres that do not wish to leave the delivery and assessment of the distinction
criteria to the later part of the unit may wish to guide learners towards a suitable
system at an early stage and build upon it as the unit progresses.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 25: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic
Controllers. The unit builds upon Unit 34: Electronic Circuit Manufacture and Unit 54:
Electronic Measurement and Testing and assumes learners are able to build circuits,
use test equipment and carry out circuit measurements before starting this unit.
The unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 15: Checking the Compliance of Electronic Components Against the
Specification
• Unit 16: Assembling and Checking Printed and Allied Electronic Circuits
• Unit 17: Assembling and Wiring Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production Electronic Components and Circuits.

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 Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Essential resources

Centres should have sufficient facilities to carry out practical investigations of legacy
systems, working devices/systems and equipment and components for building and
testing digital electronic circuits. Relevant software packages should also be
available to permit simulation of device and circuit performance.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Ifeacher E and Jervis B — Digital Signal Processing: A Practical Approach (Prentice
Hall, 2001) ISBN 0201596199
Wakerly J — Design: Principles and Practices (Prentice Hall, 2006) ISBN 0131733494

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Unit 70: Construction and Applications of Digital Systems

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out practical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
measurements and information from relevant sources.
laboratory work. N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• investigating digital C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
electronic systems and least two documents about the same
devices subject.
• preparing technical reports Each document must be at least 1000
on systems and devices eg words long.
energy sources, legacy C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
systems, and logic device each one giving different information
families. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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 Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Unit 71: Selection and Applications of

Programmable Logic Controllers
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The automation of machines, process control and conveyor lines has resulted in the
ever-increasing consistency of quality, speed and cost savings within complex
processes. Consumers have come to expect high standards of quality in the
manufactured goods they use, but to an engineer these are the challenges that make
the profession interesting.
This unit will consider programmable logic controllers (PLCs), control devices which
aid the automation of these processes. The capabilities of PLCs have developed over
the years, with performance, reliability and operational resilience being key
attributes to their continued success. In order to achieve automated monitoring and
control, these devices can be used on their own or in conjunction with others through
communication systems/links, which are themselves becoming more versatile.
The unit will introduce learners to the use and applications of PLCs, the hardware
and software that makes up a PLC and the interaction needed between the
component parts. Learners will develop their ability to use programming techniques
to produce programs for modern PLCs. They will also gain an understanding of the
different types of communication media used to link larger numbers of PLCs
together, the networking architecture used and the associated standards and
protocols.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the selection, hardware and software requirements of a
programmable controller
2 Be able to use programming techniques to produce a program for a modern
programmable controller
3 Understand complex programmable controller applications
4 Understand data communications media and networks used with modern
programmable controllers.

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Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Unit content

1 Understand the selection, hardware and software requirements of a

programmable controller

Programmable controller selection: criteria eg cost, versatility and scanning

time; internal architecture eg central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic and logic
unit (ALU), flags, registers, memory and types (volatile, non-volatile); scan cycle
(self-test, input/logic/output scans)
System hardware and software requirements: manufacturers’ specification of
input/output (I/O) units (digital and analogue); power supply; use of operating
system; configuration of inputs and outputs; number systems eg binary, octal,
hexadecimal, binary-coded decimal (BCD); input/output devices; mechanical
switch relays (electromechanical and solid state); transducers eg temperature,
pressure, flow, smart sensors, simple motors and drives

2 Be able to use programming techniques to produce a program for a modern

programmable controller

Programming method: eg ladder and logic diagrams, statement listing, functional

diagrams, graphical programming languages, mimic diagrams, sequential function
charts (SFCs)
Produce, store and present program: human computer interface (HCI) eg
handheld input pad, personal computer, text, graphical touch screens; use of
system software to write, edit, delete, save, restore, create reports,
load/unload, search; use of fault diagnostic indicators; print copies of program;
storage eg scanning, memory organisation, continuous updating, back-up copies,
supervisor control and data acquisition (SCADA)
Instruction types: production of program using relay, bit, branch, timer/counter,
comparison, logical, arithmetic instructions; proportional integral derivative (PID)
controller loops

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 Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

3 Understand complex programmable controller applications

Program documentation: hardware considerations (environmental, operational,

maintainability); instruction types; documentation for testing eg software debug
instructions, diagnostic indicators, data monitors, search, force facilities;
complex engineering applications eg machine, process control, conveyor
Health and safety with programmable controller: safe working practices for
personnel and with equipment eg tools and equipment risk assessment, job safety
analysis (JSA), housekeeping practices for work areas, personal protective
equipment (PPE), restriction of non-participants from areas; health and safety
standards (local, national, international) eg local safety agreements between
employees and employers, Health and Safety Executive (HSE), Health and Safety
at Work Act 1974, regulations for the use of display screens; avoiding haphazard
operations eg risk management, planning considerations, testing (usability, unit,
component, acceptance), ‘what If’ scenarios, commissioning

4 Understand data communications media and networks used with modern

programmable controllers

Communication media: selection criteria, description of features, frequency

ranges, technology eg analogue, digital, wireless; media types (cable eg twisted
pairs, coaxial, fibre-optic, shielded/unshielded, categories, operational lengths;
connector eg Bayone-Neill-Concelman (BNC), registered jack (RJ-45), straight tip
(ST), universal serial bus (USB) type A and type B; opto-isolator eg photodiode,
phototransistor, thyristors, triacs)
Network: network architecture (fieldbus, distributed intelligence, ‘open’
communications networks); network standards/protocols eg International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO), Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE), Manufacturing Automation Protocol (MAP), Electronics Industry
Association (EIA — 485), Factory Instrumentation Protocol (FIP)

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Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P1 describe the selection criteria and a M1 select and describe the benefits and D1 evaluate program documentation used
practical application for a unitary, a limitations of a programmable controller to control an automated
modular and a rack-mounted for a specific application machine/process and make
programmable controller recommendations for improvement
M2 justify the choice of a specific
P2 explain the system hardware and programming method and the methods D2 compare the current capabilities and
software requirements for a used to produce, store and present the limitations of a programmable controller
programmable controller application program and identify possible areas of future
development.
P3 use a programming method to produce, M3 compare two different networks used for
store and present a program that a modern programmable controller
demonstrates the full range of system.
instruction types
P4 explain the program documentation that
has been used for a complex engineering
application
P5 describe the importance of health and
safety when working with programmable
controlled equipment

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P6 explain how one example of each of the
three types of communication media
would be selected for a specific
programmable controller application
P7 describe a network and relevant
standards and protocols used for a
modern programmable controller
system.

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Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit or be integrated with other units
such as Unit 61: Construction and Application of Digital Systems and Unit 68:
Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers. An integrated approach to delivery
will give learners an opportunity to consider the wider aspects of hardware and
software development within modern integrated applications. Delivery and learning
will be maximised through a strong, practically based learning programme.
PLC capabilities and their range of uses within the control industry has grown
considerably over recent years, meaning that there is a wide variety of PLCs
available. However, it is important that learners recognise the limitations of earlier
models (in terms of hardware and software) and the potential of newer models for
longer life cycles and advanced characteristics and features.
In order to ensure breadth of learning, centres should ideally work with employers to
introduce real work-based applications of PLC technology. Educational visits to
appropriate events such as exhibits, trade fairs and system manufacturers are an
important method to inspire learning.
Practical work should ensure that learners can recognise a range of PLC units,
interfaces and connections, programming techniques and large system integration,
for both existing and future demands. This will enable them to appreciate how the
various aspects fit together to produce an efficient, reliable and safe control method
that is capable of fitting within a range of operational environments. In some cases,
this will include the need for portability and an operationally sustainable energy
source.
Appropriate attention must be given to health, safety and welfare arrangements
throughout the delivery of this unit.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

PLCs involve a complex mixture of computer technology, communication interfaces

and software programming techniques.
The assessment strategy for this unit should consist of a mix of written technical
reports and hands-on practical work. Annotated photographic evidence could also be
a valuable tool to capture ‘on-site’ information and support learners’ written work.
Where the grading criteria refer to an ‘application’ this is intended to mean a real-
world situation wherever possible. Although a different application could be used for
different criteria it would be reasonable to use the same or closely related
applications throughout.

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 Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

P1 and P2 are closely linked. P1 requires learners to describe the selection criteria
and a practical application for a unitary, a modular and a rack-mounted
programmable controller. In doing so, learners need to demonstrate their ability to
recognise the different approaches to PLC operational activities. In describing the
selection criteria learners should consider things such as cost, versatility and
scanning time, together with relevant descriptions of the internal architecture (eg
central processing unit (CPU), arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) etc) and a practical
application of each.
For P2, a comprehensive range of hardware and software requirements should be
considered. For example, the power supply available may have quite different
consequences for an application involving a field monitoring system as opposed to an
installation in a factory. The amount of coverage of content for this criterion will be
determined by the actual programmable controller application considered but it is
expected that the learner should have at least four or five system hardware and
software requirements indicated and explained.
P3 requires learners to use a programming method to produce, store and present a
program that demonstrates the full range of instruction types. Learners are not
expected to be fully competent programmers but their programs should be printed
out, annotated where appropriate and stored.
The explanation required for P4 needs to cover all the related unit content including
hardware considerations, instruction types and documentation for testing. A
‘complex engineering application’ in this context is intended to mean some form of
machine, a manufacturing process control operation or a conveyor system based on a
real-life situation. Learners will need to provide some details of the complex
application and go on to explain the documentation, for example the program
instructions, testing documentation and forced facilities etc associated with it.
Ideally this would be a work-based application, although learners could be provided
with a case study of a complex application.
P5 requires learners to describe the importance of health and safety when working
with programmable controlled equipment. A range of ‘what if’ scenarios for various
applications could be used to cover the full requirements of the unit content.
P6 requires learners to explain how one example of each of the three types of
communication media (cable, connector, opto-isolator) would be selected for a
specific programmable controller application. The key point here is for learners to
recognise the media, understand how each one is selected, describe the main
features and consider aspects such as frequency ranges and the technology to which
they are being applied.
For P7, there is a possibility that the description of a network and relevant standards
and protocols could become overly complex and involve a wide range of issues.
Therefore, learners need to be restricted to describing just the general network
architecture of perhaps an Ethernet, and provide details of the associated standards
and what they generally imply.
M1 builds on the work carried out for pass criteria P1 and P2, as learners need to
consider a specific application and apply their understanding of the selection criteria
already used. The important point is that they can demonstrate ability in selecting an
appropriate PLC type and have knowledge as to why it is an appropriate choice.

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Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

M2 can be clearly linked to pass criteria P3 and P4. To achieve M2, learners need to
reflect on their choice of programming methods. In their justification learners should
identify why one programming method has been chosen and make it clear why the
others have been rejected.
M3 builds on the work undertaken to achieve P7 and P8. It requires learners to
compare two different networks used for a modern programmable controller system.
This should include details of the networks, standards and key differences. Learners
need to demonstrate that they realise the important differences between networks
and how they may influence the associated PLC systems.
To achieve D1, learners must consider the wider implications of the work carried out
for P4 and M2. Learners need to be able to appraise the material and suggest
improvements. These improvements should not simply be related to the amount of
material documentation. Learners should also consider the documentation in light of
their ability to recognise the hardware considerations, work with the range of
instruction types and use the documentation for testing. As with the related pass
criterion, this must be set within a complex engineering application.
Finally, D2 requires learners to reflect on the unit as a whole. The comparison could
include aspects such as memory capacity, the types of PLC available, the growing
development in networking technologies (eg wireless implications), the use of smart
sensors and how this may impair the programme and feedback loops, how processor
power may influence the programming method etc. Satisfactory achievement of this
criterion will require learners to have considered the range of issues covered by the
unit content and undertaken some independent research of trends and potential
benefits.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 61: Construction and Application of Digital Systems
and Unit 68: Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers.
The unit also links with the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in
Engineering Technical Support, particularly:
• Unit 30: Loading and Proving Computer Control Programs
• Unit No 32: Producing Off-line Programs for Programmable Logic Controller
Equipment.

Essential resources

Centres will need access to a range of PLCs, communication media and interface
devices. Software packages and tools should also be available to permit programming
and implementation of device/applications for circuit performance and debugging.
Learners will require access to a range of relevant manuals, reference data and
manufacturers’ information.

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Indicative reading for learners

Bolton W — Programmable Logic Controllers (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750681128

Hooper J — Introduction to PLCs (Carolina Academic Press, 2004) ISBN 0890893896

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 795

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
Unit 71: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic Controllers

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out research into C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
system hardware and least two documents about the same
software, programming subject.
methods and applications of Each document must be at least 1000
programmable controllers words long.
• preparing technical reports on C3.3 Write two different types of documents
programmable controllers’ each one giving different information
features, characteristics and about complex subjects.
applications.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out research into ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
system hardware and sources, and multiple search criteria in at
software, programming least one case.
methods and applications of ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
programmable controllers derive new information.
• using ICT to prepare and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
present technical reports and text with image, text with number, image
to program. with number.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using a programming method PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
to produce, store and present ways of tackling it.
a program that demonstrates PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
the full range of instruction solving the problem.
types.
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.

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 Unit 72: Principles and Applications of Microcontrollers

Unit 72: Principles and Applications of

Microcontrollers
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
At work and at home we rely on a range of complex electrical and electronic devices
and systems to meet our needs. We expect these devices to have numerous features,
versatility, reduced costs, increased reliability, energy efficiency and be squeezed
into ever-smaller units. This unit will enable learners to understand one of the most
versatile building blocks that enable engineers to develop such applications — the
microcontroller.
A microcontroller is a ‘computer-on-a-chip’ and contains all the elements of a
computer, such as electronic memory, input/output interfaces and control processes.
This provides smal size, reduced power consumption and the ability to control (after
it has been programmed) processes or events. The microcontroller can be used for
applications that measure, store, control, calculate or display information.
This unit will develop learners’ understanding of the internal features of
microcontrollers and the common characteristics found within such devices. The unit
will cover communication and human interface devices, as their purpose is to be able
to receive data and then pass back processed information either to other devices or
to the human operator for them to act upon.
Learners will be introduced to real-time operating systems (RTOS) and control
instructions. They will also develop their ability to select, implement and test
microcontrollers.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the internal architectural features and common characteristics of
microcontrollers
2 Understand microcontroller communication interfaces and human interface
devices
3 Understand microcontroller hardware control methods
4 Be able to select, implement and test a microcontroller.

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Unit content

1 Understand the internal architectural features and common characteristics of

microcontrollers

Microcontroller internal architecture: architectural models eg von Neumann,

Harvard; modules (central processor unit (CPU), arithmetic logic unit (ALU),
control unit and registers eg stack pointer (SP), program counter (PC), instruction
register (IR), accumulator, index, file, status); memory options eg volatile (static,
dynamic, static random access memory (SRAM), dynamic random access memory
(DRAM), battery back-up SRAM), non-volatile (read only memory (ROM), mask-
ROM, electrically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM), Flash
memory, non-volatile NV-RAM); endianness eg big endian, little endian; interrupt
controller, timer/counter, digital input/output (I/O) ports (parallel and number
of pins); registers eg data direction register (DDR), port, port input; analogue I/O
(analogue/digital converter eg channel, resolution, differential/bipolar
conversion); watchdog timer; debugging unit
Microcontroller characteristics and features: manufacturers eg Intel, Western
Design Center, Motorola, ZiLOG; voltage levels and reasons for such levels;
brownout protection; power consumption; power management modes (idle, halt,
wakeup); over voltage protection (OVP); charger considerations; low-dropout
regulators (LDOs); battery monitoring; power sequencing

2 Understand microcontroller communication interfaces and human interface

devices

Interfaces: serial; parallel; synchronous; asynchronous; bus; point-to-point;

duplex (full, half), master/slave principle; universal asynchronous receiver
transmitter (UART); universal synchronous asynchronous receiver transmitter
(USART); configurable parameters eg number of data bits, parity bit, stop bit,
baud rate; serial peripheral interface (SPI); synchronous serial port (SSP); serial
peripheral port (SPP) master/slave to allow communications between controllers;
serial communication interface (SCI); I2C bus – IIC (inter-OC bus); analogue-to-
digital converters (A/D); digital-to-analogue convertors (D/A); signal standards
eg RS –232, 422, 485, 482; Bluetooth; embedded internet and internet protocol
suite; universal serial bus (USB) connection; controller area network (CAN)
Human interface devices: display method eg light emitting diodes (LED), liquid
crystal displays (LCD), plasma, thin-film transistor (TFT), vacuum fluorescent
display (VFD); on-screen display (OSD) functions eg that support text and graphics
display; input/output devices eg keyboards, keypad, touch screens, printers,
electronic readers, wireless, USB

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3 Understand microcontroller hardware control methods

Real-time operating system (RTOS): event driven; time sharing; kernel (single,
multi-stack); implementation (installation procedures, manipulate setting, locks
and critical sections, memory management, scheduler); common types eg Palm
OS, Windows CE, QNX, RTLinux, LinuxOS, Salvo LE
Control instructions: complex instruction set computer (CISC); reduced
instruction set computer (RISC); assembly language categories eg data movement,
data processing, execution, processor control; polling; interrupts
eg maskable, non-vectored, vectored, arbitration and priority; interrupts eg
interrupt enable (IE), interrupt survive routine (ISR), interrupt flag (IF), interrupt
mode; reset eg power-on, brown-out, external, watchdog, internal

4 Be able to select, implement and test a microcontroller

Selection and implementation: selection criteria eg based on cost, convenience,

availability of development tools, intended use; implementation tools eg
assemblers, simulators, resident debuggers, emulators/in-circuit emulators (ICE),
java on embedded system
Testing techniques: operational considerations eg static, dynamic,
interoperability, environmental; software tools eg debuggers, emulators;
debugging eg breakpoints, scanpoints, profiles; test equipment and instruments
eg oscilloscope, probes, analysers, signal-generating devices; internet searches
for common faults and solutions; collection of test data eg data sheets, data
management

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P1 explain the internal architectural M1 explain how a microcontroller chip is D1 evaluate two different techniques used
structure of a standard microcontroller connected to a human interface device for interfacing a microcontroller to an
external system
P2 explain the characteristics and features M2 compare a RTOS with a CISC/RISC
of a manufacturer’s microcontroller instruction set with respect to how the D2 evaluate a microcontroller application to
family use of such control methods might determine what alternative
influence microcontroller selection microcontroller chip could be used and
P3 describe the function and application of
the benefits that it would provide.
three different microcontroller M3 use a debugging tool to correct a fault in
interfaces a microcontroller application.
P4 describe the benefits of one particular
type of human interface device for a
specific microcontroller application
P5 explain the role of a real-time operating
system
P6 explain the control instructions of a
given microcontroller assembly language
program

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P7 select a microcontroller for a given
application and state the selection
criteria used, including details of
implementation tools available to
support the application
P8 use one software-based and one
instrument-based testing technique to
determine the performance of a
microcontroller in a given application.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit assumes that learners are familiar with the use of software and instruments
(eg oscilloscopes, probes, analysers, signal generators) and delivery should focus on
their application to microcontrollers.
A practical-based approach to delivery will be most effective and tutors should
reinforce the more theoretical aspects through hands-on activities. These activities
can successfully introduce learners to the use and applications of microcontrollers.
Because of the considerable growth in microcontroller technology over recent years,
there is a wide variety of microcontrollers of varying complexity available. It is
important that learners recognise the limitations of earlier models and understand
the potential of newer technologies that can offer longer life cycles and advanced
characteristics and features. Learners also need to appreciate that in a
manufacturing setting the correct choice of technology is important, especially if it
reduces costs.
Ideally, centres will have strong links with local employers so that learners can apply
their knowledge to real work-based applications of the technology. Alternatively,
visits to appropriate exhibits, trade fairs and manufacturers can be used to help put
the unit content into context.
Educational resources such as films, online tutorials, software development
programmes etc are all good leaning support aids. Because of the wide range of
devices and applications that have microcontrollers embedded within them, it may
be useful to make displays indicating the building blocks that make up the products.
Examples could be an intruder alarm panel, a mobile phone, a smart display or a
range of manufacturers’ microcontroller units. Because of the large amount of
information available on the internet about microcontrollers, testing parameters and
common faults and solution techniques, tutors may need to provide extra guidance
when learners are carrying out research.
When delivering the practical aspects of the unit, tutors should ensure learners can
recognise older and newer components, circuits, interfaces and complete
applications. This will help learners appreciate how the various aspects fit together
to produce an efficient, reliable, safe device/application within a range of
environments.
Appropriate attention must be given to health and safety for the practical work in
this unit, particularly when learners are working in an electronics workshop
environment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

Assessment of this unit could consist of a mix of written technical reports,

presentations to an audience and hands-on practical work. Evidence for any
presentations given will need to include a record of tutor observation plus the
learner’s notes/slides etc from their preparation and delivery. Annotated
photographic evidence could be used to capture any on-site information and support
learners’ written work.
P1 requires an explanation of the internal architectural structure of a standard
microcontroller and could be covered by learners considering either a von Neumann
or a Harvard architectural model. Learners will need to explain all the aspects ranged
in the unit content for the microcontroller selected (eg CPU, ALU, registers, memory
etc).
To achieve P2, learners must show their understanding of a specific manufacturer’s
microcontroller family (eg Intel, Western Design Center, Motorola) by explaining the
characteristics and features available as listed in the unit content section.
For both P1 and P2, evidence could be in the form of a written technical report or
presented in some other format eg a formal presentation to the group or production
of an information/sales type leaflet. Learners should be advised to keep all their
early research materials in a suitable portfolio as this will provide them with a useful
reference tool to work with and build on as they progress through the unit.
P3 and P4 are closely related in that there is always a need for an interface between
the microcontroller and the device it operates. For P3, learners need to demonstrate
that they can differentiate between three different interfaces, their functions and
applications. The unit content lists a range of interfaces (eg serial, parallel,
synchronous, asynchronous, bus, point-to-point, duplex etc) and although it is
expected that a centre will cover all of these during the delivery of the unit only
three are required for assessment purposes. The choice of interfaces used could be
determined by the tutor, employer or left for the learner to choose.
P4 considers the physical link between the interface device (P3) and one particular
type of input/output device that provides the human interface. It is not essential
that the two criteria are linked (although it would be good to know which
communication interface is being used) but it would improve the coherence of the
assessment activity. Learners need to recognise that there are different types of
human interface device but are required to select only one device that is relevant for
a specific application for assessment purposes. For example, TFT displays have clear
benefits when used with a laptop computer but would they be appropriate on
domestic washing machines?
A link could be established between P4 and M1 and be extended to D1, although it is
recommended that pass criteria P5 and P6 are undertaken before allowing learners to
fully develop material for this distinction criterion.
P5 requires learners to explain the role of a real-time operating system (RTOS). The
explanation should not be highly complex and learners need only be able to
demonstrate an understanding of the basic principles, which could include a couple
of the more advanced features of a selected RTOS.

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To achieve P6, learners need to explain the control instructions of a given

microcontroller assembly language program. An effective approach would be to get
learners to annotate a real assembly language program with the details of each
control instruction. It is not necessary for the learner to repeatedly demonstrate the
same instruction or annotate the complete program. The program selection should,
however, contain all appropriate control instructions to cover the requirements of
the unit content. If a single program is not available then centres can use two
different programs but, beyond this, it is likely that the programs would be too
simple and not at the expected level of learning.
Having looked at the operating system and explained an assembly language program,
learners could compare a RTOS with a CISC/RISC instruction set (M2). It may be
helpful to consider the extreme ends of microcontroller applications and what is
needed.
A sufficient range of unit content would have been considered for the learner to
undertake D1 which requires them to consider the type of data to be transferred and
what has to be interfaced with it. Therefore, techniques such as USART could be
evaluated in light of their use.
For P7, learners are required to select a microcontroller for a given application and
state the selection criteria used, including details of implementation tools available
to support the application.
P7 could be effectively linked with P8 which requires learners to use testing
techniques to determine the performance of a microcontroller in a given application.
The application does not have to be overly complex as it is learners’ understanding of
the operational considerations of testing and all that it entails that is important. The
assessment also needs to confirm that learners can apply the appropriate software
and instrument methods to collect relevant data.
There is a possible link from P8 to M3 although M3 does not have to be conducted
against the same application. It may be advantageous to do so, however, as it would
improve the coherence of the assessment. Note that P8 is looking at performance and
M3 is concerned with debugging to correct a fault.
Finally, D2 requires learners to consider an application (which may have already been
used in completing other grading criteria), suggest an alternative chip and identify
the benefits the alternative would achieve. Clearly, as technology advances, older
microcontroller devices/applications provide scope for the focus of this criterion. For
example, learners could consider multimeters and how their features have been
enhanced over recent years.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 25: Selection and Applications of Programmable Logic
Controllers, Unit 61: Construction and Application of Digital Systems and Unit 62:
Microprocessor Systems and Applications.

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Essential resources

Learners will need access to facilities for carrying out practical investigations into
working devices/systems containing microcontrollers and appropriate testing. This
should include a range of various microcontrollers, communication interfaces and
human display devices.
Learners will also need access to a range of manuals, reference data and
manufacturers’ products/information.

Indicative reading for learners

Bates M — PIC Microcontrollers (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750662670

Dogan I — Microcontroller Based Applied Digital Control (John Wiley and Sons, 2006)
ISBN 0470863358

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• presenting information to C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
explain a manufacturer’s eight minutes using an image or other
microcontroller family support material.
characteristics and features C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
• researching information on least two documents about the same
microcontroller architecture, subject.
functions and applications Each document must be at least 1000
words long.
• preparing technical reports
on microcontroller C3.3 Write two different types of documents
architecture, functions and each one giving different information
applications. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.
Information and communication technology Level 3
When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• researching information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
microcontroller architecture, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
functions and applications least one case.
• preparing technical reports ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
on microcontroller derive new information.
architecture, functions and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
applications. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• investigating and selecting a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
microcontroller for a given ways of tackling it.
application PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
• using testing techniques to solving the problem.
determine the required PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
performance of a selected review your approach to problem solving.
microcontroller.

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 Unit 73: Electronic Fault-finding

Unit 73: Electronic Fault-finding

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
An understanding of the operation of electronics circuits is an important issue in the
training of technicians and engineers. A complex electronic system is generally a
number of individual circuits connected together to perform a specific function.
However, to understand the overall circuit it is necessary to break it down into
smaller, more easily understood circuits. This is particularly important when testing
and fault-finding.
This unit will give learners an understanding of the principles of electronic fault-
finding, including the procedures, knowledge and skills required when carrying out
fault-finding activities.
Learners will gain an understanding of electronic components, circuits and systems and
how to solve problems involving simple and complex faults to a professional standard.
Learners will develop their knowledge of the application of electronic components
and how electrical signals are employed in a variety of analogue, digital and
communications circuits. They will also develop the ability to select fault-finding
instruments and apply the techniques used for the diagnosis of faults.
The unit will enable learners to read circuit, schematic and wiring diagrams and carry
out fault-finding procedures by obtaining the necessary information, documentation,
tools and equipment. They will also be able to prepare accurate reports of all the
steps that have been taken during the fault-finding processes.
The unit will ensure that learners have a firm understanding of safe working practices
when carrying out fault-finding activities and that they are able to take the necessary
safeguards to protect their own safety and that of others in the workplace.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to interpret a circuit diagram for an electronic system and identify the
type of circuit, the circuit components and the type of circuit signals
2 Be able to plan and implement a fault-finding strategy
3 Be able to diagnose fault conditions using test equipment and record the results.

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Unit content

1 Be able to interpret a circuit diagram for an electronic system and identify the
type of circuit, the circuit components and the type of circuit signals

Circuit diagrams: analogue and digital circuit diagrams drawn to national

standards eg British Standards (BS) or American National Standards Institute
(ANSI); types of circuit diagrams eg block schematic, circuit, wiring, printed
circuit board (PCB) layout diagram that each include a minimum of five
components and should show input, output and power supply connections plus any
external control connections
Types of analogue circuits: eg audio/radio frequency amplifiers, oscillators,
multiplexers, demultiplexers, function generators, power supplies
Types of digital circuits: eg combinational/sequential logic circuits, flip flops,
encoders, decoders, asynchronous/synchronous counters, frequency dividers, ring
counters, waveform generators, registers, shift registers, serial-to-parallel and
parallel-to-serial code converters
Electronic components: passive components eg resistors, capacitors, inductors,
diodes; active devices eg transistor and operational amplifiers – small (SSI),
medium (MSI) and large scale integrated (LSI) devices for analogue circuits; logic
devices for digital circuits eg logic gates, multivibrators, timers
Input/output signals: circuits working under normal/steady state operating
conditions; signal values eg voltage, current, gain, logic levels, alternating
sinusoidal and pulse periodic signals at low (LF), medium (MF) and high
frequencies (HF), direct current (DC) levels

2 Be able to plan and implement a fault-finding strategy

Fault location strategy: planning eg obtain relevant diagrams (block schematic,

circuit wiring diagrams), establish component/circuit tolerances, specifications,
restrictions or limitations of operation; predict circuit operation from diagrams eg
signal trace through schematic diagrams, produce a test schedule, identify key
test nodes/input-output matrix/decision table, function tables; calculate
expected signal conditions for analogue and digital circuits eg operational
amplifier — determine the expected output voltage level given the input signal
voltage and the values of the input and feedback resistors, logic gates —
determine the expected logic level of the output given the input level conditions
Fault location and signal tracing techniques: input-to-output/output-to-input,
half-split method, symptom to cause fault hierarchies, unit substitution, visual
examination, top-down approach, module and component isolation; use of fault-
finding aids eg functional charts, diagrams, trouble-shooting charts, component
data sheets, operation and maintenance manuals, software based records and
data; fault/repair reporting eg mean time between failure (MTBF) figures; path
sensitisation; critical path and fault signal tracing node points

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3 Be able to diagnose fault conditions using test equipment and record the results

Test instruments: eg ammeter, voltmeter, multimeter, logic probe, cathode ray

oscilloscope, signal analyser, frequency counter, digital test set, power meter,
software simulation tools
Fault conditions: normal (steady state) equipment operating conditions;
component failures eg total, partial; circuit faults eg short circuit and open
circuit connections, design and power supply faults; components out of
specification; intermittent faults; fault and tolerance testing; digital faults eg
input side, output side, logic stuck-at faults
Test data records: eg personal logbook, tabulated data, computer based records
(tables, spreadsheet, database), referencing of data (indexed, cross-referenced,
date), recorded details (description of systems/circuits, symptoms, operator
details, equipment details, test conditions and methods, test results, statistics,
comments)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 read a circuit diagram for an electronic M1 compare the circuit diagrams of two D1 evaluate a circuit diagram for an
system and identify two different types different approaches to the same type of electronic system and identify incorrect
of analogue circuits, the components circuit circuits/input-output signals
that make up each circuit and the circuit
M2 evaluate a fault location strategy and D2 identify the fault conditions within an
input and output signals
make recommendations for improvement electronic system that presents a fault in
P2 read a circuit diagram for an electronic more than one circuit.
M3 justify the choice of test instruments
system and identify two different types
selected to identify fault conditions
of digital circuit, the components that
within an electronic system.
make up each circuit and the circuit
input and output signals
P3 prepare a written fault location strategy
for a given analogue electronic system
and identify the fault-finding and signal
tracing techniques to be applied
P4 prepare a written fault location strategy
for a given digital electronic system and
identify the fault-finding and signal
tracing techniques to be applied

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 select and use test instruments to
identify fault conditions within an
analogue electronic system that has at
least one faulty circuit and one
component fault
P6 select and use test instruments to
identify fault conditions within a digital
electronic system that has at least one
faulty circuit and one component fault
P7 collect and record the test data from an
analogue electronic system fault-finding
test and prepare a test report
P8 collect and record the test data from a
digital electronic system fault-finding
test and prepare a test report.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

While this unit may be delivered on a stand-alone basis, it is recommended that it is

integrated with other units such as Unit 54: Electronic Measurement and Testing,
Unit 60: Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics and Unit 61:
Construction and Application of Digital Systems.
Delivery will be most effective through a structured programme of practical activities
involving the use of industry standard equipment and electronic circuit simulation
software/hardware. The emphasis of the unit is on enabling learners to acquire the
necessary skills for systematic and planned fault-finding, as opposed to an
unsystematic and random approach. As a result, the strategy for delivery, practical
work and assessment should all reflect and reinforce the need for sufficient levels of
planning and documentation.
Learners should be given opportunities to investigate a range of electronic equipment
by examining circuit diagrams and a wide variety of components. The unit is best
delivered through a programme of lectures, demonstrations and practical work.
Appropriate attention must be given to health, safety and welfare arrangements
throughout the delivery of the unit.
The delivery approach used should be determined through an analysis of learners’
needs and consideration of the range of industries that the centre is working with or
preparing their learners for. Whatever approach is taken should be sufficiently varied
to develop learners’ ability to use the techniques required for good fault-finding
practice. It should also develop the skills required to fault-find on electronic systems
in a range of industrial settings.
During delivery, learners should be made aware of and have access to a range of UK
health and safety legislation and know the importance of risk assessment appropriate
to the techniques they are using.
It is always important in a workshop environment, even though this is not explicitly
assessed by this unit, that the learner is able to work in a safe manner when using
equipment or working on electronic systems. The application of safe working
practices is implicitly expected of all the practical work undertaken by the learner in
this unit.
Delivery of this unit could provide an opportunity for learners to work in teams or
groups when diagnosing component or system faults. The unit should focus on
learners’ ability to develop diagnostic and practical skills and their understanding of
electronic components and systems.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and could be developed sequentially
throughout the unit. In this way, learners will be able to apply the knowledge gained
from reading circuit diagrams relating to electronic components and signals and the
use of test instruments in a practical environment.
The content associated with learning outcomes 1 and 3 means that these two areas
should be assigned a larger proportion of guided learning time than learning outcome 2.

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Learners will need a broad overview of different electronic components and systems
to enable correct selection and application of fault-finding and testing techniques.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Throughout assessment activities, learners must be made aware of the health and
safety hazards applicable to electronic fault-finding operations.
It is likely that a system that has a fault only needs one component to be replaced.
However, on some occasions more component failures may be found. Care needs to
be taken here not to disadvantage learners if this is the case during their assessment.
The criteria can be split into two sets, one for analogue circuits/systems (P1, P3, P5
and P7) and the other digital (P2, P4, P6 and P8).
P1 and P2 relate to learning outcome 1. In order to meet P1, learners must be able to
read a circuit diagram for an electronic system and identify two different types of
analogue circuit within that system, the components that make up each circuit and
the circuit input and output signals.
The circuit diagram should have been produced to a national standard, eg British
Standards (BS) or American National Standards Institute (ANSI). The diagram can be a
block schematic, circuit, wiring or printed circuit board (PCB) layout diagram. Each
must include a minimum of five components and should show input, output and
power supply connections plus any external control connections. The analogue
circuits could be audio/radio frequency amplifiers, oscillators, multiplexers,
demultiplexers, function generators or power supplies.
P2 requires a similar approach but for two different types of digital circuits, which
could be any of those listed in the related section of unit content.
P3 and P4 cover learning outcome 2. Learners are expected to prepare a written
fault location strategy for an analogue electronic system (P3) and a digital electronic
system (P4) and identify the fault-finding and signal tracing techniques to be applied
for each.
The fault location strategy for both P3 and P4 must provide details of the planning that
is required for the task (eg obtaining relevant diagrams, establishing component/circuit
tolerances, etc), predicting the circuit operation from diagrams and calculating
expected signal conditions for analogue and digital circuits respectively.
The signal tracing techniques applied will depend upon the type of electronic circuit
and the fault or faults present. However, learners should identify an appropriate
strategy from the list provided in the unit content (eg input-to-output/output-to-
input, half-split method, symptom to cause fault hierarchies, unit substitution, etc).
They are not expected to demonstrate them all for assessment purposes, but should
have experienced them all during delivery to enable them to make the most
appropriate choice.
Learners should also identify the most appropriate fault-finding aids to be used (eg
functional charts, diagrams, trouble-shooting charts, etc). The written strategy should
also identify the required level of fault/repair reporting (eg MTBF figures and the use of
path sensitisation, critical path and fault signal tracing node point techniques).

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The remaining pass criteria relate to learning outcome 3 and all require proficiency
in the practical techniques relating to fault-finding.
In order to satisfy P5 and P6, learners need to select and use the most appropriate
test instruments for the circuits/systems under test.
For P7 and P8, learners must collect and record all the relevant test data and
prepare relevant test reports. The data must be presented in a clear and legible form
(eg use of a personal logbook, tabulated data that includes headings and relevant
units (Voltage/mV, Resistance/Ohms, etc), computer based records, etc). It is
expected that the report should reach a conclusion on the likely cause of the fault
and include the learner’s recommendation on how the circuit/system can be restored
to full operational order.
When planning and designing assessment activities and assignments tutors should
consider how best to incorporate opportunities for the achievement of the merit and
distinction criteria. For example, M1 is a natural extension of the tasks carried out to
satisfy P1 and P2, which assess learners’ ability to read circuit diagrams for an
analogue/digital electronic systems.
For M1, learners should be able to apply this skill in a deeper way by comparing the
circuit diagrams of two different approaches to the same type of circuit. The circuit
diagrams could be of an analogue or digital circuit and are likely to be provided by
the tutor, although they could come from the learner’s workplace if available. The
important aspect here is the learners’ ability to recognize that generally there is
always more than one way to produce a given type of circuit.
M2 links with P3 and P4 — preparing written fault location strategies for given
analogue/digital electronic systems. Learners should be able to evaluate either a
given fault location strategy (analogue or digital) or their own and make
recommendations for improvement. This should demonstrate their ability to reflect
upon their own work or that of others and apply their understanding to arrive at
realistic and relevant improvements.
M3 links with P5 and P6 — the selection and use of test instruments to identify fault
conditions in analogue/digital electronic systems. Learners should be able to justify
the choice of test instruments selected to identify fault conditions within an
electronic system (analogue or digital). The justification should not only indicate why
the test instruments were used but also why others were not. This will indicate the
depth of understanding of a greater range of instruments (eg ammeter, voltmeter,
multimeter, logic probe, cathode ray oscilloscope, signal analyser, frequency
counter, digital test set, power meter, software simulation tools) than will be
possible in the work for P5 and P6.
D1 is an extension of the work undertaken for P1, P2, and M1. Again, the circuit
diagram could be either analogue or digital and could be provided by the tutor or be
from the learner’s workplace. It assumes that the circuit provided has errors with
respect to either the circuit itself or the signals that have been indicated within the
circuit. It is likely that such a circuit diagram will need to be produced by the tutor.
Alternatively, it may be possible for learners to produce work-based evidence of the
detection of an error, for example through a quality assurance process in the design
phase of an electronic product.

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D2 is a natural extension of P5 and P6. It is intended to enable learners to

demonstrate their ability to apply the skills gained at pass within a more complex
context. This will mean that learners are not only able to appreciate that there is a
fault in one of the circuits in a system, but that the symptoms indicate further
external influence on the expected performance of the circuit as a whole.
For D2, the satisfactory response from learners will be to independently investigate
beyond the original fault and identify the second problem. As this is unlikely to occur
naturally, the circuit under investigation will need to be specially prepared for this
particular task by the tutor.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Engineering Maintenance, particularly:
• Unit 17: Testing Electronic Equipment and Circuits
• Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation and Control Systems.
The unit can be linked with Unit 54: Electronic Measurement and Testing, Unit 60:
Principles and Applications of Analogue Electronics and Unit 61: Construction and
Application of Digital Systems.

Essential resources

Centres must provide a range of analogue and digital electronic circuits and systems
for practical investigation and suitable hardware and software for computer-based
simulation.
Learners will require access to a range of manufacturers’ literature for electronic
components, devices and circuits/systems and a range of test equipment and their
handbooks. The test equipment should be sufficient in number to allow learners to
carry out fault-finding exercises on an individual basis.
A range of working and faulty electronic systems, circuits, devices and components
should be made available for fault diagnosis purposes, together with the relevant
manufacturer’s service manuals, parts lists and circuit diagrams. The appropriate
tools, safety equipment and a safe working environment must also be provided. In
most cases, a typical electronics workshop or laboratory should prove adequate.

Indicative reading for learners

Gates E — Introduction to Electronics (Delmar, 2006) ISBN 140188900X

Loveday G C — Electronic Testing and Fault Diagnosis (Longman Scientific and
Technical, 1996) ISBN 0582252423
Sinclair I and Lewis G — Electronic and Electrical Servicing (Newnes, 2002)
ISBN 0750654236

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing to carry out N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
simulation and/or practical information from relevant sources.
measurements N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
• calculating expected signal stage calculations to do with:
characteristics and circuit a amounts or sizes
performance characteristic
b scales or proportion
• interpreting the results of
c handling statistics
tests and calculations to
make predictions from circuit d using formulae.
calculations and simulation. N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• gathering information on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
electronic components, least two documents about the same
devices, circuits and systems subject.
• preparing written fault Each document must be at least 1000
location strategies for given words long
electronic systems C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• presenting the results of test each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
data from electronic system
fault-finding tests. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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 Unit 73: Electronic Fault-finding

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching the internet and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
CD ROMs for product/ sources, and multiple search criteria in at
component/circuit least one case.
information ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• preparing written fault derive new information.
location strategies for given ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
electronic systems text with image, text with number,
image with number.
• recording the test data from
electronic systems fault-
finding tests and preparing
fault-finding test reports
• presenting results and
reports of fault-finding
exercises.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• solving problems in PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
electronics fault-finding and ways of tackling it.
carrying out calculations PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and/or using software solving the problem.
analysis/simulation packages
to explore different PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.
approaches.

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 Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Unit 74: Electrical Technology

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Electricity is used in a wide range of applications, such as manufacturing, healthcare,
transport and entertainment. All of these are reliant on electrical technology in one
form or another. For example, for someone to be able to visit a holiday destination,
go to a music festival or download the latest track by their favourite performer,
numerous electrical activities and concepts must be coordinated.
Electrical technology provides the link between science and its application. It is
underpinned by a range of enabling technologies and concepts such as materials
science, energy efficiency, environmental impact, geological characteristics and
design.
This unit provides an introduction to ways in which electricity is produced, the
options we have about how and why we produce it, and the disposal of related bi-
products. The unit considers how the electricity that has been produced is then
moved to where the customer (end-user) needs. It also examines the materials used
and whether alternatives exist or could be found.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the methods used to produce electrical energy
2 Know the inherent electrical and magnetic properties of conductors, insulators
and magnetic materials
3 Understand the physical arrangements of supply, transmission and distribution
equipment
4 Understand the use of electrical energy to support applications of electrical
technology.

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Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Unit content

1 Know the methods used to produce electrical energy

Electromagnetic generation: characteristics and principles of operation of

alternating current (AC) and direct current (DC) generators eg relative motion
between conductors and magnetic fields, production and regulation of AC using
field/slip-ring control, production of DC using commutators and brushgear;
features of different types of electrical power generating stations and their
energy sources eg coal, gas, oil, nuclear, hydro electric, pumped storage, wind
farms, tidal, biomass
Solar panels: developments in photoelectric cells eg photo-electric effect, PN-
junction for basic photocell, need for use of converters to convert to alternating
current source; small and large scale applications of solar panels eg roadside
furniture such as school crossing warning signs, domestic/commercial roofing
Electro-chemical cells and batteries: construction, applications and disposal;
primary and secondary eg lead/acid, alkaline, nickel-iron (NiFe), nickel-metal-
hydride (NiMH), nickel-cadmium (NiCad), lithium

2 Know the inherent electrical and magnetic properties of conductors,

insulators and magnetic materials

Conductors: properties eg conductivity, resistivity, tensile strength, rigidity;

electrical applications of solid conducting materials eg copper, aluminium, steel,
brass, carbon, soil (for Earth continuity); applications of liquids and gases eg
electrolytes, fluorescent and discharge lighting
Insulators: properties eg resistivity, maximum voltage capability, operating
temperatures, mechanical strength; applications of solid, liquid and gas insulating
materials eg poly-vinyl-chloride (PVC), butyl-rubber, glass, paper, oil, air
Magnetic materials: properties eg retentivity, coercivity, B-H curve, hysteresis,
iron losses; electro-magnetic applications eg permanent magnets,
electromagnets, soft iron, silicon steel, mu-metal, ferrites for use at audio and
high frequencies

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3 Understand the physical arrangements of supply, transmission and distribution

equipment

Electrical generation: energy conversion methods eg generating plant and

equipment (coal, gas, oil, nuclear, hydro electric, pumped storage, wind farms,
tidal, biomass); by-products (useful and not so useful); speed governing and
voltage regulation for supply standardisation
Electrical transmission: use of transformers for feeding into and out of the grid
network, construction and operation of power transformers eg double-wound and
autotransformers; construction and operation of switchgear and protection
systems eg air circuit breakers, oil circuit breakers, fuses, over current and over
voltage devices; transmission voltages eg 400kV, 275kV and 132kV and the reasons
for using them; cross-channel/intercontinental links for electricity supply
Electrical distribution: ring and radial feeders; sub-stations; use of distribution
voltages eg 33kV, 11kV; plant and equipment eg isolators, oil breakers, air
breakers; three phase and single-phase distribution systems and voltages (400V
and 230V); earthing arrangements

4 Understand the use of electrical energy to support applications of electrical

technology

Applications of electrical technology: manufacturing eg automated processes,

robotics, control systems; healthcare eg magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scanners, operating theatre uninterruptible power supplies (UPS); entertainment
eg sound and video systems, theme parks, music festivals; transport eg electric-
trains, inner-city trams, electric cars, solar powered space travel

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Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the characteristics and M1 compare and contrast the features of D1 justify the use of different energy
principles of operation of a DC three prime energy sources that are in sources, including fuels and renewable
electromagnetic generator general use for the production of sources, to provide a nation’s electricity
electricity by mechanically driving an supply
P2 describe the characteristics and
electromagnetic generator
principles of operation of an AC D2 explain and justify how a practical
electromagnetic generator M2 explain the reasons for the use of a application of electrical technology
range of voltages in an electricity supply could be improved by making effective
P3 describe the operation and an
system. use of available technologies.
application of a solar power source
P4 describe the characteristic features of
two different types of electro-chemical
cells or batteries
P5 describe the properties and a typical
application of a solid and a liquid or gas
electrical conductor
P6 describe the properties and a typical
application of a solid and a liquid or gas
electrical insulator

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 Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the properties and an
application of two different magnetic
materials commonly used in electrical
and electronic engineering
P8 describe the arrangements and features
of an electrical supply system from
generation through to transmission and
distribution to end users
P9 describe two different applications of
electrical technology and, for each of
them, describe how electrical energy is
used to enable them to function.

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Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The purpose of this unit is to give learners a feel for the breadth of the technologies
used within electrical industries. Although the examples in the unit content often
indicate a vast area of work, it is not intended that tutors cover all the material
across the full range.
Selecting one or two themes to work with (eg conventional methods of generation
and a more environmentally friendly method) should generate sufficient coverage to
address all the assessment criteria.
At some time during their studies, learners would benefit from visits to a theme park
or an industrial setting (eg car manufacturer, steel works, hospital, power station).
Here, they would see electrical technologies in use and not just on a bench or on a
whiteboard. Such visits allow learners to see equipment being put to proper use and
discuss the technologies with employees, ask questions about alternatives, etc.
It might be possible to obtain a range of information from the internet, but this
should never be relied on as the only source. Centres should also consider visits from
local employers and engineers to talk about the technologies that they use now, what
they used to use and what they plan to use in the near future. This would provide an
excellent insight into the development of these technologies.
A walk around the local streets can also locate street furniture that makes use of
electrical technologies — traffic lights, cameras, street lighting, signs and warnings,
etc. This could provide the stimulus for further research, for example into the solar
panels that are installed on top of some items such as school crossing patrol signs,
vehicle speed-check installations, etc.
A further example of a possible visit might be to a wind farm/generator, which could
fire learners’ enthusiasm about researching the science and technologies
underpinning its operation much better than a classroom lecture. It could also lead to
a suitable project that could address D1 and D2.
Delivery of this unit does not necessarily need to follow the order of the content or
criteria. The order of teaching and assessment will depend upon the resources
available and the timing of any possible visits.
The unit lends itself adequately to a bottom up approach, starting with the basic
methods of producing electricity then scaling this up to power generation,
transmission, distribution and use. Alternatively tutors and learners could take a top
down approach by investigating an application or two and working down to how the
systems and components are put together. Learners could then investigate how
electricity is produced to meet the needs of the application.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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 Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Assessment

As indicated above, although this unit could be delivered completely in class, the
learning and assessment experience is much more relevant if the learners make use
of the outside world and visit real applications of electrical technologies.
The pass criteria could be achieved through the use of written assignments and/or
illustrated posters with relevant text boxes to describe the concepts covered, eg the
characteristics and principles of operation of a DC electromagnetic generator.
For P1 (DC generator) and P2 (AC generator), motor vehicle/motorcycle parts are
cheap and are a relatively safe resource that could be investigated and described.
The larger items in power stations are just scaled-up models (figuratively speaking)
with somewhat larger brush gear and coils, etc. Hence, an assignment could require
learners to use such an easily obtainable device to help them describe the principles
and operation of electromagnetic generation.
Learners could then use this simple model to illustrate the similarities and differences
between these and larger machines when they consider the characteristics of a power
station and its energy sources (eg a coal, gas, oil, nuclear, hydro-electric, pumped
storage, wind farm, tidal, biomass) used to generate power commercially.
Solar cells (P3) can be found on a range of items including calculators and street
signs, as well as small kits used by many college and school science departments. The
learners’ description of their operation should be limited to developments in
photoelectric cells and a consideration of the action of the atoms in crystal lattice
PN-junctions when subjected to illumination. An in-depth atomic theory explanation
is not expected.
Cells and batteries take many forms and, although a wide range should be taught,
learners only need to select two for P4. Liquid conductors and insulators (P5 and P6)
could also be part of the learners’ response to P4 if a wet cell such as lead acid were
to be described. Reference could also be made to the potential hazard of topping up
the cell with tap water if living in a hard water, high mineral content region. This
would short out the plates and ruin the cell(s) whereas distilled or de-ionised water
would not.
There is a wide range of other examples that could be examined for P5 and P6. For
example, oil is a good insulator and is used on oil circuit breakers to quench the spark
and prevent conduction. Fluorescent lights contain a variety of conductive gases and
vapours requiring different arcing voltages and producing a range of colours.
Overhead lines are insulated by air and any simple electric switch uses air as an
insulator when in the ‘off’ position.
To cover P7, learners could consider electrical relays, motors, generators or similar
devices that rely on electromagnetism. For example the soft iron formers of
transformers and motors or a radio tuner’s use of ferrite core inductors. Some
devices use permanent magnets, which could also be described to address P7.
P8 requires learners to describe the arrangements and features of an electrical supply
system to cover the key aspects of the content. This will include the generation
method, transformer construction, types and operation including single wound
(autotransformers) and double wound voltages and distribution method. Learners might
also include the finer details of distribution such as an electronics workshop having
isolating transformers on bench supplies and reasons why they are used.

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P9 provides an opportunity for learners to apply their knowledge by considering

complete real-world applications. Examples could include lighting systems, sound
systems or systems including motion (ranging from a model containing an electric
motor to the electrification of the rail network). The Docklands Light Railway and
some airport transport systems have no driver and an investigation of these systems
could allow learners to work on an area in which they may be interested and learn
through the application of electrical technology. This should take learners into such
aspects as electromagnetic effects and sensors for control, computer control, or the
requirement for emergency or uninterrupted power supplies (UPS).
To achieve a merit, learners should be able to differentiate between the mechanical
prime movers of electromagnetic generators (M1), ranging from nuclear, coal and gas
to wind and wave power and water storage such as that used at Dinorwic in Wales.
Things to compare and contrast could include cost, response time, maximum demand,
pollution, environmental issues including appearance, hazards (and perceived hazards),
locality of employees, life span of the project and post-service decommissioning.
While reporting on a supply system (P8), learners could address M2 by explaining why
a range of voltages is used such as 15 to 25kV at the generators and up to 400kV for
transmission, and the reasons for other voltages (eg 33kV, 11kV and 3.3kV down to
400/230 volts) for light industrial and domestic end users.
To address D1 learners need to produce a thorough justification of why a nation
might use a range of different energy sources. This could include (as a source and
focus for the learner’s own justifications) suitably referenced third party comments
from parliamentary reports, Greenpeace opinions, local opposition groups and the
projected impacts on national and global economies. Other considerations could
include the future of different methods and fuels, lifespan of equipment and the
actual fuel, cost of fuel production, hazards and environmental impact assessments.
D2 provides an opportunity for learners to develop the ideas of P9, the applications
of electrical technology. The main difference between P9 and D2 is that learners are
expected to provide suggestions for improvements to many aspects of effectiveness
and efficiency of a chosen application. The suggestions made, and their explanations
and justifications, should be feasible and possible. This could include an evaluation
of the learner’s ideas by a third party/engineer in that chosen industry. The learner
could then make effective use of this through further reflection and subsequent
development of their own work by following the professional feedback.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
The unit can be linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles, Unit 35:
Principles and Applications of Electronic Devices and Circuits and Unit 53: Electrical
Installation.

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 Unit 74: Electrical Technology

Essential resources

Centres will need simple models or alternators/dynamos from motor vehicles to

demonstrate AC and DC generation.
Because cells and batteries can be hazardous, videos/DVDs or pictures are
recommended to illustrate these along with manufacturers’ data.

Indicative reading for learners

Guru B and Hiziroglu H — Electric Machinery and Transformers (Oxford University

Press, 2000) ISBN 0195138902
Kiameh P — Power Generation Handbook (McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2002)
ISBN 0071396047

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out research into C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the characteristics and least two documents about the same
principles of operation of subject.
electromagnetic generation, Each document must be a at least 1000
energy sources, etc words long.
• preparing descriptions of the C3.3 Write two different types of documents
features and principles of each one giving different information
operation electromagnetic about complex subjects.
generation, energy sources,
One document must be at least 1000
etc. words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
electrical technology sources, and multiple search criteria in at
principles and applications least one case.
• preparing and presenting ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
reports on electrical derive new information.
technology principles and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
applications. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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 Unit 75: Electrical Installation

Unit 75: Electrical Installation

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
We all use electricity almost without thinking about it. Although we are surrounded
by and rely on electrical appliances, most people have little understanding of how
electricity arrives at its final point of use.
This unit will give learners an understanding of the circuits regularly found in
domestic premises, the components and accessories used, cables, sockets and light
switches, etc. They will also gain some practical experience of constructing and
investigating some of these circuits and systems. The unit will provide an
understanding of installations where there is an increased shock risk, mainly to
illustrate the hazards associated with these areas.
Safety and safe working practices are essential to reduce the risks of working with
electricity to an absolute minimum. Learners will gain a knowledge of selecting types
of cable for their insulation properties, current carrying capacity and physical
strength, and choosing the correct type and rating of protective devices to prevent
over-current. Learners will also be introduced to how the design and provision of
earth bonding conductors helps prevent electric shock.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to interpret lighting and power circuits diagrams
2 Understand the methods used to protect circuits
3 Be able to install and test lighting and power circuits
4 Know the non-statutory and statutory regulations relating to the provision of an
electrical installation.

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Unit content

1 Be able to interpret lighting and power circuits diagrams

Lighting circuits: eg one way, two way (loop-in method, junction box, singles)
Power circuits: eg fused plug socket outlet, ring circuit, radial circuit, switched
fused spur, cooker, immersion heater, heating control
Choice of cables and protection devices: cable calculations eg design current,
correction factors, tabulated cable ratings and voltage drops; maximum demand
and diversity eg determination and application of maximum demand and diversity
(individual householder, small shops/offices, small hotels/guest houses);
segregation of circuits; categories of circuit (band I and II circuits); proximity to
non-electrical services
Increased risk of electrical shock areas: eg inside the main property (rooms
containing a fixed bath or shower, sauna, swimming pool), equipment outside
equipotential zone (shed, garage, workshop, garden, pond)

2 Understand the methods used to protect circuits

Types of overcurrent protection device: fuse eg rewireable, cartridge; miniature

circuit breakers (MCBs); residual current breaker with overload protection (RCBO)
Circuit protection methods: earthing and bonding eg earthed equipotential
bonding and disconnection of supply (EEBADS or EEBADOS), earthed neutral
system, system classification (terra-terra (TT) and terra-neutral (TN) with
combined (C) and separate (S) variations (TNC, TNS, TNC-S), earth electrodes,
protective multiple earthing (PME), earth fault loop impedance, typical values;
protective conductor circuit eg main and supplementary equipotential bonding
conductors, earthing terminal; residual current devices (RCDs); other protection
methods eg class 2 equipment, class 3 equipment; cable size eg from tables for
current loading and thermal constraints; protection from mechanical damage eg
armoured cable, cable trunking, cable tracking

3 Be able to install and test lighting and power circuits

Lighting and power circuits installations: use of flexible and non-flexible cable;
use of tables to select cable type and size; circuit components (consumer unit/
circuit isolation device, light switching eg 1-gang, 2-gang, 1-way, 2-way,
intermediate; power socket outlets eg ring, radial, switched fused spur
connection units; other types of power circuits eg immersion heater, heated
towel rail)
Circuit testing: for compliance with circuit diagram eg operation of switches,
circuit continuity, polarity, insulation resistance checks

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4 Know the non-statutory and statutory regulations relating to the provision of

an electrical installation

Statutory regulations: scope, object, principles and use of relevant parts of

statutory wiring, installation and site regulations eg Health and Safety at Work
Act, Electricity Supply Regulations, Electricity at Work Regulations, the Building
Regulations (particularly Part P), Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations, Electricity Equipment Safety Regulations, Electromagnetic
Compatibility Regulations
Non-statutory regulations: scope, object, principles and use of relevant sections
of the wiring regulations eg BS7671: 2001 plus amendments and relevant guidance
notes

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 interpret two different lighting circuit M1 carry out calculations to obtain cable D1 analyse the design specification of a
diagrams, explain the function of the sizes, given the power and voltage, domestic installation having at least six
circuits and why the cables and taking installation methods and circuits, including the use of diversity
protective devices have been chosen for correction factors into account when determining the final maximum
each installation demand current
M2 inspect and test a given electrical
P2 interpret two different power circuit installation for compliance with D2 explain and justify the inspection and
diagrams and explain the function of the installation instructions and relevant testing methods carried out for a lighting
circuits and why the cables and regulations and a power circuit.
protective devices have been chosen
M3 explain and justify the steps taken to
P3 describe the extra considerations prevent electric shock by indirect
required for an electrical installation in contact.
an area of increased risk of electrical
shock
P4 explain the operation of the three types
of overcurrent protective devices and
describe a suitable electrical installation
application for each

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 Unit 75: Electrical Installation

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the function and application of
two different circuit protection methods
P6 install and test two different lighting
circuits in accordance with current
wiring regulations
P7 install and test two different power
circuits in accordance with current
wiring regulations
P8 describe the statutory and non-statutory
regulations that apply to an electrical
installation on the inside of a building
P9 describe the statutory and non-statutory
regulations that apply to an electrical
installation on the outside of a building.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit could be delivered as a stand-alone package or be integrated with other

electrical units to produce a more holistic approach to electrical installations across
a wide range of premises and applications.
The unit should be delivered using a balanced mix of practical and theory sessions.
Encouraging learners to adopt an investigative approach will help link the practical
work to the theory. This will help learners to understand why things are done in
certain ways.
Lighting and power circuits offer a fundamental introduction to the understanding of
electrical circuits. Their investigation can also provide knowledge of safety and
relevant regulations, inspections of work done, checking to acceptable standards and
wiring regulations. The lighting and power circuit installations can be delivered using
junction box and/or loop-in methods. Work can be done on boards, but some fixing to
walls should be considered as this will help to make the installation more realistic.
The over-current protective device is usually referred to as ‘the fuse’. For this unit,
learners must be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of rewireable and
cartridge fuses, miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) and residual devices (RCDs and
RCBOs, referred to in some texts as RCOBs but both meaning residual current devices
that offer overload-current protection). Encouraging learners to carry out research
can be an effective way of covering this area and there is plenty of information on
these devices available on the internet, for example, the On-Site Guide (IEE, 2004, or
later versions as they become available).
The installation of electrical circuits starts with the design process. Learners are
expected to be able to determine cable sizes, which requires a relatively complex
string of calculations involving design current, use of correction factors, assessment
of thermal constraints and shock protection constraints. These are impossible without
the use of algebra, shape, space and scale drawings, etc.
Additionally, learners must be able to make use of the operating characteristic
curves (time/current graphs) for a range of protective devices. It is therefore
essential that learners have completed or are undertaking Unit 4: Mathematics for
Technicians, as this unit will provide these skills.
Over recent years, the Wiring Regulations have contained an expanding section about
‘special installations or locations’. These refer to areas where there is an increased
risk of electric shock, usually due to the likelihood of moisture being present.
Addressing this topic could include the consideration of switching arrangements (type
and position of device) for devices such as electric showers, bathroom lighting or
heated towel rails. Learners could also consider the requirements to break the earth
connection when taking a supply outside the equipotential zone of the main building
to wire up a shed, effectively creating a local TT system. Tutors should mention the
need to use non-conductive pipes to connect an outside water tap. This will
encourage learners to appreciate the complex considerations needed when an
artefact is provided for a specific purpose.

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Few learners will have had prior experience in this area of work and so it will be
essential to provide a formal introduction to the content. This introduction should
emphasise the safety aspects of working with electricity and should make learners
aware of the relevant statutory and non-statutory regulations. These aspects can be
further developed as learners progress but, at the outset, it is important to make
them aware of the hazards that they may encounter and the regulations that apply to
electrical equipment and installation.
One approach to the delivery of this unit would be a series of practical investigations
supplemented by appropriate theory. Investigations could be based on individual
learning outcomes or could combine several. For example, an investigation of
electrical protection devices could involve learners in selecting a protection device
for a particular application. This would bring together elements from learning
outcomes 1, 2 and 3.
In all cases, the approach used should take into account the needs of individual
learners and the range of industries that centres are working with or preparing their
learners for.
Where the learning outcomes are delivered sequentially, is important to stress the
inter-relationship that exists between them. For example, the choice of a suitable
cable for a particular application for learning outcome 1 needs to be linked to the
selection of cable type and size in learning outcome 3 and vice versa.
Tutors should always ensure that each learner has the correct personal protective
equipment and that systems are safe for inspection and operation. It is also
important that learners work in a safe manner and are suitably supervised when using
equipment or working on systems.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

P1 requires learners to demonstrate their ability to interpret two different lighting

circuit diagrams, explain the function of each circuit and say why the cables and
protective devices have been chosen for each of the installations.
P2 is similar but focuses on power circuit diagrams. In order to satisfy the cable
calculation requirements of P1 and P2, learners should be able to perform
calculations based on design current. However, to satisfy M1, learners should take
into account appropriate correction factors, use tabulated cable ratings and work
with voltage drops.
For P3 learners could use diagrams/sketches to help describe a relevant installation
inside a property or equipment outside the equipotential zone. This should include
the positioning of equipment and any other safety features and reference to
appropriate regulations.
For P4 learners must explain the operation of all three types of overcurrent
protective device listed in the unit content (fuse, miniature circuit breaker, residual
current breaker with overload protection). They will then need to describe a suitable
electrical installation application for each device.

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For P5, learners need to describe the function and application of two different circuit
protection methods (eg earthing and bonding, protective conductor circuit, residual
current devices) or any other protection methods (eg class 2 equipment, class 3
equipment). Learners must refer to issues of cable size (eg from tables for current
loading and thermal constraints) and the method used to protect the circuit from
mechanical damage (eg armoured cable, cable trunking, cable tracking).
P6 and P7 require learners install and test two different lighting circuits and two
different power circuits in accordance with current wiring regulations. One approach
to assessment might be to use these four circuits as the focus for the assessment of
all the other criteria. This type of approach to assessment would provide maximum
coherence but, by necessity, would fragment the criteria. Therefore centres would
need to take care when tracking learner achievement.
Records for each installation would need to be planned carefully to indicate learners
have met the relevant criteria and unit content and only when all four installations
have been completed satisfactorily would each criterion be fully achieved.
Evidence for this work could be a mix of tutor observation records, annotated
photographic evidence, the learner’s research and preparation notes and formal
reporting. For example, in addition to the installation, a formal written description
of the extra considerations required for an electrical installation in an area of
increased risk of electrical shock would be required. The evidence could be brought
together as a portfolio record for each installation. The constraint to this approach
would of course be the centre’s ability to provide sufficient installation facilities to
cope with a reasonable group size.
For P8 and P9 descriptions of the statutory and non-statutory regulations that apply
to an electrical installation on the inside and outside of a building could also be
planned to fit into the above assessment approach. Learners will need to summarise
the relevant legislation (statutory and non-statutory) that needs to be considered
when electrical installation work is carried out in and around buildings. The list given
in the unit content should not be seen as exhaustive and centres should ensure that
the most current, relevant and up-to-date legislation is covered.
Less integrated approaches could also be used to good effect where equipment or
other constraints apply. However, a circuit should only be deemed to be correctly
wired when any single cores of conductors with diameters less than 2.5mm2 are
terminated into a screwed terminal. Other elements of good practice also need to be
demonstrated, all connections must abide by the latest UK/EU colour code standards
(or equivalent for other countries), and the circuit must work.
M1 and D1 build on learners’ understanding from P1 an P2. For the application of
diversity in D1, the circuits could include examples such as upstairs and downstairs
ring circuits, upstairs and downstairs lighting circuits, cooker (with or without 13A
socket), immersion heater, or outside supply to a garage/shed.
Having carried out the installations for P6 and P7, the learner should be expected, as
simply a matter of good practice, to check their own work for compliance ahead of
assessment. This can be extended to meet M2, where learners inspect others’ work.

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In doing this, learners should follow relevant inspection and test procedures using
appropriately annotated inspection and testing documentation (such as those
illustrated in the Wiring Regulations or the On-Site Guide or other centre devised
certification). The activity for this could be the supervised assessment of the work
carried out by a fellow learner who is presenting their installation as evidence for P6
and P7.
M3 builds on the work carried out for P3, P4 and P5. This will include earthing
connections and other means, such as class II and class III systems. To differentiate
the work at merit from that at pass, it is expected that at this level learners not only
know what needs to be done but can explain and justify the actions taken. This
should include why supplementary bonding may need to be applied, why an RCD is
needed outside the equipotential zone, and how it operates, why it needs to operate
in a certain specified time and the relevance of its current sensitivity (I∆n) to the
effects of electricity passing through a human body or livestock.
D2 builds on the inspection work undertaken for M2. Learners are required to explain
and justify the inspection and testing methods carried out for one lighting and one
power circuit. This should take into account the what, where and how of the
inspection process and should give learners an opportunity to demonstrate their
understanding of the unit as a whole.
The evidence, which is likely to be a technical report, should clearly explain what
they were doing during the inspection and why. It should also include what they were
looking for and why; which test equipment they used, how and why it was ‘proved’
before and after use and, finally, how well the results show the installations comply
with the respective circuit diagrams.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers underpinning knowledge associated with the SEMTA Level 3 National
Occupational Standards in Electrical and Electronic Servicing, particularly:
• Unit 12: Diagnosing and Analysing Faults in Domestic Appliance Equipment
• Unit 14: Rectifying Faults in Domestic Appliance Equipment.
The unit can be linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Unit 52: Electrical Technology.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to suitably equipped workshops for the
installation of electrical circuits (preferably with some installation onto walls or,
where necessary boards), together with relevant test equipment to carry out tests to
prescribed regulations (eg BS7671 and Guidance Note 3).
Learners will also require access to a range of wiring diagrams, test rigs and wiring
boards, electrical tools and components and cabling required for lighting and power
installations.
Centres will need to provide appropriate documentation such as statutory and non-
statutory regulations, manufacturers’ catalogues, data sheets and relevant cable,
component and equipment specifications.

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Unit 75: Electrical Installation

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Hinsley A — Testing Electrical Installations: A Practical Guide for Electricians,
(Castleknight Publications, 2005) ISBN 2952413835
Scaddan B G — IEE Wiring Regulations Explained and Illustrated: A Practical Guide to
BS7671:2001 (Newnes, 2001) ISBN 0750654686
Whitfield J — The Electrician's Guide to the 16th Edition of the IEE Wiring
Regulations (EPA Press, 2005) ISBN 0953788547
Other publications
BS 7671: 2001(2004) Requirements for Electrical Installations (IEE, 2004)
IEE Guidance Note 3 — Inspection and Testing, 4th Edition (IET, 2002)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing domestic circuit N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
arrangements (floor area for information from relevant sources.
ring circuit) and using scale N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
plans of typical installations stage calculations to do with:
• calculating cable sizes and a amounts or sizes
voltage drops and
b scales or proportions
interpreting fuse
characteristic graphs c handling statistics
• comparing domestic d using formulae.
installations for socket and N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
lighting numbers and power present your findings and justify your
ratings of appliances. methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching installation C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
methods, correction factors least two documents about the same
and earthing requirements subject.
• summarising the Each document must be at least 1000
requirements of relevant words long
legislation C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• researching and reporting on each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
protective devices.
One document mus be about 1000 words
long.

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Unit 75: Electrical Installation

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching types of fuse and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
MCB sources, and multiple search criteria in at
least one case.
• using software to present
information on circuit ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
installations and explaining derive new information.
the operation of types of ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
overcurrent protective text with image, text with number,
devices image with number.
• using spreadsheets to help
with calculations.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning for the installation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
of lighting and power circuits ways of tackling it.
• installing and testing lighting PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and power circuits in solving the problem.
accordance with current PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
wiring regulations. review your approach to problem solving.

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 UNIT 76: ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS

Unit 76: Electrical Applications

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
All electrical machines use applications of electro-magnetic principles where electric
currents create magnetic fields, which either attract or repel each other. This is the
basis of all electric motors, whether they operate on alternating current (AC), direct
current (DC) or are universal motors that operate on both.
Transformers are devices that also use the principle of electromagnetism. These are
generally very efficient and their output power can be almost 100 per cent of the
input power, depending on the application.
This unit has been designed to help learners understand the complexities of
electromagnetism and its applications to everyday electrical devices, systems and
apparatus. Learners will consider a range of machines, their application and their
control. In addition, the unit will help learners understand relevant electrical
hazards, legislation, regulation and standards.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand electrical hazards, legislation, regulation and standards
2 Understand alternating current machines
3 Understand direct current machines
4 Understand electrical machine control circuits and systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand electrical hazards, legislation, regulation and standards

Electrical hazards: safe working procedures eg isolation (safe isolation, switch

off, lock off, display notices, testing for dead with test lamp and proving unit),
earthing, interlocking, warning notices, permit to work; risk assessment when
working on electrical apparatus eg hazard evaluation and recording of risk,
controlling risk; personal protective equipment (PPE) eg insulated gloves, mats,
tools, barriers
Legislation, regulations and standards: eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974,
The Electricity at Work Regulations 1989, Personal Protective Equipment at Work
Regulations 1992, Electrical Equipment (Safety) Regulations 1994, Machinery
Directives, HSE publications, Codes of Practice, British and International
Standards, BS7671 16th Edition IEE Wiring Regulations

2 Understand alternating current machines

Alternating current (AC) motors: single and polyphase; construction, principles of

operation, starting characteristics and torque; types (induction motors, split-
phase, capacitor start, capacitor start and run, shaded pole, universal, variable
frequency drives); applications of AC motors eg conveyor belt drives, pumps,
machine shop equipment, fixed loads, variable loads
AC generator: types eg single-phase, polyphase; construction and principles of
operation; applications eg stand-by generators, remote site generators, vehicle
alternators with regulation and rectification
Transformers: principles of operation; efficiency and losses; construction of
single and double wound; types eg step up, step down, safety isolating
transformer; applications eg incoming mains step down, portable transformer for
hand tools, safety isolating transformer for electrical test-bench work, machine
power supplies

3 Understand direct current machines

Direct current (DC) motors: types eg series, shunt, compound (long and short
shunt), brushless; construction, principles of operation, starting characteristics
and torque; applications eg motor vehicle starters and window operation, toys
and models, industrial drives, crane hoists, fixed loads, variable loads
DC generators: construction and principles of operation; production and control
of DC voltages and current; applications eg motor vehicles, speed
control/feedback systems (tacho-generators)

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4 Understand electrical machine control circuits and systems

Stop/start/retain relay control: relay/contactor with retaining/latching contact;

start, stop, overload, ‘inch’ (non-latching) control; remote stop/start; safety relays
for production/manufacturing equipment eg several guards closed sensors, oil level
detectors, temperature sensors, body heat (passive infra red) detectors; control
circuits eg AC machine control (direct on line (DOL), star-delta, soft start and other
solid state techniques such as triac, inverter drives, slip ring rotor resistance
control, auto transformer, power factor correction), DC machine control (starting
methods and speed control such as face plate, solid state systems); emergency stop
eg closed contact device to stop the machine/system from running or starting and
turn power off under emergency conditions; emergency stopping eg dynamic
braking by either DC injection braking or timed phase reversal, solenoid operated
mechanical brakes, instantly stopping the machine

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify the hazards that may exist when M1 explain the operational features of a D1 compare the applications of a DC and an
working with two different pieces of speed control system for an AC machine AC motor for two contrasting modern
electrical apparatus and list the control electrical installations
M2 explain the operational features of a
measures that should be used to reduce
speed control system for a DC machine D2 compare the construction and operation
the risk of harm to self and others
of two different types of
M3 explain the use of a safety relay system
P2 describe the aspects of legislation, stop/start/retain relay control circuit for
and how its use addresses the issues
regulations and standards that relate to either an AC or a DC machine.
raised in relevant legislation, regulations
work being carried out on two different
and standards.
pieces of electrical apparatus
P3 describe the features, characteristics
and application of two different types of
AC motor
P4 describe the features, characteristics
and an application of one type of
alternating current generator
P5 describe the features, characteristics
and application of two different types of
transformer

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 UNIT 76: ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the features, characteristics
and application of two different types of
DC motor
P7 describe the features, characteristics
and an application of a DC generator
P8 describe the operation and use of a
stop/start/retain relay control circuit for
an AC or DC machine.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Few learners will have had prior experience in this area of work, so it will be
essential to provide a formal introduction to the unit content. This introduction
should emphasise the safety aspects of working with electricity and electrical
machines and should also make learners aware of the relevant statutory and non-
statutory regulations. Although these aspects can be developed as learners’ progress
through learning outcome 1, it is important at the outset to make learners aware of
the hazards that may be encountered and implications of the regulations that apply
to electrical equipment and applications.
It is likely that most centres will want to deliver the learning outcomes sequentially.
One approach to delivery could be a series of practical investigations supplemented
by appropriate theory. For example, learning outcome 2 could be covered using a
series of investigations based on alternating current motors (capacitor start, shaded
pole and induction types), alternating current generators (single-phase and polyphase
types) and transformers.
Wherever possible, investigations should be based on examples of real machines.
Learners should always be encouraged to relate theoretical principles delivered by
formal class teaching to practical applications.
Learning outcome 3 can be delivered using a similar approach, based on a set of
practical investigations supplemented by relevant theory. Once again, learners
should be introduced to typical practical applications of electrical machines (such as
vehicle starter motors, industrial drives, toys and models) and be encouraged to
relate these to the appropriate theory, which can be delivered by formal class
teaching.
In all cases, the approach used should take into account the needs of individual
learners and the range of industries that the centre has links with or is preparing the
learner for. Whichever approach is taken should be sufficiently varied to provide
learners with a knowledge and understanding of electrical machines and their
associated control circuits and systems in real-world settings.
Learning outcome 4 requires learners to investigate typical electrical machine control
circuits and systems. Learners need to appreciate why these systems are required as
well as how they are implemented. Practical examples should be provided for
learners to investigate and these could be supported by visits to local industry where
a wider range of techniques will usually be available. As a minimum, learners should
be provided with direct experience of a simple start/stop/retain control circuit for
both a DC and an AC machine. They should also be made aware of how this system
addresses relevant health and safety legislation.

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Delivery of this unit can provide opportunities for learners to work individually or in
groups when planning or investigating electrical machines. In all cases, tutors should
ensure that each learner has the correct personal protective equipment and that
machines and their associated control systems are safe for inspection and operation.
It is important that close attention is paid when learners are using machines or
working on machine control systems to ensure a safe working environment and that
they operate systems in a safe manner.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

P1 and P2 are linked and are likely to be achieved through investigations based on
the same two different items of electrical equipment, eg transformers, isolators, AC
and DC motors. Evidence might be presented in the form of a written report or as a
presentation to a group using appropriate visual aids.
When identifying hazards and listing control measures for P1, learners should include
all the aspects identified in the unit content.
For P2, learners should include relevant quotes from their sources and specific
references and it is important that these are shown to be specific to the work being
undertaken and not just general quotes.
For P3, the learner needs to carry out investigations based on two different types of
AC motor (eg induction, split-phase, capacitor start, capacitor start and run, shaded
pole, universal, variable frequency drives, single or polyphase motors). Ideally, these
should be combined into one single investigation of two different motors rather than
two separate investigations. This will avoid the need to assess the criterion twice
before it can be reported as achieved.
Learners need to describe the features, characteristics (eg construction, principles of
operation, starting characteristics and torque) and a typical application for each type
of AC motor considered. Evidence for this criterion might include the written
descriptions plus relevant drawings, circuit diagrams, photographs and exploded
views (as appropriate), annotated to aid the description.
The criteria P4 and P5 require a similar approach. However, it is important to note
that while P4 only requires one AC generator to be considered, for P5, like P3 above,
learners must describe two different types of transformer (eg step up, step down or
safety isolating transformers).
P6 and P7 simply replicate the criteria for P3 and P4 but for two different DC motors
(eg series, shunt, compound (long and short shunt), brushless) and one DC generator.
As above, P6 should be done as one activity to avoid splitting the criterion.

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P8 requires learners to be able to describe the operation and use of a stop/start/retain

relay control circuit. This can be an AC or DC machine and can be chosen by the tutor
or the learner. The choice of AC or DC control circuit is only limited by the need to
draw as extensively as possible from the unit content to cover such aspects as safety
relays and emergency stop/stopping requirements. The assignment should be based on
a practical investigation if possible and learners should provide a careful description of
the circuit that they have investigated. This should include an itemised list of
components (together with a description of the function of each component) and
should be supported by a suitably annotated circuit diagram.
To achieve the merit criteria, learners should be able to explain the operational
features of the speed control systems for an AC machine and a DC machine
respectively. Learners will need to consider the speed control aspects of machines
within specific applications, which will draw from and build upon their knowledge
and understanding developed through P3–P7.
For M3, learners need to explain the use of a safety relay system and how the system
addresses the issues raised in relevant legislation, regulations and standards. The
system considered could be the same as that described for P8. Learners must be able
to set the circuit within a particular context or application and demonstrate that
they understand the importance of the circuit within that application.
Learners must also have recognised the relationship of such a circuit to the
requirements of relevant legislation, regulations and standards. Note that there is a
further link from the work undertaken for P8 and M3 to that required for D2 (see
notes below) and this might form the basis a single assignment.
In order to satisfy D1, learners should be to able show that they can bring together
their understanding of P3 to P7 by comparing the applications of a DC and an AC
motor for two contrasting modern electrical installations. Learners should investigate
two sufficiently complex and contrasting installations that enable them to draw from
and show that they can apply the understanding that they have gained at pass and
merit level. Typical applications might be a variable-speed motor drive for an
electric vehicle and a high-torque constant-speed drive used in an industrial belt
conveyor.
Learners should be able to justify the type of DC and AC motor as well as its supply
configuration (eg triac speed controller) and output drive systems (eg gearbox or belt
reduction system). They should also make reference to the operating principles and
actual machine characteristics (eg starting torque, on-load torque, efficiency).
D2 builds upon the work undertaken for P8 and M3. As such, the circuit considered
for P8 could be one of the stop/start/retain relay control circuits that is used for
comparison and against which a second is compared. However, centres may prefer to
get learners to consider two completely different relay control circuits to provide
them with a wider range of experience.

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 UNIT 76: ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit provides some of the underpinning knowledge for the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in
Electrical and Electronic Engineering.
The unit can be linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles and
Unit 52: Electrical Technology.

Essential resources

Centres will need a workshop equipped with electrical machines and associated
switchgear and control equipment. Learners will require access to a range of AC and
DC motors and generators. A selection of different types of transformer (eg step-
down, step-up, isolating variable voltage) will also be required. In addition, to permit
testing of motor speed controllers, learners will require one or more variable speed
controllers (for both AC and DC motors) together with variable loads and machine
braking systems.
Learners will also require access to appropriate statutory and non-statutory
regulations, health and safety legislation as well as catalogues, data sheets and
relevant equipment specifications.

Indicative reading for learners

Hughes A — Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types and Applications

(Newnes, 2005) ISBN 0750647183
Schultz G — Transformers and Motors (Newnes, 1997) ISBN 0750699485

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the features, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
characteristics and information from relevant sources.
application of different types N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
of AC and DC motors and stage calculations to do with:
generators
a amounts or sizes
• describing the features,
b scales or proportion
characteristics and
application of different types c handling statistics
of transformer. d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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 UNIT 76: ELECTRICAL APPLICATIONS

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• identifying hazards that may C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
exist when working with least two documents about the same
electrical machines subject.
• describing relevant aspects of Each document must be at least 1000
legislation, regulations and words long.
standards C3.3 Write two different types of documents
• describing the features, each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
characteristics and application
of different types of AC and One document must be at least 1000
DC motors and generators words long.
• describing the features,
characteristics and application
of different types of
transformer
• describing the operation and
use of a stop/start/retain
relay control circuit.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and preparing ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
reports to describe relevant sources, and multiple search criteria in
aspects of legislation, at least one case.
regulations and standards ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• researching and preparing derive new information.
reports to describe the ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
features, characteristics and text with image, text with number,
application of different types image with number.
of AC/DC motors and
generators
• researching and preparing
reports to describe the
features, characteristics and
application of different types
of transformer
• preparing reports to describe
the operation of
stop/start/retain relay control
circuits.

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854 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 UNIT 77: THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Unit 77: Three-phase Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Three-phase systems are used to deliver the great amounts of power required to
supply industrial, commercial and domestic demand. These systems can be divided
into three main categories — generation, transmission and distribution.
This unit will give learners an understanding of electrical quantities in three-phase
circuits, three-phase supply systems, three-phase balanced and unbalanced loads and
three-phase power.
The unit will cover the principles of the basic circuit configurations which are
common to all parts of the electricity supply system. Circuits are connected in either
star or delta using three wire circuits wherever possible, as four wire circuits are
normally only used where division into single phase distribution is required. The unit
also covers the equipment required to protect systems against faults and the
procedures used to operate systems safely and legally.
On completion of this unit, learners will have a broad understanding of the design
and operation of three-phase circuits. This will include being able to read and
produce simple circuit diagrams, make simple measurements and understand the
principles of system operation and maintenance.
This unit provides a foundation for anyone interested in taking up a career in the
electricity supply industry, manufacturing or processing industries. In large factories
and processing plants three-phase systems are used for internal distribution.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to use electrical relationships and determine current, voltage and power
quantities for three-phase circuits
2 Know about the operation of three-phase supply systems
3 Be able to calculate parameters and carry out measurements in three-phase
balanced and unbalanced loads
4 Understand the utilisation of three-phase power and the safety requirements
when working on high voltage equipment.

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Unit content

1 Be able to use electrical relationships and determine current, voltage and

power quantities for three-phase circuits

Three-phase circuit relationships: systems of connection eg 3-wire star, 4-wire

star, delta; phasor diagrams
Current and voltage: star connection; delta connection; line and phase voltages;
line and phase currents
Power in balanced loads: the power triangle eg real, reactive and apparent power
values, relationships; real power eg single-phase equation, phase angle, power
factor (PF); three-phase power eg total power relationships from phase and line
currents and voltages, calculations involving phase and total power, kW, kVAr and
kVA values

2 Know about the operation of three-phase supply systems

Three-phase supplies: diagrammatic representation; system generation,

transmission and distribution eg National Grid, schematic diagrams, operating
voltages (such as 400kV, 275 kV, 132 kV, 33 kV, 11 kV, 400 V, 110 V), transformer
connections (such as star-delta, star-star, delta-star)
Principle of operation of synchronous generators (alternators): calculations eg
emf, voltage, leading/lagging power factor, power, efficiency; production of
three-phase EMFs eg distributed winding, salient pole, frequency, pole pairs,
synchronous speed, phase sequence, effect of excitation; characteristics eg open
circuit, v-curves
Construction of alternators: rotor eg cylindrical, salient pole; stator eg
distributed windings, single layer, double layer; excitation methods eg DC
exciter, AC exciter, brushless; parallel operation of generators eg conditions for
synchronising onto supply system, voltage control

3 Be able to calculate parameters and carry out measurements in three-phase

balanced and unbalanced loads

Circuits: calculations eg parameters (such as line and phase voltages, line and
phase currents, real power, apparent power, reactive power, power factor, phase
angles, 3 and 4-wire circuit currents, line, phase and neutral currents), phasor
diagrams (such as sketches, scaled diagrams, determination of values); circuits eg
balanced star and delta, unbalanced star and delta
Measurement of three-phase power: parameters from practical measurements eg
voltage, current, real power, line and phase voltages, line, phase and neutral
currents; measurement methods eg single wattmeter for 4-wire balanced circuits,
three wattmeter and two wattmeter methods for unbalanced loads; equipment
for practical measurements eg voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter

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4 Understand the utilisation of three-phase power and the safety requirements

when working on high voltage equipment

Faults and protection: protection equipment eg current transformers, voltage

transformers, relays; protection of three-phase generators and transformers;
common faults eg excess current, overvoltage, phase to phase, phase to earth;
monitoring equipment eg voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, frequency meter, PF
meter, kVAR meter, kVA meter
Supply considerations: availability of supply eg single phase, three-phase,
voltage; tariff structures eg commercial, industrial, maximum demand, metering
and recording arrangements, methods and connection of power factor
improvement equipment (such as capacity banks, capacitors on individual
machines, synchronous motors operating on leading PF)
Safety: safety precautions when working eg warning notices, labelling, working
space, earthing arrangements, interlocking arrangements, personal protective
equipment, rubber mats, barriers, insulated tools, test equipment;
documentation eg limitation of access, permit to work, sanction for test
Equipment, machines and systems: equipment eg switchgear, protection
apparatus, monitoring apparatus; machines eg generators, transformers; systems
eg transmission networks, distribution networks

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 use three-phase circuit relationships to M1 using practical examples and/or D1 explain, using numerical examples, the
demonstrate current and voltage characteristics, explain how the need for different voltages for different
quantities for star and delta connections variation of excitation of an alternator parts of the generation, transmission and
can be used to control power factor distribution systems
P2 determine real power and three-phase
power for both star and delta M2 explain why it is important to use the D2 evaluate the benefits to commercial
connections, including the use of the correct equipment when measuring consumers and suppliers of installing
power triangle three-phase power and the impact this power factor improvement equipment on
would have on circuit calculations when consumers’ equipment.
P3 using diagrams, describe the system of
using any of these measurements
three-phase generation, transmission and
distribution M3 explain the operation of the protection
system on a three-phase transmission
P4 with the aid of calculations, describe the
line in the event of a given common
principle of operation of a synchronous
fault.
generator
P5 describe the construction of an
alternator

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 UNIT 77: THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 carry out calculations relating to line and
phase voltages and currents, in circuits
with balanced and unbalanced three-
phase loads
P7 measure voltages, currents and real
power in circuits with balanced and
unbalanced three-phase loads
P8 describe the equipment required to
protect three-phase generators and
transformers against common faults and
the equipment required to monitor
supplies
P9 describe the equipment and
documentation required for safe working
on high voltage equipment, machines
and systems.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered as a stand-alone unit or linked with others in the
qualification.
This unit should be delivered through a programme of lectures, demonstrations and
practical work. Safety procedures associated with three-phase systems should be
emphasised and applied throughout.
Because centres may have limited resources for the delivery of this unit, industrial
visits could be used so that learners can see a wide range of three-phase circuits and
equipment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

To achieve a pass grade, learners must demonstrate an understanding of the

relationship between phase and line quantities in both star and delta connected
three-phase systems. They will need to carry out simple calculations and solve
problems relating to star and delta connected three-phase systems.
Learners will have an understanding of three-phase generation and be able to carry
out simple calculations relating to phase and line values of voltage, current, power
and power factor in star and delta connected balanced three-phase loads. They will
also need to demonstrate an understanding of the measurement of power in balanced
three-phase loads and the safety requirements when working on high voltage
equipment utilising three-phase power.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must demonstrate an understanding of the
relationship between excitation of an alternator and controlling power factors. They
will also understand the importance of accurate measurements and the impact this
has on other calculations when some measurements are used. Learners will
understand three-phase generation, transmission and distribution and will be able to
explain the operation of a protection system when given a certain fault.
For a distinction grade, learners must demonstrate an understanding of three-phase
generation, transmission and distribution by explaining the need for different
voltages. They will also need to understand the commercial aspects of using three-
phase power including tariffs and metering arrangements that impinge on the
benefits to the consumer and supplier.
The unit could be assessed using three assignments.
The first assignment could be based on circuits throughout the supply system and the
reasons for the choice of voltages. This could cover criteria P1, P2, P3 and D1.
Exercises on numerical and phase relationships could be used to achieve P1 and P2. It
is important that both line and phase voltages and currents are covered.

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Diagrams of parts of the supply system for P3 could be coupled with explanations of
the reasons for choice of different voltages to achieve D1. At distinction level such an
exercise would require numerical evidence to be analysed to support the principles
applied in selecting a voltage. Realistic or measured values should be used at all
times.
To ensure authenticity of evidence, data would need to be varied for each learner.
Alternatively the tasks for P1 and P2 could be carried out first in a time-controlled
environment and then the rest of the assignment carried out in learners’ own time.
The second assignment could cover the major aspects of power in three-phase
systems and enable achievement of criteria P4, P5, P6 and M1.
The generation of power and the control of all types of power and power factor
throughout the system are the main features of this assignment. Results from
practical tests could be used for part or all of the work, although in this assignment
the practical element is not being assessed. Simulation packages and low voltage
equipment could be used for the measurements if other methods are not available.
As with the first assignment, data could be varied for each learner or these tasks
could be carried out first in a time-controlled environment to ensure authenticity. As
well as the requirement for carrying out calculations, the task to achieve P4 should
consider the production of three-phase EMFs and characteristics. A written task could
then be given asking learners to describe the construction of an alternator and in
doing so should include rotor, stator and excitation aspects as well as parallel
operation of generators.
A further task could be given to achieve M1. The tasks for P4 and P6 could be done
under controlled conditions and P5 and M1 by the learner in their own time.
The third assignment could focus on the protection of the system and the techniques
of making work on high voltage systems safe. This would cover criteria P7, P8, P9,
M2, M3 and D2.
To demonstrate an appreciation of the whole system learners would need to explain
how and why it is important to operate at an economical power factor (D2). The
consumer’s equipment would be that found at the user end of the transmission and
distribution networks. For this assignment a visit to a power station, sub-station or
large industrial plant could provide the required background information.
A practical task needs to be set to measure voltages, current and real power (P7) and
within the task there should be scope to cover measurement methods and equipment
requirements. The evidence for this criterion is likely to be in the form of a witness
statement/observation record supplemented by a table of results and annotated
photographs.
A written task is required for P8 and P9 and further written tasks for M2 and M3. In
the task for M3 a different fault could be given to each learner.
The task for P9 should ensure that equipment and documentation requirements are
considered when working on all three aspects of high voltage. These should include a
type of equipment, a type of machine and a type of system as listed in the content
section of learning outcome 4.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles,

Unit 52: Electrical Technology and Unit 64: Electrical Applications.
The unit can contribute skills, knowledge and understanding towards the evidence
requirements of several units within the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 1: Complying with Statutory Regulations and Organisational Safety
Requirements
• Unit 34: Carrying Out Functional Tests on Electrical Equipment.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit must have access to industrial standard three-phase
equipment and systems. Appropriate and adequate testing instruments and
measurement equipment should also be provided.
A range of relevant IEC, European, British Standards, health and safety and other
publications should be available.

Indicative reading for learners

Bayliss C and Hardy B — Transmission and Distribution Electrical Engineering

(Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750666730
Bird J — Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750657847
Patrick D and Fardo S — Electrical Machines Power Systems (Newnes, 1996)
ISBN 0750697229
Patrick D and Fardo S — Electrical Motor Control Systems (Goodheart-Wilcox, 2000)
ISBN 156637703X
Robertson C R — Electrical and Electronic Principles — Vol 2 (Newnes, 2001)
ISBN 0750651466

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 UNIT 77: THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the construction C3.3 Write two different types of documents
of an alternator each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
• describing the equipment
required to protect three- One document must be at least 1000
phase generators and words long.
transformers against common
faults
• describing the equipment
and documentation required
for safe working on high
voltage equipment, machines
and systems.

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864 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 78: THREE-PHASE MOTORS AND DRIVES

Unit 78: Three-phase Motors and Drives

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Three-phase motors are used where greater amounts of power are required and
single-phase motors would not be effective. A good example of this is a large
compressor where a constant speed is required. The two main advantages of three-
phase types over single-phase types are the smoother torque they provide and a
higher power to weight ratio, giving smaller frame sizes for comparable power
outputs.
This unit aims to give learners an understanding of three-phase electric motors that
are used in modern industry and their associated drives.
Learners will develop a broad understanding of the design and operation of three-
phase motors which use electrical and electronic control devices to make them work.
This will include being able to read and produce simple circuit diagrams and
understand the principles of installation, commissioning and maintenance. Learners
will be made aware of the requirements of a drive and the need for the motor and
drive to be matched to the characteristics of the application.
The unit will provide a good foundation for anyone interested in taking up a career in
the manufacturing or processing industry, particularly where large motor drives are
involved.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand how squirrel-cage and wound rotor three-phase induction motors
operate
2 Understand how three-phase synchronous and synchronous-induction motors
operate
3 Know about the function and operation of motor starters and control gear
4 Know about a range of industrial applications for installing, commissioning and
maintaining three-phase motors.

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Unit content

1 Understand how squirrel-cage and wound rotor three-phase induction motors

operate

Principle of operation: production of rotating magnetic field eg distributed

winding, salient pole, frequency, pole pairs, synchronous speed, rotor speed;
induction motor types eg squirrel cage, wound rotor (slip ring)
Constructional features: cores eg stator, rotor, laminations, spiders, materials;
frame eg cast, fabricated, end covers, materials; rotor eg squirrel cage, wound
type; stator eg distributed windings, single layer, double layer; enclosure eg
cooling/ventilation, open, totally enclosed, drip proof, flameproof; shaft and
fittings eg bearings, slip rings, brushes, brush lifting gear enclosure ratings eg
Ingress Protection, BS 490, BS 5345
Characteristics and calculations: characteristics eg frequency, poles, speed/load,
torque/speed, torque/slip; calculations eg speed, slip, starting current, load,
torque, power, efficiency

2 Understand how three-phase synchronous and synchronous-induction motors

operate

Principle of operation: production of rotating magnetic field eg distributed

winding, salient pole, frequency, pole pairs, synchronous speed, effect of
excitation; synchronous motor types eg pony motor, synchronous-induction
motor, synchronising; characteristics eg open circuit, v-curves; reasons for
calculations eg speed, torque, leading/lagging power factor, power, efficiency
Constructional features: rotor eg cylindrical, salient pole; stator eg distributed
windings, single layer, double layer; excitation methods eg DC exciter, AC
exciter, brushless

3 Know about the function and operation of motor starters and control gear

Starters: circuit diagrams and operation of induction motor types eg direct on

line (DOL), star-delta, auto-transformer, soft start, rotor resistance; circuit
diagrams and operation of synchronous motor types eg pony motor, synchronous-
induction motor, synchronising; effects of reduced voltage starting eg current,
starting torque; protection devices eg short circuit, earth leakage, overload,
interlocks, trips
Control gear: speed control eg variable frequency, inverters, pulse width
modulation (PWM); motor drives eg DC transistor/thyristor, inverter types,
braking, soft starting; programmable logic controllers eg simple ladder logic

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 UNIT 78: THREE-PHASE MOTORS AND DRIVES

4 Know about a range of industrial applications for installing, commissioning and

maintaining three-phase motors

Load characteristics: load characteristics and demands of machinery eg

centrifugal fans and pumps, compressors, machine tools, mechanical handlers,
plastic extruders, lifts, hoists, conveyors
Ratings and calculations: electrical parameters eg power, KVA, KVAr, power
factor, voltage, current; mechanical parameters eg power, speed, slip, torque,
efficiency, gear ratios, volume, pressure, flow
Installation, commissioning and maintaining: installation procedures eg
foundations, mountings, insulation checks, rotation, couplings; commissioning
procedures eg starting, running, load test, temperature monitoring; maintenance
procedures eg rotor/bearing checks, lubrication, brushes, brushgear, control
gear, insulation tests

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UNIT 78: THREE-PHASE MOTORS AND DRIVES

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principle of operation and M1 explain the production of a rotating D1 explain the selection of a three-phase
the constructional features of a three- magnetic field from a three-phase supply motor and its drive for a given
phase squirrel cage and a three-phase suitable for three-phase induction application using calculations involving
wound rotor (slip ring) induction motor motors electrical and mechanical parameters
P2 carry out calculations involving M2 explain the variation of torque and slip D2 evaluate the speed control methods used
frequency, poles, speed, torque, power for a three-phase induction motor using for three-phase induction motors and
and efficiency for a three-phase values from given data explain the effects of changing speed on
induction motor from given data torque/slip characteristics.
M3 explain the methods of starting a three-
P3 describe the principle of operation, phase synchronous motor and the effects
constructional features and excitation of variation of excitation with reference
methods of a three-phase synchronous to the ‘V’ curve characteristics.
motor
P4 describe, with the aid of suitable circuit
diagrams, the operation of two different
reduced voltage starters for induction
motors, one starting method for a
synchronous motor, and a protection
device for use with a three-phase
induction motor

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the control gear required for a
three-phase induction motor and a
three-phase synchronous motor
P6 describe the characteristics of typical
loads for four types of machinery driven
by three-phase motors
P7 select a suitable three-phase motor for a
given application giving details of
ratings, starter types and control gear
requirements
P8 describe the installation, commissioning
and maintenance procedures for a three-
phase motor.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered as a stand-alone unit or linked with others in the
qualification.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 will give learners an understanding of the characteristics
and features of induction and synchronous motors. Delivery of these learning
outcomes could be through a programme of lectures, demonstrations and practical
investigations. There are some common features which can be covered in general at
the beginning of the unit, eg the distributed three-phase winding and the production
of the rotating magnetic field.
The constructional features of different types of motor would ideally be
demonstrated through inspection of stripped-down examples. The types of motor
used throughout the unit should be normal production types in preference to
specially manufactured demonstration types. The voltage rating of the supplies used
should be 400V 50Hz, although it is appreciated that local requirements and
availability of equipment may dictate the use of different values. Although simulation
and computer packages can be used to demonstrate some features and
characteristics, these methods should not be used to deliver the whole unit.
When delivering starters and control gear in learning outcome 3, learners should see
practical examples of as many types as possible. They should have opportunities to
connect them to the appropriate motor, helping them know about their function and
appropriate selection. The starting and synchronising of three-phase synchronous
motors may prove difficult to demonstrate. Where this and other features cannot be
demonstrated in the centre, efforts should be made to arrange industrial visits so
that learners can see the appropriate equipment.
Learning outcome 4 could also be partly delivered in local industry. The coverage of
load characteristics, installation, commissioning, maintenance, ratings and
calculations should be supported by manufacturers’ and suppliers’ literature
wherever possible.
Manufacturers’ manuals that relate to all aspects of the unit content will be of
tremendous help and should be freely available to learners.

Assessment

This unit could be assessed through the use of four assignments.

The first assignment could be about induction motors and cover criteria P1, P2, M1
and M2. A written task should be given to cover P1. Learners will need to consider
the production of the rotating magnetic field when describing the principle of
operation. They will also need to consider cores, frame, rotor, stator, enclosure and
shaft and fittings when describing the constructional features.

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Learners should be given data to use when carrying out the calculations required by
P2. This data could be varied for each learner to aid authenticity, or the task could
be time-constrained. A further task should be set asking them to explain the
production of a rotating magnetic field and the variation of torque and slip using
given values to achieve criteria M1 and M2 respectively. Learners’ evidence will be
written and will include their calculations.
The second assignment could cover synchronous motors and cover criteria P3 and M3.
A written task could cover the construction, operation and excitation of synchronous
motors. A practical exercise or demonstration could be done for starting and
variation of excitation. From this information, learners can formulate relevant
descriptions and explanations. Starting voltage, current and torque are useful
parameters to be measured.
A third assignment on starting and control could cover criteria P4 and P5. While a
written task could be used to cover both criteria, it would be more interesting for
learners if they could operate starters and drives and take appropriate
measurements. Description of the control gear could be as a result of stripping down
or opening up starters, drives and other control gear. In doing so it is important that
learners also consider the effects of reduced voltage such as current and starting
torque.
The fourth assignment on applications could cover criteria P6, P7, P8, D1 and D2.
Tasks should require learners to refer to details of typical loads and machinery to be
driven (P6). Learners must then consider the types of motor and control gear
appropriate for driving different loads and select and describe the features (P7). For
D1 choices need to be supported by detailed calculations, with relevant explanations
of some depth using calculated parameters. The evaluation of speed control (D2)
must be linked to the torque/slip characteristics and include details of more than
one method, eg thyristor drives and inverter drives. A further written task could ask
learners to describe the installation, commissioning and maintenance procedures for
a three-phase motor (P8).
Manufacturers’ literature and specifications are a useful source of practical
information for the above tasks.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit is linked to Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles, Unit 52: Electrical
Technology and Unit 64: Electrical Applications.
The unit may contribute to the knowledge requirements of some of the units within
the Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Electronic Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 26: Assembling Rotor and Armature Windings
• Unit 27: Assembling Stator Windings
• Unit 28: Assembling and Fitting Commutators
• Unit 29: Balancing Assembled Rotors or Armatures
• Unit 30: Assembling and Fitting Electrical Rotating Equipment.

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Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit must have access to industrial standard three-phase
electric motors, starting/control gear and associated drives. In addition, appropriate
and adequate testing instruments and fault-finding assemblies should be provided.
European and British Standards, health and safety and other publications should also
be available.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Hughes A — Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types and Applications
(Newnes, 2005) ISBN 0750647183
Wildi T — Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems (Prentice Hall, 2005)
ISBN 0131969188

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• describing the principle of operation C3.3 Write two different types of
and the constructional features of documents each one giving
motors different information about
complex subjects.
• describing the principle of operation,
constructional features and excitation One document must be at least
methods of a motor 1000 words long.

• describing the control gear required

for a three-phase induction motor and
a three-phase synchronous motor
• describing the installation,
commissioning and maintenance
procedures for a motor.

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 UNIT 79: FURTHER ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Unit 79: Further Electrical Principles

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Electrical technicians need to be able to apply practical and theoretical principles of
electrical engineering to the development, manufacture and servicing of complex
electrical and electronic systems.
They can expect to perform technical functions involved in assembling, installing,
repairing and maintaining electrical equipment. These could include the calibration,
prototyping, modification and general maintenance of electrical equipment in
accordance with manufacturers’ instructions and company technical procedures.
Other tasks could include using electrical test equipment on various types of
instruments, equipment and systems and replacing faulty components and parts using
safe working practices and precision instruments.
This unit will enable learners to develop advanced skills in electrical principles and
will provide a firm foundation for the range of tasks expected of an electrical
technician.
The unit will extend learners’ understanding of simple direct current (DC) circuits
that can be solved by Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws. This will require learners to
apply advanced circuit analysis theorems such as Thévenin’s, Norton’s and the
maximum power transfer theorems for DC networks.
Learners will develop their understanding of DC transients and of series and parallel
alternating current (AC) circuits. They will consider series and parallel circuits that
include resistors (R), inductors (L) and capacitors (C) in AC circuits.
The unit will also introduce learners to the theory and advantages of three-phase AC
systems. This will include power measurements in a three-phase AC system and the
construction and principles of operation of a three-phase AC induction motor.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to apply direct current (DC) circuit analysis methods and consider the
types, construction and characteristics of a DC motor and generator
2 Understand the transient behaviour of resistor-capacitor (RC) and resistor-
inductor (RL) DC circuits
3 Understand the behaviour of single-phase alternating current (AC) circuits
4 Understand three-phase alternating current (AC) theory.

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Unit content

1 Be able to apply direct current (DC) circuit analysis methods and consider the
types, construction and characteristics of a DC motor and generator

Direct current (DC) circuit theorems: Thevenin’s theorem eg application of

theorem to a parallel circuit having two sources of electromotive force (EMF) and
three resistors; Norton’s theorem eg application of theorem to a parallel circuit
having two sources of EMF and three resistors; maximum power transfer theorem
eg application of theorem to a series circuit with a source of EMF, internal
resistance and a load resistor; application to a more complex circuit where
Thevenin needs to be applied first
Direct current (DC) motor: type eg shunt, series, compound; construction eg
windings, motor starter circuits, speed control (series resistance in the armature
circuit); characteristics eg EMF generated, torque, back EMF, speed and power,
efficiency
Direct current (DC) generator: type eg separately-excited, shunt, series
compound; construction eg main frame or yolk, commutator, brushes, pole
pieces, armature, field windings; characteristics eg generated voltage/field
current (open circuit characteristics), terminal voltage/load current (load
characteristic), V = E − I a Ra

2 Understand the transient behaviour of resistor-capacitor (RC) and resistor-

inductor (RL) DC circuits

Transient behaviour of RC circuit: variation of current and voltage with time

when charging/discharging; time constant; graphical determination of growth and
decay of voltage and current when charging/discharging; practical RC circuit to
demonstrate transient behaviour; demonstrate the effect of the circuit time
constant on a rectangular waveform eg integrator and differentiator circuits;
calculations eg time constant, growth of capacitor voltage, initial and steady
state values of current, decay of resistor voltage
Transient behaviour of RL circuit: variation of current and voltage with time
when connected/disconnected to a DC voltage source; time constant; graphical
determination of growth and decay of current and voltage when
connected/disconnected to a DC voltage source; practical RL circuit to
demonstrate transient behaviour; calculations eg time constant, growth of
current, decay of induced voltage, current decay

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3 Understand the behaviour of single-phase alternating current (AC) circuits

Series R, L and C alternating current (AC) circuits: current and phase angle in
series combinations of RLC circuits (RL, RC, RLC); construction of phasor diagrams
and relationship with voltage and impedance triangles for each of the three types
of R, L and C combinations; power factor (cos Φ) and power triangle eg apparent
power (S = VI), true or active power (P = VI cos Φ) and reactive power
(Q = VI sin Φ); conditions for series resonance eg inductive reactance equals
capacitive reactance (XL = XC); Q factor (voltage magnification) eg
VL 1 L and its importance in high and low frequency circuits
Q= ,Q= ,
V R C

Parallel: evaluation of the voltage, current and phase angle in parallel

combinations of resistance, inductance and capacitance eg RL, RC, LC and RLC;
construction of phasor diagrams for impedance and phase angle; conditions for
parallel resonance in an RLC circuit eg supply current and voltage in phase;
L
impedance at resonance eg dynamic resistance RD = ; Q factor (current
CR
IC
magnification) eg Q = ; filter circuits eg high pass, low pass, band pass, band
I
stop

4 Understand three-phase alternating current (AC) theory

Three-phase AC theory: principles of single-phase and three-phase supplies eg

rotation of a single coil in a magnetic field, rotation of three identical coils fixed
120° apart in a magnetic field; star and delta methods of connection for power
distribution systems; three and four wire systems; voltage relationships for star
and delta connections under balanced conditions of load; calculation of power in
balanced and unbalanced three-phase loads eg P = 3.V L I L cos θ , P = 3I p R p
2

Power measurements in a three-phase AC system: eg delta system — one

wattmeter method, star system — two wattmeter method
Three-phase AC induction motor: construction eg stator, rotor, poles; principle of
operation eg production of torque, synchronous speed, number of poles, starting
methods, characteristics (speed/torque/efficiency versus current curves);
concept of a rotating magnetic field eg application of a three-phase supply to the
stator windings, flux generated by each phase of the stator winding

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 use DC circuit theorems to solve one M1 analyse the effects of resonance and D1 review the need for a DC motor starter
circuit problem using Thevenin’s Q factor in both a series RLC and a and discuss its operation
theorem, one using Norton’s theorem parallel RLC circuit
D2 evaluate the performance of a three-
and one using the maximum power
M2 discuss the advantages of power factor phase induction motor by reference to
transfer theorem for DC networks
correction in an RLC circuit for a electrical theory.
P2 explain and compare the construction commercial consumer giving a practical
and characteristics of a DC motor and a example by reference to specific
DC generator calculations
P3 explain the transient behaviour of M3 compare two different methods of power
current and voltage in an RC circuit and measurement in a three-phase system
verify through calculation for both balanced and unbalanced loads.
P4 explain the transient behaviour of
current and voltage in an RL circuit and
verify through calculation
P5 use single-phase AC theory to calculate
the current, voltage, impedance, power
and phase angle in one of each of the
series combinations of R, L and C circuits

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 UNIT 79: FURTHER ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 investigate the performance of two filter
circuits experimentally
P7 use single-phase AC theory to calculate
the input current, voltage, impedance
and phase angle for a parallel
combination of R, L and C
P8 use three-phase theory to explain the
advantages of three-phase systems and
star and delta methods of connection
P9 carry out a practical power measurement
on a three-phase system
P10 describe the construction, principle of
operation and concept of a rotating
magnetic field of a three-phase AC
inductor motor.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The four learning outcomes of this unit are linked and working through them in order
would be the preferred method of delivery. A combination of theory lessons and
demonstrations, backed up with practical work in an electrical science
laboratory/workshop will help to reinforce the new concepts and theorems.
Following on from other electrical units, learners will be able to appreciate the
combinations of the different components within more complex circuits/networks.
Tutors should make effective use of both paper-based and computer software-based
exercises (eg calculate the required value of load resistance in a parallel circuit to
obtain maximum power transfer). It is important that learners are encouraged to lay
out circuits practically using either computer simulation or bread boarding
techniques. Effective use of both of these methods will help to corroborate theory
with practice.
Tutors may need to consider learners’ level of computer skills and provide further
support to enable them to use computer-based software for circuit simulation.
During delivery, learners should be given the opportunity to practise all the formulae
identified in the content, but do not need to memorise them. They should, however,
be encouraged to select the most appropriate and correct formula for the calculation
of specific values (eg the line voltage for a star connected three-phase system
VL = 3.Vp ).

The ability to transpose complex equations is a requirement of this unit and, overall,
the mathematical skills required are clearly of a high level. Therefore the provision
of additional learning support for mathematics may need to be considered.
To study this unit, it is essential that learners have sufficient background knowledge
of electrical and electronic principles. If this is not the case then they will have
difficulty with the advanced concepts covered.
Centres are encouraged to relate theory to real engineering applications wherever
possible. Industrial visits or work experience, where appropriate, would be of value
and can give learners an appreciation of the industrial applications of further
electrical and electronic principles.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A good deal of the assessment evidence for this unit can be achieved by practical
experimentation, with real components and circuits and/or computer-based software
packages where appropriate.

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 UNIT 79: FURTHER ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

Because of the nature of the learning outcomes and unit content, up to six
assessment instruments may be required. If a structured programme of practical
work and short tests is also used then the actual total number of pieces of assessed
work could be even more than this. However, careful consideration should be given
when designing the assessment not to place an unduly high assessment burden on
learners or the tutor. Wherever possible, practical work should lead to a final
product that can be assessed without further need for report writing.
Practical activities within the laboratory will need careful supervision. Tutors can
capture this evidence by using appropriate records of observation and oral
questioning for each learner.
For P1, learners will need to be able to solve circuits involving Thevenin’s theorem,
Norton’s theorem and the maximum power transfer theorem. Before attempting this
criterion, learners could be introduced to the idea of a constant voltage source and a
constant current source by using a suitable practical demonstration. Further
development of this could lead to the link between Thevenin and Norton and then on
to the use of Thevenin, before applying the maximum power transfer theorem.
P2 involves the explanation and comparison of a motor and a generator. Learners
could possibly be shown actual motors/generators and be issued with incomplete
diagrams for completion and annotation.
P3 and P4 require learners to explain the transient behaviour of current and voltage
in an RC and an RL circuit both practically and theoretically. Use of a simple bread-
boarding technique for both criteria would be ideal here.
For both P5 and P7, an in-class assessment involving the evaluation of current,
voltage, impedance and phase angle could be utilised. Learners could be given
different circuit values and be encouraged to check their answers with a suitable
software programme.
The investigation of the performance of two filter circuits (P6) could be achieved by
using a signal generator with a low voltage output ( V IN = IV ) connected to an RC
network. Learners could then measure the output ( VOUT ) as the frequency is raised
from, for example, 100Hz to 10,000 Hz.
P8 requires learners to explain the advantages of three-phase systems (eg smaller
conductors, two available voltages). The latter of these leads into the two forms of
connection (star and delta). Assessment could take the form of an incomplete
handout to be submitted at the end of a lecture or film about the advantages and
forms of connection.
P9 requires learners to carry out practical power measurements in three-phase
systems. A suitable three-phase resistance load bank together with a three-phase,
four wire low voltage supply and three wattmeters could be used to enable learners
to measure the power using 1, 2 and 3 wattmeters for the different configurations.
Evidence for P10 is likely to be in the form of an investigative report. Again, it may
be helpful to provide learners with an incomplete diagram for them to complete and
annotate. For the principles of operation and concept of a rotating magnetic field of
a three-phase induction motor it may be necessary to include a number of key words
(eg synchronous speed, pairs of poles) and point to one specific type of three-phase
induction motor (eg squirrel-cage rotor).

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The analysis of the effects of resonance and Q factor in both a series RLC and a
parallel RLC circuit (M1) builds on and could be linked to P5 and P7. Evidence for M1
could also be provided by considering the difference in resonance frequency, for
example when the value of the resistance is varied.
For M2, learners need to discuss the advantages of power factor correction in an RLC
circuit for a commercial consumer, giving a practical example by reference to
specific calculations. These could include reduced cost to the consumer with
reference to a practical example. This could follow a practical demonstration of how
the supply current reduces on the introduction of power factor correction, but can
increase if over-corrected. M3 could be linked to the practical carried out for P9.
All except the smallest of motors require some type of starter to prevent heavy
currents being drawn from the supply on starting. D1 is intended to review this
requirement in detail and consider the need for a DC motor starter (eg DC faceplate
starter) and to discuss its operation. It is expected that learners will draw from the
work done at pass and merit and produce a referenced technical report, supported by
a suitably labelled diagram to aid their discussion of the operation.
D2 requires learners to evaluate the performance of a three phase induction motor by
reference to electrical theory, eg squirrel cage by reference to electrical theory. This
could be achieved practically by using appropriate experimental rigs that allow the
learner to compare their results with the known characteristics for specific machines.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit content is designed to extend the knowledge gained in Unit 5: Electrical and
Electronic Principles.
The unit relies heavily on strong mathematical skills involving handling formulae,
problem solving and producing graphical data/result. As such it is essential that
Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians has been completed.
It would also be beneficial if Unit 28: Further Mathematics for Technicians was
studied concurrently or that an equivalent level of mathematical study knowledge
has been previously achieved. If not, tutors need to ensure that a suitable level of
support for mathematics is provided as part of the delivery of this unit.
The unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Electrical and Electronic
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 15: Checking the Compliance of Electronic Components Against the
Specification
• Unit 17: Assembling and Wiring Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 18: Testing Post-Production Electronic Components and Circuits
• Unit 21: Writing Specifications for Testing Electronic Components or Circuits
• Unit 24: Assembling Transformers and Inductors
• Unit 25: Fitting Small Transformer and Inductor Cores
• Unit 26: Assembling Rotor and Armature Windings

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 UNIT 79: FURTHER ELECTRICAL PRINCIPLES

• Unit 27: Assembling Stator Windings

• Unit 28: Assembling and Fitting Commutators
• Unit 30: Assembling and Fitting Electrical Rotating Equipment
• Unit 31: Mounting Electrical Components in Enclosures
• Unit 32: Wiring Electrical Components and Equipment in Enclosures
• Unit 33: Selecting and Preparing Materials and Components for Electrical
Assembly
• Unit 34: Carrying Out Functional Tests on Electrical Equipment.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to a well equipped electrical/electronics laboratory with up

to date instruments such as digital/analogue multimeters, function generators and
oscilloscopes. Centres will also need to provide appropriate circuit components as
identified in the unit content together with the means to physically construct circuits.
Centres are strongly advised to consider the provision of suitable hardware and
software to enable the use of computer-based methods for circuit design and
simulation.

Indicative reading for learners

Bird J O — Electrical and Electronic Principles and Technology (Newnes, 2004)

ISBN 0750665505
Bird J O — Electrical Circuit Theory and Technology (Newnes, 2003)
ISBN 0750657847
Robertson C R — Further Electrical and Electronic Principles (Newnes, 2001)
ISBN 0750651466

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• solving problems and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
interpreting results in any of stage calculations to do with:
the four outcome areas using a amounts or sizes
conventional methods and/or
computer-based software b scales or proportion
packages. c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and using a ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
variety of different sources sources, and multiple search criteria in at
for product/component least one case.
information ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• developing and presenting derive new information.
information on electrical and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
electronic principles. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• solving problems using PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
different DC theorems ways of tackling it.
• using conventional methods PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and computer-based solving the problem.
software analysis and PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
simulation packages to review your approach to problem solving.
explore AC circuits.

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 UNIT 80: COMMUNICATION WORKSHOP PRACTICES

Unit 80: Communication Workshop

Practices
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
As society’s reliance on technology increases, so do the complexities of electronic
and electrical systems such as computers and network systems. To meet the demands
of these electronically based systems in a safe and efficient manner, technicians
require significant knowledge of the relevant health and safety issues. They also need
to know about the appropriate care that needs to be taken with tools and understand
the cabling and connectors that connect sub-systems together. A knowledge of the
diverse range of connectors and manufacturing techniques is also required to support
the operation of equipment throughout its life cycle.
This unit aims to give learners the opportunity to develop the underpinning
knowledge, principles and basic workshop skills needed to operate safely within a
communications workshop environment. It considers the primary safety precautions
and related procedures associated with any engineering workshop environment and
the aspects of safety that relate specifically to a communications equipment
workshop.
The unit also develops the skills required for the correct handling and control of
tools. Learners will be able to use specialist tools for the manufacture of support
plates and a range of electrical cable connections found in communications
equipment, using soldering and mechanical connections.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the health and safety precautions and procedures within an engineering
workshop environment
2 Be able to use tool husbandry and control methods in a workshop environment
3 Be able to manufacture a support plate to hold a cable and connector
4 Be able to manufacture an electrical cable connection.

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UNIT 80: COMMUNICATION WORKSHOP PRACTICES

Unit content

1 Know the health and safety precautions and procedures within an engineering
workshop environment

Safe working practices: location of emergency equipment eg isolation switches,

firefighting appliances, first-aid equipment; types and dangers of hazardous
workshop materials eg oils, lubricants, adhesives, fluxes, cleaning solvents,
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), cadmium, beryllium, fibreglass; safe handling of
materials eg personal protective equipment, barrier protection, hygiene, storage,
movement; tool care eg measuring, marking-up, cutting, filing, shaping, crimping,
soldering tools; workshop safety precautions eg tidiness, cleanliness, defect
reporting
Emergency procedures: immediate and subsequent action in the event of each
type of incident; types of incidents (fire, chemical spillage, injury); action eg
raise the alarm, evacuate area, when not/when and how to fight a fire or contain
a spillage, how to make an area safe, accounting for personnel, treating injury
(first aid for shock, electrical shock, burns, fractures, amputations); post-
emergency reporting

2 Be able to use tool husbandry and control methods in a workshop environment

Tool control: tool control methods eg shadow boards, tool tagging, tool checking
procedures; documentation and responsibilities of users
Tool care methods: types of tools (measuring, marking-up, cutting, shaping);
condition of tools eg serviceability (tool wear and/or damage), maintenance
schedule records; tool storage eg in use, after use; tool cleaning, care and
inspection

3 Be able to manufacture a support plate to hold a cable and connector

Support plate manufacture: tool use eg hand file, hand/electrical drill, drill bit,
sheet metal punch, engineer’s square, scriber; materials eg aluminium, steel
Manufacturing standards: working to a given engineering drawing prepared to
British Standards eg BS8888-2004; plate prepared in accordance with the
specification eg overall dimensions are within specified tolerances, overall
dimensions are within geometric tolerances (square, straight, angles free from
twists, pitches of mounting holes meet specification requirements), assemblies
have secure and firm joints; work is clean and free from burrs

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4 Be able to manufacture an electrical cable connection

Cable connection tools and materials: tools eg marking-up, cutting, soldering, de-
soldering, crimping, insulation/identification sleeve fitting, connector
insertion/removal; looming material eg Spirawrap, tie wraps; sleeving material eg
Thermofit, Hellerman with Hellerine lubricant
Cable connections: cable eg single/multi-strand conductors, multi-cored insulated
cables; cable connector eg mains plug, Bayonet Neill-Concelman (BNC) connector,
radio frequency connectors, type 602, Plessey, Canon ‘D’ type, panel electronic
circuit edge connectors; connection preparation eg marking-up, drilling,
soldering; joining methods eg screwed, soldered, crimped

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe safe workshop M1 evaluate the safety hazards when D1 evaluate tool control procedures used in
working practices carrying out the manufacture of a cable a communications workshop
connection
P2 describe the emergency procedures to D2 critically evaluate the type of cable and
be taken in the event of a fire, a M2 justify the reasons for tool control connection used in a given application
chemical spillage and an injury procedures and suggest an improved alternative.
P3 describe and apply tool control M3 justify the selection of tools used to
procedures when carrying out a carry out the manufacture of an
communications workshop fitting task electrical cable connection.
P4 describe and apply tool care methods for
three different types of tools
P5 select and use tools to manufacture a
metal support plate to a given standard
to hold a connector and cable
P6 select and use appropriate tools to
manufacture two different types of
electrical cable connections.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit takes into account the rapid technological changes that are occurring in
communications workshops as well as providing opportunities to experience
traditional methodologies used in the workshop environment. Tutors should ensure
that learners appreciate traditional skills at the same time as they gain an insight
into how the communications workshop is evolving to meet the needs of technology
and the sector as a whole.
This unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit or, in order to enhance learning,
could be integrated with other communication technology units.
Tutors should try to use a wide range of delivery techniques. For example, whole-
class demonstrations of the use and care of tools, small group sessions to consider
tool control methods and one-to-one sessions to use tools and select and handle
electrical cables and connectors.
By its very nature, this unit requires learners to spend a significant time in the
workshop. Classroom work can be used to develop and expand any issues raised in the
workshop, but the majority of time should be focused on practical tasks. Pass criteria
P3 to P6 require learners to undertake practical activities within the workshop and
centres will need to consider the provision of suitable tools and equipment.
Many of the workshop skills developed in this unit are not commonly used by
professionals in the communications fields. However, an ability to construct small-
scale assemblies is important in the event of a professional being required to
assemble and modify systems to meet specific contingencies such as emergency
repairs.
Learners would benefit from appropriate work experience as this will help them put
their subject knowledge and practical skills into context. This may be achieved
through industry links established by centres with their learners’ employers.
However, if the course is full-time, where learners are not yet employed or are
undertaking off-line technical training (armed forces), then this might be achieved
through work placement opportunities or within training programmes. As a minimum,
centres should consider supervised visits to appropriate workshops where learners
can see the relevant tool control procedures in action.
If learners are working in a workshop environment as part of a training course, this
could be used instead of structured visits. Learners could be asked to use their
workplace or placement as the context for their assessment (with permission from
the employer/work placement). For example, to research and write a report
evaluating current safety hazards and justifying the selection of tools to carry out
specific tasks.
It is recommended that learning outcomes 1 and 2 be delivered before learning
outcomes 3 and 4. This will enable learners to appreciate the health and safety
procedures and precautions and tool husbandry and control methods in a workshop
environment before tackling the practical tasks in learning outcomes 3 and 4.

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Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit should, where possible, be practical in nature. The use of
case studies, assignments and projects could be used to expand on key aspects of the
unit but learners need to demonstrate the ability to use appropriate tools in a safe
manner. Tutors should consider how work carried out in other units or the workplace
could be used to demonstrate the practical competencies needed in this unit. Such
links will reinforce the relevance of this unit and will minimise the production of
additional evidence. It is recommended that assignments are designed to make use of
the links between the pass, merit and distinction criteria where appropriate.
Three assignments could be used to assess this unit. The first assignment could cover
the pass criteria P1 and P2 and incorporate the link with M1. The second assignment
could cover P3 and P4, with a link to M2 and D1. The final assignment could then
cover P5 and P6, with links to M3, M4 and D2.
The assessment of pass criteria P3, P4, P5 and P6 will need to be carried out through
practical work. Tutor observation will be the main form of assessment evidence for
these criteria. However, these observation records will also need to be supported by
further written evidence, such as the description of tool care methods and their
application, to fully meet the criteria. In particular, the merit and distinction criteria
will require learners to demonstrate a higher level of understanding and evidence for
this should be in the form of formal reports and/or presentations.
For all practical workshop assessment, it is recommended that observation records
are supplemented by further documentary evidence in the form of a logbook/diary.
This should be a working document and should contain the learner’s notes and
records as they are made at the time. This does not need to be a well-
presented/neat document but it should be an effective tool to capture events and
information as and when they happen. The tutor/assessor could also annotate the
logbook to indicate and record their observations and interactions with the learner eg
selection and use of tools, outcomes of progress meetings/formative feedback.
To achieve a pass, learners should demonstrate a knowledge and understanding of
communication workshop practices, identifying and describing related safe working
practices and workshop procedures. Learners need to have a clear understanding of
emergency procedures to be taken in the event of fire, chemical spillage and injury.
They should be able to describe and apply tool control procedures when undertaking
practical activities and also show an awareness of and be able to apply tool care
methods during appropriate practical activities.
Learners should also be able to select and use a variety of common communication
workshop tools to manufacture a metal support plate to a given standard to hold a
connector and cable. Finally, the learner should also be able to select and use
appropriate tools to manufacture two different types of electrical cable connections.

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To achieve a merit, learners should be able to evaluate the safety hazards that are
associated with the processes required when working with cables and connectors.
They should also be able to justify the reasons for tool control procedures and justify
their selection of tools to carry out the manufacture of an electrical cable
connection.
To achieve a distinction, learners should be able to examine and evaluate a tool
control method used in a communications workshop. Additionally, learners should be
able to critically evaluate and suggest alternatives to the type of cable and
connectors used in a given application.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit is designed to provide the necessary workshop principles and practice
required for all the other practical units within this qualification.
The unit supports the Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for Communication
Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist telecommunications
knowledge, skills and understanding.

Essential resources

Access to a variety of communications workshop facilities is required to complete the

unit successfully. The physical resources should include a range of workshop tools and
equipment appropriate for the construction of a range of cable and make-and-break
cable connection components. Standard communications workshop equipment, such
as the specialist tools identified in the content and suitable workbenches found in a
fully operational workshop should be available.

Indicative reading for learners

Health and Safety Executive — Health and Safety in Engineering Workshops (HSE
Books, 2004) ISBN 0717617173
Timings R — Engineering Fundamentals (Newnes, 2002) ISBN 0750656093

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out the planning N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
stage of the plate and cable information from relevant sources.
connection manufacture N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
• marking out and preparing stage calculations to do with:
the support plate for a amounts or sizes
manufacture.
b scales or proportion
c statistics
d using formulae.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and presenting C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information relevant to safe least two documents about the same
workshop practices subject.
• using a range of sources to Each document must be at least 1000
develop familiarity with words long
workshop methods, theory C3.3 Write two different types of documents
and practices each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
• preparing reports to describe
safe working practices, tool One document must be at least 1000
control methods and tool words long.
care.

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 UNIT 81: TELECOMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES

Unit 81: Telecommunications Principles

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The telecommunications industry has undergone a revolution in the last few years
with technologies used to deliver new services that businesses are increasingly
relying on and residential customers are embracing with enthusiasm.
Despite these advances, many of the underpinning electrical principles have not
changed and are as important as ever. This unit explores some of these fundamental
principles including the behaviour of inductance, capacitance and resistance in
alternating current (AC circuits, the characteristics of transmission lines and digital
signals).
Learners will gain an understanding of the importance of a methodical approach to
testing and measurement, an important skill for those who are responsible for the
maintenance of modern telecommunications systems.
The unit also considers electromagnetic theory as applied to telecommunications
and, specifically, electromagnetic spectrum frequency bands and other applications
such as transformers, microphones and loudspeakers.
This unit will provide the underpinning knowledge for a wide range of
telecommunications industry related study. However, it is recommended that
learners wishing to study this unit have a firm knowledge of the fundamentals of
electrical and electronic principles, electrical circuits, test equipment and
electromagnetic theory. A reasonable level of mathematical skill is also essential for
the unit content involving formulae and graphical plots.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the relationship between telecommunication circuits and transmission
lines and their effect on a digital signal
2 Understand the principles and characteristics of modulation and multiplexing
3 Be able to carry out tests on telecommunications electrical circuits and present
the results
4 Understand the applications of electromagnetic theory as applied to
telecommunications.

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Unit content

1 Understand the relationship between telecommunication circuits and

transmission lines and their effect on a digital signal

Circuit properties: behaviour of inductance, capacitance and resistance in

alternating current (AC) circuits; concept of reactance; concept of impedance in
terms of resistive and reactive components; characteristics of parallel and serial
resonant circuits; statement of the formula for determining resonant frequency in
terms of resistance, capacitance and inductance
Characteristics of transmission lines: equivalent circuit model of a transmission
line in terms of resistance, capacitance and inductance; concept of characteristic
impedance; conditions for maximum power transfer between a source and a load;
typical values of characteristic impedance for various types of cable eg co-axial
cable, twisted pairs; definition of bandwidth of a line in terms of the frequency
range between half power points
Digital signals: representation of binary information using non-return to zero
(NRZ) and return to zero (RZ) waveforms; advantage of RZ in terms of extracting
clocking information; digital signal impairments (delay, jitter, binary errors);
effects of delay, limited bandwidth and jitter on the extraction of binary
information from a digital signal; definition of bit rate and bit error rate (BER)

2 Understand the principles and characteristics of modulation and multiplexing

Modulation techniques: reasons for modulation of electrical signals; concepts of

modulating signal and carrier; principles of amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM) and phase modulation (PM) in terms of the effect of the
modulating signal on the properties of the carrier eg phase, amplitude,
frequency; properties of AM, FM and PM signals eg bandwidth requirement,
relative noise immunity; transmission of binary code using on—off keying
Analogue to digital conversion: principles of pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
with reference to sampling amplitude levels; principles of pulse code modulation
(PCM) in terms of converting sampled levels into binary code; function of an
encoder/decoder combination (codec) for transmission of speech, transmission of
video; benefits eg higher noise immunity, enabling of bandwidth compression
techniques
Frequency and time division multiplexing: principles eg transmitting traffic from
various sources at different frequencies, reference to transmission timeslots;
benefits of multiplexing eg reduction in number of links in a network, reduction
in operating and equipment costs

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3 Be able to carry out tests on telecommunications electrical circuits and

present the results
Measurements on electrical circuits: use of test equipment eg oscilloscope,
function generator, frequency meter, power meter; measurements (resonant
frequency, signal phase shift, bandwidth, pulse shape, signal power); recording
and presenting test results eg tabulation of data, graphical representation (line
chart, bar chart, pie chart, column chart), paper- or computer-based methods

4 Understand the applications of electromagnetic theory as applied to

telecommunications

Electro-magnetic spectrum frequency bands: applications from near infrared

(NIR) band to low frequency (LF) band eg mobile telephony, optical fibre
transmission, satellite communications, broadcast radio and television,
microwave radio links; propagation characteristics eg line of sight, groundwave,
ionospheric refraction, reflection
Applications of electromagnetism: principles of operation eg role of
electromagnetism, main components; relevance of turns ratio; efficiency of a
transformer in terms of relationship between input power, output power and
losses (eddy currents, hysteresis); other telecommunications applications eg
microphone, loudspeaker

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the properties of a circuit with M1 calculate the resonant frequency of a D1 justify the use of a particular modulation
reactive and resistive components resonant circuit and confirm the technique in three different frequency
prediction using appropriate test bands of the electromagnetic spectrum
P2 describe the characteristics of a
equipment
transmission line with reference to an D2 compare the modulation techniques used
equivalent circuit model M2 describe the modulation techniques used by two different applications, giving
by three given applications that operate reasons for their use in those particular
P3 describe the properties of a digital signal
in different frequency bands of the applications.
and the impairments that could affect it
electromagnetic spectrum
P4 describe signal modulation techniques
M3 describe the use of a combination of
and the properties of a modulated signal
modulation and multiplexing in one
P5 describe the principles and benefits of example application.
analogue to digital conversion
P6 describe the principles and benefits of
frequency and time division multiplexing
P7 make measurements on
telecommunication electrical circuits
and present the results of the tests

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 UNIT 81: TELECOMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 describe the characteristics of eight
frequency bands in the electromagnetic
spectrum and one application of each
P9 explain how a transformer and another
telecommunications device makes use of
the principles of electromagnetism.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Although this unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit, its main role is
preparation for study of the other telecommunications units including Unit 91: Access
Network Techniques and Applications, Unit 92: Core Network Techniques, Unit 93:
Telecommunications Systems and Unit 96: Radio Communications Principles and
Applications. It is recommended that Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles is
studied before this unit in order to prepare learners for some of the content in
learning outcomes 1, 3 and 4.
Tutors delivering this unit have opportunities to use a wide range of delivery
techniques. For example, lectures, discussions, use of e-learning courses, learner
presentations, practical work, research projects and/or library resources would all be
suitable. internet access could also be used to give learners access to websites that
provide explanations of the underlying fundamentals of telecommunications
technologies.
Although the learning outcomes can be delivered in any order, it is recommended that
learning outcome 1 is studied before learning outcome 3. This way the tests undertaken
can involve the circuits discussed in learning outcome 1, which will aid learners’
understanding. In fact, the work associated with learning outcome 3 could be used to
effectively reinforce the theoretical aspects covered in learning outcome 1.
Learning outcome 3 involves the use of test equipment and tutors will need to assign
suitable practical activities. For the purpose of delivery, it is expected that learners
would be introduced to as wide a range of equipment as possible. As a minimum,
tutors should cover the list of examples in the unit content section, ie oscilloscope,
function generator, frequency meter and power meter.
The range of measurements to be carried out will include measurement of resonant
frequency, signal phase shift, bandwidth, pulse shape and signal power. The
measurement of resonant frequency could be made on a parallel LCR resonant
circuit. The bandwidth measurement could be made on a ‘ladder’ circuit containing
resistance and capacitance. Measurement of the phase change experienced by an AC
signal could be made on a simple R—C—R ‘T’ circuit, as could the power and pulse
shape measurements.
The delivery of learning outcome 4 would be assisted by the availability of the
component parts of a transformer, loudspeaker and microphone for inspection by
learners.
Wherever possible, tutors should relate the principles discussed in this unit to
modern telecommunications practice so that learners understand their significance
and practical applications.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

When designing assignments for this unit, the integrated nature of some of the pass
criteria should be taken into account. In particular, an assignment that demonstrates
the achievement of pass criterion P7 could be used to assess other criteria. For
example, as part of demonstrating P7, learners could be asked to make
measurements on an LCR resonant circuit and then explain the shape of the resulting
graph of output versus frequency. In so doing, criterion P1 could also be assessed. If
learners have also calculated the resonant frequency of the tested circuit, then the
achievement of M1 would also have been demonstrated.
P1 and P2 are closely linked and could be assessed through a report in which learners
describe a transmission line in terms of its equivalent circuit. This would also require
learners to discuss the effects of the resistive and reactive components of that circuit.
P4 and P6 could be assessed together by asking learners to describe the techniques
used in modern telecommunications systems to transmit traffic over different
transmission media. If learners extended this topic to describe an application that used
both modulation and multiplexing, merit criterion M3 could also be demonstrated.
P3 and P5 could be assessed together by asking learners to describe the effect of
delay and jitter on the decoding process.
For M2, learners need to describe the modulation techniques used by three given
applications that operate in different frequency bands of the electromagnetic
spectrum. This could be assessed along with the relevant pass criteria P4 and P8 by
asking learners to describe the basic principles of telecommunications systems, which
transmit in three particular frequency bands. If learners then justified the use of the
modulation techniques in the bands under discussion, then D1 would have been
demonstrated. If learners were to compare the modulation techniques used by two of
the applications giving reasons for their use, D2 would also be demonstrated.
P9 could be assessed by asking learners to explain how a transformer makes use of
the principles of electro-magnetism and, in another report, to describe how another
device (eg microphone, loudspeaker) makes use of electromagnetism.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

It is recommended that Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic Principles is studied before

this unit since some prior knowledge of electrical circuits, use of test equipment and
electromagnetic theory is assumed. It would also be advantageous to study Unit 4:
Mathematics for Technicians before or concurrently with this unit, as learners will
need to apply mathematical skills involving problem solving and graphical plots to
meet the requirements of P7 and M1.
This unit provides the relevant electrical science content to underpin topics covered
in Unit 91: Access Network Techniques and Applications, Unit 92: Core Network
Techniques, Unit 93: Telecommunications Systems and Unit 96: Radio
Communications Principles and Applications.
The unit supports the Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for Communication
Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist telecommunications
knowledge, skills and understanding.

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Essential resources

Learners will require access to a range of test equipment eg oscilloscope, function

generator, frequency meter and power meter. Learners will also require access to
passive electronic components (resistors, capacitors, inductors) and a suitable
solderless method of interconnecting them.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Goleniewski L — Telecommunications Essentials (Addison Wesley, 2002)
ISBN 0201760320
Hambley A — Electrical Engineering: Principles and Applications, 3rd Edition
(Prentice Hall, 2004) ISBN 0131470469
Langley G — Telecommunications Primer (Prentice Hall, 1993) ISBN 0273601571

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 UNIT 81: TELECOMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing to carry out a N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
practical assignment information from relevant sources.
involving testing of an N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
electrical circuit stage calculations to do with:
• determining the expected a amounts or sizes
behaviour of an electrical
b scales or proportion
circuit
c handling statistics
• interpreting the results of a
test on a circuit and writing a d using formulae.
report comparing the N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
outcome to the expected present your findings and justify your
behaviour. methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing descriptions and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
explanations of different least two documents about the same
aspects of subject.
telecommunications Each document must be a minimum of
principles 1000 words long.
• writing reports describing C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
different aspects of each one giving different information
telecommunications about complex subjects.
principles.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
relating to sources, and multiple search criteria in at
telecommunications least one case.
principles ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• preparing reports and/or derive new information.
presentations to describe and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
explain the principles of text with image, text with number,
telecommunications, with image with number.
comparisons of techniques
and examples of applications
• tabulating results of practical
assignments and preparing
graphical representations of
the results.

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 UNIT 82: ACCESS NETWORK TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS

Unit 82: Access Network Techniques and

Applications
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit is concerned with the so-called ‘last mile’ connection of
telecommunications services to customers. With the deregulation of the
telecommunications industry, many more organisations are now involved with
delivering services to residential and business customers over the infrastructure
formerly installed and maintained by the incumbent service provider.
Incumbent service providers have, over many years, made a large investment in the
provision of telephone lines (the ‘local loop’) that originally just provided access to
basic telephony services. To meet the demand for new services such as high-speed
internet access, new technologies have been developed to exploit the existing
infrastructure.
The aim of this unit is to give an introduction to the characteristics of the local loop,
its limitations and the systems that have been developed to deliver new services over
it. The systems discussed include the analogue telephony system that has been in use
for decades, the digital systems introduced to offer enhanced telephony and data
services, and the latest broadband services that provide high-speed internet access.
Apart from explaining the underlying technologies, the unit also introduces learners
to typical applications of these various systems.
The last mile connection to a customer is a challenging environment. The unit
discusses the physical components of the copper-based access network and the
factors that limit the maximum distance over which particular types of service can be
provided. Learners are introduced to the technologies that overcome some of these
limitations and provide the broadband services that have increasing importance to
both customers and service providers.
Apart from the copper-based access network, the principles and applications of
newer access technologies, such as those using optical fibre or wireless techniques,
are also introduced.
The unit also considers the various test techniques used to check whether a copper
line is capable of carrying broadband services and to find faults on the line.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the structure, physical components and transmission media employed
in an access network
2 Understand the effects of line impairments on a transmitted signal
3 Understand the operation, capabilities and applications of a time division
multiplexing (TDM) system
4 Understand the operation, capabilities and applications of a digital subscriber line
(DSL) system.

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Unit content

1 Understand the structure, physical components and transmission media

employed in an access network

Copper-based access network: role of street cabinets (CABs), primary connect

points (PCPs), secondary connect points (SCPs), drop points (DPs); relationship
between PCPs, SCPs and DPs; multipair cable structure and types; role of remote
line unit (RLU); role of equipment at the local exchange eg main distribution
frame (MDF), switch equipment, line cards
Alternative transmission media: basic transmission principles and capabilities
(data transfer rate, reach, quality of service) of alternative line access
techniques eg fibre to the cabinet (FTTC), telephony over passive optical
networks (TPON), wireless access techniques (Wi-Fi, WiMAX); relative installation
and component costs of alternative media

2 Understand the effects of line impairments on a transmitted signal

Loss, signal level and signal-to-noise ratios: definition of decibel (dB) unit of loss;
definition of dBm unit of signal power; calculation of total loss of a system from
individual losses in dB notation; calculation of total loss of a system from input
and output signal levels in dBm; calculation of output signal level in dBm notation
from total loss in dB notation and input signal level in dBm; definition of signal-
to-noise ratio; calculation of signal-to-noise ratio using dB notation
Impairments in the local loop: noise, near end and far end cross talk (NEXT and
FEXT); primary and secondary line coefficients; variation of loss with frequency;
role of bridge taps and their effect on digital subscriber line (DSL) signals;
distance (reach) constraints for analogue and DSL signals; role of loading coils and
their effect on DSL signals

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3 Understand the operation, capabilities and applications of a time division

multiplexing (TDM) system

TDM line system: principles of TDM; frame structure of 2 Mbit/s TDM E1 signal;
role of frame alignment word (FAW); role of multiform structure; transport of
signalling in timeslot (TS) 16; role of primary multiplexers; G.703 network
interface standard; high density bipolar 3 (HDB3) line code; applications of E1
systems eg inter-exchange transmission, inter-connection of private automatic
branch exchanges (PABXs)
Basic rate and primary rate integrated services digital network (ISDN) services:
time division multiplexing of B and D channels in a basic rate access (BRA) ISDN
service; role of B and D channels; BRA ISDN customer’s equipment (terminal
equipment, terminal adaptor, network termination); definition of the user-
network interface (UNI); use of BRA for telephony and data transfer; aggregation
of B channels (‘channel bonding’) to provide higher data transfer rates; time
division multiplexing of up to 30 B channels to form a 2 Mbit/s aggregate for a
primary rate access (PRA) ISDN service

4 Understand the operation, capabilities and applications of a digital subscriber

line (DSL) system

Asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) systems: principles eg quadrature

amplitude modulation (QAM), discrete multi tone (DMT), forward error correction
(FEC), interleaving; functions of the ADSL termination units (ATU-R and ATU-C);
principles and advantages of rate adaptive ADSL; role of splitters at customers’
premises and at the local exchange; splitterless ADSL services; role of microfilters
at customers’ premises; role of the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) in ADSL
connections; role of a digital subscriber line access multiplexer (DSLAM); role of
broadband remote access server (B-RAS); definition and significance of contention
ratio
Alternative digital subscriber line (DSL) services: role and capabilities of a single-
pair high-speed DSL (SHDSL) service; role and capabilities of other DSL services eg
high-speed DSL (HDSL), very-high-bit-rate DSL (VDSL); effects of transmitting
different DSL and TDM services over the same multipair cable; applications of DSL
services eg internet access, voice over internet protocol (VoIP), virtual private
network (VPN) connections, access to television programmes
DSL testing: relevance and role of direct current (DC) and alternating current
(AC) line tests on local loop using a digital multimeter; relevance and role of the
various tests carried out using a time domain reflectometer (TDR) eg line length
measurement, location of line break, location of bridged tap; relevance and role
of the various tests carried out by a DSL tester eg insertion loss, bits per tone,
error performance, internet protocol (IP) and ATM ping test; definition and
relevance of noise margin

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 UNIT 82: ACCESS NETWORK TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the structure of a copper-based M1 compare service aspects of a fibre-based D1 compare alternative methods of
access network and the role of its main access technology with that of a providing internet access with reference
functional components conventional copper-based access to DSL, ISDN and wireless systems in
network terms of service, transmission capability,
P2 explain the principles and capabilities of
quality of service and security.
an alternative transmission media in an M2 explain the factors that have to be taken
access network into account when deciding whether a
DSL service can be provided on a given
P3 calculate loss, signal level, and signal-to-
line.
noise ratios from the results of a loss and
level measurement
P4 explain the effects of impairments in the
local loop on the provision of telephony
and data services
P5 explain the principles of operation,
capabilities and applications of a TDM
line system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe the principles of operation and
capabilities of basic rate and primary
rate ISDN services
P7 explain the operation, components,
capabilities and applications of the
various types of ADSL system
P8 describe the capabilities and features of
an alternative DSL system
P9 explain the relevance of the
measurements that can be carried out by
the various types of DSL test equipment.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit takes into account the rapid technological changes occurring in
telecommunications service access networks. It also acknowledges that older systems
and infrastructure are likely to remain in use for some years to come. Tutors should
ensure that learners appreciate this while they gaining an insight into how access
networks may evolve.
The unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit or it could be integrated with other
telecommunication systems units in order to enhance learning across the
qualification. Ideally, it should be delivered with Unit 92: Core Network Techniques,
Unit 93: Telecommunications Systems and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems
Operation, which cover the same general topic although with different emphasis and
depth.
It is recommended that Unit 90: Telecommunications Principles is completed before
attempting this unit.
Tutors should try to use as wide a range of delivery techniques as possible. For
example, lectures, discussions, use of e-learning courses, learner presentations, site
visits, research projects and library resources would all be suitable. These techniques
can assist in the achievement of all of the learning outcomes and maintain interest in
a predominantly theory-based unit.
Learning outcome 2 provides an opportunity for practical work and centres should
consider providing suitable equipment (eg audio signal generator, level meter and
calibrated attenuator). This would allow loss and level measurements and
calculations to be carried out by learners as part of a practical activity. It would also
be useful if access to reels of multi-pair cable were available so that learners could
make more advanced measurements, including crosstalk measurements.
It is appreciated that, because of its high cost, many centres will not be able to
provide access to more advanced test equipment. However, centres should consider
obtaining access to DSL line test equipment so that learners can carry out practical
activities relating to learning outcome 4. This would ensure that learners have some
knowledge of the capabilities and operation of modern test equipment.
Learners would benefit from access to businesses involved in operating access
networks, as this would enable them to put the subjects studied into context. This
could be achieved through the centre’s links with their learners’ employer(s).
However, work placement opportunities could be used if the course is full time with
learners not yet employed. As a minimum, centres should consider supervised visits
to industrial sites where learners can see the relevant equipment areas in operation.
Areas that would be applicable to supervised visits include local exchanges and visits
to outside plant such as street cabinets. Ideally, the engineer or technician with
technical responsibility for the visited area would be available to answer questions.

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If work placements are possible, it would be useful if learners could have supervised
access to view, for example, the testing of a line at a customer’s premises or local
exchange. Learners could also be asked to use their workplace or placement as the
context for their assessment activities (with permission from the employer/work
placement). For example, they could research and write a report describing the
architecture of the access network maintained by the learner’s employer. Learners
could also assist an engineer or technician in their normal duties, although health and
safety issues must be taken into account with suitable training and supervision
provided.
Learning outcomes 1 and 2 could be delivered before learning outcomes 3 and 4. This
will enable learners to appreciate the effects that the limitations of copper-based
access networks have on the operation of the systems covered in learning outcomes 3
and 4.
The internet can be used to give learners access to company-specific websites and
other sites that give explanations of technical and service aspects of access
networks.
Many company websites provide access to technical ‘white papers’ that can develop
learners’ understanding of the technologies used in access networks and an
appreciation of their capabilities. Descriptions of the types of technology used by a
network operator may also be found to ensure learners are exposed to current
practice rather than an out-of-date view.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

It is suggested that the assessment strategy for this unit should consist of a mix of
report writing, practical assignments and formal, time-constrained examinations.
Criteria P1 to P4 are pre-requisites for the other pass criteria and should be assessed
in sequence and before criteria P5 to P9.
Practical work could aid the assessment of pass criteria P3 and P9, subject to the
availability of suitable equipment. However, P9 could also be assessed by providing
learners with ‘screenshot’ displays of test results provided by a test equipment
manufacturer or supplier.
Care must be taken with respect to the integrated nature of the pass criteria in this
unit. For example, P1 asks learners to describe the structure of a copper-based
network, while P2 asks them to explain the principles and capabilities of alternative
transmission media. These criteria could be assessed together, for example by asking
learners to describe the structure of a modern access network with reference to the
use of copper and alternative transmission media. M1 could then be assessed from
the same report since it asks for a comparison between fibre-based access technology
and the use of copper cables. M1 expects learners to take into account the improved
reach, greater bandwidth and higher costs associated with fibre-based systems.

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Assessment of P4 and P7 could also be linked. For example, learners could be asked
to explain the techniques used in an ADSL system to reduce the impact of the
limitations of the local loop on the capabilities of the system. M2 could then be
assessed from the same report. For M2, learners are expected to explain that the
suitability of a line for a DSL service depends not only on the characteristics of that
line but the environment in which it exists (eg crosstalk from other types of DSL
service, noise and devices attached to that line).
P5 and P8 could be assessed together by asking learners to explain the capabilities of
an E1 2 Mbit/s service and describe the DSL services which could provide an
alternative solution for typical applications of E1 systems.
Assessment of P6 could be carried out alongside that for P7 and P8. Learners could be
asked to explain the principles of operation and capabilities of the various methods
of providing access to the internet and other digital services. D1 could then be
assessed from the same report, since it asks for a comparison of methods of providing
internet access. Within this comparison learners should take into account the security
aspects of wireless access and quality of service issues for both wireless and ADSL,
particularly when a service user is some distance from an access point. The
achievable data transfer rates for the various access methods should also be
compared.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

It is recommended that Unit 90: Telecommunications Principles is studied before

attempting this unit.
This unit has close links with Unit 92: Core Network Techniques, Unit 93:
Telecommunications Systems and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems Operation.
The unit supports the National Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for
Communication Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist
telecommunications knowledge, skills and understanding.

Essential resources

If a practical activity is used to facilitate the achievement of P3 then centres should

provide learners with access to an audio signal generator, audio level meter and
calibrated attenuators.

Indicative reading for learners

Freeman R — Fundamentals of Telecommunications, 2nd Edition (John Wiley and

Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471710458
Gagnaire M — Broadband Local Loops for High-Speed Internet Access (Artech House,
2003) ISBN 1580530893
Griffiths J — ISDN Explained (John Wiley and Sons, 1998) ISBN 0471979058

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating loss, signal level, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
and signal to noise ratios information from relevant sources.
from the results of loss and N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
level measurements or stage calculations to do with:
representative data.
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching and preparing C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
descriptions and explanations least two documents about the same
of the various aspects of subject.
access networks Each document must be at least 1000
• writing reports that describe words long
the various aspects of access C3.3 Write two different types of documents
networks. each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
relating to the latest sources, and multiple search criteria in at
techniques used in, and least one case.
applications of, access
networks
• preparing reports and/or ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
presentations to describe and derive new information.
explain the various technical
aspects of access networks
with comparisons of
techniques and examples of
applications
• presenting a report or ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
presentation that will include text with image, text with number,
diagrams to describe the image with number.
architecture and operation of
access networks and systems
and charts to describe the
performance of those
systems.

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916 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 UNIT 83: CORE NETWORK TECHNIQUES

Unit 83: Core Network Techniques

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
As the range of telecommunications services (eg mobile telephony, broadband and
mobile access to the internet, telephony over the internet) available to customers
increases, so does the level of demand. To meet this increase in demand and aid the
evolution of new services, telecommunications service providers are moving towards
the integration of voice and data services with high-capacity optical links carrying all
forms of traffic.
This unit aims to help learners appreciate the capabilities of the networks that make
the communications services we rely on possible. The unit will give learners an
understanding of how the core networks that carry telecommunications traffic
between access points (eg telephone exchanges) operate and how those networks are
likely to evolve to meet future demands.
Learners will examine the structure of fixed line and mobile radio networks that offer
conventional telephony services and gain an understanding of their basic operation
and capabilities. The technologies employed for the links that interconnect the major
elements of those networks will be studied with emphasis given to optical fibre
transmission.
Learners will investigate the techniques used to combine (multiplex) traffic from
different sources including electronic techniques used in synchronous networks and
packet-based networks, as well as the techniques used in all-optical networks. From
these investigations, learners will gain an appreciation of the technical and economic
factors that govern the choice of multiplexing technique for a particular application.
This unit will enable learners to gain an understanding of the key components and
operation of the internet. They will also learn how the techniques used by the
internet can be harnessed to provide a unified core network that supports the
integration of voice, video and data services.
Learners will examine the limitations of networks based on conventional internet
protocols and learn of ways of offering more reliable transmission of multimedia
traffic including voice, video and data.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the structure of the public switched telephone network (PSTN)
2 Understand the principles of optical fibre technology and their application in
optical networks
3 Understand the operation of mobile networks with reference to the role of their
major network elements
4 Understand the operation and characteristics of packet-switched core networks.

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Unit content

1 Understand the structure of the public switched telephone network (PSTN)

Structure: architecture of the public switched telecommunications network

(PSTN) eg access network, core network, service control; hierarchy eg local,
primary, secondary, tertiary switching centres; the need for switching; star and
mesh networks
Major elements: digital local exchanges (DLE); remote concentrator units (RCU);
digital main switching units (DMSU); digital derived services switching centre
(DDSC); gateways
Transmission network: synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH); relevant International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) standards eg G.707, G.708; transmission rates 155
Mbit/s to 10 Gbit/s; payload capabilities of synchronous transport modules (STM-1
to STM-64); role of path overhead, section overhead, virtual containers and
pointers; purpose of concatenation; relationship between SDH and synchronous
optical networks (SONET); SDH network elements (terminal multiplexers, cross-
connect, add-drop multiplexers); ring and mesh network topologies; timing
distribution

2 Understand the principles of optical fibre technology and their application in

optical networks

Characteristics of optical fibres: fibre types (singlemode and multimode); fibre

acceptance angle, reflection and refraction; light generation devices (lasers, light
emitting diodes); optical impairments (dispersion, loss); power budgeting; optical
hazard levels
Optical networks: wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) and dense WDM (D-
WDM); elements of an optical network (optical amplifiers, optical add-drop
multiplexers, optical cross-connects

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3 Understand the operation of mobile networks with reference to the role of

their major network elements

Global system for mobile (GSM) networks: radio interface and channels; cell
patterns; speech and channel coding; signalling systems; location updating;
handover arrangements; modulation schemes; security mechanisms; roaming
services; enhanced data services eg general packet radio service (GPRS),
enhanced data rates for GSM evolution (EDGE)
GSM network elements: line-of-sight microwave links; mobile equipment (ME) and
role of subscriber information module (SIM); base station sub-system (BSS);
mobile switching centre (MSC); gateway mobile switching centre (GMSC); home
location register (HLR); visitor location register (VLR)
Third generation (3G) mobile networks: service benefits of 3G; wideband code
division multiple access (WCDMA); routing and location areas; universal mobile
telecommunications system (UMTS) network architecture; soft and hard
handover; location services
3G network elements: elements common to both GSM and 3G networks; radio
network controllers (RNC); user equipment (UE); universal subscriber identity
module (USIM); serving GPRS support node (SGSN); gateway GPRS support node
(GGSN)

4 Understand the operation and characteristics of packet-switched core

networks

Internet protocol (IP) networks: integration of voice and data service traffic over
a single core network; benefits of statistical multiplexing gain; connectionless
operation of IP networks; IP addressing schemes eg IPv4, IPv6; role of routers;
domain name service (DNS); role of route discovery protocols eg routing
information protocol (RIP), open shortest path first (OSPF); cause and effects of
delay, jitter and digital errors
Quality of service (QofS): methods of providing a specified QofS over an IP
network eg differentiated service (Diffserv), resource reservation protocol
(RSVP); enhanced IP networking techniques to reduce delay eg multiprotocol
label switching (MPLS); benefits of an asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network
in terms of the provision of virtual circuits with a specified QofS

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the structure and major M1 describe how an SDH ring network D1 compare the methods used by SDH and IP
elements of the public switched ensures continuity of service in the event networks to provide continuity of service
telecommunications network of a link failure in the event of one or more faults.
P2 describe a transmission network M2 compare the advantages of optical
employing synchronous digital hierarchy multiplexing and SDH multiplexing giving
typical applications for both
P3 describe the characteristics of optical
fibres and light generation devices M3 compare hard and soft handover in a
mobile network.
P4 explain the role of the elements of
optical networks employing wavelength
division multiplexing
P5 describe the operation of a GSM mobile
network with reference to the role of
the network elements
P6 describe the operation of a 3G mobile
network with reference to the role of
the network elements

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the operation of IP networks
with reference to routers, DNS servers
and route discovery protocols
P8 describe the provision of a quality of
service with IP networks and ATM
networks.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit takes into account the rapid technological changes that are occurring in
telecommunications service delivery systems. It also acknowledges that many
countries still rely on the use of conventional telecommunications systems for
telephony services. Tutors should ensure that learners appreciate this while they gain
an insight into how telecommunications networks might evolve.
This unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit but could be integrated with other
telecommunication systems units in order to enhance learning. Ideally, it should be
delivered in conjunction with Unit 91: Access Network Techniques and Applications,
Unit 93: Telecommunications Systems and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems
Operation, which cover the same general topic but with different emphasis and
depth.
Tutors should try to use as wide a range of delivery techniques as possible. For
example, lectures, discussions, use of e-learning courses, learner presentations, site
visits, research projects and library resources would all be suitable. These techniques
can assist in the achievement of all of the learning outcomes.
The internet can be used to give learners access to company-specific websites and
other sites that give explanations of technical and service aspects of core networks.
Many company sites provide technical ‘white papers’ that can develop learners’
understanding of the technologies used in modern networks and an appreciation of
their capabilities. Descriptions of the types of technology used by a network operator
may also be used to ensure learners are exposed to current practice.
The advanced technologies in this unit will probably prevent the use of practical
activities within centres. Learners will therefore benefit from access to businesses
involved in operating core networks, enabling them to put the subjects studied into a
relevant context. This may be achieved through the centre’s links with their learners’
employer(s). However, this might be achieved through work placement opportunities
if the course is full time with learners not yet employed. As a minimum, centres
should consider supervised visits to industrial sites where learners can see the
relevant equipment areas in operation. These might include network management
centres (NMC), trunk access nodes and distribution (access) nodes and base stations.
Ideally, the engineer or technician with technical responsibility for the visited area
would be available to answer questions.
Where learners are employed or have access to work placements it would be
beneficial if they could have supervised access to view, for example, the provisioning
of virtual connections or fault-finding activities. Learners could also use their
workplace or placement as the context for assessment activities (with permission
from the employer/work placement). For example, learners could research and write
a report describing the architecture of the core network maintained by their
employer/work placement. Learners could also assist an engineer or technician in
their normal duties, although health and safety issues must be taken into account
with suitable training and supervision provided.

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Whilst the learning outcomes can be delivered in any order, it is suggested that
learning outcome 4 be delivered last so that the importance of quality of service
issues in IP networks can be related to the service offered by conventional circuit-
switched networks.
Reliability and availability issues relating to service delivery should be stressed when
discussing and comparing synchronous SDH-based networks and IP networks. Emphasis
should be given to safety considerations when dealing with optical transmission.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The assessment strategy for this unit could consist of a mix of report writing and
formal, time-constrained tests/examinations.
To ease assessment, the pass criteria can be integrated. For example, for P1 learners
are expected to describe the components and structure of the PSTN, while for P2,
learners need to describe the PSTN’s underlying transmission network. Assessment
evidence could, therefore, consist of a learner report describing the provision of
telephony services over conventional circuit-switched networks. Similarly, P8, which
deals with Quality of Service issues in IP and ATM networks, could be assessed with
P7, which deals with the operation of IP networks. This could be achieved through
learners writing a report that examines the service capabilities of packet-switched
networks with reference to their operation. The report could then describe how the
QofS provided by an IP network could be enhanced through using techniques such as
RSVP to approach the QofS capability of an ATM network.
Similarly, it would be reasonable to assess P5 and P6 (which deal with GSM and 3G
networks, respectively) simultaneously by asking learners to describe those elements
that are common to both types of network as well as describing differences in
operation between the network types.
As criteria P3 and P4 both deal with various aspects of optical networks, a unified
approach to their assessment could also be used. For example, learners could be
asked to describe why some types of laser are not suitable for the transmission of D-
WDM signals, though they are suitable for transmitting WDM signals.
To achieve a merit grade, learners should be able to describe how an SDH ring
network ensures continuity of service in the event of a link failure (M1). There is a
direct link between this criterion and P2.
The second merit criterion (M2) requires learners to compare the advantages of
optical multiplexing and SDH multiplexing. This could be assessed along with the
relevant pass criteria (P2 and P4) by asking learners to compare the techniques used
in an SDH-based network with a network using optical switching. As an example of a
comparison of network facilities, learners could compare the ability of SDH networks
to provide relatively low-capacity paths with the ability of optical multiplexers to
interconnect high-capacity paths. Learners could then apply this information to reach
the conclusion that SDH techniques are useful at access points at the edge of the
core network while optical switching is applicable at nodes within the core network.

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M3 requires learners to compare hard and soft handover in a mobile network and this
could be assessed as an extension to their work for the relevant pass criteria (P5
and P6).
To achieve a distinction grade, learners need to compare the methods used by
synchronous SDH and IP networks to provide continuity of service in the event of one
or more faults. For this, learners would need an in-depth knowledge of the operation
and architecture of both types of network. In addition, they would need to be able to
compare the restoration techniques they use in terms of their methods of operation,
speed of restoration and the resulting effect on different types of traffic. D1 could be
assessed along with the relevant pass criteria (P2 and P7) and merit criteria (M1 and
M4) by asking learners to describe how continuity of service is maintained in the
different types of core network.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has close links with Unit 91: Access Network Techniques and Applications,
Unit 93: Telecommunications Systems and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems
Operation.
The unit supports the Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for Communication
Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist telecommunications
knowledge, skills and understanding.

Essential resources

There are no essential resources for this unit.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Freeman R — Fundamentals of Telecommunications, 2nd Edition (John Wiley and
Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471710458
Goralski W — Sonet/SDH (Osborne/McGraw-Hill, 2002) ISBN 0072225246
Lee B and Kim W — Integrated Broadband Networks: TCP/IP, ATM, SDH/SONET and
WDM/Optics (Artech House, 2002) ISBN 1580531636
Moore M, Southwick P, Pritsky T and Riggs C — Telecommunications: A Beginner’s
Guide (McGraw-Hill Education, 2001) ISBN 0072193565
Perros H — Connection-oriented networks: SONET/SDH, ATM, MPLS and Optical
Networks (John Wiley and Sons, 2005) ISBN 0470021632
Tomasi W — Introduction to Data Communication and Networking (Prentice Hall,
2004) ISBN 0130138282
Wesolowski K — Mobile Communication Systems (John Wiley and Sons, 2002)
ISBN 0471498378

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing descriptions and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
explanations of the various least two documents about the same
aspects of core networks subject.
• writing reports that describe Each document must be a minimum of
the various aspects of core 1000 words long.
networks. C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
relating to the latest sources, and multiple search criteria in
techniques used in core at least one case.
networks and their application ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
• preparing their reports and/or derive new information.
presentations to describe and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
explain the various technical text with image, text with number,
aspects of core networks with image with number.
comparisons of techniques and
examples of applications
• presenting a report or oral
presentation that will include
diagrams/charts to describe
the architecture and operation
of core network systems and
the performance of those
systems.

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Unit 84: Telecommunications Systems

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Just a few years ago most people just had access to a basic telephony service
provided over a pair of wires. Data and mobile services were available but, because
of cost, their use was restricted mainly to large companies. The capabilities of the
data services that were available then were also severely limited.
However, since then the range and capabilities of telecommunications services has
increased dramatically while their cost has decreased. Most people now use a mobile
phone and increasing numbers have high-speed access to the internet. Even small
companies use mobile and fixed line data services.
The aim of this unit is to develop learners’ knowledge and understanding of the
services offered by modern telecommunications systems. It introduces learners to the
facilities and features of conventional telephony services and the data services
available to integrated services digital network (ISDN) customers. Many larger
businesses need to transfer significant amounts of information, often financially
critical, between offices. This unit introduces learners to the principles and
characteristics of the various methods of providing reliable, secure data
communications services.
The data service that has had most influence on the way we work is, without doubt,
that provided by the internet. The administration and operation of this ‘network of
networks’ is therefore, discussed in some detail.
Another telecommunication service that has had a major influence on our way of life
in recent years is the mobile telephone service. This unit describes the technologies
that allow wireless communications and the services offered by the various types of
mobile service.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know the facilities and applications of a public switched telephone network
(PSTN) and integrated services digital network (ISDN) service
2 Understand the operation, characteristics and applications of a wide area
network (WAN) service
3 Understand the operation, administration, characteristics and capabilities of the
internet
4 Understand the principles and capabilities of a modern mobile communications
service.

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Unit content

1 Know the facilities and applications of a public switched telephone network

(PSTN) and integrated services digital network (ISDN) service

PSTN service: plain old telephone service (POTS) facilities; error indications eg
engaged tone, number unobtainable tone; recorded announcements; progress
indicators eg ringing tone, number unobtainable tone; modern PSTN services eg
caller display, ring back when free, call waiting, conference call, divert on busy,
voice mail; special rate services eg emergency calls, freephone, premium rate;
information services eg directory enquiries, time announcement; features and
applications of a central office exchange (CENTREX) service
Applications of ISDN services: capabilities of a basic rate access (BRA) in terms of
the B and D channels; use of B channels for telephony and data transfer;
applications of basic rate ISDN eg telephony, internet access, file transfer, video
conferencing; B channel bonding; ISDN standards; primary rate access (PRA) ISDN;
n X 64 kbit/s service; applications of PRA ISDN eg high quality video conferencing,
connection of a private automatic branch exchange (PABX) to the PSTN

2 Understand the operation, characteristics and applications of a wide area

network (WAN) service

Principles of WAN technologies: advantages of packet-switched data services;

statistical multiplexing gain; causes and effects of congestion; quality of service
(QofS) parameters; connection-oriented service; concept of virtual circuits;
connectionless service
Capabilities and applications of a WAN service: leased lines; characteristics of
modern data services eg asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), X25, frame relay,
Ethernet, switched multi-megabit data service (SMDS), digital subscriber line
(DSL) services (error correction facilities, QofS and applications); ATM virtual
circuits; definition, applications and security aspects of virtual private networks
(VPN); integration of voice, video and data services

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3 Understand the operation, administration, characteristics and capabilities of

the internet

Administration of the internet: roles of internet administrative bodies eg Internet

Society (ISOC), Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Corporation for
Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN); role of IETF requests for comment (RFC);
role of internet service providers (ISP) and network service providers (NSP); the
domain name system (DNS); role of DNS registrars
Operation of the internet: role of and relationship between internet protocols
with reference to the open systems interconnection reference model (OSIRM) eg
internet protocol (IP), user datagram protocol (UDP), transmission control
protocol (TCP), hypertext markup language (HTML), file transfer protocol (FTP),
simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), post office protocol (POP); role of routing
protocols eg routing information protocol (RIP), open shortest path first (OSPF);
role of functional components (network access point (NAP), point of presence
(PoP), DNS servers, routers, web servers, email servers); capabilities of methods
of internet access eg ADSL, SHDSL, BRA ISDN, dial-up over the PSTN, wireless
access

4 Understand the principles and capabilities of a modern mobile

communications service

Global system for mobile (GSM) radio access technology: role of European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI); use of time division multiple
access (TDMA) and frequency division multiple access (FDMA); concept of cells eg
frequency re-use in cells, location areas, GSM cell capacity; short message service
(SMS); enhanced message service (EMS); capabilities of standard GSM data
services and enhanced GSM data services eg high-speed circuit switched data
(HSCSD), general packet radio service (GPRS), enhanced data rates for GSM
evolution (EDGE); role of subscriber information module (SIM)
Third generation (3G) radio access technology: role of 3G partnership project
(3GPP); principles of wideband code division multiple access (WCDMA); spreading
factor; universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) cell capacity;
relationship between location areas and routing areas; role of universal subscriber
identity module (USIM); principles of high-speed downlink packet access (HSDPA);
capabilities of modern mobile data services eg GSM, GPRS, UMTS, HSDPA; 3G
services including multimedia message service (MMS), video services, location
services
Alternative mobile services: eg digital enhanced cordless telecommunications
(DECT), Wi-fi, WiMAX, Bluetooth, terrestrial trunk radio (TETRA), near field
communications (NFC)

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the telephony services provided M1 compare the facilities offered by the D1 explain the factors that affect the
by the PSTN PSTN with those offered by the ISDN performance of an application that uses
the internet.
P2 describe typical applications of ISDN M2 compare the capabilities and
services performance of a connection-oriented
data service with a connectionless
P3 explain the principles of the technologies
service
used in a WAN
M3 compare the performance and
P4 describe the capabilities and
characteristics of fixed line and mobile
applications of a modern WAN service
internet access
P5 describe the role of the bodies involved
M4 compare the service offerings of GSM
in the operation and administration of
and 3G networks.
the internet
P6 explain the operation of the internet in
terms of the protocols used and the role
of its functional components

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 explain the principles and capabilities of
GSM radio access technology
P8 explain the principles and capabilities of
3G radio access technology
P9 describe the capabilities and
applications of an alternative mobile
system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit takes into account the rapid technological changes that are occurring in
telecommunications services. It also acknowledges that many countries still rely on
conventional telecommunications services. Tutors should ensure that learners
appreciate this while they gain an insight into how telecommunications services
might evolve.
This unit could be delivered as a stand-alone unit or could be integrated with other
telecommunication systems units in order to enhance learning. Ideally, it should be
delivered in conjunction with Unit 91: Access Network Techniques and Applications,
Unit 92: Core Network Techniques and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems Operation
which cover the same general topic, but with different emphasis and depth.
It is particularly recommended that Unit 92: Core Network Techniques is studied
alongside this unit, since it covers aspects of mobile radio systems that complement
learning outcome 4. Unit 92: Core Network Techniques also covers parts of the PSTN
and ISDN that will aid study of learning outcome 1 and aspects of packet-switched
networks that complement learning outcome 3.
Tutors should try to use as wide a range of delivery techniques as possible. For
example, lectures, discussions, use of e-learning courses, learner presentations, site
visits, research projects and library resources would all be suitable. These techniques
can assist in the achievement of all of the learning outcomes.
The internet can be used to give learners access to company-specific websites and
other sites that provide explanations of technical and service aspects of
telecommunications systems. Many company sites provide technical ‘white papers’
that can develop learners’ understanding of the technologies used in modern
telecommunications systems and an appreciation of their capabilities. Descriptions of
the types of technology used by a system operator may also be found to ensure
learners are exposed to current practice.
The advanced technologies discussed in this unit would probably prevent the use of
practical activities within centres. Therefore, learners would benefit from access to
businesses involved in operating telecommunications systems, enabling them to put
the subjects studied into a relevant context. This could be achieved through the
centre’s links with their learners’ employer(s). However, this might be achieved
through work placement opportunities if the course is full time with learners not yet
employed. As a minimum, centres should consider supervised visits to industrial sites
where learners can see the relevant equipment areas in operation. Areas that would
be applicable include network management centres (NMCs), base transceiver stations
(BTS), internet PoP, telephone exchanges and distribution (access) nodes. Ideally,
the engineer or technician with technical responsibility for the visited area would be
available to answer questions.

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Where learners are employed or have access to work placements it would be of

benefit for them to have supervised access to view, for example the provisioning of
virtual connections or faultfinding activities. Learners could also use their workplace
or placement as the context for their assessment activities (with permission from the
employer/work placement). For example, learners could research and write a report
describing the features and capabilities of the telecommunications systems
maintained by their employer/work placement. Learners could also assist an engineer
or technician in their normal duties, although health and safety issues must be taken
into account with suitable training and supervision provided.
The learning outcomes can be delivered in any order, although it is suggested that
learning outcome 2 should be studied before learning outcomes 3 and 4 since packet-
switching forms the basis of the operation of the internet and aspects of 3G mobile
service delivery.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The assessment strategy for this unit could consist of a mix of report writing and
formal, time constrained examinations.
It is suggested that P3 is assessed before the criteria P4-P9.
Learners need to be made aware of the integrated nature of the pass criteria in this
unit. For example, assessment evidence for pass criteria P1 and P2 could consist of a
learner report that describes the services offered by public circuit-switched
networks. M1, which asks for a comparison of the PSTN and ISDN, could then be
assessed from this same report.
Similarly, assessment of P3 and P4 could be linked, for example by asking learners to
explain the effects of congestion on the performance of a packet-switched data
service such as ADSL or Ethernet.
P5 and P6 could also be assessed together, by asking learners to describe the
operation and administration of the internet domain name system (DNS).
P7 could be assessed with P8 through a learner report explaining the capabilities of
the radio access technologies used in cellular mobile systems. M4, which asks for a
comparison of GSM and 3G services could then be assessed from this same report.
M2 requires learners to compare a connection-oriented data service with a
connectionless data service, for example, an ATM service with that provided by the
internet. This criterion could be assessed as an extension to learners’ work for the
relevant pass criteria (P3, P4 and P5).

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D1 requires learners to explain the factors that affect the performance of an

application that uses the internet. For this, learners will need an in-depth knowledge
of the operation of the internet, the protocols used by internet applications, the
principles of packet switching, the effects of congestion on quality of service and the
capabilities of internet access services. Learners will also need to use knowledge of
the individual service components to determine their total affect on service
performance. D1 could be assessed along with the relevant pass criteria (P3, P4, and
P6) and M3 by asking learners to explain, for example, the factors that affect the
time it takes to download a file from a server connected to the internet.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has close links with Unit 91: Access Network Techniques and Applications,
Unit 92: Core Network Techniques and Unit 97: Telephony Voice Systems Operation.

Essential resources

There are no essential resources for this unit.

Indicative reading for learners

Clark M — Data Networks, IP and the Internet: Protocols, Design and Operation (John
Wiley and Sons, 2003) ISBN 0470848561
Freeman R — Fundamentals of Telecommunications, 2nd Edition (John Wiley and
Sons, 2005) ISBN 0471710458
Goleniewski L — Telecommunications Essentials (Addison Wesley, 2002)
ISBN 0201760320
Griffiths J — ISDN Explained (John Wiley and Sons, 1998) ISBN 0471979058
Moore M, Southwick P, Pritsky T and Riggs C — Telecommunications: A Beginner’s
Guide (McGraw-Hill Education, 2001) ISBN 0072193565
Tomasi W — Introduction to Data Communications and Networking (Prentice Hall,
2004) ISBN 0130138282
Wesolowski K — Mobile Communication Systems (John Wiley and Sons, 2001)
ISBN 0471498378

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• researching and preparing C3.2 Read and synthesise information
descriptions and explanations of the from at least two documents
various aspects of about the same subject.
telecommunications systems Each document must be a
• writing reports that describe the minimum of 1000 words long.
various aspects of C3.3 Write two different types of
telecommunications systems. documents each one giving
different information about
complex subjects.
One document must be at least
1000 words long.

Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• searching for information relating to ICT3.1 Search for information, using
the latest techniques used in different sources, and multiple
telecommunications systems search criteria in at least one
case.
• preparing reports and/or
presentations to describe and explain ICT3.2 Enter and develop the
the various services offered by information and derive new
telecommunications systems with information.
comparisons of capabilities and ICT3.3 Present combined information
examples of applications such as text with image, text
with number, image with
• presenting a report or oral
number.
presentation that includes
diagrams/charts to describe the
services provided by
telecommunications systems and the
performance of those systems.

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 UNIT 85: FAULT DIAGNOSIS AND MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

Unit 85: Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance

of Communications Equipment
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the techniques used when
determining and handling faults and maintaining communication systems. Learners
will be expected to use manufacturers’ data and performance specifications in order
to ensure that once repaired, the equipment will meet the full manufacturer’s
performance specification.
The unit will develop learners’ understanding of the function, features and
characteristics of electronic measurement and optical test equipment. They will also
gain practical experience of their use when carrying out electronic testing and
measurement in a range of communications applications. This will include selecting,
connecting and operating different types of test equipment and the application of
measurement techniques.
Learners will gain an understanding of specialised telecommunications test
equipment and will be able to use a variety of electronic measurement equipment.
The unit also examines common testing methods and errors inherent in the test
instruments used. Particular attention is paid to ensure that the test procedure, as
well as the test and measurement equipment used, is fit for purpose and properly
calibrated. Learners will gain an understanding of the effects of instrument
characteristics such as accuracy, display resolution and loading and how these affect
the measured quantity.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to diagnose communications equipment fault conditions with the aid of
test instruments and record results
2 Understand the principles of calibration and configuration of electronic test
equipment
3 Understand the need for scheduled maintenance, maintenance procedures and
the responsibilities of a technical support team.

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Unit content

1 Be able to diagnose communications equipment fault conditions with the aid

of test instruments and record results

Test instruments: analyser eg network, protocol, spectrum; optical power

meters; bit error rate test equipment; signal generator eg random noise, audio
frequency (AF), radio frequency (RF), pulse, waveform/function; digital
equipment eg counter/frequency meter, logic probe, logic pulser
Communications equipment: eg modems, bridges, routers, network cards,
wireless or fibre optic systems and networks
Fault diagnosis: use of logical fault finding procedure eg input-to-output, output-
to-input and half-split methods); characteristics and properties of test
instruments eg impedance, capacitance, system loading effects; measurements
eg test-point voltage/waveform, supply voltage/current, frequency/pulse
repetition frequency (PRF), rise and fall time, distortion/noise; use of test
specifications; effects of drift and temperature; awareness of potential hazards
eg electrical, physical, anti-static hazards and safeguards (protection of self,
others, equipment under test and test equipment)
Recording and interpreting results: data analysers/other performance monitoring
equipment; documentation eg tabulation, spreadsheets for recording the history
of system faults, bit error rate tables (BERT), reference materials (industry
standards, manufacturers data sheets, performance specifications and other
technical publications)
Test specifications: specifications for the conformance/validation testing of the
equipment/system under test

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 UNIT 85: FAULT DIAGNOSIS AND MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

2 Understand the principles of calibration and configuration of electronic test

equipment

Calibration principles: procedures eg check, adjust, systematically standardise

measuring instrument, set-up arrangement; reference standards eg Weston
cadmium standard cell, standard resistors, standard inductor; theory eg accuracy,
uncertainty; impact of calibration on quality, productivity and safety;
applications eg during manufacture, following installation, periodic scheduled
maintenance, in response to identified deviation, after repair or change in
environment; terminology eg zero shift, range (or span) error, combined zero
shift and range error, non-linearity
Health and safety issues: eg precautions to be observed when setting and
adjusting mains supply voltages, replacing/charging/disposing of batteries,
dismantling and reassembling equipment, removal/replacement of external and
internal covers, making adjustments on ‘live’ equipment, continuity of earth
(grounding or bonding) of electrical equipment, safety cut-outs and residual
current device (RCD), earth leakage circuit breaker (ELCB)
Configuration issues: pre-conditions and checks to ensure that communications
system/equipment is safe to test and instruments safe to use; test equipment set-
up eg procedures for powering up equipment, use of the equipment
manufacturer’s procedures, using commissioning guides, ‘hot’ and ‘cold’ standby
equipment

3 Understand the need for scheduled maintenance, maintenance procedures

and the responsibilities of a technical support team

Maintenance schedules and reports: reactive and preventative maintenance eg

advantages/disadvantages, cost implications, impact of equipment failure;
maintenance schedules eg a chart that shows various preventative maintenance
activities and frequency of maintenance; help desk information and statistics;
compilation of technical reports and maintaining statistical records eg
maintenance/repair history, calibration/re-calibration
Maintenance procedures: calculation of mean time to failure (MTTF), mean time
between failure (MTBF) and mean time to repair (MTTR) figures; fault reporting
procedures; first and second line maintenance procedures; prevention of fault
escalation; hot and cold standby equipment
Technical support: team organisation eg roles and management, working
practices and availability, expertise; use of test laboratories and network
simulation; the role of the equipment expert
Customer care: importance of maintaining customer satisfaction eg customer care
systems to maximise the customers’ satisfaction with your business (including:
how well your product or service matches customer needs, the value for money
you offer, efficiency and reliability in fulfilling orders, professionalism and
friendliness and expertise of staff, how well customers are kept informed; records
eg customer/product details, fault history, diagnostic guides, dealing with repeat
fault handling

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 select and use test instruments to take M1 analyse the symptoms obtained from D1 evaluate the accuracy of their own test
measurements from two different pieces tests carried out on faulty measurements and relate them to
of communications equipment communications equipment and explain limitations of the test equipment, test
how the equipment can be returned to procedures and justify the corrective
P2 carry out fault diagnosis on two pieces of
satisfactory operation action to be taken
faulty communications equipment and
record and interpret the results M2 use a manufacturer’s recommended D2 evaluate a maintenance schedule that
procedure to calibrate a test instrument has been prepared for a piece of
P3 explain the importance of a test
and configure it for a test on one item of communications equipment.
specification as an aid to ensuring the
communications equipment
validity and consistency of
measurements M3 compare and contrast the effect of
preventative and reactive maintenance
P4 describe the principles and need for the
on communication systems performance.
calibration of a communications
equipment test instrument
P5 explain the health, safety and
configuration issues that need to be
considered when connecting test
equipment to communications
equipment under test conditions

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 UNIT 85: FAULT DIAGNOSIS AND MAINTENANCE OF COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 explain the requirement for
communications equipment maintenance
schedules and reports
P7 describe a maintenance procedure for a
given piece of communications
equipment
P8 describe the role of technical support
and customer care personnel within a
communications operation.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered as a stand-alone unit or be integrated with other

communications technology units such as Unit 95: Communications Equipment
Installation Techniques. Delivery of this unit should concentrate on the practical
application of fault-finding and the test and measurement of communications
equipment and systems. As a result, it is important to allocate sufficient hands-on
time in order to develop the skills and understanding associated with learning
outcomes 1 and 2.
Appropriate attention must be given to health, safety and welfare arrangements
throughout the delivery of this unit. This should include the awareness of potential
hazards to be avoided (eg electrical, physical, anti-static) and safeguards to be
adopted for the protection of self, others, the equipment being tested and the test
equipment used when carrying out performance tests and fault-finding.
Wherever possible learners should be given opportunities to discuss and reflect upon
their practical activities to help them improve their learning and skill development.
The emphasis of the unit is on giving learners the necessary skills to apply a
systematic approach to the testing and maintenance of communications technology
systems and equipment.
It is likely that the unit will be delivered through a programme of lectures,
demonstrations and a high degree of practical work involving the use of equipment,
documentation and computer-based software and hardware. There is no set order in
which the learning outcomes should be delivered and it is possible that
centres/tutors will be able to see a number of possible approaches to delivery.
Centres may well make their choice of delivery plan based upon the resources
available to them (eg workshop facilities/access, staffing, equipment, levels of
integration with other units, etc). Whichever approach is taken should ensure the
coherence of the unit as a whole is maintained and that learners are given
opportunities to work with as wide a range of equipment and maintenance
procedures as possible.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence for the learning outcomes may be collected through a series of well-planned
assignments, practical activities and projects. The results of practical activities,
involving tests and measurements, can be presented in the form of a spreadsheet.
Evidence from the workplace can also be incorporated provided that this evidence is
appropriate and authenticated as the learner’s own work. Integrative assignments may
help to reinforce relevance and could be used effectively to link this unit with other
units in which the understanding and skills gained could be applied.

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During the extensive practical work associated with this unit learners must be aware of
the health and safety hazards applicable to test and fault diagnosis operations. This is
particularly important when high voltage or laser diode light sources are in use.
P1, P2 and P3 relate to learning outcome 1. For P1 and P2, learners should be able to
select and use items from a range of test instruments (eg analyser, optical power
meters, bit error rate test equipment, signal generator, digital equipment)
appropriate for the measurement tasks undertaken. They then need to take a series
of measurements (eg test-point voltage/waveform, supply voltage/current,
frequency/pulse repetition frequency (PRF), rise and fall time, distortion/noise) on
two differing items of communications equipment.
The equipment to be tested can include hardware and/or software. Items such as
modems, bridges, routers or network cards are all appropriate for this task as are
wireless or fibre optic systems and networks. Ideally, and with careful choice of
measurement tasks, learners could demonstrate their ability to use most of the
instruments listed in the unit content, although this is not essential. However centres
should avoid too sparse a coverage and should not allow learners to use the same
measurement instruments for the four measurement tasks associated with P1 and P2.
In the case of P1, it is assumed that the equipment under test will be in correct
working order whilst, in the case of P2, the equipment will be faulty. Learners should
keep records of all readings taken and use them for performance and fault diagnosis
purposes as appropriate.
Evidence for P2 should include records and interpretation of data analysers or other
performance monitoring equipment results and related documentation. This might
include tabulated results, spreadsheets for recording the history of system faults, bit
error rate tables (BERT) and learner’s use of reference materials (industry standards,
manufacturers data sheets, performance specifications and other technical
publications). Both P1 and P2 will require tutor observation records of learners’
ability and competence with the test equipment selected.
In order to satisfy P3, learners must explain the importance of a test specification as
an aid to ensuring the validity and consistency of measurements of the
equipment/system under test. This should be set within the context of one of the
measurement activities for P1 or P2.
P4 and P5 relate to learning outcome 2. In order to satisfy P4, learners must be able
to describe the principles of and need for the calibration of a piece of
communications equipment. This should include the procedures carried out (eg
check, adjust, systematically standardise measuring instrument, set-up
arrangement), the reference standards used, the theory that has been applied and
the impact of calibration on quality, productivity and safety for a given application
(which could be one of the test undertaken for P1 or P2). Learners’ work should make
use of the correct terminology throughout.
For P5, learners must be able to explain the health and safety issues that need to be
considered when connecting test equipment to communications equipment under
test conditions. They also need to explain the configuration issues, which should
include as a minimum the pre-conditions and checks to ensure that communications
system/equipment is safe to test, how the instruments are determined to be safe to
use and how the test equipment has been correctly set-up for use.

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P6, P7 and P8 relate to learning outcome 3. In order to satisfy the criteria learners
must be aware of the need for preventative maintenance arrangements for
communications systems and networks, the role of technical support teams and the
need for customer care.
To satisfy P6 learners must be able to explain the requirement for communications
equipment maintenance schedules and reports. This must cover all the aspects listed
in the content.
For P7, learners must be able to describe a maintenance procedure for a given piece
of communications equipment, eg a bridge or a router (alternatively a wireless or
fibre optic communications device may be selected). Tutors need to ensure that the
task set allows learners to address all the requirements of the content.
For P8, learners need to describe the role of technical support and customer care
personnel within a communications operation. The context to be followed here is
that a communication system/network is generally used to provide a service to a
prescribed range of customers. The customers may be regarded as either internal (eg
work colleagues or fellow employees from other departments) or external to the
company/organisation (eg subscribers or network users).
Learners should investigate and describe the organisation of a technical support
team, the use of test laboratories and network simulation and the role of the
equipment expert. They also need to describe the role of customer care personnel
and their importance maintaining the expected levels of customer satisfaction and
maintaining records.
The evidence for this criterion is likely to come from either investigating a case study
provided by the tutor or investigating the role of the technical support and customer
care personnel of an organisation. This may be the organisation where the learner is
employed or where they have the opportunity for work experience.
When planning and designing assessment activities, tutors should consider how best to
incorporate opportunities for achieving the merit and distinction criteria. For example,
M1 is a natural extension to the tasks carried out to satisfy P2, whilst M2 demands that
learners apply the practical competences that are associated with the P4 and P5.
Similarly, M3 is a natural extension of the task or tasks carried out to satisfy P6.
In order to achieve a distinction grade, learners must be able to apply the
understanding and skills gained at pass and merit level.
To satisfy D1, learners must evaluate the accuracy of their own test measurements
and relate them to the limitations of the test equipment, test procedures and justify
the corrective action to be taken. D1 links with and would be a natural extension to
the work undertaken by learners for P2 and M1. D2 calls for learners to evaluate a
maintenance schedule that has been prepared for a piece of communications
equipment, which will link back through the work undertaken for P6, P7 and M3.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 95: Communications Equipment Installation
Techniques.
The unit supports the National Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for
Communication Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist
telecommunications knowledge, understanding and skills.

Essential resources

Centres will require a communications workshop equipped with a range of test

equipment, handbooks and manufacturers’ literature. The test equipment should be
sufficient in number to allow learners to carry out fault-finding exercises on an
individual basis. A range of working and faulty electronic or optical communications
technology systems, circuits, devices and components should be made available
together with relevant manufacturer’s service manuals, parts lists and drawings.
Appropriate safety equipment and a safe working environment must be provided for
practical fault-finding activities. In most cases, a typical electronic workshop or
laboratory should prove adequate. Earth leakage or residual current circuit breakers
should be installed in order to protect learners in the case of electrical shock.

Indicative reading for learners

Miller G — Modern Electronic Communication (Prentice Hall, 2004)

ISBN 0131293028
Pain R — Practical Electronic Fault Finding and Troubleshooting (Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1996) ISBN 0750624612

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating MTTF, MTBF and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
MTTR figures. information from relevant sources.
N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching fault-finding, C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
testing and maintenance least two documents about the same
procedures subject.
• preparing explanations of Each document must be a minimum of
fault-finding, testing and 1000 words long.
maintenance procedures. C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching fault-finding, ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
testing and maintenance sources, and multiple search criteria in at
procedures least one case.
• preparing their ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
explanations/descriptions of derive new information.
fault-finding, testing and ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
maintenance procedures. text with image, text with number,
image with number.

Problem Solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting and using test PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
instruments to take ways of tackling it.
measurements from two PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
different pieces of solving the problem.
communications equipment
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
• carrying out fault diagnosis review your approach to problem solving.
on two pieces of faulty
communications equipment
and record and interpret the
results.

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 UNIT 86: COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Unit 86: Communications Equipment

Installation Techniques
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the operational activities and
techniques used by technicians in the communications industries for the installation
of new or replacement communications equipment.
The unit will introduce learners to the planning processes that are required for the
installation of communications technology equipment. Learners will practise
installing racks, cabinets and associated overhead cable trays and iron work and will
learn how to install communications equipment into racks/cabinets. This will include
installing and terminating cable links to communications technology equipment and
the use of various types of copper and optical fibre cables.
Learners will use manufacturers’ diagrams, data sheets and performance
specifications to ensure that the installation of the equipment meets the full
performance specification. Learners will also apply current legislation, codes of
practice and safety precautions related to the installation of communications
technology equipment.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know how to plan for the safe installation of communications technology
equipment
2 Be able to survey, prepare and install housing for communications technology
equipment
3 Be able to equip communications technology equipment housing using safe
working practices
4 Be able to install and terminate cable links to communications technology
equipment.

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Unit content

1 Know how to plan for the safe installation of communications technology

equipment

Planning for installation: site construction properties eg walls/flooring/ceilings;

diagrams and plans eg site plans, floor plans, equipment layouts (floor mounted
racks and wall mounted cabinets), facia layouts, schematics, wiring diagrams;
preparation procedures eg example work schedules and parts lists; environmental
conditions to be taken into account eg high and low temperature, humidity,
airflow and local hazards; routing of cables in order to minimise potential
interference problems; types of cable required for connecting to equipment to be
installed; types of cable connectors and terminations; hand-tools to be used eg
screwdrivers, spanners, pliers, grips, wrenches, socket sets, hammers, chisels,
spirit level, tape measure, callipers, plumb lines, pipe locators, saws, power
tools, isolation transformer, files, wire cutters, wire strippers, continuity testers
Health and safety: relevant legislation and codes of practice that apply to the
installation of communications technology equipment eg Health and Safety at
Work Act, Institute of Electrical Engineers (IEE) Wiring Regulations, Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH), Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) –
radiation and susceptibility; safety procedures eg ‘permit to work’ systems,
safety equipment (helmets, goggles, shoes, gloves, harnesses)

2 Be able to survey, prepare and install housing for communications technology

equipment

Preparation of installation area: use of diagrams and plans eg floor plans,

mounting specifications, facia layouts, schematics and wiring diagrams; overhead
and/or under floor routing of cable eg cable trays, ducts, conduit; survey of
physical aspects of the site eg construction of walls/flooring/ceilings; under floor
and overhead routes for access; potential hazards; marking-out installation area
eg use of 3:4:5 triangle technique, datum and plumb lines; use of tools eg tape
measure, rule, calliper, spirit level, plumb line, square, scriber, centre punch;
safe-working practices eg assessment of potential hazards, safe lifting procedures
eg hoists and slings for the installation of overhead ironwork/cable trays,
checking electrical hand tools for safe operation
Installing and securing racks and cabinets: construction of racks/cabinets;
securing of racks/cabinets/overheads to load bearing structures eg racks to floor
and cabinets to walls; types of fastenings eg cage nuts/bolts, cavity fixings,
expansion bolts and plugs, Rawl bolts, shield anchors, thru-bolts, masonry anchor
bolts; quality control eg ensuring that the installation meets specification and is
fit for purpose; use of facial layout/drawings to aid equipment installation

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3 Be able to equip communications technology equipment housing using safe

working practices

Preparation of rack/cabinet for equipment installation: working procedures eg

determine job specification and consult relevant installation manuals, interpret
given diagrams and plans (facia layouts, schematics and wiring diagrams); select
appropriate hand-tools eg screwdrivers, spanners, wrenches, socket sets
Installation of telecommunications equipment: position and mount equipment eg
use of plans, parts lists and tools; install cable runs; quality control eg installation
meets specification, equipment secure and safe; safe-working practices eg
awareness of potential hazards, permit to work procedures (where applicable),
personal and protective equipment (safety helmets, goggles, shoes, gloves,
harnesses), use of earthing sticks

4 Be able to install and terminate cable links to communications technology

equipment

Cable installation: types of cables (unshielded twisted pair (UTP), shielded

twisted pair (STP), coaxial cables, multi-core cable, power cables, optical fibre);
routing of cables eg run-out lists, route links to the equipment, and connection
points according to the installation plan; minimisation of interference problems
and cross-talk; cable colour codes; tools eg cable jacks, butting tools, stripping
machine/hand stripping tools, continuity tester; installing and securing links
between equipment in appropriate conduits and/or cable trays; the use of cable
clips; use of cable ties and lashing; cable identification and labelling; ensure that
installation meets specification
Cable terminations: types of cable terminations and connectors (unshielded
twisted pair (UTP), shielded twisted pair (STP), coaxial cables, multi-core cable,
power cables, optical fibre); connection methods eg soldering techniques, crimp,
wire wrap and Krone block termination, optical fibre cable connectors; safe
working procedures eg knowledge of static hazards; accurately label installed
links; updating of records, plans and drawings

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe how to use site information and M1 plan work schedules for carrying out the D1 explain how the installation of
installation diagrams to plan for the installation of communications communications technology equipment
installation of a housing for technology equipment racks and cabinets can be tested in order
communications technology equipment to ensure that they are fit for purpose
M2 analyse the health and safety
and meet relevant legislation
P2 identify and state the health and safety requirements for a given
issues that will apply to the installation telecommunications installation with D2 explain the techniques used to test and
of given communications technology respect to relevant legislation and inspect the installation of cabling with
equipment regulations respect to regulations, relevant
electrical theory and communications
P3 survey and use diagrams and plans to M3 compare and contrast the techniques
technology industry practice.
prepare an area for the installation of used to prepare and terminate coaxial,
racks, cabinets and overhead ironwork fibre optic, power and transmission
cables.
P4 install and secure a rack or cabinet and
overhead ironwork to specification with
the aid of a site plan and other drawings
P5 use diagrams and plans to prepare one
rack or cabinet for the installation of
telecommunications equipment

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 use safe working practices to install
three items of communications
technology equipment into racks or
cabinets
P7 install and terminate two different types
of cables using appropriate tools.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should concentrate on the practical application of installation

techniques/skills. As a result, it is important to allocate sufficient ‘hands-on’ time in
order to develop the relevant skills and understanding.
Learning outcome 1 is likely to be best achieved with the aid of case studies showing
real telecommunications installations, such as a typical small switch in a company, a
mobile radio base station, an item of exchange equipment, cellular antenna, or
similar installation. This will provide an ideal opportunity for an industrial or site visit
to a local installation.
During the delivery of this learning outcome, learners should be given opportunities
to consider how to deal with a range of possible site construction properties (eg
walls/flooring/ceilings) and work from a variety of diagrams and plans. It is expected
that learners will examine both floor-mounted racks and wall-mounted cabinets and
their appropriate preparation procedures. Environmental conditions for installations
need to be taken into account and the correct routing of cables, to minimise
potential interference problems, also need to be considered.
Learners also need to experience as wide a range of cable types, cable connectors
and terminations as possible together with relevant hand-tools to be used for an
installation. Health, safety and relevant legislation should be a recurrent theme
throughout.
Learners are expected to develop the relevant practical skills during the delivery of
learning outcomes 2, 3 and 4. They should be able to interpret and work with the
relevant plans and diagrams so that they can position and fix racks, cabinets and
ancillary equipment in a safe manner.
Appropriate attention must be given to health, safety and welfare arrangements
throughout. Wherever possible, a learner centred approach should be adopted.
Opportunities to experience a range of installations, discuss and reflect upon
practical activities should be given to learners to help them improve their skills
development.
The delivery of this unit can be significantly enhanced if centres can develop links
with employers. Such links are important in that they can ensure that the work
related activities used for both delivery and assessment are relevant, realistic and
address current industry needs.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

A large part of the assessment for this unit will be through tutor observation and oral
questioning. Learners will also need to produce evidence that they have a clear
understanding of the skills and techniques required for installing telecommunications
equipment. Such evidence may be in the form of a technicians’ logbook/installation
record, which could contain a record of all the work carried out, witness statements,
diagrams and annotated photographs. It should include evidence of all relevant
installation skills and techniques both on-site and off-site, and show that they can
work safely with appropriate tools and equipment.
Because of the interrelationship of the learning outcomes and their respective
criteria, a coherent approach to assessment is recommended. This could take the
form of an extended project that takes learners through from planning to
installation. There are two possible approaches that could be used, depending upon
the expected level of achievement of each learner. For the more able learners,
centres may wish to consider giving them the opportunity to plan their own
installation (within the constraints and requirements of the criteria and content).
This would mean that the learner’s starting point for the project would be M1 – to
plan the work schedules for carrying out the installation of communications
technology equipment. They would however, need to incorporate a description of
how they used the site information and installation diagrams in their plan to also
cover P1.
To achieve the unit however, at pass level learners need only work to a given plan
since, for P1, they are only required to describe how to use site information and
installation diagrams to plan for the installation. From this point forward, all the next
steps of the extended project can be linked through the actual installation for both
approaches and would be able to cover the remaining criteria (P2 – P7). It could also
be structured to provide opportunities to work towards achievement of the merit and
distinction criteria. Centres would need to take care that the project covered the
requirements of all the criteria and related content.
The following guidance is intended to provide further information, at criterion level,
which could be of value with the assessment approach suggested above or any other
approach to assessment. The first two pass criteria (P1 and P2) relate to the first
learning outcome. In order to achieve P1, learners should provide evidence that they
are able to describe how to use site information and installation diagrams to plan for
the installation of communications technology equipment. It is expected that the
equipment should include at least three of the following — racks, cabinets, overhead
ironwork, cables and cable terminations. Learners need to be able to show that their
plan has taken into account the physical construction of the site
(walls/flooring/ceilings etc), under floor and overhead cable routes and potential
hazards. Tutors may wish to set the context for this activity by providing a suitable
case study.
In order to achieve P2, learners should be able to state the relevant legislation and
codes of practice that apply to the installation of communications technology
equipment. They should be able to clearly identify how these issues relate to the
installation of communications technology equipment. In addition, learners should
consider and identify the relevant safety procedures.

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UNIT 86: COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Pass criteria P3 and P4 relate to the learning outcome 2. For P3 learners are
expected to be able to prepare the work area and make it ready for the installation
of an equipment rack, cabinet and the associated ironwork. Again, a typical case that
includes outline plans may provide a useful context for this activity, which could be
provided by the tutor. The case study/plans could include details of the building
layout in which the installation is to take place and details of the communications
technology equipment to be installed.
Learners should take into account the issues listed in the contents section of this
unit. In order to achieve P4, learners are expected to carry out the safe installation
of an equipment rack (or cabinet) and the associated ironwork. This activity may be
best achieved by making it an extension of the case study prepared for P3. Learners
are expected to be able to select fixings and hand tools that are appropriate for the
set task from those listed in the contents section of this unit.
Pass criteria P5 and P6 relate to learning outcome 3. In order to achieve P5 learners
are expected to prepare the equipment rack or cabinet for the installation of
communications technology equipment. This activity will also involve the running of
cables to interconnect the equipment to be installed.
If desired this activity can be set in context by providing learners with an appropriate
case study. In order to achieve P6 learners are required to carry out the installation
of equipment into the racks or cabinet that they have prepared for P5. Three
different items of communications technology equipment should be installed in the
housing. Learners must work safely and be aware of all potential hazards in order to
minimise risk.
To achieve P7, which relates to learning outcome 4, learners need to fully install at
least two differing types of communications cable. If desired, these could be two of
the cables that are required in the activity for P5 and P6. The selected cables should
be fully identified, labelled and secured. The ends of the cables should be stripped,
prepared and terminated with appropriate connectors or terminals.
Where possible, opportunities for achieving the merit criteria should be linked to the
assessment of the pass criteria. For example, M1 can be seen as a natural extension
of the tasks carried out to satisfy P1, P3 and P5. Similarly, M2 has links to P2 and P6
and M3 is a natural extension of the tasks carried out to satisfy P7.
In order to achieve D1 and D2, learners must have a comprehensive knowledge and
understanding of the techniques, skills and knowledge required for the installation of
communications technology equipment.
For D1 learners must be able to fully explain how the installation of communications
technology equipment racks and cabinets can be tested in order to ensure that they
are fit for purpose and meet relevant legislation. For D2, they will need to explain
the techniques used to test and inspect the installation of cabling with respect to
regulations, relevant electrical theory and communications technology industry
practice. Again this be easily set within the context of the work done for pass and
merit.

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It should be noted that technical drawing skills are not being assessed in this unit.
Where learners prepare their own plans they can be in sketch form, although those
who have the necessary skills in computer aided drawing (CAD) can use them to good
effect here. Evidence from the workplace could also be incorporated provided that
this evidence is appropriate and authenticated as the learner’s own work.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 94: Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of Communications
Equipment and Unit 96: Communications Equipment Installation Techniques.
The unit supports the National Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for
Communication Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist
telecommunications knowledge, understanding and skills.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit should have sufficient physical resources and work areas
to support the range of practical activities outlined above. In particular, learners
must have sufficient access to a range of equipment housing materials to include
racks, cabinets, cable trays, conduit, communications cabling and tools.
Learners will also need to be provided with access to relevant legislation and codes
of practice, reference data and manufacturers’ product information. Centres will
also need to ensure that learners have the use of relevant safety equipment.

Indicative reading for learners

There are no indicative texts for this unit.

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UNIT 86: COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION TECHNIQUES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• working with plans, carrying N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
out measurements and information from relevant sources.
preparing materials for N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
installations. stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• reading and synthesising C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
information from least two documents about the same
manufacturers’ instruction subject.
manuals, codes of practice Each document must be a minimum of
and legislation 1000 words long.
• writing their description of C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
how to use site information each one giving different information
and installation diagrams to about complex subjects.
plan for the installation of a
One document must be at least 1000
housing for communications words long.
technology equipment.

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Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for equipment ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
information from sources, and multiple search criteria in at
manufacturers’ data least one case.
• preparing information for ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
written reports and records. derive new information.
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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 UNIT 87: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Unit 87: Radio Communications

Principles and Applications
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Effective and reliable communication systems are an increasingly important and at
times vital part of modern living. This unit aims to develop learners’ understanding of
the principles involved when transmitting and receiving radio signals.
The unit will give learners the opportunity to discover how radio signals propagate as
electromagnetic waves. Learners will be introduced to the basic principles of the
electro-magnetic spectrum, such as the classification and characteristics of
frequency bands. Learners will then consider the characteristics of the electro-
magnetic wavelengths used for radio communication.
Learners will look at the need for frequency modulation of radio signals and the
techniques used to transmit both analogue and digital information. The unit also aims
to give learners an understanding of the assemblies and sub-assemblies within a radio
transmitter/receiver that are needed to generate and receive radio signals. This will
be done through practical activities, in which learners will take measurements of
actual input/output signals for each assembly and therefore gain experience of the
signals that should be expected.
Satellites are now a common method of routeing radio signals for communication
purposes. The unit will introduce learners to the typical satellite systems and sub-
systems used for communication. In particular, learners will gain an understanding of
general satellite system terminology, ground stations, transponders, power supplies
and command, control and positioning systems.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the characteristics of electro-magnetic waves used for radio
communication and the factors that affect reliable communication
2 Understand the need for modulating radio signals and the techniques used in
order to convey both analogue and digital information
3 Understand the assemblies and sub-assemblies required to generate and receive
radio signals and measure input and output signals for each assembly
4 Understand satellite systems and sub-systems used for communication.

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Unit content

1 Understand the characteristics of electro-magnetic waves used for radio

communication and the factors that affect reliable communication

The electro-magnetic spectrum: classification of frequency bands and

characteristics of the bands between 3kHz to 90 GHz
Characteristics of electro-magnetic waves: polarisation; relationship between
frequency, wavelength and velocity of propagation; modes of propagation
(surface/ground wave, sky wave and space wave); maximum range of practical
communication for each mode of propagation; effect of ionosphere eg causes of
fading; critical frequency; maximum useable frequency (MUF) and MUF
prediction; terminology eg skip distance, dead space, multiple hop, sporadic E
Operation of antennas: simple dipole and unipole antennas; radiation patterns
(non-mathematical approach); yogi array

2 Understand the need for modulating radio signals and the techniques used in
order to convey both analogue and digital information

Modulating a radio frequency carrier with analogue signals: amplitude (double

and single sideband, full and suppressed carrier); frequency and phase (sidebands
and the relative advantages and disadvantages of each method of modulation);
definition of commonly used terms eg amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
modulation (FM), double sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM) and single
sideband modulation (SSM)
Modulating a radio frequency carrier with digital signals: amplitude shift keying
(ASK); frequency shift keying (FSK); phase shift keying (PSK), bi-polar shift keying
(BPSK) and quadra-phase shift keying (QPSK); voice and data compression; voice
encoding (non-mathematical approach)

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 UNIT 87: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

3 Understand the assemblies and sub-assemblies required to generate and

receive radio signals and measure input and output signals for each assembly

Radio transmitter system: carrier frequency generator; automatic frequency

control (AFC); modulators (AM/FM/PM); harmonic generation; driver stages;
power amplifiers; antennas and impedance matching
Radio receiver systems: antenna; radio frequency amplifier, mixer; local
oscillator; intermediate frequency amplifier demodulator (AM, FM and PM); audio
frequency amplifier; automatic gain control; sensitivity and selectivity
considerations; adjacent and second channel (image) interference factors (IF);
phase-locked loop (PLL)
Measurements: test equipment (frequency counter, oscilloscope, power meter,
dummy load, standing wave ratio (SWR) meter); transmitter/receiver system
performance; waveform measurements/display eg comparison against
manufacturers’ data, equipment specification or expected results

4 Understand satellite systems and sub-systems used for communication

Satellite systems and sub-systems: ground stations eg fixed and mobile; antenna;
transponders; power supplies; command, control and positioning systems;
satellite system terminology eg frequency re-use (space diversity and beam
polarisation methods), modulation, multiplexing and multiple-access techniques
Types of satellite orbits: geosynchronous; geostationary; inclined elliptical; low
earth orbit

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the electromagnetic spectrum, M1 analyse the automatic control functions D1 evaluate the overall performance of a
the characteristics of electromagnetic of a radio transmitter and receiver radio communications system
waves and factors affecting their
M2 explain the relationships between the D2 use waveform measurements to locate a
propagation
power content and bandwidth of a radio frequency transmitter/receiver
P2 describe the construction and explain modulated waveform system fault.
the operation of a dipole and a unipole
M3 compare the operation of two different
antenna
satellite systems.
P3 explain the processes of modulating
radio signals with analogue information
P4 explain the processes of modulating
radio signals with digital information
P5 describe the stages of a radio
transmitter system
P6 describe the stages of a radio receiver
system

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 UNIT 87: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 measure and display waveforms present
throughout a radio frequency
transmitter/receiver system
P8 explain the operation and an application
of a satellite system and its sub-systems
P9 explain the advantages and
disadvantages of each type of satellite
orbit.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered as a stand-alone unit or be integrated with other units to
give learners a better overall understanding of communication systems.
It is likely that centres will deliver the learning outcomes in the order that they
appear. For example, learning outcome 1 provides a foundation for the other three
learning outcomes. Although learning outcome 4 does, in some respects, stand-alone,
tutors should ensure that learners understand the relevant links back to their earlier
work when considering the operation and applications of satellite systems/sub-
systems and their orbits. This is likely to include the range of the electromagnetic
spectrum that applies to satellite communications and the characteristics of
electromagnetic waves and specific factors that affect propagation using satellite
systems. Learners should also be introduced to the applications and performance of
satellite-based receivers and transmitters, etc.
Delivery of this unit should concentrate on the practical application of radio
communication systems and devices. In particular, the work for learning outcome 3
will need to be carried out in a communication/electronics laboratory or workshop.
Although not an explicit requirement of the learning outcomes or assessment, it is
expected that due attention and delivery time will be allocated to health, safety and
welfare arrangements throughout the delivery of this unit.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit is likely to be generated from three

activities/assignments. The first of these will cover learning outcome 1 and its
related pass criteria (P1 and P2). It should be noted that there are no related merit
or distinction criteria for this learning outcome.
The second, activity/assignment will link together the work for learning outcomes 2
and 3. This will cover P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, M1, M2, D1 and D2.
The final activity/assignment could cover P8, P9 and M3. Other assessment strategies
could be considered but tutors must be mindful of the overall assessment burden that
may be caused by too many assignments being used within a unit or programme as a
whole.
It is recommended that the activity/assignment for learning outcome 1 is carried out
first. This will ensure that learners have sufficient understanding of the application
of the electromagnetic spectrum and how radio waves are received to progress to the
rest of the unit.

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 UNIT 87: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

To achieve P1, learners need to describe the electromagnetic spectrum (ie

classification of frequency bands and characteristics of the bands between 3kHz to 90
GHz). They will need to describe the characteristics of electromagnetic waves such
as polarisation, relationship between frequency, wavelength and velocity of
propagation and the modes of propagation (surface/ground wave, sky wave and space
wave). Learners should also describe the factors affecting the propagation of
electromagnetic waves (ie maximum range of practical communication for each mode
of propagation, effect of ionosphere, critical frequency, maximum useable frequency
(MUF) and MUF prediction). It is expected that learners will use appropriate
terminology (eg skip distance, dead space, multiple hop, sporadic E) accurately
within their descriptions. P2 requires learners to describe the construction and
explain the operation of a dipole and a unipole antenna. This should be done as one
task and not split into two. Some degree of comparison may be appropriate. Learners
are not expected to take a mathematical approach when describing radiation
patterns.
P3, P4, P5, P6 and P7 could be linked in a larger, project style activity/assignment
that could focus on a particular type or make of radio (transmitter/receiver). The
activity/assignment could ask learners to work through the criteria in order. This
would mean that they would firstly consider and explain the processes of modulating
radio signals with analogue information (P3) and then digital (P4), using simple
calculations to illustrate the effects of modulation where appropriate. They could
then describe the stages of either an analogue or digital radio transmitter (P5) and
receiver (P6) system. Relevant block diagrams showing the essential stages of radio
transmitters and receivers, signal paths and types of connections between the
modules could support the descriptive evidence. Finally, learners could carry out a
practical task to measure and display waveforms present throughout a radio
frequency transmitter/receiver system (P7). The waveforms could be displayed using
suitable sketches, or where possible computer-based methods of data capture.
Learners could also be given the opportunity to work towards the related merit (M1,
M2) and distinction criteria (D1 and D2) within the context of this
activity/assignment.
P8 and P9 could form the basis of the last activity/assignment which could also
provide an opportunity to achieve M3. Learners are expected to explain the operation
and an application of a satellite system and its sub-systems (P8). This should include
detailed descriptions (supported by suitable annotated illustrations) of a relevant
ground station and the related antenna, transponders, power supplies and command,
control, and positioning systems for a specific installation. Learners should be able to
use relevant satellite system terminology throughout their description (eg frequency
re-use (space diversity and beam polarisation methods), modulation, multiplexing
and multiple-access techniques). Having described one such satellite system, learners
could then consider a second and provide a comparison for M3.
P9 requires learners to explain the advantages and disadvantages of geosynchronous,
geostationary, inclined elliptical and low earth satellite orbits. It is expected that
this will include how the type of satellite orbit will affect the communications links
that are possible.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the Occupational Standards for the NVQ Level 3 for Communication
Technology Professionals by providing specific specialist telecommunications
knowledge, skills and understanding.
The unit may be linked with Unit 90: Telecommunications Principles, Unit 93:
Telecommunication Systems, Unit 94: Fault Diagnosis and Maintenance of
Communications Equipment and Unit 105: Communications Technology.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to an appropriate radio frequency transmitter/receiver

system(s) and the electronic test equipment needed measure waveforms. Computer-
based data capture facilities would also be an advantage.
A range of relevant radio communications publications, reference data and
manufacturers’ products/information will also need to be provided.

Indicative reading for learners

Green D C — Radio Communication (Longman, 2000) ISBN 0582369088

Green D C — Radio Systems for Technicians (Longman, 1996) ISBN 0582245168

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 UNIT 87: RADIO COMMUNICATIONS PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, describing and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
explaining aspects of the least two documents about the same
electromagnetic spectrum, subject.
signal modulation and the Each document must be a minimum of
stages of a radio 1000 words long.
transmitter/receiver
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
explaining satellite each one giving different information
operation, application and about complex subjects.
advantages/disadvantages of
orbits. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• search for information on the ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
electromagnetic spectrum, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
signal modulation, stages of least one case.
a radio transmitter/receiver, ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
satellites derive new information.
preparing and presenting ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
information on the text with image, text with number,
electromagnetic spectrum, image with number.
signal modulation, stages of
a radio transmitter/receiver
and satellites.

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 UNIT 88: ENGINEERING DRAWING FOR TECHNICIANS

Unit 88: Engineering Drawing for

Technicians
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
It is important that when a product has been designed it is manufactured correctly
and to specification. To achieve this it is crucial that the people making the product
in a workshop are provided with well-presented engineering drawings, produced to
international standards and conventions. This avoids errors of interpretation which
can lead to the scrapping of expensive parts.
An understanding of how graphical methods can be used to communicate information
about engineering products is an important step for anyone thinking of taking up a
career in engineering. This unit gives learners an introduction to the principles of
technical drawings and their applications using hand drawing and computer aided
drafting (CAD) techniques.
Learners will start by carrying out freehand sketching of simple engineering products
using pictorial methods that generate three dimensional images. A range of standard
components, such as fixing devices, will be sketched together with other solid and
hollow items. Learners are then introduced to a more formalised drawing technique
that conforms to British Standards and will put this into practice through a number of
drawing exercises. A consistent presentation style will be used as learners draw
single part components and simple engineering assemblies.
These drawings will contain all the information needed to manufacture or assemble
the product, including information such as dimensions, manufacturing notes and parts
lists. The use of conventions to represent standard items will be investigated, such as
screw threads and springs in mechanical type drawings or circuit symbols such as
solenoids and resistors in electrical/electronic type drawings.
Having learned the principles of engineering drawing, learners will then move on to
using a two dimensional (2D) CAD system for the production of drawings using basic
set-up, drawing and editing commands. The first task is to produce a drawing
template which can be saved to file, as this reinforces the concept of standardisation
and consistency of presentation. This is followed by drawing exercises of single-part
components, a simple multi-part assembly and circuit diagrams.
Overall, the unit will develop learners’ ability to create technical drawings and allow
them to compare the use of manual and computer aided methods of producing
engineering drawings.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to sketch engineering components
2 Understand how engineering components are represented using graphical
techniques that comply with drawing standards
3 Be able to produce engineering drawings
4 Be able to produce engineering drawings using a computer aided drafting (CAD)
system.

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Unit content

1 Be able to sketch engineering components

Sketches: regular solids eg cube, rectangular block, 900 angle bracket; hollow
objects eg circular tube, square section tube; standard components eg nuts,
bolts, screws, pulleys; engineering components eg pulley support bracket,
machine vice
Sketching techniques: sketching equipment eg paper (plain, squared, isometric),
pencil, eraser; pictorial eg oblique drawing (cavalier and cabinet), isometric;
orthographic eg single and linked views; sketching in good proportion; dimensions
eg overall sizes, detail
Benefits and limitations of using pictorial techniques: benefits eg speed of
production, visual impact; limitations eg lengths and shapes not true, not
produced to a recognised standard, dimensions difficult to read; consequences of
interpretation errors eg incorrect manufacture, incorrect assembly, cost to scrap

2 Understand how engineering components are represented using graphical

techniques that comply with drawing standards

Interpret: obtaining information from engineering drawings eg component

features, dimensions and tolerances, surface finish, manufacturing detail,
assembly instructions, parts list, circuit operation
Drawing standards: British Standards eg BS8888, BS3939, BS2917, PP7307;
company-standardised layouts eg drawing number, title and issue number,
projection symbols (first angle, third angle), scale, units, general tolerances,
name of person responsible for producing drawing; line types eg centre,
construction, outline, hidden, leader, dimension; lettering eg titles, notes;
orthographic projection eg first angle, third angle; views eg elevation, plan, end,
section, auxiliary; representation of common features eg screw threads, springs,
splines, repeated items; section views eg hatching style, webs, nuts, bolts and
pins, solid shafts; symbols and abbreviations eg A/F, CHAM, Ф, R, PCD, M; circuit
symbols eg electrical, electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic

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3 Be able to produce engineering drawings

Detail drawings of single-piece engineering components: projection method,

scale, title block, line work, views, sections, dimensions, tolerances, surface
finish, notes
Assembly drawings: line work eg centre lines, construction, outline, cutting
plane, sectional view, hatching; representation of standard components eg nuts,
bolts, screws, keys; parts referencing eg number referencing, parts list; notes eg
assembly instructions, installation features, operating instructions
Circuit diagrams: circuits eg electrical, electronic, hydraulic, pneumatic;
components eg transformers, rectifiers, solenoids, resistors, capacitors, diodes,
valves, pumps, actuators, cylinders, receivers, compressors

4 Be able to produce engineering drawings using a computer aided drafting

(CAD) system

Prepare a template: standardised drawing sheet eg border, title block, company

logo; save to file
CAD systems: computer systems eg personal computer, networks; output devices
eg printer, plotter; storage eg server, hard disc, CD, pen drive; 2D CAD software
packages eg AutoCAD, Microstation, Cattia, Pro/Engineer, Pro/Desktop
Produce engineering drawings: set-up commands eg extents, grid, snap, layer;
drawing commands eg coordinate entry, line, arc, circle, snap, polygon, hatch,
text, dimension; editing commands eg copy, move, erase, rotate, mirror, trim,
extend, chamfer, fillet
Store and present engineering drawings: save work as an electronic file eg hard
drive, server, pen drive, CD; produce paper copies eg print, plot, scale to fit

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 UNIT 88: ENGINEERING DRAWING FOR TECHNICIANS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 create sketches of engineering M1 explain the importance of working to D1 evaluate the use of different methods of
components using a range of techniques recognised standards when producing producing engineering drawings including
engineering drawings manual and computer aided methods.
P2 explain the benefits and limitations of
using pictorial techniques to represent a M2 explain how a given engineering drawing
given engineering component would be used and the reasons it is
suitable for its intended audience.
P3 identify and interpret the main features
of a given engineering drawing which
complies with drawing standards
P4 produce detail drawings of three given
single-piece components
P5 produce an assembly drawing of a
product containing three parts
P6 produce a circuit diagram with at least
five different components which uses
standard symbols
P7 prepare a template drawing of a
standardised A3 sheet using a CAD
system and save to file

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 produce, store and present 2D CAD
drawings of a given single-piece
component and an assembly drawing of a
product containing three parts.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

All four learning outcomes of this unit are strongly linked and the delivery strategy
should ensure that these links are emphasised. The method of delivery should be
activity based with learners being shown examples of engineering drawings sourced
from actual companies.
Learners need to understand that if products are to be manufactured correctly it is
crucial that the people cutting metal or assembling components are given accurate
and unambiguous information to work from. Whilst it is not intended that learners
become expert draftspersons, it is expected that they will gain the necessary skills in
manual and computer aided drafting to be able to communicate effectively using
graphics. Delivery of this unit will need to develop practical skills in graphical
communication and knowledge of drawing standards.
The starting point for delivering this unit is pictorial freehand sketching using pencil
and paper. Very simple items such as a cube of wood can be used to get learners
thinking about size and proportion and how to fit the drawing onto a piece of paper.
It is useful, even at this introductory level, to introduce the idea of standardisation
and to encourage learners to put a border and simple title block onto their work.
During the course of studying the unit learners will produce a portfolio of sketches
and drawings and it is good practice to develop the concept of a corporate
presentation, as would happen in industry.
Some learners will have no knowledge of engineering components and delivery needs
to be supported with actual examples that they can hold, look at and sketch. This
brings in the idea of pictorial sketching in good proportion. There is no need to use
colour or shading effects; just produce outline shapes which can be looked at and
used as the basis for development into orthographic form. For example, a simple
bracket with a single hole could be sketched using isometric projection and a few
leading dimensions added. Then, discuss the problem of drawing the hole so that it
appears to be circular (time need not be wasted using the geometrical construction
method) and lead on to the idea that, if the component is drawn out using a set of
linked 2D views, circles can be easily drawn and lengths become true.
Care should be taken when delivering learning outcome 2 because there is a huge
amount of information relating to drawing standards and learners will need to be
given a structure to work to when being asked to interpret drawings.
Learning outcome 3 is practical and should be achieved by carrying out a number of
developmental drawing exercises, starting with a very simple component. Some
centres may wish to start learners on CAD at this point and there is nothing in the
unit content to prevent this happening. However, care should be taken to ensure that
learners do not get sidetracked by the technicalities of the CAD system and lose sight
of what they should really be learning (ie the principles of engineering drawing).
When deciding on a method of projection to use, either first or third angle can be
chosen but there should be an understanding of the principles of both.

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In learning outcome 4 learners are required to produce a standard drawing template.

This is a straightforward task and some learners may want to do this early on in the
unit so that they can print off their own personalised drawing paper. When delivering
this part of the unit, thought needs to be given to authentication of learners’ work.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed. For example, grading criterion P6 asks for a circuit
diagram to be drawn. This may depend on the learner’s chosen workplace experience
or area of expertise — they could choose an electrical, electronic, hydraulic or
pneumatic system provided that the correct components are picked and represented
properly.

Assessment

Assessment of this could be through the use unit as six assignments. To achieve a
pass learners are expected to show competence in a number of graphical techniques
and to be able to apply these to the production of engineering drawings which meet
recognised standards.
The first assignment, to cover P1 and P2, could consist of a small portfolio of
sketches and written explanations. Items drawn must include regular solids and
hollow objects, standard and engineering components. The techniques used must
involve sketching equipment, pictorial and orthographic representation and sketching
in good proportion with the addition of some dimensions (all as specified in the unit
content).
The second assignment, to cover P3 and M1, will need to be carefully structured and
should be based on a drawing of a component or assembly rather than a circuit
diagram so that the unit content can be properly covered.
The third assignment could cover P4 and P5, with the three single-piece components
being used for the assembly drawing. This would then make the assignment more
realistic in terms of what happens in industry.
The fourth assignment could cover P6, with learners being given a choice of the type
of circuit they produce depending on their interest (ie from electrical, electronic,
hydraulic and pneumatic). The circuit can be drawn by hand but using CAD may be
the preferred method if a library of components is available.
P7 and P8 can be covered by a fifth assignment, which could ask for increased
competence in the application of standards when producing drawings. To help
authenticate learner’s work, additional evidence could be in the form of witness
statements, tutor observation records and ‘screen dumps’ which show the range of
commands used during the development of the drawings.
As mentioned above, M1 builds upon the evidence presented for P3 and these two
criteria could be assessed using a single assignment. The wider issues of
standardisation and manufacturing for the global market place should be addressed
with learners supporting their explanations with case study evidence. There are links
here to Unit 21: Engineering Finishing/Secondary Processes and Techniques from
which some supporting evidence could be drawn.

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The sixth assignment could cover M2 and would be based on knowledge gained to
achieve P6, P7 and P8, together with a wider understanding of the use of engineering
drawings to communicate information effectively. It will be a piece of explanative
writing and can be extended to include D1. As there is only the one distinction
criterion in this unit, learners must produce some high-level reflective writing, using
fully supported argument, if they are to achieve it. The assignment brief should ask
for an evaluation of the various drawing techniques used by the learner and link
directly with the criteria P1, P5, P6 and P8. To add depth to their evidence, learners
could be asked to look more widely at what is used in industry — particularly the use
of 3D CAD systems which generate solid models. This would then bring them full
circle back to the start of the unit, where they were producing pictorial sketches.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to other units within the qualification, particularly Unit 8: Engineering
Design, Unit 15: Electro, Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems and Devices and Unit 21:
Secondary/Finishing Processes and Techniques. It also provides a foundation for
Unit 17: Computer Aided Drafting.
This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 2: Using and Interpreting Engineering Drawings and Documents
• Unit 3: Produce Detailed Drawings
• Unit 4: Producing Mechanical Engineering Drawings using Computer Aided
Techniques
• Unit 6: Producing Electrical Engineering Drawings using Computer Aided
Techniques
• Unit 7: Producing Electronic Engineering Drawings using Computer Aided
Techniques
• Unit 9: Producing Fluid Power Engineering Drawings using Computer Aided
Techniques.

Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that centres have, or have access to,
manual drawing equipment and a CAD system which uses a 2D commercial
engineering software package. Centres will also need extracts and illustrations from
appropriate drawing standards and conventions.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Cheng R — Using Pro/Desktop 8 (Delmar Publishing, 2003) ISBN 1401860249
Conforti F — Inside Microstation (Onward Press, 2005) ISBN 1418020842
Mawdsley I — AutoCAD 2000i An Introductory Course (Newnes, 2001) ISBN 0750647221
Middlebrook M and Byrnes D — AutoCAD 2006 for Dummies (John Wiley and Sons,
2005) ISBN 0764589253
Roberts J — Introduction to AutoCAD 2005 (Payne-Gallway, 2005) ISBN 1904467865
Simmons C and Maguire D — Manual of Engineering Drawing (Butterworth-Heinemann,
2004) ISBN 0750651202
Tooley M and Dingle L — BTEC National Engineering (Newnes, 2002) ISBN 0750651660

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• producing engineering ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
drawings of components and text with image, text with number,
assemblies using a CAD image with number.
system.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• producing assembly drawings PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
ways of tackling it.
• planning the layout of an
engineering drawing. PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
solving the problem.

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 UNIT 89: ENGINEERING PRIMARY FORMING PROCESSES

Unit 89: Engineering Primary Forming

Processes
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Almost everything we touch in the world of technology has been created through
some technique or process associated with primary forming — the forming of shapes
with minimal waste and loss of volume. Without these primary forming processes, the
technological world as we know it today would not exist.
Many engineering components are initially formed to shape by moulding, deformation
or shaping. Over the years, these processes have been refined to suit the introduction
of new materials and the demands of quantity production. In some processes, the
shaped component is almost ready for use and requires only a little cleaning and
trimming. In others it is produced slightly oversize and, after cleaning and trimming,
it is machined accurately to the required dimensions.
The main aim of this unit is to provide a broad understanding of manufacturing
processes associated with primary forming. It will give learners a broad understanding
of moulding techniques for metals, ceramics and polymers, deformation processes for
metals and polymers, and shaping and assembly of composites. The unit will
introduce learners to a range of techniques and primary processes but provide a
deeper understanding of the more common processes.
For each technique and process learners will form an appreciation of the
fundamental process requirements, the working techniques used and the relevant
health and safety considerations. The use of these primary processes sometimes
creates a dangerous environment and knowledge of relevant health and safety and
related legislation is very important.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand how moulding techniques involving metals, ceramics and polymers are
used
2 Understand how deformation processes involving metals and polymers are used
3 Understand how shaping and assembly processes involving composites are used
4 Know how health and safety issues relate to primary forming processes.

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Unit content

1 Understand how moulding techniques involving metals, ceramics and polymers

are used

Moulding techniques involving metals: casting method eg sand, die (gravity,

pressure), investment, continuous; metal applicable to process eg ferrous (carbon
steels, stainless steels, cast iron), non-ferrous (aluminium, copper, brass, zinc,
magnesium, nickel, titanium, alloys); form of material supply eg pig iron, scrap,
ore, ingots, recycled material, metal composition, trace elements, coke,
limestone; mould production eg patterns, cores, dies, moulding parts (boxes,
sand, reinforcements, releasing agents, runners, risers, sprues); component
removal and finishing eg knock out, ejection, fettling
Moulding techniques involving ceramics: powder metallurgy (blending,
compacting); sintering; secondary operations eg infiltration, sizing, coining,
machining, impregnation, plating, heat treatment; ceramics applicable to process
eg metallic carbides, nitrides, oxides
Moulding techniques involving polymers: techniques eg compression, transfer,
injection, rotational moulding, blow moulding; polymers applicable to process eg
thermoplastics, thermosetting plastics, polystyrene, polyethylene, acetal,
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), nylon, polycarbonate, polypropylene; use
of additives eg stabilisers, flame retardants, fillers (asbestos, cotton flock, fibres,
mica, graphite, wood flour), plasticisers, antistats, colorants, lubricants; mould
tools eg two plate, three plate, combination/composite, split, unscrewing;
moulding parameters eg temperature, pressure, speed/timings, distance,
flashing, short shot, distortion, burning, colour deviation

2 Understand how deformation processes involving metals and polymers are

used

Deformation processes involving metals: processes eg extrusion (direct, indirect,

impact), forging (drop, pressure, upset), rolling (hot, cold), presswork (forming,
bending, deep drawing), metal spinning; metals applicable to process eg ferrous
(carbon steels, stainless steels), non-ferrous (aluminium, copper, brass)
Deformation processes involving polymers: processes eg vacuum forming,
extrusion, calendaring; polymers applicable to process eg thermoplastics,
polycarbonate, polysulphon, acrylic, polyvinyl chloride, ABS, thermoplastic sheet;
use of additives eg plasticisers, antistats, lubricants, heat stabilisers; features eg
double curvatures, shapes (male, female), stiffened mouldings, section shape;
parameters eg temperature, pressure, speed/timings, distance, flashing, short
shot, distortion, burning, colour deviation

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3 Understand how shaping and assembly processes involving composites are

used

Composite shaping processes: processes eg pre-preg laminating, wet lay-up,

moulding; use of fibre (glass, polyethylene, aramid, carbon); use of resin
(polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic); composite materials applicable to
process eg wood, Coremat, foam, honeycomb (Nomex, aluminium), syntactic
core, expanding core; design features eg corners (internal, external), surface
(concave, convex, return, vertical), double curvature, nett edges, joggle details;
types of reinforcement eg roving, braids, tapes, chopped strand, continuous
filament, uni-directional, woven, multi-axis
Composite assembly processes: types eg trial, one-off, batch, assembly line;
features eg tolerances (loose or close fit), fixing (permanent or non-permanent),
shape location, joins (joggle, return or overlap); assembly methods eg fettling,
pinning, clamping, trial fitting, aligning, assembly jigs and sequences; joining
methods eg thread inserts, fasteners (mechanical, quick release), anchor nuts,
rivets; composite components eg trim, panels (closing, body), tubes, structural,
aerodynamic, core materials, sections, inserts, housings; non-composite
components eg brackets, fixtures, fittings, trim, tapes, memory foam, films

4 Know how health and safety issues relate to primary forming processes

Health and safety: relevant health and safety legislation and regulations eg
Control of Substances Hazardous to Heath (COSHH) Regulations 2002, Provision
and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, Reporting of Injuries,
Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995, Lifting
Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998, Manual Handling Operations
Regulations 1992, Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992,
Confined Spaces Regulations 1997, Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005,
Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981, European directives, relevant
codes of practice; requirements for the use of guards, screens, ventilation; use of
personal protective equipment (PPE); manual lifting and handling techniques
Reducing risks: eg use of risk assessment methods, avoidance of dangerous
conditions, appropriate training, good housekeeping, safe use of tools and
equipment

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe the moulding M1 compare and contrast the different D1 evaluate and suggest improvements to a
techniques used to manufacture a metal- moulding techniques used to primary forming process used in the
based component manufacture products from metals, manufacture of a product
ceramics and polymers
P2 identify and describe the moulding D2 evaluate and suggest improvements that
techniques used to manufacture a M2 compare and contrast the different could reduce the risk to the health and
ceramic-based component deformation processes used to safety of a primary forming process
manufacture products from metals and operator.
P3 identify and describe the moulding
polymers
techniques used to manufacture a
polymer-based component M3 explain why a composite shaping process
is appropriate for a given manufactured
P4 identify and describe the deformation
product.
processes used to manufacture a metal-
based component
P5 identify and describe the deformation
processes used to manufacture a
polymer-based component
P6 identify and describe the composite
shaping processes used to manufacture a
composite-based component

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that the learner is able to: must show that the learner is able to:
P7 identify and describe the methods used
to manufacture a composite-based
assembly
P8 identify and explain the health and
safety issues that relate to each of the
primary forming processes considered
P9 suggest methods of reducing risk for
each of the primary forming processes
considered.

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Essential information for tutors

Delivery

Ideally, a practical approach to delivery would be used, although this may not be
feasible due to the wide range of processes to be covered. Certain areas rely on a
good understanding of the different techniques and applications of primary forming
processes. Learners need a broad overview of the different moulding techniques,
deformation, shaping and composite assembly processes to enable them to consider
the appropriate applications of the range of primary forming processes. They will also
need to gain an understanding of how engineers decide which is the best process to
use for specific components.
The unit provides opportunities for learners to gain experience of a range of primary
forming processes through case-study material based on industrial applications.
Learners may already have some experience of primary forming and are often better
motivated if they can extend their understanding of the processes they are already
familiar with.
Industrial visits would help to underpin the breadth of primary forming processes and
may well be the only way to have access to real practical applications. Video-based
material may provide an alternative where visits are not possible. Practical
demonstrations of the principles of primary forming (eg simple casting, vacuum
forming, wet lay-up) will always benefit learning and understanding.
Although the learning outcomes are ordered to lead learners through the primary
forming processes, the first three could be delivered in any order. Learning
outcome 4 covers aspects of health and safety. The first three learning outcomes
could be delivered step-by-step as each moulding technique, deformation process
and composite shaping and assembly process is introduced. Although covered by a
separate learning outcome, the identification of safe working practices, use of safety
equipment and reduction of risks associated with each process should be an integral
part of the delivery of each of the first three learning outcomes.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A suitable strategy for this unit would be for learners to carry out detailed
investigations into the way given or chosen products are manufactured. A range of
products will be required and need to be investigated to ensure learners have
opportunities to cover the range of primary forming processes listed and the
requirements of the assessment criteria.

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Criteria P1, P2, P3 and M1 relate to learning outcome 1 and P4, P5 and M2 relate to
learning outcome 2. These could be linked together through one overarching
assignment. This assignment should give learners an opportunity to demonstrate their
knowledge of the different moulding techniques and deformation processes. The
tasks set should ensure that they describe a moulding technique suitable for each of
the materials covered by learning outcome 1 (ie metals, ceramics and polymers) and
suitable deformation processes for both metals and polymers for learning outcome 2.
Tasks set within the assignment could require learners to compare and contrast
particular moulding techniques (M1) and deformation processes (M2) for products
made from the materials listed in learning outcomes 1 and 2 respectively.
A second assignment could concentrate on composite manufacture (learning
outcome 3). A task should be set to describe both a composite shaping process (P6)
and a composite assembly process (P7). A further task could then ask learners to
explain why a particular composite shaping process would be appropriate for a given
manufactured product (M3). Care should be taken when selecting a product for this
task to ensure that it has all the requirements of the content within the learning
outcome, ie the use of fibre, resin, design features and types of reinforcement.
Likewise, the description for P6 should also have these aspects of content covered.
Learners should also consider health and safety and the risks (criteria P8 and P9)
associated with each of the primary forming processes, through further tasks set
within the two assignments described above.
A final assignment may be required to enable learners to achieve the distinction
criteria, D1 and D2. However, a more efficient way to cover these might be to link
them together and ask learners to cover them both as an extension to their
investigation of any one of the primary forming processes considered for P1 to P7.
Learners’ choice of process/component used for D1 could then take into
consideration their interests and experiences and possibly, where appropriate, a
process/component relevant to their place of work. The suggested improvements
could relate any aspect of the moulding technique, deformation or shaping/assembly
process being applied (eg type of method/technique, choice of material, component
design, mould design) as relevant to the learner’s choice of component.
Likewise, to cover D2 learners could evaluate and suggest improvements to any
relevant aspects of legislation or risk within an area of interest to them (eg use of
equipment, guards, clothing, handling). The most important aspect of the evidence
for distinction will be learners’ ability to evaluate the situation and come up with
some distinct and valid improvements.
The assessment evidence for this unit is likely to be in the form of a number of
written reports that may include information and diagrams. Centres need to take
care that the evidence used for assessment is the learner’s own work. Where learners
make use of other people’s work then this must be clearly acknowledged and
referenced. Centres may find it helpful to guide learners by providing a
recommended structure for reports and in particular a format/system for including
references.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with Unit 10: Properties and Applications of Engineering Materials
and Unit 21: Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes.
The unit contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the following units in
the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards in Material Processing and
Finishing:
• Unit 4: Producing Sand Moulds Manually Using Loose Patterns
• Unit 5: Producing Sand Moulds Using Plated Patterns
• Unit 6: Producing Sand Cores Manually
• Unit 7: Locating, Assembling and Setting Cores in Sand Moulds
• Unit 8: Forming Runner, Riser and Feeder Systems in Sand Moulds
• Unit 9: Closing and Securing Sand Moulds for Casting
• Unit 22: Setting Pressure Die Casting Machines for Production
• Unit 24: Producing Castings Using Pressure Die Processes
• Unit 50: Producing Composite Mouldings Using Pre-Preg Laminating Techniques
• Unit 51: Producing Composite Mouldings Using Wet Lay-up Techniques
• Unit 52: Producing Composite Assemblies
• Unit 53: Producing Components by Vacuum Forming
• Unit 54: Producing Components by Acrylic Moulding
• Unit 60: Setting Plastic Injection Moulding Machines for Production
• Unit 61: Producing Components Using Plastic Injection Moulding Machines.

Essential resources

Centres must have access to a range of cast, ceramic-moulded, polymer-moulded and

process-deformed components, along with a range of components made from
composites, including both shaped and assembled. Ideally, centres would have
facilities to practically demonstrate some of the primary processes covered by the
unit content, although this is not essential. However, centres that are unable to do
so should consider industry visits or, alternatively, video and other presentation
resources. Access to relevant health and safety legislation will be required.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Black B — Workshop Processes, Practices and Materials, Second Edition (Newnes,
2004) ISBN 0750660732
Bolton W — Materials for Engineering (Newnes, 2000) ISBN 0750648554
Health and Safety Executive — Health and Safety in Engineering Workshops
(Health and Safety Executive, 2004) ISBN 0717617173
Timings R L — Manufacturing Technology (Prentice Hall, 1998) ISBN 0582356938

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing a different C3.3 Write two different types of documents
moulding technique for each one giving different information
metals, ceramics and about complex subjects.
polymers One document must be at least 1000
• describing different words long.
deformation processes for
metals and polymers
• describing a composite
shaping process
• describing how to produce a
composite assembly.

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 UNIT 90: ENGINEERING SECONDARY/FINISHING PROCESSES

Unit 90: Engineering Secondary/Finishing

Processes
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
For everyday products and components to be manufactured to a required standard,
the machines that produce them need to be operated in an efficient and safe
manner. During this process, trial components are made to check accuracy and
ensure a minimum amount of waste during production. Machine operators will
produce better components if they are aware of a range of finishing and secondary
processes that can be used. A secondary process is where raw material or a
component is taken for further working, usually involving material removal, and is
carried out after a primary forming process.
This unit aims to provide learners with a detailed knowledge of the use of secondary
processing machines, including traditional machines (eg lathes and drilling machines)
and others found in a more specialist workshop (eg spark or wire erosion methods).
The unit provides an opportunity for learners to examine a range of secondary
processing machines, their design and application. To a lesser extent they will also
be able to identify a range of ‘non-traditional’ techniques, such as electro discharge
and broaching.
Learners will investigate heat treatment processes, which are often used to get a
product or component into its final state and ready for use. Without these processes
parts would fail prematurely or further manipulation would not be possible on certain
materials to create a final component. Learners will also understand assembly
methods, including automated techniques that may loosely be associated with
computer-aided manufacture and other modern approaches, such as flexible
manufacturing systems.
Finally, learners will understand how finishing techniques are deployed in engineering
to add either function or aesthetics to a part component or product. Whilst anodising
and plating methods will be discussed, hot processes used to obtain a required finish
— such as powder coating or hot dipping — will also need careful consideration of
associated health and safety aspects.

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Summary of learning outcomes

To achieve this unit a learner must:
1 Know how a range of secondary machining techniques are used
2 Know how a range of non-traditional techniques are used
3 Understand how heat treatment processes and assembly techniques are used
4 Understand how finishing techniques are used.

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Unit content

1 Know how a range of secondary machining techniques are used

Turning: machine eg centre lathe, turret; features of the workpiece eg flat faces,
diameters (such as parallel, stepped, tapered), holes (such as drilled, bored,
reamed), profile forms, threads (such as internal, external), eccentric features,
parting off, chamfers, knurls or special finishes, grooves, undercuts
Milling: machine eg horizontal, vertical, universal, planer/gantry; up-cut; down-
cut; features of the workpiece eg faces (such as flat, square, parallel, angular),
steps/shoulders, slots (such as open ended, enclosed/recesses, tee), holes (such
as drilled, bored), profile forms (such as vee, concave, convex, gear), serrations,
indexed or rotated forms, special forms
Boring: machine eg horizontal, vertical; features of the workpiece eg bored holes
(such as through workpiece, to a depth, tapered), holes (such as drilled to depth,
drilled through workpiece, reamed, threaded), external diameters,
grooves/recesses, chamfers/radii, faces (such as flat, square, parallel, angular,
milled), slots, forms (such as indexed, rotated), external tapers
Grinding: machine eg surface (such as horizontal, vertical), cylindrical (such as
external, internal), centreless, universal, thread, profile; features of the
workpiece eg faces (such as flat, vertical, parallel, square to each other,
shoulders and faces), slots, diameters (such as parallel, tapered), bores (such as
counterbores, tapered, parallel), profiles forms, thread forms (such as vee, right
hand, single start, multi-start, internal, external), angular faces
Presswork: machines eg single action, multiple action; features of the workpiece
eg blanking, notching, piercing, joggling, cropping/shearing, bending/forming,
coiling/rolling, planishing/flattening, first draw, second draw, compound
operations, cupping, embossing, coining
Health and safety: appropriate legislation and regulations eg Health and Safety at
Work Act 1974, Fire Precautions Act 1971, manual handling, Reporting of Injuries,
Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995, Provision and
Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, Health and Safety (First Aid)
Regulations 1981; use of personal protective equipment (PPE)
Materials: eg ferrous, non-ferrous, non-metallic, stainless, special alloys, deep
drawing steels
Kinematics: machine tool design; generation and forming of shapes; six degrees of
freedom

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2 Know how a range of non-traditional techniques are used

Electro discharge: machines eg spark erosion, wire erosion; features of the

workpiece eg holes, faces (such as flat, square, parallel, angular), forms (such as
concave, convex, profile, square/rectangular), other features (such as threads,
engraving, cavities, radii/arcs, slots)
Broaching: machines eg horizontal, vertical; features of the workpiece eg
keyways, holes (such as flat sided, square, hexagonal, octagonal), splines,
serrations, other special forms
Honing and lapping: machines eg honing (such as horizontal, vertical), lapping
(such as rotary disc, reciprocating); features of the workpiece eg holes (such as
through, blind, tapered), faces (such as flat, parallel, angular)

3 Understand how heat treatment processes and assembly techniques are used

Heat treatment processes for ferrous metals: surface hardening; other processes
eg hardening, tempering, annealing, normalising; appropriate health and safety
requirements eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, requirements relating to
chemicals and materials handling (such as Control of Substances Hazardous to
Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002, safe disposal of waste materials and
components (fluids, hardening materials), manual handling, safe use of electrical
and pressurised equipment, Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous
Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR) 1995, Provision and Use of Work Equipment
Regulations (PUWER) 1998)
Assembly techniques: manual eg screwed fasteners, locking devices, keys,
dowels, circlips; automated eg part feeding devices, transfer and indexing,
orientation devices

4 Understand how finishing techniques are used

Hot processes: eg hot dip treatment (such as molten wax, molten tin to steel,
molten zinc to steel, organic coatings), powder coating (such as fluidised bed
thermoplastic coating powder, fluidised bed thermosetting powder, electrostatic
grade thermoplastic powder, electrostatic grade thermosetting powder)
Anodising: eg sulphuric acid, chromic acid, hard anodising
Plating methods: eg electroplating (such as copper, gold, silver, cadmium,
platinum), electroless nickel, mechanical (such as mechanical zinc, mechanical
tin-zinc, mechanical aluminium-zinc), alloy (such as brass, nickel-iron, tin-lead,
zinc-nickel, zinc-iron, zinc-cobalt), zinc (such as cyanide zinc, alkaline zinc, acid
zinc), nickel and chromium, hard chromium; substrates eg mild steel, stainless
steel, brass, copper, zinc based, aluminium

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe how five different secondary M1 compare and contrast why different D1 evaluate the effective use of an
machining techniques are used on a secondary machining techniques are used appropriate secondary machining
range of materials when manufacturing products technique
P2 explain kinematics when applied to M2 compare and contrast why different heat D2 evaluate a given secondary machining
secondary machining techniques treatment processes are used when technique and heat treatment process
manufacturing products from ferrous for health and safety risk and impact on
P3 identify appropriate non-traditional
metals the environment.
techniques for six given products
M3 suggest alternative assembly and
P4 describe an appropriate non-traditional
finishing techniques when given
technique for a given product
restrictions and information.
P5 describe surface hardening and another
heat treatment process for ferrous
metals
P6 describe two different manual and an
automated assembly technique
P7 describe a hot process, anodising and
plating method when used for finishing
on different components

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 identify the appropriate heat treatment
processes, secondary, finishing and
assembly techniques needed to
manufacture four given components.

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Essential information for teachers

Delivery

Ideally a practical approach to delivery would be used, although this may not be
possible due to the wide range of processes and techniques to be covered. Certain
areas rely on a good understanding of the different processes and techniques and
their application, whereas others — such as non-traditional techniques — only need
an overview. Learners need a broad outline of the different secondary machining
techniques, heat treatment processes and finishing and assembly techniques to
enable the correct application to be made. A good understanding of the techniques
engineers use in deciding which process or technique to apply is also required.
Often learners will be from a background where such processes or techniques are
used and they can be better motivated if they study processes or techniques they are
already familiar with. Industrial visits will help learners appreciate the breadth of
secondary machining, heat treatment, finishing and assembly techniques used and, in
some cases, may well be the only way to provide them with practical experience.
The learning outcomes would be best delivered in order, as knowing how components
are machined in a traditional sense will help learners understand a range of non-
traditional techniques. With respect to the first two learning outcomes, it may be
appropriate to consider concurrent delivery with Unit 30: Setting and Proving
Secondary Processing Machines, which covers a similar range of machining
techniques.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

It is important that the assessment strategies used are designed to suit the needs of
learners. Good assessment strategies are most likely to be supported by proper
presentation of appropriate evidence. A portfolio or file of evidence should not
contain course notes, research etc unless it is to become part of the required
evidence and assessment.
Work done through the use of case-study material can be used to generate evidence
for the portfolio, particularly if industrial visits are well embedded in delivery. It is
likely that a range of products will need to be investigated to ensure learners have
opportunities to cover the required range of secondary machining techniques and
heat treatment processes, together with finishing and assembly techniques.

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To achieve a pass, learners need to demonstrate knowledge of the different

processes and techniques, describe their characteristics and how they are used.
While learners need to explain what is meant by kinematics in relation to secondary
techniques, they only need to show enough knowledge to describe one non-
traditional technique. However, they must be able to select appropriate non-
traditional techniques for six different products. Learners also need to describe both
surface hardening and one of the other processes, such as annealing, and both types
of assembly techniques (manual and automated). They should also be able to
describe all three types of finishing techniques as listed in the unit content.
This unit could be assessed through three assignments. The first assignment could be
a series of written tasks to cover P1, P2, P3 and P4. The task for P1 should have
enough detail for learners to cover turning, milling, boring, grinding and presswork.
The types of machine they consider from each of these could be left to the learner,
as they may have a preference from their place of work. Alternatively, a specific
machine type could be given to different learners across the range. This would help
centres authenticate each learner’s response.
The tasks should also ensure that learners consider the health and safety
requirements and cover at least three of the material types listed in the content.
The six products given for P3 must cover the three non-traditional techniques ranged
— electro discharge, broaching and honing/lapping. The products should have
sensible characteristics, such as type of material, quantity, size, accuracy
(tolerances) and surface texture requirements to clearly direct learners towards the
correct non-traditional technique. The written task for P4 could be about one of the
machines from these techniques. Again, some learners may have preferences based
on their workplace. This assignment could also include further written tasks to cover
both M1 and D1.
The second assignment could have tasks to describe heat treatment processes (P5)
and assembly techniques (P6). Surface treatment must be covered but freedom can
be given as to which other process is described. The task should also ask learners
about the health and safety requirements. The task addressing P6 must cover two
manual and one automated technique.
A further task could be developed to cover M2, which would give learners an
opportunity to cover more of the range of heat treatment processes. A comparison
between hardening, tempering and annealing would be sensible. Another task in the
assignment could cover P7 ensuring that all finishing techniques are covered.
Another task should be given to allow learners to suggest alternative assembly and
finishing techniques. In doing so, a range of restrictions and information should be
given to ensure learners are able to come up with some sensible alternatives. An
example is when the modification of an assembled component allows an automatic
feeding device to be used, assuming the batch quantity information indicates it
would be viable, or a material amendment needs a change of finishing technique.

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The third assignment could have a task requiring learners to identify appropriate
processes and techniques as listed in P8 for four different components. These
components need to be fairly complex to include a requirement for a heat treatment
process, a secondary, a finishing and an assembly technique. These requirements
must not be given but be suggested by the component characteristics and
specification. This can be done by a set of drawings/specifications or by actual
products, with a set of notes, that would ensure the learners are able to identify the
appropriate process and techniques. A final written task could be included to give an
opportunity to cover D2.
To achieve a merit, learners need to be able to compare and explain how different
machining techniques are used (M1) and how different heat treatment processes are
used in manufacturing (M2). They will need to suggest alternative assembly and
finishing techniques when given specific restrictions and information (M3).
To achieve a distinction, learners need to confidently evaluate the effective use of
secondary machining techniques for certain circumstances. Learners should show
skills in evaluating a given secondary machining technique and a given heat
treatment process for health and safety risk and impact on environmental issues.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 5: Machining Components using Centre Lathes
• Unit 7: Machining Components using Turret Lathes
• Unit 9: Machining Components using Milling Machines
• Unit 17: Machining Components using Horizontal Boring Machines
• Unit 19: Machining Components using Vertical Boring Machines
• Unit 21: Machining Components using Electro Discharge Machines
• Unit 23: Machining Components using Grinding Machines
• Unit 25: Machining Components using Honing and Lapping Machines
• Unit 61: Assembling Mechanical Products
• Unit 72: Repairing and Modifying Mechanical Assemblies.

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The unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding within the following
units in the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Materials Processing
and Finishing:
• Unit 29: Finishing Materials by Applying Powder Coating
• Unit 30: Finishing Materials by Applying Hot Dip Treatments
• Unit 31: Finishing Materials by Electroplating Methods
• Unit 32: Finishing Materials by Applying Coatings by Electroless Nickel Plating
• Unit 33: Finishing Materials by Chemical Conversion Processes
• Unit 34: Finishing Materials by Sulphuric Acid Anodising
• Unit 35: Finishing Materials by Chromic Acid Anodising
• Unit 36: Finishing Materials by Hard Anodising
• Unit 37: Finishing Materials by Mechanical Plating
• Unit 40: Finishing Materials by Alloy Plating Processes
• Unit 41: Finishing Materials by Phosphating
• Unit 42: Finishing Materials by Zinc Plating
• Unit 44: Finishing Materials by Nickel and Chromium Plating
• Unit 45: Finishing Materials by Hard Chromium Plating.
The unit has links with the specialist units that cover using processes, materials and
techniques such as Unit 8: Engineering Design, Unit 10: Properties and Applications
of Engineering Materials, Unit 20: Engineering Primary Forming Processes and
Unit 30: Setting and Proving Secondary Processing Machines. It also links to Unit 7:
Health, Safety, Risk Assessment and Welfare in the Engineering Workplace.

Essential resources

Centres should have access to as large a range of the machinery and processes
outlined in the unit content as possible.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Timings R L — Basic Manufacturing (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750659904
Timings R L — Manufacturing Technology (Prentice Hall, 1998) ISBN 0582356938

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing how different C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
secondary machining least two documents about the same
techniques are used subject.
• describing the characteristics Each document must be a minimum of
of different heat treatment 1000 words long.
processes for ferrous metals C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
• describing the characteristics each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
of different assembly
techniques One document must be at least 1000
words long.
• describing the characteristics
of different finishing
techniques.

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Unit 91: Setting and Proving Secondary

Processing Machines
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
For components to be manufactured to a required standard, the machines that
produce them need to be correctly set up by technicians, ready for an operator to
use. During this process, trial components are made to check accuracy and ensure a
minimum amount of waste during production. Once satisfied that a machine’s
parameters are correctly set, the technician would then brief the machine operator
and the mass production of accurate components can begin.
The aim of this unit is to provide learners with a detailed understanding of the
setting of secondary processing machines including traditional machines (eg lathes
and drilling machines) and others found in a more specialist workshop (eg spark or
wire erosion methods). Learners’ ability to set a machine and brief an operator will
stem from their knowledge of the machine itself and their ability to select and use
the most appropriate work holding devices and tooling.
The unit provides an opportunity for learners to examine a range of secondary
processing machines, their set up and the best use of work holding devices and tools.
Learners will need to be able to gain an understanding of the features of the
component to be made to enable them to effectively set up the machine and hand-
over to an operator.
Safety is an important issue to be considered when setting and using secondary
processing machines. In this unit learners will gain and be able to demonstrate safe
working practices when carrying out activities. They will also be able to carry out
checks for component accuracy and demonstrate this accuracy after setting a
machine and when handing over to an operator.
With the knowledge and understanding gained from this unit there are other
opportunities for investigation of a wider range of secondary processing machines,
their work holding devices, tools and machine parameters.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know how traditional and specialist secondary processing machines function
2 Understand how work holding devices, tools and machine parameters are set up
to produce a range of components
3 Be able to safely set up a secondary processing machine to accurately make a
component
4 Know how to produce trial components relevant to the use of a secondary
processing machine before handing over to an operator.

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Unit content

1 Know how traditional and specialist secondary processing machines function

Secondary processing machines: basic principles of operation; machine’s

suitability to manufacture given components; relevant safe working practices for
each machine; machine terminology eg cross slide, spindle, head stock,
generation of shapes, forming of shapes; traditional secondary machining
techniques eg turning (centre lathe, capstan, turret, single-spindle automatic,
multi-spindle automatic), milling (horizontal, vertical, universal), grinding
(surface, cylindrical, centreless, universal, thread grinding, tool and cutter
grinding, universal or purpose-built machines), drilling (single spindle, multi-
spindle); specialist secondary machining techniques eg boring (horizontal,
vertical), electro discharge (spark erosion, wire erosion), honing and lapping
(horizontal and vertical honing, rotary disc lapping, reciprocating machines)

2 Understand how work holding devices, tools and machine parameters are set
up to produce a range of components

Work holding: devices for traditional secondary machining techniques eg chucks

(hard or soft jaws, three or four jaw, collet, power, magnetic), fixtures and other
machine specific devices for:
- turning (drive plate and centres, faceplates, magnetic or pneumatic devices,
fixed steadies or travelling steadies)
- milling (clamping direct to machine table, pneumatic or magnetic table,
machine vice, angle plate, vee block and clamps, indexing head/device,
rotary table)
- grinding (centres, face plate, machine vices, clamps, angle plates, vee blocks,
works rests, control stops, injector mechanisms, magnetic blocks, pots,
arbors)
- drilling (clamping direct to machine table, machine vice, angle bracket, vee
block and clamps, drill jigs, indexing device);
devices for specialist secondary machining techniques eg angle plate, vee block
and clamps, other machine specific devices for:
- boring (clamping direct to machine table, machine vice, pneumatic or
magnetic table, indexing/rotary device)
- electro discharge machining (clamping direct to machine table, machine vice,
pneumatic or magnetic table, ancillary indexing device)
- honing and lapping (pots, magnetic blocks, face plate)

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Tools: materials and form eg solid high-speed steel, brazed tungsten carbide,
indexible tips, electrode material, abrasive stone, composite wheels; tools for
traditional secondary machining techniques eg for:
- turning (turning tools, facing tools, form tools, parting-off tools, thread
chaser, single-point threading, boring bars, recessing tools, centre drills,
twist/core drills, solid reamers, expanding reamers, taps, dies, knurling tool)
- milling (face mills, slab mills/cylindrical cutters, side and face cutters,
slotting cutters, slitting saws, profile cutters, twist drills, boring tools, end
mills, slot drills)
- grinding (soft wheel, hard wheel, cup, flaring cup, straight sided wheel,
recessed wheel, double recessed wheel, dish, saucer, disc, segmented)
- drilling (drill bit, flat-bottomed drill, counterboring tool, countersinking tool,
centre drill, spot facing tool, reamer, tap);
tools for specialist secondary machining techniques eg for:
- boring (boring tool, facing, turning, recessing, chamfering or radii, forming,
twist drill, tap, reamer, milling cutter)
- electro discharge machining (plain electrode, profile electrode, hollow
electrode, wire)
- honing and lapping (mandrel, wedge, honing stone, lapping disc/pad)
Machine parameters: position of workpiece; position of tools in relationship to
workpiece; cutting fluid/dielectric flow rate; position and operation of machine
guards/safety mechanisms; parameters for different traditional secondary
processing techniques eg for:
- turning (threading/profile/taper mechanisms, workpiece revolutions per
minute, linear feed rate, depth of cut for roughing and finishing)
- milling (linear/table feed rate, milling cutter revolutions per minute, depth of
cut for roughing and finishing)
- grinding (linear/table feed rate, depth of cut for roughing and finishing, cross
feed, dressing of wheels)
- drilling (tooling revolutions per minute, linear feed rate, swarf clearance);
parameters for different specialist secondary processing techniques eg for:
- boring (set up and tooling relative to datum, feed rate, cutter/tool
revolutions per minute, depth of cut for roughing and finishing)
- electro discharge machining (electrical conditions, wire tension, wire speed,
alignment of electrodes and wire, ventilation and fume extraction, filtration)
- honing and lapping (revolutions per minute or reciprocating speed, stroke
length, stroke overrun length, stroke speed, stone or disc pressure)

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Features of the component: materials eg ferrous, non-ferrous, non-metallic;

holes eg drilled, bored (parallel or tapered), reamed, threaded, blind, through,
counterbored, flat bottomed; relevant component features produced using
traditional secondary processing techniques eg for:
- turning operations (flat faces, parallel diameters, stepped diameters, tapered
diameters, profile forms, external threads, eccentric features, parting off,
chamfers, knurls or special finishes, grooves, undercuts)
- milling operations (flat faces, square faces, parallel faces, angular faces,
steps/shoulders, open ended slots, enclosed slots, recesses, tee slots, profile
forms, serrations, indexed or rotated forms, special forms)
- grinding operations (flat faces, vertical faces, parallel faces, faces square to
each other, shoulders and faces, slots, parallel diameters, tapered diameters,
profiles forms, other thread forms, vee-form threads, right-hand threads,
single start threads, multi-start threads, external threads, angular faces)
- drilling operations (countersinking, spot facing, holes);
relevant component features produced using specialist secondary processing
techniques eg for:
- boring operations (internal profiles; external profiles eg external diameters,
grooves/recesses, chamfers/radii, flat faces, square faces, parallel faces,
angular faces, slots, index or rotated forms)
- electro discharge machining operations (holes; faces — flat, square, parallel,
angular; forms — concave, convex, profile, square/rectangular; other features
— threads, engraving, cavities, radii/arcs, slots)
- honing and lapping operations (honing holes; lapping faces eg flat, parallel,
angular)

3 Be able to safely set up a secondary processing machine to accurately make a

component

Set up: machine guards in place; select and set tooling; checking tool/wheel
condition; holding components securely without distortion; selection and use of
suitable work holding device(s); set machine parameters to manufacture given
component

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Safe working: safe set up of moving parts eg setting stops, preventing tooling
clashes; use of machine guards to protect operator and others; choice and
handling of cutting fluids/dielectric flow rate; checks for insecure components;
facilities for emergency stop and machine isolation; identification of appropriate
protective clothing and equipment; housekeeping arrangements (work area clean
and tidy); safe working practices relevant to specific secondary processing
technique eg for:
- turning (handling turning tools, airborne particles, tool breakage, swarf
disposal)
- milling (handling milling cutters, cutter breakage, swarf disposal, backlash in
machine slides)
- boring (handling tools and cutters, airborne particles, tool breakage)
- electro-discharge machining (electrical components, handling dielectrics,
fumes, handling and storing electrodes and wires)
- grinding (handling grinding wheels, sparks/airborne particles, bursting wheels)
- drilling (handling drills, taps and reamers, tool breakage, swarf disposal)
- honing and lapping (handling and storing stones, airborne particles)
Checks for accuracy: components to be free from burrs and sharp edges; use of
appropriate tools and instruments; checks for dimensional accuracy and surface
texture; checks relevant to specific secondary machining technique eg for:
- turning (components to be free from false tool cuts, dimensional tolerance
equivalent to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 7, surface finish 63 µin or 1.6 µm,
reamed or bored holes within H8, screw threads BS medium fit, angles within
+/- 0.5 degree)
- milling (components to be free from false tool cuts, dimensional tolerance
equivalent to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 7, surface finish 63 µin or 1.6 µm,
flatness and squareness within 0.001 inch per inch or 0.125 mm per 25 mm,
angles within +/- 0.5 degree)
- boring (components to be free from false tool cuts, dimensional tolerance
equivalent to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 7, surface finish 63 µin or 1.6 µm,
flatness and squareness within 0.005 inch per inch or 0.025 mm per 25 mm,
angles within +/- 0.5 degree, bored holes within H8)
- electro-discharge machining (components to be free from false starts;
dimensional tolerance to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 7, surface texture 32 µin or
0.8 µm or 18 VDI; checks eg for parallelism, angle/taper, squareness, profile)
- grinding (tolerance to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 5, surface texture 8 µin or 0.2
µm, free from false grind cuts)
- drilling (components to be free from false tool cuts, dimensional tolerance
equivalent to BS4500 or BS1916 Grade 7, surface texture 63 µin or 1.6 µm,
reamed holes within H8, screw threads BS medium fit)
- honing and lapping (components to be free from stone/disc marks;
dimensional tolerance equivalent to BS 4500 or BS 1916 Grade 5; surface finish
8 µin or 0.2µm; honed components checked for parallelism and
ovality/lobbing; lapped components checked for parallelism and flatness)

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4 Know how to produce trial components relevant to the use of a secondary

processing machine before handing over to an operator

Trial components: to meet the features and accuracy required by the

specification
Use of machine: correct use of work holding devices; tools; machine parameters
and safety
Handing over: correct set up; supplies of components and consumables; machine
functions correctly; quality requirements; consideration of safe working
Handover procedures: demonstrating operation; explaining the key stages;
highlighting critical areas eg safety, specific tolerances, finishes; observing
operator and correcting any errors; ensuring operator is working safely and
competently before leaving; periodic checks of machine and operator
performance

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe how four different secondary M1 explain the effects of using an D1 justify the choice of a work holding
processing machines function when inappropriate work holding device when device for a given component when
machining a given component for each setting up a secondary processing setting up a secondary processing
machine machine
P2 explain how work holding devices and
tools are used on four different M2 explain the importance of setting D2 evaluate the impact that aspects of
secondary processing machines to machine parameters correctly to working safely have on the effectiveness
manufacture a different given produce accurate features on a and accuracy of setting up a secondary
component for each machine component produced by a secondary processing machine.
processing machine
P3 explain how a range of machine
parameters are set up to produce M3 explain the impact of producing trial
required features on components components and correct hand over
machined on four different secondary procedures on the operator being able to
processing machines continuously produce accurate
components.
P4 set up a secondary processing machine to
safely produce a given component

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 UNIT 91: SETTING AND PROVING SECONDARY PROCESSING MACHINES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 carry out checks for accuracy of a given
component during the set up of a
secondary processing machine
P6 explain how to produce trial components
on a secondary processing machine
P7 explain how to hand over a secondary
processing machine to an operator
including a description of the hand over
procedures used.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The four learning outcomes of this unit are strongly linked and the delivery strategy
should ensure that these links are emphasised. Learners need to gain a coherent view
of how to set up and hand over a secondary processing machine to an operator having
proved the process by producing correct trial components.
Because of the nature of the unit content, a mainly practical approach to delivery
should be used. Work-based learners are likely to be involved with setting a defined
secondary processing machine or range of machines during their work and these
machines should be used in delivery. While only one learning outcome is mostly
associated with the setting of a secondary processing machine, assessment
throughout the unit relies on evidence generated by this activity and it is a
significant part of the unit.
Each learner should study in detail at least one of the secondary processing machines
listed. Their study should to allow safe set up procedures to be used and ensure safe
handover to an operator in the workshop. They will, however, need to demonstrate
an understanding of a further three machines and their functional procedures.
Traditional and specialist techniques are included in the unit content and learners
are required to work with four different secondary processing machines (see P1, P2
and P3). It is expected that at least one traditional and one specialist secondary
machining technique and processing machine will be studied, leaving a choice for the
other two. In the case of work-based learners, their chosen skill route may well
determine the choice of machines.
Tutors should ensure that learners are aware of the design of a total of four
secondary processing machines and how shapes can be produced using secondary
machining techniques including at least one traditional and one specialist technique.
Care needs to be taken to ensure all learners work in a safe manner. Workshop
briefings and formative assessment could be used to ensure this. Learners should also
be taught how to monitor machine performance during the set up procedure and how
to make adjustments to enable trial components to be produced successfully. Tutors
should ensure that learners are familiar with appropriate measurement tools and
instruments, such as micrometers, texture gauges etc so that they are able to check
the accuracy of machined components.
Although it may not be appropriate to expect learners to actually handover to an
operator a machine that has been set up correctly, this is something that could be
simulated so that they know how to do this before assessment.
Although it is the learners’ responsibility to ensure that they and the intended
operator have the correct protective clothing and that machines are correctly
guarded before operation, the tutor should always verify this before any machine is
operated.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

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Assessment

Assessment evidence for this unit is likely to be gained from a mixture of written
tasks and practical process evidence (witness statements/observation records).
To achieve a pass grade, learners must demonstrate knowledge of a range of
different secondary processing machines and their techniques when carrying out set
up procedures. Both traditional and specialist techniques need to be covered. This
means that learners need to know set up procedures for at least one technique from
each range and an overall total of four.
Assessment of the procedure of actually setting up a machine, the knowledge
required to prove the process by making trial components and handing over to an
operator is restricted to one secondary processing machine, which can be either
traditional or specialist. Centres and learners should pick the one most suitable for
individual needs, considering any work-based learning expectations.
To achieve a merit grade, learners will need to demonstrate that they can explain
some of the effects of using an inappropriate work holding device when setting up a
secondary processing machine. This could be achieved through the selection of
appropriate work holding devices for P2 together with learners demonstrating an
appreciation of the possible effects of an inappropriate device. In addition, learners
are required to explain the importance to producing accurate features on
components produced by a secondary processing machine of setting machine
parameters correctly. For example, if the depth of cut and/or feed rate in a turning
operation is not set correctly, then the component is likely to have an out of
tolerance surface finish and not be free from false tool cuts.
Finally, learners need to explain the impact of producing trial components and
correct handover procedures on the operator being able to continuously produce
accurate components. For example, if trial components are meeting the correct
accuracy checks then the ‘setter’ will be confident when demonstrating to the
operator the procedures to follow and the correct tolerance and finish requirements
explained more easily to the operator. The required evidence for these criteria is
likely to be in the form of a written response to tasks set for the learner.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners will need to justify their choice of a work
holding device for a given component when setting up a secondary processing
machine. This machine is likely to be one from their chosen skill route. Judgement
needs to be made as to whether the device used would succeed and whether it is
likely to meet the needs and features of the component, alignment and use of the
tooling and tool-component interface.
They also need to be able to evaluate the impact of working safely on the
effectiveness and accuracy of setting up a secondary processing machine. They need
to consider whether the use of the safety equipment hampers the set up process.
Again, the required evidence for these criteria is likely to be in the form of a written
response to tasks set for the learner.

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Wherever possible it is important to maximise the opportunities for assessment

through practical tasks. A possible scenario would be to use a total of three
assignments. It may be best to set a practical assignment as the first of these. This
could be to set up a secondary processing machine (P4) and carry out checks for
accuracy (P5). Evidence for these criteria could be in the form of annotated
photographs, observation record/witness statement(s), notes and sketches produced
by learners that capture the processes carried out. Learners will also need to
maintain a record of all measurements taken and the action taken to correct any
errors in the set up to complete the requirements of P5.
Following the practical, learners could then prepare a written report on how this
secondary machining process functions and is set up. This could then be used to cover
one of the four different machines required for P1, P2 and P3. It may also be the best
opportunity to work towards the merit and distinction criteria M1, M2 and D1.
The second assignment could then be to research and prepare reports on three more
machines, using the first report as a model (feedback having already been given by
the tutor on the first report) to generate the evidence required for P1, P2 and P3.
The tasks undertaken should make it clear what secondary processing machines are
to be covered (this could be set by the tutor or could be decided through learner
choice).
To meet the requirements of the unit content for outcomes 1 and 2, both traditional
and specialist techniques need to be covered. However, as long as at least one of
each type is covered then the other two can be either traditional or specialist
machines. When choosing from the examples listed in the unit content, eg turning
(centre lathe, capstan, turret, single-spindle automatic, multi-spindle automatic), it
would be sufficient to select from any one of the machines listed eg for a turning
machine — use of a single-spindle automatic. This applies equally to the other
aspects of unit content where examples are given.
The choice from these lists will be solely determined by the component being
machined. For example, work holding devices for turning lists drive plate and
centres, faceplates, magnetic or pneumatic devices, fixed steadies or travelling
steadies. If the component only requires mounting on a faceplate then this would be
sufficient. However, when choosing components centres need to take care to ensure
the use of a reasonable range of techniques. That is, if all the components, for all
four machines selected could be simply held in a three-jaw chuck to complete all
operations, then this would be considered insufficient.
The last assignment could ask learners to explain how trial components are produced
(P6) and how to handover a secondary processing machine to an operator (P7). The
assignment could also provide an opportunity to explain the impact of producing trial
components and the impact of correct handover procedures on the operator being
able to continuously produce accurate components (M3). It could also evaluate the
impact of working safely on the effectiveness and accuracy of setting up a secondary
processing machine (D2). See earlier examples of what is expected for criteria M3
and D2; remember that the explanation and evaluation are likely to be a
consideration of the experience of the practical work carried out in the first
assignment.

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Although simulated or practical activities would be the preferred means of capturing

evidence for P6 and P7, it is accepted that this might not always be possible or
realistic for a number of reasons. If a simulation is possible then for P7 it may be best
if the tutor takes the role of the operator. For both P6 and P7 process evidence
(records of observation and oral questioning) could be used. This process evidence
could then be supplemented/supported by the product evidence that will be
available from the activities eg the trial components, the learners’ own preparation
notes before handover and their own records of the actual handover process.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 21: Engineering Secondary/Finishing Processes and
Unit 26: Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools. It also links to Unit 7:
Health, Safety, Risk Assessment and Welfare in the Engineering Workplace.
This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 4: Setting Centre Lathes for Production
• Unit 6: Setting Turret Lathes for Production
• Unit 8: Setting Milling Machines for Production
• Unit 16: Setting Horizontal Boring Machines for Production
• Unit 18: Setting Vertical Boring Machines for Production
• Unit 20: Setting Electro Discharge Machines for Production
• Unit 22: Setting Grinding Machines for Production
• Unit 24: Setting Honing and Lapping Machines for Production
• Unit 53: Setting Capstan and Turret Lathes for Production Operations
• Unit 54: Setting Single-Spindle Automatic Turning Machines for Production
• Unit 55: Setting Multi-Spindle Automatic Turning Machines for Production
• Unit 56: Setting Single and Multi-Spindle Drilling Machines for Production
• Unit 57: Setting Tool and Cutter Grinding Machines for Production.

Essential resources

To meet the needs of this unit it is essential that the centre has, or has access to
some if not all of the range of machines specified in the unit content. This should
include at least one specialist secondary processing machine. All auxiliary equipment
such as that required for measuring accuracy should also be made available.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Edwards J — Lathe Operation and Maintenance (Hanser, 2003) ISBN 1569903409
Salmon D — Mechanical Engineering: Performing Engineering Operations NVQ Level 2
(Newnes, 2002) ISBN 0750654066
Salmon D — NVQ Engineering Level 2 Mechanical Units (Longman, 1998)
ISBN 0582302994
Timings R L — Basic Manufacturing (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750659904

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• preparing written evidence C3.3 Write two different types of documents
to explain how work holding each one giving different information
devices and tools are used on about complex subjects.
four different machines and One document must be at least 1000
how four different machines words long.
function
• explaining checks for
accuracy and handover
procedures.

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 UNIT 92: WELDING PRINCIPLES

Unit 92: Welding Principles

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The majority of processes used in industry to produce welded joints rely on the
application of heat. The amount of heat used varies according to the process, but
one common factor is that the metallurgical structure of the metal will be changed
to some extent by the welding operation. An understanding of the effects that these
changes may have on the application of the completed fabrication is essential for
welders and those responsible for the specification of the welding process and any
post-weld heat treatments.
Determining the weldability of a metal can be complex; for example, simply judging
a steel by its low carbon content could be an expensive mistake. If all the alloying
elements in the steel are taken into account, it can be calculated that the steel will
have characteristics similar to a medium to high carbon steel. In terms of its
weldability, the steel may require different treatment before, during and after
welding.
This unit will develop learners’ knowledge of the structure of pure metals and the
effects of adding alloying elements. Using both practical and investigative
techniques, learners will develop an understanding of the operation of a range of
welding processes, enabling them to make an informed choice for given applications.
Identification of defects is vital in ensuring the quality of the finished product.
Welding can be carried out using manual, semi-automatic and fully automated
systems But, irrespective of the method used, defects can and do occur. Learners
will need to demonstrate their knowledge of the techniques employed in defect
detection and the quality standards used in industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the physical features of welding processes
2 Describe the effects of welding and select post-weld heat treatments
3 Know about the factors affecting the weldability of metals
4 Know about weld testing and quality standards.

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Unit content

1 Understand the physical features of welding processes

Welding processes: main processes eg manual metal arc (MMA), metal-arc gas
shielded (MAGS), tungsten-arc gas shielded (TAGS), oxy-acetylene; additional
processes eg resistance (such as spot, seam), friction, flash butt, laser, electron
beam, explosive, exothermic (thermit), capacitor discharge stud welding, friction
stir welding
Electric arc: alternating current (AC); direct current (DC); heat distribution at the
anode and cathode; effect of magnetic fields; applications of AC and DC
Shielding gases: functions eg atmospheric protection, arc initiation; shielding
gases eg inert, argon, helium; active gases used in mixtures eg carbon dioxide
(CO2), nitrogen, oxygen; applications eg MAGS, TAGS, plasma-arc
Electrode coverings and fluxes: functions of coverings and fluxes eg atmospheric
protection, slag, removal of impurities, alloying, arc initiation; composition eg
basic, rutile, cellulosic, iron powder; fluxes eg fused, agglomerated; applications
of coverings and fluxes eg MMA welding, submerged arc welding, braze welding
Oxy-acetylene combustion: chemical composition of the inner and outer
envelope; heat distribution; applications of flame types, eg neutral, oxidising,
carburising

2 Describe the effects of welding and select post-weld heat treatments

Effects of welding heat input: distortion control eg pre-setting, pre- and post-
heating, total heat input, weld deposition (skip and back step) techniques;
effects eg distortion (expansion and contraction), expansivity, residual stress;
effects of cooling rate eg hardening, grain growth, cracking; structure of the
welded joint eg heat-affected zone (HAZ), crystal structure (such as equi-axed,
columnar), grain growth; heat distribution during welding eg thermal gradients,
heat flow, joint configuration (butt, tee, cruciform)
Post-weld heat treatments: for ferrous metals eg annealing (full, process),
normalising; for heat treatable aluminium alloys eg solution treatment,
precipitation hardening

3 Know about the factors affecting the weldability of metals

Weldability: factors eg melting temperature, carbon equivalent, rate of

heating/cooling (thermal shock), thermal conductivity, residual stress, degree of
restraint (the rigidity of the construction), dilution, hardenability, dissolved
hydrogen, pre- and post-heat temperature; impurities eg phosphorous (cold
shortness), sulphur (hot shortness); mechanical properties eg tensile strength,
impact strength

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4 Know about weld testing and quality standards

Weld test techniques: non-destructive eg visual (weld gauges, dimensional),

radiographic (such as x-ray, gamma ray), ultrasonic, dye penetrant, magnetic
particle; destructive eg fracture, bend test, macro/microscopic examination,
tensile, fatigue, hardness
Weld defects: visual eg undercut, overlap, excess weld metal, concavity, cracking
(such as cold cracking, hot cracking, crater, transverse, longitudinal, centre-line,
HAZ), blowholes, oxidation, restarts; internal eg porosity, inclusions (such as slag,
metallic, gaseous), lack of inter-run fusion, cavities
Quality standards: in relation to relevant standards eg British Standard/European
Standard (BS EN) 15614, BS EN 278, BS EN 288, American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) IX

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 select one welding process for each of M1 explain the process and operation of two D1 compare and contrast two welding
four given applications and give reasons different welding processes processes for one given application and
for their selection describe the reasons why one is better
M2 explain how two post-weld heat
than the other
P2 describe the physical features of the treatment processes affect the grain
electric arc structure and properties of welded joints D2 justify the selection of one weld testing
in two given metals technique for the detection of given
P3 describe the function of two given
weld defects and describe the reasons
shielding gases/mixtures and three given M3 explain how one non-destructive and one
the selection meets the criteria to a
electrode coverings/fluxes destructive weld testing technique
relevant quality standard.
detect given visual and internal weld
P4 describe oxy-acetylene combustion
defects.
P5 describe three methods of controlling
the effects of distortion caused by
welding heat input
P6 describe the effects of heat input and
the effects of the rate of cooling and
heat distribution during welding on the
grain structure of two given welded
joints

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 UNIT 92: WELDING PRINCIPLES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 select a post-weld heat treatment
process for a given ferrous metal and a
given aluminium alloy welded joint
P8 describe four factors and two impurities
and state how they affect weldability
and mechanical properties
P9 describe a non-destructive and a
destructive weld test procedure
P10 select weld testing techniques to detect
four different visual and two different
internal weld defects to a relevant
quality standard.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should use a combination of practical demonstrations and

investigative assignments.
Ideally, learners will be given the opportunity to watch a range of welding processes.
This could be through observation of a tutor-led demonstration which would
preferably lead to hands-on experience of at least one process. Alternatively,
industrial visits or videos/DVDs could be used to ensure that learners are exposed to
a range of processes.
Observation in a practical setting will ensure that they aware of the heat input
required to fuse metals together. The effects of distortion could also be best
illustrated in practical workshop sessions. Inspection of welds completed in the
welding workshop will also have the advantage of providing specimens for use in the
detection of weld defects.
Tutors should ensure that learners are aware of the hazards and safe working
practices associated with the use of welding equipment and common hand tools
before supervising such activities.
The use of appropriate visual aids will enable centres to deliver parts of the unit
content that they may not have access to in a practical context. Commercially
produced weld specimens containing known defects can be used to help ensure
uniformity in the recognition of defects.
Where learners are employed in an engineering environment, assignments could be
designed to link to welding activities in their workplace. The use of industrial visits
can enhance learners knowledge of processes carried out by local companies.
Centres should have access to the necessary facilities and equipment to allow
learners to observe at least one destructive and one non-destructive weld test.
Mechanical properties such as hardness, ductility and tensile strength can be
compared using simple equipment. Learners will require instruction in the safe
operation of such equipment.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

To achieve a pass grade, all the pass criteria must be met. The pass criteria P1, P2,
P3 and P4 could be achieved by asking learners to select and describe functions and
features of industrial applications of welding processes. Learners’ responses could
include both written and oral questioning. The requirement of four given applications
should include both a main and an additional process as ranged by the unit content.

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Achievement of P5 could be achieved by means of a written assignment. To enable

learners to understand the effects of distortion it may be appropriate for them to
participate in an associated practical task. This could involve measuring the angle
between two plates (eg before and after the deposition of a tee fillet weld).
To achieve P6 a written assignment could be set in which learners are asked to
consider two joints that are subjected to extremes of heat input due to the process
parameters. One joint could be in thin metal, welded by a process with a high
deposition rate (eg MAGS or laser), compared with a thicker metal welded using a
slower deposition process (eg MMA or oxy-acetylene welding).
P7 could be met using a written assignment requiring learners to investigate
treatments appropriate to one ferrous and one non-ferrous metal.
For P8, a written assignment could be used based on a range of factors and impurities
known to affect the weldability and properties of metals.
A written task asking learners to describe any of the non-destructive and destructive
tests as ranged in the content could be set for P9. There is an opportunity to set
different procedures for different learners or to concentrate on areas familiar to
those learners that are employed.
Criterion P10 could be achieved using a combination of practical assessments and
research. Learners could either use welds produced in the welding workshop or
commercially produced weld specimens with known defects, to correctly select
appropriate weld testing techniques relevant to a given quality standard.
To achieve M1 learners would be expected to produce a written response based on
the activities carried out to achieve P1, P2, P3 and P4. Tutors could design an
assignment to ensure that learners cover the range of processes using both gas-
shielded and flux-covered processes.
Assessment of M2 could be in the form of a written assignment, set as an extension to
the activities used to meet criteria P6 and P7.
M3 could be assessed using a combination of written and oral questions based on the
activities used to meet P9 and P10. Oral responses would be acceptable as long as
they were properly recorded for verification purposes and also if they are not the
sole source of evidence.
To achieve distinction criterion D1 learners need to compare and contrast two
welding processes based on the work they did to meet P1, P2, P3, P4 and M1. They
will need to give their reasons why one process is better than the other for the given
application.
Assessment of D2 could be in the form of a written task relating to the responses
given when achieving P9, P10 and M3. Learners would be expected to demonstrate
their knowledge of not only the applications and operation of the weld testing
technique, but also that of a given quality standard.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 22: Fabrication Processes and Technology and Unit 23:
Applications of Welding Technology.
Although the unit does not have any direct links with the Level 3 National
Occupational Standards, it may contribute to the knowledge requirements for some
aspects of the Level 3 NVQ in Fabrication and Welding.

Essential resources

Centres will require access to welding equipment to allow learners to observe at

least one process, and weld testing facilities for at least one destructive and one
non-destructive test.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Davies A C — Science and Practice of Welding, Volume 1 (Cambridge University Press,
1993) ISBN 052143565X
Davies A C — Science and Practice of Welding, Volume 2 (Cambridge University Press,
1993) ISBN 0521435668
Smith B — Welding Practice (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1995) ISBN 0340614064
Timings R — Fabrication and Welding Engineering (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750666919

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching welding C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
processes and weld test least two documents about the same
procedures and describing subject.
methods of controlling the Each document must be a minimum of
effects of distortion. 1000 words long.
C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing methods of PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
controlling the effects of ways of tackling it.
distortion.

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 UNIT 93: COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS

Unit 93: Computer Numerical Control of

Machine Tools
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
To reduce costs and improve efficiency, machine tools need to be able to work
automatically without the intervention of a skilled operator. This unit introduces
learners to the principles and use of computer numerical control (CNC) to regulate
the operation of machines which cut metal and other types of material.
There are three basic principles to CNC machining. These are: positional control of
the cutting tool relative to a workpiece using axes coordinates eg x, y and z; setting
of cutting speeds, eg spindle rotation and linear feed rate; and control of other
functions such as the application of cutting fluid. To do this a machine tool needs to
be loaded with a series of instructions which are acted upon in sequence. These
instructions are called programme code and in this unit learners will be shown how to
produce a working programme using an industry-standard language.
The unit will consider two aspects of CNC machining. Firstly, learners will investigate
machine tools which have an in-built computer system. These are set up by a skilled
operator who interprets data taken from an operational plan and converts this into
programme code.
Learners will then look at machine tools which are downloaded with code generated
by a remote computer system running computer aided design/manufacturing
(CAD/CAM) software. The advantage that this type of system has over the stand alone
CNC machine is that a full three-dimensional (3D) simulation of the machining
process can be carried out before any cutting of material takes place. This is an
important aspect of economic manufacture because incorrect machining of a
component will result in lost production and additional costs.
The unit has a high practical content and learners are expected to manufacture
actual components. Learners will follow the various steps in the CNC process, starting
with interpreting the requirements of the drawing and choosing a suitable machining
process, correct cutting tools and work holding devices. They will then write and
prove a part programme, machine the product and carry out dimensional checking
against specification.

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The final part of the unit investigates the integration and use of CAD/CAM in the CNC
machining process. Learners will be given a drawing file containing details of a
component which they will then use to produce a three-dimensional image of the
component. Its functionality is confirmed before moving on to the simulation of the
machining process using CAM software. Once the machining operation has been
proven and any problems corrected, the data needed to control the movements of
cutting tools and other machine operations is downloaded from the computer into
the machine’s control unit. Machining then takes place with the programme data
saved for future use.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of computer numerical control (CNC) and machine
structures
2 Be able to interpret a component specification and produce an operational plan
for its manufacture
3 Be able to produce a part programme and manufacture a component
4 Be able to use a CAD/CAM software package to generate a part programme and
manufacture a component.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles of computer numerical control (CNC) and machine

structures

CNC principles: system eg machine control unit, drive mechanisms,

tool/workpiece interface, transducers, feedback, correction; datum points eg
machine, component; definition of parameters using numerical coding eg
position, movement, spindle speeds, cutting tools, clamping, application of
coolant; CNC process eg select machine, select tooling, identify machining
sequence, calculate positional coordinates, calculate spindle speeds,
programming, post-processing, setup sheet, verify and edit, store for future use
Machine structures: types eg milling, drilling, turning centre, machining centre;
designation of axes eg 2 axis, 3 axis, x, y, z; motor and drive units eg spindles,
stepless drives, ball screw, stepper motors; transducers eg positional, linear,
rotary, analogue, digital, optical encoders, inductive, capacitive, magnetic;
tooling eg modular, quick change, turret; tool transfer eg automatic, chain
magazine, circular magazine; work holding eg pallets, sub tables, rotary work
changer, grid plate; swarf removal eg chutes, chip controllers, conveyors; cooling
eg cutting fluid, cooling systems; computer hardware eg keypad, display, Central
Processing Unit (CPU), storage, cabling links, machine control unit (MCU);
computer software eg programming language, CAD/CAM DXF files; safety eg
overloading the cutting tool, guards, light barriers, interlocks, operator safety

2 Be able to interpret a component specification and produce an operational

plan for its manufacture

Component specification: detailed drawing; material eg steel, aluminium,

polymer, other stable material; reference points eg edge datum, centre line
datum; dimensional eg external, internal, centres distances, bore diameters,
tolerances; surface finish eg Ra, Rz values
Operational plan: zero datums; work holding eg clamps, fixtures, chucks, vices,
setting points; changing components eg pallets, sub tables, rotary work changer,
grid plate; sequence of operations eg loading, machining, roughing and finishing
operations, measurement, unloading; calculations eg cutter path coordinates for
intersections, polar centres, arc centres, cutter compensation, cutting speeds,
feed rates; use of trigonometric ratios eg sine, cosine, tangent; cutter speed
(surface speed/π x cutter diameter); feed rate (feed per tooth x no. of teeth x
spindle speed); grouping of similar operations; canned cycles eg irregular pockets,
geometric, hole patterns; tooling eg cutters, drills, reamers; other reference data
eg cutting fluids, special requirements relating to specific materials; inspection
eg first off proving against specification, on machine measurement; set up sheet
and tool list

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3 Be able to produce a part programme and manufacture a component

Part programme: user interface eg menu bar, identification line, tool display
window, system status; work/tool relationships eg position, direction, amount of
movement; rates of change eg feed rates, spindle speeds; auxiliary functions eg
metric/imperial units, tool selection, cutting fluids, workpiece loading and
holding, tool changing; CNC codes eg block number, preparatory functions (G
codes); miscellaneous functions (M codes); other letter addresses (arc centres,
spindle speed, feed rate); dimensional information eg axis coordinates (x, y, z),
absolute, incremental; words eg modal, non modal; block format eg block
number, G code, coordinates; special function G codes eg movement system,
measuring system, tool compensation, canned cycles, subroutines; M codes eg
coolant, tool change, work holding, spindle speed, spindle direction
Manufacture: post-processing eg transfer of files/data between systems,
download programme to machine tool; pre-manufacture eg run through using
graphics display on machine tool, prove programme, dry run, load workpiece,
stepping, adjust feed rates; run programme eg machine workpiece, first off
inspect and check against specification, store verified programme for future use,
quality monitor; shutdown

4 Be able to use a CAD/CAM software package to generate a part programme and

manufacture a component

CAD/CAM package: hardware eg CAD workstation, data storage, hard copy

equipment, network system to download data to machine tools; software eg
Autodesk Inventor, Esprit, Solid Works, Edge CAM, Denford VR milling/turning;
universal formats eg extensions (such as DXF, IGS, AI, EPS, PLT, NC), proprietary
formats (such as DWG, CDR, CDL, GE3, NC1, BMP, MSP, PCX, TIF)
Part programme: eg 3D geometric model using CAD software, select machining
operations, select tooling, generate CNC programme using CAM software,
simulation of tool changing and tool paths in the machining process, correction
and editing
Manufacture: post-processing eg transfer of files/data between systems,
download programme to machine tool; manufacturing eg load and clamp
workpiece, set tooling, initiate programme cycle, machine workpiece, first off
inspect and check against specification, store verified programme for future use,
quality monitor; shutdown

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the
learning outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.
Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles on which a machine M1 explain the importance of producing D1 evaluate the cost benefits of using
tool operates when controlled by a CNC an accurate and detailed operational CAD/CAM software when programming
system plan for a component which is to be CNC machines
manufactured using a CNC machine
P2 describe, with the aid of suitable diagrams, D2 compare and contrast the effectiveness
tool
the structure of a given CNC machine type of a CAD/CAM method of manufacturing
M2 explain the importance of correct a component to that of using CNC part
P3 interpret the specification of a given
programming and setting up in order programming.
component and produce an operational
to produce a component to a required
plan for its manufacture
specification.
P4 produce a part programme for a given
component
P5 manufacture a component using a two- or
three-axis CNC machine
P6 use a CAD/CAM package to produce a part
programme from a given component detail
drawing
P7 manufacture a component on a CNC
machine using a post-processed programme
generated using CAM software.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

To establish the context of the unit, delivery could begin with a general overview of
computer numerical control of machine tools, its use in manufacturing and a brief
history of its origins. This could start with first-generation manual machines and how
numerical control (NC) systems were added to provide positional control of the
workpiece relative to the cutting tool. The point to make here is that the
intervention of a skilled operator was needed for the selection of cutting tools,
setting of speeds and feed rates, and to adjust the machine for tool wear.
Learners should be introduced to the basic principle of NC which is to achieve
positional control by using axes and a coordinate system related to datum points. The
main point to emphasis is that although modern machine tools are very complex,
requiring powerful computers and software to control them, the basic principle of
representing actions using coded numbers still applies.
Learning outcome 1 relates to machine tools in general and much of the background
information can probably be supported by the use of videos or industrial visits. Links
to Unit 31: Computer Aided Manufacturing could be made at this point as common
evidence could be gathered during any onsite visits. Care needs to be taken when
delivering learning outcome 1 not to go too deeply into the complexity of machine
structures — much of the unit content can be taught using a black box approach with
perhaps more specific reference being made to just one particular type of machine.
There is no requirement to consider machines with more than three axes.
Learning outcomes 2 and 3 are closely linked and might best be delivered as a series
of learner-centred activities. It should be noted that learners taking Unit 31:
Computer Aided Manufacturing are asked to design and generate a part programme
for a simple component. However, for this CNC unit they should be working with
components which are significantly more complex. To effectively cover learning
outcome 2 learners will benefit from being shown examples of operational plans used
in industry, provided that they are not overly complex.
Learning outcome 3 is a practical activity and, in preparing for the assignment
covering P4 and P5, three or four components would be a suitable number to
experiment with. Learners could be given pre-produced operational plans to work
from as the emphasis is on part programming and machine operation.
The starting point could be a two-axis exercise involving the manufacture of a simple
stepped bar turned on a lathe, followed by something more complex such as that
requiring machining on a three-axis mill. This should then lead on to a component
which has repeated features such as a number of identical undercuts in a turned bar
or a pattern of drilled holes in a flat surface.
There is no specific requirement for learners to have access to a three-axis machine
but it will add interest if this facility is available to them.

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When delivering learning outcome 4 it should be remembered that some learners will
have limited CAD experience and that this unit is not intended to make them experts
in the use of CAD/CAM software. It is suggested that learners be given drawings to
work from which have been saved as CAD files and can be easily opened up and
converted. A suitable number of components to be produced would be two.
It should be noted that in the delivery and assessment of learning outcomes 3 and 4
the types of material to be machined are not specified. There is no requirement to
cut metal and centres can use any medium they like provided that the components
are sufficiently stable for measurement and inspection purposes.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

This unit could be assessed through the use of five assignments. To achieve a pass
grade, learners need to have an understanding of the principles of CNC and be able
to manufacture a component. It is not expected that they should be able to
programme and set up CNC machines at an expert level and this should be taken into
account when designing assignments.
It is suggested that the first assignment covers grading criteria P1 and P2, with
learners being asked to produce a written report. Evidence for P1 should be generic
and not specific to a particular type of machine. There is a lot of material that
learners will have access to and care should be taken to ensure the validity of the
evidence they provide.
P2 relates to a given type of machine, details of which should be specified in the
assignment brief. Some learners may be working in a CNC environment and if they
have specialised knowledge about a particular machine tool they could use this
towards their evidence for P2.
Grading criteria P3 and M1 complement each other and can be assessed through a
second assignment. The assignment brief covering P3 should provide learners with
hard copy information about the component and a detailed drawing presented in
printed form to an acceptable industry standard. The brief could also include a pro
forma for setting out the operational plan, although learners working in a CNC
environment may wish to use their own style of layout. Care should, however, be
taken to ensure there are sufficient aspects of an operational plan covered and
ranged by the content section for learning outcome 2. It must be remembered that a
plan for CNC machining is different to one for traditional machining.
Further evidence in the form of annotated drawings and specification sheets,
calculations to support machining decisions such as speeds and feeds and
trigonometric ratios to calculate coordinates and intersections will also be needed to
support P3. Evidence presented for M1 should make reference to the operational plan
produced for P3 but additional evidence drawn from wider sources should be
included.
The third assignment could be designed around P4, P5 and M2. It will add realism if
the same component is used for both pass criteria. Learners should be given a pre-
produced operational plan to work from, although if they wish they could use the one

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produced for P3, providing it is fit for purpose. The only requirement is that the part
programme and manufacturing relate to a single component which is significantly
more complex that the one looked at in Unit 31: Computer Aided Manufacturing.
Three-axis machining would be the preferred option, using something like a vertical
milling machine. As the assignment involves a lot of practical work, evidence
presented for assessment should include screenshots, witness statements,
observation records and annotated digital images.
The fourth assignment could cover P6, P7 and D2. Learners who wish to gather
evidence for D2 will probably want to use the component specification provided in
the third assignment so that they can contrast the effectiveness of the two methods
of programming. The starting point for P6 is a detailed drawing and this should be
given to learners as a file which can be opened using CAD/CAM software. With the
agreement of the tutor, some learners who are taking the CAD unit may wish to use a
component which they have previously drawn but it needs to be in a form which can
be easily processed.
Evidence presented for assessment should include screen shots showing tool path
simulation, witness statements, observation records and annotated digital images. A
written task will need to be given asking learners to compare and contrast the
effectiveness of a CAD/CAM method of manufacturing a component to that of using
CNC part programming (D2). They will obviously need to identify benefits and
limitations of each approach and draw valid supported conclusions. The focus of D2 is
very specific and some of the evidence presented could relate to the tasks
undertaken to achieve P4, P5, P6 and P7.
When writing about their experiences learners should include an evaluation of their
own effectiveness in using the two systems of manufacture. Factors to be considered
might include something on how easy it was to learn the software packages, ease of
programme editing and the lead times needed to produce the components.
Discussions with a manufacturing engineer who works for a company using both
systems or which has moved from CNC part programming to an integrated CAD/CAM
setup could be used as further evidence.
The fifth assignment could cover D1 and be a piece of detailed evaluative writing
supported by evidence gathered from published case studies. Learners should
consider the effectiveness of CAD/CAM programming in the wider context and not
just concentrate on the components that they have manufactured.
Some of the evidence for D1 could be come from work produced for Unit 31:
Computer Aided Manufacturing and it may be possible to integrate assignments
across units. Because there are well documented examples of the cost benefits
achieved by companies who use CAD/CAM software to programme CNC machines,
care must be taken to ensure that what the learner presents as evidence is
authentic. Use could be made of experience from Unit 30: Setting and Proving
Secondary Processing Machines, particularly about workholding and machining
parameters. Where appropriate, employed learners should be given the option of
using examples taken from their own company.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 17: Computer Aided Drafting, Unit 30: Setting and Proving
Secondary Processing Machines and Unit 31: Computer Aided Manufacturing.
This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Engineering Technical Support,
particularly:
• Unit 29: Providing Operational Support for Computer Control Programmes
• Unit 30: Loading and Proving Computer Control Programmes
• Unit 36: Producing Off-line Programs for NC/CNC Turning Machines
• Unit 37: Producing Off-line Programmes for NC/CNC Milling Machines
• Unit 38: Producing Off-line Programmes for NC/CNC Grinding Machines
• Unit 42: Producing Off-line programmes for NC/CNC Machining Centres.
This unit also covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the
SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Mechanical Manufacturing
Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 30: Loading and Proving NC/CNC Machine Tool Programmes
• Unit 31: Carrying out CNC Machine Tool Programming
• Unit 32: Setting NC/CNC Turning Machines for Production
• Unit 33: Machining Components using NC/CNC Turning Machines
• Unit 34: Setting NC/CNC Milling Machines for Production
• Unit 35: Machining Components using NC/CNC Milling Machines
• Unit 36: Setting NC/CNC Grinding Machines for Production
• Unit 37: Machining Components using NC/CNC Grinding Machines
• Unit 50: Setting Machining Centres for Production
• Unit 51: Machining Components using NC/CVC Machining Centres.

Essential resources

In order to deliver this unit centres will need to have 2D/3D commercial CAD
software and CAM software that integrates with the CAD package used for designing.
They will also need to have access to a two- or three-axis CNC machine tool and a
two- or three-axis machine tool which can be downloaded with data from a computer
system.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Evans K, Polywka J and Gabrel S — Programming of CNC Machines (Industrial Press,
2001) ISBN 0831131292
Nanfara F, Uccello T and Murphy D — The CNC Workshop (Schroff Development
Corporation, 2000) ISBN 158503083X
Timings R L — Basic Manufacturing (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750659904

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 UNIT 93: COMPUTER NUMERICAL CONTROL OF MACHINE TOOLS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• interpreting the specification of a N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
given component and producing an information from relevant sources.
operational plan for its manufacture
• producing a part programme for a
given component.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• describing the principles a machine C3.3 Write two different types of
tool operates on when controlled by documents each one giving different
a CNC system information about complex
subjects.
• describing, with the aid of suitable
diagrams, the structure of a given One document must be at least 1000
CNC machine type. words long.

Information communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• producing a part programme for a ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information
given component. and derive new information.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence:
• interpreting the specification of a PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one
given component and producing an way of solving the problem.
operational plan for its manufacture PS3.3 Check if the problem has been
• manufacturing a component using solved and review your approach to
two- or three-axis CNC machines. problem solving.

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 UNIT 94: COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING

Unit 94: Computer Aided Manufacturing

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
An understanding of how computer aided manufacturing (CAM) systems operate
within an engineering business is important for anyone thinking of a career in the
design and manufacture of products.
This unit aims to develop an appreciation of the use of computer systems in a world-
class manufacturing environment and how they are applied to product design and
manufacture. Emphasis is placed on the need for a total approach to product
development, in particular the interface between the various functions of the design
and make process and the use of simultaneous engineering.
Learners will start by investigating how CAM systems are used to increase the
profitability of a business by reducing manufacturing costs, improving quality and
being more responsive to customer needs. This is followed by a look at how
simultaneous engineering is used to bring together the many functions of a
manufacturing business so that there is a team-based, multi-disciplinary approach to
problem solving. Learners then investigate how simultaneous engineering can be used
to meet the demands of a customer-driven economy where people expect an off-the-
shelf service for customised products.
The unit also covers how newly designed components are modelled using three-
dimensional CAD software so that their functionality can be assessed and any errors
corrected before the machining process is simulated using CAM software. Cutting
metal is expensive and getting it right first time is a crucial aspect of economic
manufacture.
Learners will investigate how manufacturing processes can be automated by using
industrial robots to move materials and components between the machine tools and
the workstations that make up a flexible manufacturing system (FMS). Finally,
learners will be given the specification for a component, use CAD software to design
it and use CAM software to produce a set of instructions for downloading to a
machine tool which could be used to make it.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the benefits of CAM and the significance of simultaneous engineering
2 Understand how the CAD/CAM interface operates and modelling is used to
simulate the manufacturing process
3 Understand the use of industrial robots and flexible manufacturing systems in
engineering
4 Be able to design a simple component and generate a programme for a computer
numerical control (CNC) machine using a CAD/CAM software package.

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Unit content

1 Understand the benefits of CAM and the significance of simultaneous

engineering

Benefits of CAM: increased profitability eg reduced machine set-up times, greater

flexibility in terms of batch sizes, reduction in lead times, reduction of labour
costs, lower unit costs, optimised use of cutting tools, production of complex
shapes; improvements in quality eg elimination of human error, consistent
accuracy; greater responsiveness to the requirements of the customer; competing
in the world market place
Simultaneous engineering: parallel operation of tasks; multi-discipline team-
based working eg marketing, design, modelling, rapid prototyping,
manufacturing, development; time-based management eg integration of
activities, lean manufacturing, total quality management (TQM), shorter
development times, faster time to market, right first time, improved
communication

2 Understand how the CAD/CAM interface operates and modelling is used to

simulate the manufacturing process

CAD/CAM interface: CAD eg product design using industry-standard CAD software,

modification of design ideas, production of working drawings; CAM eg generation
of part programmes, scheduling of raw materials; specialised linking software eg
edgeCAM, Autodesk Inventor/Esprit, SolidWorks; universal formats eg extensions
(such as DXF, IGS, AI, EPS, PLT, NC), propriety formats (such as DWG, CDR, CDL,
GE3, NC1, BMP, MSP, PCX, TIF)
Modelling: use of CAD/CAM software eg 3D modelling of the product, simulation
of tool changing and toolpaths in the machining process, simulation of sequential
manufacturing processes, rapid prototyping; benefits eg elimination of machining
errors, reduction in scrap rates

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3 Understand the use of industrial robots and flexible manufacturing systems in

engineering

Robots: applications eg pick and place systems, product handling, product

assembly, machine loading, safe operation, codes of practice (Health and Safety
Executive HSG43, Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations); advantages
eg consistency of performance, 24/7 continuous working, reduced cycle times;
limitations eg high standard of maintenance required, precise programming
needed, computer systems failure will cause breakdown, new products require
complete reprogramming, certain processes still need a skilled operator, complex
and expensive equipment
Flexible manufacturing systems: benefits eg production of different parts without
major re-tooling, efficient production of customised products, ease of responding
to changes in product mix and production schedules, lean manufacture;
processing machines eg CNC machine tool, machining centre, flexible cell,
welding station, assembly; loading and unloading systems eg material handling,
pick and place, fixed position robot, conveyors; coordination of the working
schedule eg process monitoring by computer, optical recognition, inspection,
total quality management (TQM)

4 Be able to design a simple component and generate a programme for a CNC

machine using a CAD/CAM software package

Using CAD/CAM software: hardware eg CAD workstation, data storage, hard-copy

equipment, network system to download data to machine tools; software eg
2D/3D CAD, databases, single-component CAD files, part programming, macros,
cutter path simulation; post-processing eg transfer of post-processed files/data
between systems, download to machine tools, inspection and quality management

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the reasons why the use of a CAM M1 describe the criteria used to assess the D1 analyse a current low-technology manual
system can benefit the operation of a viability of introducing CAM and manufacturing system for suitability to
manufacturing business simultaneous engineering systems into a move to a CAM environment.
business
P2 describe the strategies used in
simultaneous engineering M2 explain the cost benefits of moving from
low-technology manual manufacturing to
P3 explain how the interface between
high-technology automated
design and manufacture can be
manufacturing
integrated using suitable CAD/CAM
software M3 explain the use and operation of robots
to move parts between workstations in a
P4 explain the reasons for carrying out
flexible machining system.
modelling of a component and simulation
before actually cutting metal
P5 describe the applications, advantages
and limitations of industrial robots

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 explain why a flexible manufacturing
system will produce productivity gains
for a business deploying a range of
processing machines, loading and
unloading systems and coordinated work
schedules
P7 use appropriate software to design a
simple component and produce a part
program which could be post-processed
and used to manufacture it on a CNC
machine.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The four learning outcomes are strongly linked and the delivery strategy used should
ensure that these links are emphasised.
There are close links between this and several other units within the qualification
this needs to be taken into account when designing schemes of work, learning
activities and assignments. The unit is best placed in the second year of a course as it
does require a reasonable level of computer proficiency and knowledge of
manufacturing processes.
Learners need to gain a coherent view of the manufacturing process within an
engineering context. They need to understand that for a business to remain
profitable it is crucial that an effective manufacturing system is in place. It should be
impressed on learners that success in the market place can only be achieved if
manufactured products are fit for purpose, marketable and meet customer
requirements.
To establish the context of CAM, tutors could begin with a general overview of how
computers can be used to plan, manage and control the operation of businesses
involved in the manufacture of engineered products. This then leads into learning
outcome 1. In order to deliver the unit content effectively, learners would benefit
from the use of case studies based on companies which successfully use CAM and
simultaneous engineering.
To effectively cover learning outcome 2, learners would benefit from visits to the
design department of an engineering company to find out about the systems in place
and the links between design and manufacture. If learners are employed, it may be
useful to base their research on their own company, if appropriate.
To achieve learning outcome 3 learners must investigate the use of industrial robots
and flexible manufacturing systems in engineering. The intention here is not to get
bogged down in looking at the detailed operating principles of this type of equipment
as this is done in other units. Emphasis should be placed on the safe operation of
robot devices and the selection of a particular type of robot to carry out a specific
task. Learners need to be guided both here and when designing the assignment that
covers P5 specific situations which require the use of a robot should be given. P5 is
written as a plural and a sensible number of applications would be three. These need
to be carefully chosen so that a range is considered (eg a pick-and-place system for
assembling components onto a circuit board, loading of raw material into a machine
tool, moving components between stations in a machining cell). Some of the
evidence for learning outcome 3 may be best found by carrying out a case study
based on a visit to local industry.

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When delivering learning outcome 4 it should be remembered that some learners will
have limited CAD experience. It is not the intention of this unit to make them experts
in the use of CAD or CAM software. Additionally, they may have limited or no
knowledge of CNC machining. To meet the learning outcome they should only be
required to look at a very simple component suitable for manufacture on a three-axis
machine. A rectangular block with radiused corners and a simple profile which is end
milled into its top surface would be perfectly acceptable. A key fob with the initials of
the learner machined into its surface will provide enough scope to achieve grading
criterion P7. It should be noted that there is no requirement for the component to be
manufactured but where a centre does have the necessary equipment it will add
interest for learners if they are able to see their design being machined.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be through five assignments.

To achieve a pass grade learners are expected to be able to explain the reasons for
using CAM, simultaneous engineering and flexible systems when designing and
manufacturing products. They should also be able to design a simple product which
could be produced using a CNC machine. It is suggested that the first assignment
covers P1 and P2, with learners being asked to support their own thoughts with
evidence taken from published case studies relating to well known companies (eg
Toyota and Airbus Industries). It is important that learners demonstrate a good
understanding of the reasons why, in a customer driven, global market environment,
a manufacturing company can only survive if it uses smart systems in the operation of
its business. There is scope to expand this first assignment to include M1. A visit to an
engineering company which has moved to using world class manufacturing systems
would be a good way of gathering research information.
Grading criteria P3 and P4 complement each other and can be assessed through a
second assignment. Learners should not be expected to demonstrate proficiency in
the use of CAD/CAM software. A visit to a company to look in detail at the way a
component is designed and manufactured would be a useful way to gather evidence.
This could involve talking to a CAD designer and being shown the processes of design,
modelling and manufacturing. There is scope to include M2 in this assignment.
A third assignment could cover grading criteria P5 and P6. Thought needs to be given
to structuring the tasks so that learners restrict themselves to just the applications of
robots and do not get sidetracked into explaining in great detail their operating
principles. As recommended earlier, restricting learners to three applications will be
enough to produce valid evidence to meet P5. As criterion M3 builds on P5 and P6 it
can be a part of the third assignment.

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The fourth assignment could be a practical activity to produce evidence for P7. The
component to be designed should be kept very simple as learners are not required to
prove competence in using high-level design skills. As suggested earlier, a simple
embossed key fob design which uses the line, arc, diameter and text commands in its
design will produce a profile sufficiently complex for a part programme and its post-
processing. Screen prints could be used as evidence of tool path simulation. A witness
statement or observation record could consolidate learner generated evidence.
M1 builds on P1 and P2. To achieve it there should be evidence of thought having
been given to the pressure on design and manufacturing engineers to optimise
resources and use business improvement techniques.
M2 links into P3 and P4 but also draws on knowledge from P1 and P2. Explanations
should be supported by examples taken from real companies who have successfully
moved from low-technology to high-technology manufacturing systems and might
include figures for the amounts of cost savings achieved.
M3 requires a greater understanding of how a robot operates and will build on
knowledge gained when achieving P5 and P6. Evidence presented should be at a
systems (black box) level and the assignment tasks should not be asking for detailed
knowledge about, for example, the internal workings of a specific drive or sensor unit
within the robot. Tasks based on a scenario which relates to a specific machining
system could be used to generate evidence. Learners are not expected to explain
how the actual machining functions operate because the criterion relates only to the
handling and moving of parts.
Grading criterion D1 builds on content covered in learning outcomes 1, 2 and 3 and
could be a very detailed piece of writing based around a scenario. For this reason it
might be best covered by a fifth assignment. Learners could assume the role of a
manufacturing engineer who has been tasked with presenting proposals to senior
management on the implications and suitability of moving from low-technology
manufacturing to a CAM environment. There are a lot of well documented examples
of how this has been achieved successfully by well-known companies and care must
be taken to ensure that what learners present as evidence is authentic. Where
appropriate, employed learners should be given the option of analysing their own
company.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 8: Engineering Design, Unit 17: Computer Aided Drafting,
Unit 26: Computer Numerical Control of Machine Tools and Unit 29: Manufacturing
Planning.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide learners with access to 2D/3D commercial CAD software
and CAM software which integrates with the CAD package used for designing. Extracts
from appropriate standards and legislation and access to industry-standard CNC
machining centres and flexible manufacturing systems is also needed.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Amiriouche F M — Principles of Computer Aided Design and Manufacturing (Prentice
Hall, 2004) ISBN 0130646318
Colestock H — Industrial Robotics: Selection, Design and Maintenance (TAB Books Inc,
2004) ISBN 0071440526

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining the reasons why C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
the use of CAM can benefit each one giving different information
the operation of a about complex subjects.
manufacturing business One document must be at least 1000
• describing the applications, words long.
advantages and limitations of
industrial robots.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
about the applications, sources, and multiple search criteria in at
advantages and limitations of least one case.
industrial robots.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using appropriate software to PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
design a simple component ways of tackling it.
and produce a part program
which could be post-
processed and used to
manufacture it on a CNC
machine.

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Unit 95: Manufacturing Planning

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
There are many new technologies involved in planning the manufacturing of
products, parts and components but many smaller companies still operate and work
with traditional approaches.
This unit will give learners a good understanding of the basic techniques of
manufacturing planning and an awareness of scheduling requirements. It introduces
learners to different types of production and will give them a knowledge of the stock
holding policies that still exist in many engineering companies. A knowledge of the
costs associated with holding stock can aid future manufacturing strategies and any
related business improvement considerations.
Before learners develop a production plan they are expected to know about the
general aspects of planning and control and the techniques used to measure
efficiency in a product manufacturing system. Some of these techniques could be
explored in detail should learners show an added interest in this area.
In learning outcomes 3 and 4 learners are required to produce a production plan from
a given range of information within a product specification and prepare a production
schedule to support the delivery of the production plan. As such this unit provides
underpinning knowledge for a range of other units, particularly those associated with
business improvement.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about types of production, stock holding policies, and techniques used to
improve product manufacturing efficiency
2 Know about general aspects of planning and control
3 Be able to use a product specification to produce a production plan
4 Be able to produce a production schedule.

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Unit content

1 Know about types of production, stock holding policies, and techniques used
to improve product manufacturing efficiency

Types of production: jobbing; batch; cellular; flow; mass; automatic

Stock holding policy: types of inventory eg materials, parts, components, tools,
consumables, finished goods; stock holding costs eg ordering/replenishment,
holding, obsolescence; buffer stock; re-order levels; storage areas; economic
2Csr
order quantity eg data, Q =
Cc
Appropriate techniques: eg method study, value analysis, job design (ergonomics,
layout, safety); work measurement

2 Know about general aspects of planning and control

Aspects of planning: capacity measurement eg machine hours, man hours,

throughput, department hours; production planning; pre-production planning
Other aspects: soft issues eg information technology, documentation; hard issues
eg health and safety, environmental issues
Control: functions eg production control, quality control

3 Be able to use a product specification to produce a production plan

Product specification: aspects relative to manufacturing and not the customer;

type of information required for manufacture eg engineering drawings, process
description, make and assembly techniques and requirements, materials required,
measurements, tolerances and other quality specifications
Production plan: consideration of a product specification and types of production;
requirements (processes, materials required, quantities required, tools and
equipment, labour required, estimated process times, quality checks)

4 Be able to produce a production schedule

Production schedule: based on the requirements identified within a production

plan; presentation techniques eg use of a Gantt chart, critical path network, line
of balance technique; data eg completion deadline, customer requirements,
capacity available

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the six different types of M1 explain the circumstances in which D1 evaluate the use of a production plan
production cellular production would be better than when preparing a production schedule
batch production and the dangers of the schedule not
P2 describe a stock holding policy for a
meeting stock holding requirements
given type of inventory and determine an M2 explain the importance of different
economic order quantity from given data types of information in a product D2 explain how the use of presentation
specification when producing a techniques can be used to overcome
P3 describe an appropriate technique used
production plan and schedule. capacity and production planning
to improve product manufacturing
problems.
efficiency
P4 describe the three aspects of planning
and the use of other aspects in relation
to these
P5 describe the two functions of control
P6 use a product specification to produce a
production plan

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the use of a production
schedule
P8 produce a production schedule from a
production plan and given data.

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Essential information for teachers

Delivery

Most of this unit will involve a practical approach to delivery, although certain areas
rely on a good underpinning knowledge of the different aspects of planning for
manufacture. Learners need an overview of the different manufacturing sectors to
enable them to use the correct techniques for different applications.
The unit provides opportunities for learners to study particular industrial case
material, particularly when it comes to preparing production plans and schedules.
Learners may be from a background where such processes exist and may be more
motivated if they can plan and schedule manufacturing in an area they are familiar
with. Industrial visits will help underpin the breadth of manufacturing planning used.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and as such learners would benefit from
being taught about types of production, stock control and basic improvement
techniques, from learning outcome 1, before they produce production plans and
schedules. They should also know beforehand about the general aspects of planning
and control.
Obviously centres will need to have examples of production plans and schedules. The
use of standard templates can be an appropriate way to ensure learners cover the
requirements of a professional plan and schedule. Before assessment of learning
outcomes 3 and 4, centres will ideally have developed a range of product
specifications. Learners who operate in a workplace may have and be able to use
materials relevant to their own place of work.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

It is important that the assessment strategies used are designed to suit the needs of
learners and any local industry requirements. Good assessment strategies need to be
supported by the proper presentation of appropriate evidence. The portfolio should
not contain course notes, research etc unless it is part of the required evidence and
assessment.
Work done through the use of case-study material can be used to generate evidence
for learners’ portfolios. An integrated approach to this unit would be a suitable way
for learners to gather evidence, particularly for learning outcomes 3 and 4.
To achieve a pass grade. learners should demonstrate knowledge of types of
production, stocking policies and techniques used to improve manufacturing
efficiency. Learners are also expected to describe general aspects of planning and
control and the use of a production schedule. They should then be able to
demonstrate the correct development of a production plan when using a product
specification, a schedule and other data.

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This unit could be assessed using three assignments. The first assignment could cover
learning outcome 1 and its associated criteria (P1, P2, P3 and M1), with a task set for
each criterion. A range of data — such as ordering or replenishment costs per order
(Cs), holding costs (Cc) and usage rate (r) — should be given to allow an economic
order quantity (Q) to be determined.
Criteria P4 and P5 could be set within a second assignment as separate written tasks.
A final assignment could be developed to cover P6, P7, P8, M2 and both the
distinction criteria. A product specification should be made available to each learner
for them to use to develop a production plan. They could then be asked to produce a
production schedule when given further data, such as completion time and capacity
available. Standard templates for both the plan and schedule can be used as this
would be similar to industrial practice.
Another task would then need to be set, asking learners to provide a written response
when describing the use of a production schedule. Further written tasks should also
be included to cover M2, D1 and D2.
To achieve a merit grade, learners should be able to explain what parts of the
product specification are most important when developing a plan and schedule. A
task for M1 could be given to build on the response given to criteria P1, P2 and P3 in
the first assignment. A task for M2 should be left until all pass criteria have been
attempted and therefore be in the third and final assignment about planning and
scheduling.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners should demonstrate a comprehensive
knowledge understanding and of manufacturing planning. Learners will confidently
evaluate the development of a production schedule when using a production plan and
other data in terms of whether that schedule will have an effect on stock holding
requirements (D1). They should also be able to explain how information found in
Gantt charts and critical path network documents could be used to identify and help
overcome any over-capacity problems and how improvements can be made to the
production plan (D2). Both criteria require written tasks set in the final assignment.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports other units within the BTEC Nationals in Manufacturing Engineering
such as Unit 31: Computer Aided Manufacturing.
The unit will contribute towards the knowledge and understanding for the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Engineering Leadership, particularly
Unit 4: Schedule Engineering Activities.

Essential resources

A range of data and information as ranged in the unit content is needed for learning
and assessment.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Slack N, Chambers S and Johnston R — Operations Management (Prentice Hall, 2003)
ISBN 0273679066
Timings R L — Basic Manufacturing (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750659904
Waters D — Inventory Control and Management (John Wiley and Sons, 2003)
ISBN 0470858761

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing types of C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
production, stock holding least two documents about the same
policies and techniques for subject.
improving manufacturing Each document must be a minimum of
efficiency 1000 words long.
• describing and aspects of C3.3 Write two different types of documents
planning and control each one giving different information
functions. about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using a product specification PS3.1 Recognise, explore and describe the
to prepare a production plan problem, and agree the standards for its
and schedule. solution.
PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one option
for solving the problem and review
progress towards its solution.
PS3.3 Agree and apply methods to check
whether the problem has been solved,
describe the results and review the
approach taken.

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Unit 96: Quality and Business

Improvement
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The concept of improving effectiveness and efficiency at work to drive down costs,
meet deadlines, improve quality and boost productivity is crucial to surviving in a
competitive environment. All processes need to be evaluated to ensure continuous
improvement in both quality and productivity.
Businesses need to understand the importance of taking action before rejects or
defective products are produced, thus avoiding unnecessary expense and halting
production, with all its inherent problems.
Most quality systems also implement value and risk management techniques. Value
and risk management are now fundamental components of best practice and are
widely recognised as essential activities in the search for improved performance.
Whilst risk and value management possess separate origins, they share many
characteristics and are increasingly seen as complementary activities.
This unit focuses on how the processes of value, risk and quality management can be
integrated into continuous improvement activities. It gives learners the knowledge
and skills required to carry out a value engineering activity. This is a function-
oriented, systematic team approach used to analyse and improve the value in a
product, facility, system or service. This is a powerful tool for solving problems
and/or reducing costs while improving performance/quality requirements. By
enhancing value, customer satisfaction should also increase.
The unit also covers potential failure modes and effects analysis (FMEA). FMEA is a
technique used to identify and eliminate possible causes of failure. The technique
requires a sequential, disciplined approach by engineers to assess systems, products
or processes in order to establish the modes of failure and the effects of failure on
the system, product or process. The unit will enable learners to apply the technique
of examining what might fail, looking at the possible results of such a failure and
analysing what could cause it. Solutions to the potential failures are then prioritised
so that the most significant ones are dealt with first.
Properly applied statistical control can prevent problems and lead to continuous
improvement in product quality and productivity. The unit aims to enable learners to
acquire and apply basic statistical techniques, statistical process control and process
capability studies to a process.

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Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to apply the principles and processes of value management
2 Be able to apply the principles and techniques of potential failure modes and
effects analysis (FMEA)
3 Understand and apply basic statistical techniques and statistical process control
procedures
4 Be able to carry out a process capability study.

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Unit content

1 Be able to apply the principles and processes of value management

Principles: definitions of cost, value, value added and non-value added activities;
concept of function; reasons for poor value
Total cost model: showing costs related to function; cost of function equation;
identification of added and non-value added activities
Supply chain map: showing costs related to function; aligned to Porter’s value
chain model
Value analysis: tools eg Gage’s 12 steps, function analysis system technique
(FAST) diagrams, value trees, problem solving tools and techniques; management
activity eg identifying customer requirements, setting quantifiable objectives and
targets, analysing the function of the product or process, identifying and
allocating the costs of the functions, identifying the added and non-value added
activities within the process, finding the most appropriate alternatives, detailed
proposal (develop alternatives into detailed proposals, present findings from
value management activities, prioritise and rank the alternatives, carry out risk
assessment of the alternatives, provide costed recommendations and
implementation plan for management approval)

2 Be able to apply the principles and techniques of potential failure modes and
effects analysis (FMEA)

Principles: definitions of FMEA (failure mode, failure effect, causes of failure);

application eg concept, design, product, machine, process, system; teamwork;
standard FMEA reports; benefits and criticisms of FMEA
Techniques: identify the element of design/process under consideration; identify
the FMEA team; collect functional data; define failure modes; causes of failure;
effects of failure; probability of failure; using either historical data, Delphi type
technique, accident data or expert estimation; determine the severity, effect,
frequency/occurrence and detection ratings; calculate the risk priority number
(RPN); list current controls; analyse resultant data; determine actions required to
reduce severity, detection and occurrence; use RPN to prioritise; assign
responsibilities and completion dates for actions; monitor actions; re-evaluate
new rankings and calculate new RPN

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3 Understand and apply basic statistical techniques and statistical process

control procedures

Basic statistics: types of data from product or process eg variable/continuous,

concerned with precision measurements, other critical characteristics (such as
length, weight, resistance), attribute/discrete, based on characteristics that can
be counted (such as accept, reject), characteristics that cannot be measured
using any other method; considerations of both types of data; types of inspection
equipment eg relative cost, skill levels required, inspection time, sample size;
variation eg between components, within components, machine to machine,
batch to batch, time to time; causes of variation eg common/un-assignable,
special/assignable; characteristics eg population, sample, sample size, frequency,
mean, mode, median, range, variance, standard deviation; non-normal
distribution curves eg skewed, bimodal, flat topped, anomalies, inspection effect
and missing tails; characteristics of a normal distribution (interpreting the change
in shape, spread and position of the distribution over time)
Graphical analysis: eg bar charts, histograms, stem and leaf diagrams, Pareto
diagrams, box plots, run charts, time series charts
Statistical process control procedure: pre-process control procedure
(product/process selection, identify critical characteristics, determine type of
data, define the measurement system, design check sheet/chart, data collection
plan, test procedure, remove special causes of variation, ensure process is
capable); design of control procedure eg variable control charts (such as X and R
charts), attribute charts (such as np, p, c and u); calculating sample size and
frequency; calculating upper and lower control limits; use of control procedure eg
plot data, monitor charts, interpreting charts and identification of out of control
conditions; outcomes from use eg modify process conditions when necessary,
audit process

4 Be able to carry out a process capability study

Process capability study procedure: specification limits and control chart limits;
relative precision index eg high, medium, low; consequence of index; equations
eg Cp, Cpk, sigma score (Z); precision and accuracy; modified control chart
limits; process capability study eg graphical process capability sheet, determine
process capability and parts per million outside upper and lower specification
limits; analyse information; define improvement activities to improve the process
capability; present findings in a process capability report

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles of value M1 develop a detailed proposal for a value D1 compare and contrast the significance of
management management activity special and common causes of variation
P2 produce a total cost model and supply M2 describe the benefits and criticisms of D2 evaluate the purpose of modified control
chain map for a product or process potential failure modes and effects chart limits.
analysis
P3 use value analysis tools to undertake a
value management activity on a product M3 evaluate variable/continuous and
or process attribute discrete types of data that can
be used in sampling for process control.
P4 describe the principles of potential
failure modes and effects analysis
P5 use techniques to carry out a potential
failure modes and effects analysis for a
product or process
P6 apply basic statistics on a product or
process and apply graphical analysis on
the data

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 carry out a statistical process control
procedure
P8 perform a process capability study
procedure for a given process.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit could concentrate on a particular manufacturing sector and work
area, eg automotive and assembly. However, a generic approach covering a range of
sectors and work areas is more likely. Centres should determine their approach
through an analysis of their learners’ needs and, in particular, through consideration
of the range of industries that the centre is working with or preparing their learners
for. Whichever approach is taken should enable learners to understand the principles
of quality and business improvement and apply the relevant tools and techniques in
continuous improvement activities in their area of work.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and could be delivered sequentially. In
this way, learners will begin to recognise the range of tools and techniques used in
continuous improvement activities and their function and use. It is recommended
that a variety of delivery methods are used, including group discussions, team and
individual group activities, research, industrial visits, presentations and tutor-led
learning. This approach will help to keep a more practical approach, rather than
spending too much time on theory. For example, a short introduction to value
management and value and non-value added activities found in a production system –
followed by an industrial visit for learners to see at first hand real examples of value
management.
A blend of learning materials should be used to help motivate learners and place the
unit in context. These should include CD ROMs, internet research, specific study
packs on lean manufacturing topics, worksheets, industrial case studies, videos/DVDs
and textbooks for extended study where appropriate.
Formative assessment will play an important part in learners’ general development,
especially their achievement at the higher grades. Evaluative skills are required at
distinction level and formative work in the delivery phase will encourage learners to
consider how the tools and techniques being applied may be improved.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence can be collected from learners’ involvement in continuous

improvement activities in their workplace, case studies, assignments and projects.
This should enable learners to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
principles of quality and business improvement in a manufacturing environment.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must meet all the pass criteria. For P1 they will
need to describe the principles of value management. This could be achieved via a
presentation to the group, or as an annotated poster. In these cases it must be
remembered that the presentation skills or poster design skills respectively are not
being assessed. A written task would also be a method to give learners the
opportunity to meet the requirements of P1.

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P2 requires learners to produce a total cost model and supply chain map for a
product or process. Evidence for this criterion could be provided from the learners’
involvement in continuous improvement activities in the workplace or by a work
placement. If assessed directly by the tutor, suitable evidence from these activities
would be standard documentation and completed observation records. If assessed
during a placement, witness statements should be provided by a suitable
representative and verified by the tutor. Guidance on the use of observation records
and witness statements is provided on the Edexcel website. Because some learners
may not have real access to this form of activity, simulation could be used to
generate evidence for this criterion.
P3 expands on P2 by asking learners to use value analysis tools to undertake a value
management activity on a product/process. Ideally, this can be further expanded and
linked to M1, where learners can develop a detailed proposal.
P4 requires learners to describe the principles of potential failure modes and effects
analysis (FMEA). This could take the form of a short report or a brief presentation and
could lead into a practical assignment to cover P5.
For P5 learners could undertake a real or simulated potential failure modes and
effects analysis. Ideally this would be planned as a group exercise on a given product
or process. Each group could define potential failure modes, causes of failure, effects
of failure and probability of failure. The severity, effect, frequency/occurrence and
detection ratings can then be selected and the risk priority number (RPN) can be
calculated.
P5 could then be linked to M2 by asking learners to discuss the benefits and criticisms
of the FMEA technique. This could be achieved by asking learners to contribute in a
group discussion held at the end of the analysis task, where they are asked to
evaluate and record their experience of the technique. Care should be taken when
using group work to ensure all learners have opportunities to meet the criterion.
P6 requires learners to apply basic statistics on a product or process and apply
graphical analysis on the data. Learners have to carry out a statistical process control
procedure for P7. Learners are then required to perform a process capability study
procedure on a given process for P8. Ideally P6, P7 and P8 could be linked with a
common problem, product or process. Evidence for these criterion could be provided
from the learners’ involvement in continuous improvement activities in the
workplace or by a work placement. If this is not possible, the activities could be
individual or linked simulated exercises.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must achieve all of the pass grade criteria and the
three merit criteria. For M1, learners should be able to develop a detailed proposal
from a value management activity. M2 requires learners to describe the benefits and
criticisms of FMEA. M3 requires learners to evaluate both variable and attribute types
of data, in terms of the sample size, type of inspection equipment, techniques and
skills required.

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The distinction criteria (D1 and D2) could be linked to the tasks or activities carried
out for criteria P6, P7, P8 and M3. For D1 learners are required to compare and
contrast the significance of special and common causes of variation. This could be
achieved by the identification of special causes of variation found in the task
associated with P6 and a brief explanation on the root causes of such variation. The
evidence could be obtained via a written assessment or take the form of a pictorial
presentation with notes (possibly using PowerPoint or OHPs) and an annotated poster.
D2 may be linked to P8 if the process as a high relative precision index. Evidence of
this can be obtained via a short written explanation.
All evidence must be generated in a form suitable for inclusion in the learners’
portfolios. This could include standard forms (eg FMEA forms, data gathering forms,
analysis charts, SPC charts, process capability charts etc), images (eg photographs,
scanned images, completed charts, diagrams, plans and engineering drawings),
presentation slides, written reports, witness statements and solutions to class-set
problems.

Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, BTEC

qualifications, other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the Level 3 NVQ in Business Improvement Techniques, particularly:
• Unit 14: Carrying out Statistical Process Control Procedures
• Unit 17: Applying Value Management (Value Engineering and Value Analysis)
• Unit 20: Applying Basic Statistics
• Unit 21: Carrying out Potential Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
• Unit 25: Carrying out Capability Studies.

Essential resources

To deliver this unit centres will need to have an up-to-date reference library with
computer aided learning resources and appropriate journals.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bicheno J — Cause and Effect Lean: Lean Operations, Six Sigma and Supply Chains
(Picsie Press, 2000) ISBN 0951383019
Bicheno J — The New Lean Toolbox (Picsie Press, 2004) ISBN 0954124413
Bicheno J — The Quality 75 Chains (Picsie Press, 2002) ISBN 0954124405
Dale B — Managing Quality (Blackwell Publishers, 2003) ISBN 0631236147
Liker J — The Toyota Way: Fourteen Management Principles from the World’s
Greatest Manufacturer (McGraw-Hill Education, 2003) ISBN 0071392319
Womack J and Jones D — Lean Thinking (Free Press, 2003) ISBN 0743231643
Journal
International Journal of Operations and Production Management
Magazines
Engineering Technology
Manufacturing Engineer

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a statistical N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
process control procedure. information from relevant sources.
N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

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 UNIT 97: TEAMWORK IN A CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ENVIRONMENT

Unit 97: Teamwork in a Continuous

Improvement Environment
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Business leaders identify two critical factors that drive success in world-class
organisations — constantly improving performance by becoming better, faster,
cheaper and more effective, and involving all employees in identifying and resolving
problems. Performance improvement can only be achieved by improving the
processes within an organisation. Because processes are designed and operated by
people, the only way to improve performance is through people.
Usually the people best placed to improve a process, to make it run better cheaper
and faster, are those who operate it every day and really understand how it works.
Effective continuous improvement therefore depends on the ability of managers to
ensure that everyone becomes actively involved in improving performance, working
effectively in teams to analyse processes, investigate problems and implement
solutions.
Continuous improvement teams are powerful tools that an organisation can use to
ensure that employees stay firmly focused on meeting customer needs and business
goals. Teams that bring employees together to solve problems and make
improvements are one of the best ways to increase product quality and productivity.
Improved communication, mutual respect and shared responsibility for goal
achievement are proven results from properly building and leading continuous
improvement teams. Continuous improvement teams therefore require the skills
needed to identify, select and solve problems properly and conduct meetings aimed
at making improvements.
This unit will give learners an understanding of teamwork and the techniques and
procedures required to contribute to and lead an effective team. The unit then goes
on to cover the tools and techniques needed to enable learners to select a process or
part for improvement and apply continuous improvement techniques in a
manufacturing environment.

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Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of teamwork
2 Know about team and leadership activities
3 Be able to select a work area/part family and a process/part for improvement
4 Know how to apply continuous improvement techniques.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles of teamwork

Principles: motivational theories (Maslow, McGregor, Mayo); quality gurus’

philosophies (Ishikawa and quality circles, quality tools, Deming, plan–do-check-
act (PDCA) cycle)
Understanding teams: roles and responsibilities eg to superiors, subordinates, the
business, each other and other external work groups, internal team management,
direct and indirect relationships, lines of authority; operations of a team eg
definition of groups and teams, nature of teams, types of teams, purpose of
teams, characteristics of an effective team, prerequisites for team success, team
evolution (form, storm, norm, perform), reasons for team failure; benefits eg for
individuals (such as motivation, pride, job satisfaction, external qualifications),
for the organisation (such as improved results due to increases in quality and
productivity, increase in skilled, qualified and well motivated employees);
disadvantages of teams
Working relationships: characteristics of a good team member eg respectful,
tolerant, cooperative, compromising, persuasive, confident, encouraging;
communication (such as between teams, individuals, peers and hierarchical),
importance of sharing knowledge, information and performance measures with
others in your team or in other work groups; types of working relationship
problems with team colleagues or colleagues in other work groups eg causes of
concern and disagreements with team colleagues or colleagues in other work
groups, maintaining productive working relationships by own behaviour, dress and
language (such as being polite, courteous, respectful, responding in a timely and
positive way)

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2 Know about team and leadership activities

Team activities: duties eg contribute to continuous improvement activities, team

briefings, performance reviews, brainstorming activities, question and answer
sessions, problem resolution sessions, individual and team appraisals; reading and
contributing to team boards eg work area key performance indicators; using email
or internal network systems to aid communication; keeping visual controls and
displays updated
Leadership activities: planning eg identifying achievable business targets, action
planning, setting team goals and objectives; setting up the team eg induction,
deployment and monitoring of team members, determining and agreeing
individual roles and responsibilities, prioritising team’s workload to ensure targets
are met effectively and efficiently; leadership duties eg monitoring the
performance of the team against the goals and objectives, managing poor or
ineffective performance, supporting and encouraging team members, creating a
cohesive workforce through teambuilding approaches, coaching/mentoring,
training needs analysis, development of a skills matrix, individual and team
appraisals, consulting and communicating with management, subject specialists,
peers and subordinates, managing tension and conflict, disciplinary and grievance
procedures

3 Be able to select a work area/part family and a process/part for improvement

Work area/part family selection activity: identify and produce part families
based on part shape, size, material or manufacturing processes; identify problems
based on an area’s performance against selected key performance indicators eg
parts per million (PPM), right first time (RFT), overall equipment effectiveness
(OEE), people productivity, stock turns, delivery schedule achievement, value
added per person, floor space utilisation and product cost reduction; set
quantifiable objectives and targets; agree health and safety measures for the
work area eg target versus actual, 5S/C housekeeping scores, statistical process
control
Process/part selection activity: within chosen area/product family focus on
customer schedules (volume); identifying costs eg production costs of part, profit
margin of each part as a percentage; identifying time eg manufacturing lead
time, cycle time, takt time; identifying quality values eg scrap, percentage non-
conformance; agreeing the use of production documentation for
process/manufacturing routes eg bill of materials (BOM), production plans, route
sheets, production schedules, operation cards, standard operating procedures

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4 Know how to apply continuous improvement techniques

Applying problem solving techniques: structured approach to problem solving;

data collection eg check sheets, statistical process control, key performance
indicators; identify improvement opportunities eg reduced production costs,
improved quality, improved safety, improved working practices, reduced lead
times, reduction in waste; identifying and using the appropriate quality tools eg
plan–do-check-act procedure (PDCA), process flow charts, check sheets, tally
charts, bar charts, histograms, Pareto charts, scatter diagrams, Ishikawa
diagrams, root cause paths, 5 whys, brainstorming, mind mapping, statistical
process control; identifying the root cause of the problem; determination and
selection of permanent corrective actions
Implementation of an improvement activity: implementation of the corrective
actions; planning eg implementation, protection of the plan, contingency; process
monitoring; outcomes eg timeline graphs, standard operating procedures
(creating or updating), visual management to communicate the work of the
kaizen activity to participants and others

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the three theories on M1 explain how your own behaviour, dress D1 evaluate the types of problems that can
motivation and explain Ishikawa’s and or language affects your working occur between working relationships and
Deming’s philosophies on quality circles, relationships explain how they could be resolved.
tools and the PDCA cycle
M2 describe the types of communication
P2 state the roles and responsibilities of used by teams and explain the
teams and individuals when operating importance of sharing information and
within teams and describe the benefits knowledge
and any disadvantages
M3 explain how the benefits of teamwork
P3 describe the working relationships in help individuals and organisations
teamwork operate effectively.
P4 describe the activities undertaken by
teams
P5 describe the activities expected to be
undertaken by a team leader
P6 carry out a work area/part family
selection activity
P7 carry out a process/part selection
activity

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 UNIT 97: TEAMWORK IN A CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ENVIRONMENT

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 apply problem solving techniques within
a continuous improvement activity on a
selected process/part
P9 describe the procedure for implementing
an improvement activity.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit could concentrate on a particular manufacturing sector and work
area, eg automotive and assembly. However, a generic approach covering a range of
sectors and work areas is more likely. Centres should determine their approach
through an analysis of their learners’ needs and in particular, through consideration
of the range of industries that the centre is working with or preparing their learners
for. Whichever approach is taken should enable learners to understand the principles
of teamwork and contribute effectively to continuous improvement activities in most
industrial settings.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and could be delivered sequentially. In
this way, learners will begin to recognise the range of tools, techniques and activities
used by teams in a continuous improvement environment. It is recommended that a
variety of delivery methods are used including group discussions, team and individual
group activities, research, industrial visits, presentations and tutor-led learning. This
approach will help to keep a more practical approach, rather than spending too much
time on theory. For example, a short introduction to team activities — followed by an
industrial visit for learners to see at first hand real examples of teamwork. Talks by
guest speakers will also add currency and vocational focus. As learners are dependent
on gathering sensitive information from commercial operations, tutors should ensure
that contacts and appropriate briefings are made well in advance with co-operative
companies.
A blend of learning materials should be used to help motivate learners and place the
unit in context. These should include CD ROMs, internet research, specific study
packs on lean manufacturing topics, worksheets, industrial case studies, videos/DVDs
and textbooks for extended study where appropriate.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence can be collected from learners’ involvement in continuous

improvement team activities in their workplace or through case studies, assignments
and projects. This should enable learners to demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of the principles of teamwork and business improvement in a
manufacturing environment.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must meet all the pass criteria. For P1 they will be
expected to describe the three theories on motivation and explain Ishikawa’s and
Deming’s philosophies on quality circles, tools and the PDCA cycle. This can be
achieved through a written report.

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For P2, they will be expected to state the roles and responsibilities of teams and
individuals within teams, the benefits and any disadvantages. This could be achieved
through oral questioning or a short written assignment could be used.
P3 requires learners to describe the working relationships within teamwork. Again,
this can be achieved through oral questioning or alternatively a short written
assignment. Ideally P3 can be linked to M1, where learners are asked to explain how
their own behaviour, dress or language affects their working relationships. This could
be evidenced by a written report which can be expanded to satisfy D1 by evaluating
the types of problems that can occur in working relationships and how these could be
resolved.
For P4 learners are required to describe the activities undertaken by teams. This
could be achieved via a presentation to the class, or as an annotated poster. The
tutor could allocate different team activities to individual learners or groups of
learners and ask them to feed back to the class in the form of presentations. In these
cases it must, however be remembered that the presentation skills or poster design
skills are not being assessed. A written task could also be used to give learners the
opportunity to meet the requirements of P4.
P5 requires learners to describe the activities expected to be undertaken by a team
leader. Again this can be assessed via a presentation and/or oral questioning.
Ideally P6, P7 and P8 could be linked to a common product, process or problem.
Learners are expected to carry out a work area/part family selection activity, a
process/part selection activity and then apply problem solving techniques on the
selected process/part. Evidence for these criteria could be provided from the
learners’ involvement in continuous improvement activities in the workplace or work
placement. If assessed directly by the tutor, suitable evidence from these activities
would be standard documentation and observation records completed by both the
learner and tutor. If assessed during a placement, witness statements should be
provided by a suitable representative and verified by the tutor. Where learners do
not have access to this form of ‘real’ activity, simulation could be used.
For P9 learners are required to describe the procedure for implementing an
improvement activity, which could be evidenced by a short written report.
For M1, learners should be able to explain how their own behaviour, dress or
language affects their working relationships. M2 requires learners to describe the
types of communication used by teams and explain the importance of sharing
information and knowledge. This can be achieved via a written assignment. M3
requires learners to explain how the benefits of teamwork help individuals and
organisations perform effectively. This again, could take the form of a written task.
To achieve D1, learners are required to evaluate the types of problems that can
occur between working relationships and explain how they could be resolved. This
can be linked to P3 and M1. The evidence for this criterion can be obtained via a
written report or alternatively take the form of a pictorial presentation with notes
(possibly using PowerPoint or OHPs) and an annotated poster.

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Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, BTEC
qualifications, other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the Level 3 NVQ in Business Improvement Techniques, particularly:
• Unit 2: Contributing to Effective Team Working
• Unit 3: Leading Effective Teams
• Unit 5: Applying Continuous Improvement Techniques (Kaizen)
• Unit 7: Analysing and Selecting Parts for Improvements.

Essential resources

To deliver this unit centres will need to have an up-to-date reference library with
computer-aided learning resources and appropriate journals. Learners should have
access to a range of textbooks relating to human resource management preferably in
engineering-based settings.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Armstrong M — A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice (Kogan-Page,
2006) ISBN 0749446315
Armstrong M — Managing People: a Practical Guide (Kogan Page, 1999)
ISBN 0749426128
Armstrong M — Performance Management (Kogan Page, 2006) ISBN 0749445378
Smith D — Developing People and Organisations (Kogan-Page, 1998) ISBN 0749426802
Torrington D, Hall L and Taylor S — Human Resource Management (Prentice Hall,
2004) ISBN 0273687131
Journal
International Journal of Operations and Production Management
Magazines
Engineering Technology
Manufacturing Engineer
People Management

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 UNIT 97: TEAMWORK IN A CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT ENVIRONMENT

Videos
Companies such as Video Arts produce a variety of videos which may be useful in
covering human resource management topics. Examples include:
• Managing Problem People
• Where There’s a Will
• Team Spirit?
• The Coach.
Further details are available from:
Video Arts Ltd
6–7 Cross Street
London EC1 8UA
Telephone: 0845 601 2531
Website: www.videoarts.co.uk

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skills
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the three theories C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
on motivation and explaining least two documents about the same
Ishikawa’s and Deming’s subject.
philosophies on quality Each document must be a minimum of
circles, tools and the PDCA 1000 words long.
cycle.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a work PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
area/part family selection ways of tackling it.
activity PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
• carrying out a process/part solving the problem.
selection activity
• applying problem solving
techniques within a
continuous improvement
activity on a selected
process/part.

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 UNIT 98: PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

Unit 98: Production System Design

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Industry professionals within engineering companies understand that manufacturing
must be seen as a holistic and dynamic system that integrates people, business
processes and technology. This unit aims to develop learners’ understanding of the
issues and dynamics associated with the design and management of modern
production systems.
The unit specifically focuses on lean manufacturing. When the leading six automotive
manufacturers were surveyed on the processes they felt would be most influential on
their profitability over the next five years, the main response (77 per cent), was lean
operating systems.
Lean manufacturing is a management philosophy that focuses on the identification
and elimination of waste in manufactured products. Lean thinking principles have
emerged as a method to improve the flexibility, reliability and profitability of
engineering enterprises worldwide. It is being used to reduce inventory, batch size
and set-up times. As enterprises have reduced costs and improved quality, the
primary competitive measure is the ability to respond to the customer.
This unit first introduces the basic principles of lean (value, value stream, flow, pull,
and continuous improvement). The unit will develop these concepts and give learners
a full understanding of the skills and competencies required by someone working in a
lean manufacturing environment. It then covers lean manufacturing methods and
tools designed to put these concepts into practice in a manufacturing environment.
Topics explored include flow process analysis, production levelling, kanban systems,
set-up reduction, standard operations, total productive maintenance and autonomous
maintenance.

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the principles of lean manufacturing
2 Know how to create a flexible production system
3 Be able to apply the single minute exchange of die method to a production
system
4 Know how to implement a total productive maintenance system.

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Unit content

1 Understand the principles of lean manufacturing

Minimising waste: definition of waste; areas of waste eg operator motion, waiting

time, over production, process time, defects, inventory, transportation,
definition of value/non-value added activities; streamline flow eg goal of
streamline flow, impact of smoothing production, assumptions of the economic
batch quantity, hidden costs of inventory
Group technology techniques: use of classification system; cluster analysis; cell
design; exploiting similarities of products within families eg reduced set-ups,
smaller batch sizes, improved productivity, reduced inventory, easier handling,
standardisation of tasks and equipment, reduced tooling, jigs, fixtures and
pallets, simplified production planning and control, improved quality,
identification and solving recurring problems, employee job satisfaction
Continuous improvement principles: small incremental improvement steps;
benefits over large step-changes eg sustainable reduction/elimination of the
‘seven wastes’ and the ‘six big losses’ of production, reduced cost, improved
safety, quality, working practices and procedures
Visual management: local visual management systems; visual display techniques;
visual control methods; benefits of visual management
Pull production systems principle: demand-driven production; advantages of pull
production eg reduced inventory, reduced lead time, improved part
synchronisation, elimination of queues, improved defect detection rate
Workplace organisation: correct location for machines, tools, equipment and
inventory; point-of-use stock; sort out/clear out; straighten/configure;
shine/clean; standardise/conformity; self-discipline/custom and practice; 5S/5Cs
audits

2 Know how to create a flexible production system

Flow process analysis: analysis charts eg flow diagrams, multiple-activity charts,

man/machine charts, two-handed charts, payback matrix, lead-time analysis,
lead time profiles, frequency diagrams; basic mapping procedure eg identify
area, map current state, examine, develop future state map, implement and
repeat
Production levelling: documentation eg precedence charts, collecting manual,
production schedule; line balancing procedure eg walk and machine times,
determining customer demand, determining batch size, calculating system cycle
time, calculating takt time, calculating number of work stations, assigning tasks;
analysis eg line balance ratio, line balance efficiency

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 UNIT 98: PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

Kanban systems: types of kanban eg production, withdrawal, special, combined,

single card system, dual card system; kanban rules eg determining the batch
quantity, determining the number of kanban; further kanban systems eg express
production kanban, offline kanban, raw material kanban, supplier kanban,
footprint kanban, max/min buffers, two bin systems
Standard operating procedure (SOP): rules of the standardised job;
documentation (standard combination sheets and standardised work charts); key
quality and safety points; work elements; element times eg manual, walking,
machine, cycle, takt; equipment and machine layout

3 Be able to apply the single minute exchange of die method to a production

system

Single minute exchange of die (SMED): methodology (identify elements, separate

internal and external activities, convert internal activities to external,
standardisation, reduce internal times, reduce external times, implementation
plan); aids (conversion matrix, use of pre-set tooling, special fasteners,
manifolds, parallel activities); set-up elements eg preparation, mounting and
extraction, establishing control settings, first run capability

4 Know how to implement a total productive maintenance system

Total productive maintenance: major causes of machine breakdowns; the

traditional approach to maintenance; elements of a breakdown eg mean time
between breakdowns, mean time to repair, availability, activities during machine
downtime; principles of total productive maintenance; 5C/5S foundations;
prioritisation and elimination of the ‘six big losses’ to production eg unexpected
breakdowns, set-up and adjustments, minor stoppages, actual operating speed,
defects, start up yield, role of operator and maintenance engineer during 1st and
2nd line maintenance
Steps to autonomous and planned maintenance: establish autonomous
maintenance; establish planned maintenance programme; conduct operator and
maintenance engineer training; maintain equipment in optimum condition; set up
early equipment management programme
Overall equipment effectiveness (OEE): performance metric and improvement
cycle; definition of availability; performance; quality; calculating OEE

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UNIT 98: PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles of minimising M1 explain the benefits of applying group D1 compare and contrast the incremental
waste and the techniques of group technology to a production system approach to continuous improvement
technology with that of large step changes
M2 describe the advantages of smoothing
P2 describe the principles of continuous production D2 evaluate the issues encountered when
improvement and the use of visual applying lean principles to create a
M3 explain the importance of set-up
management systems flexible production system from a
reduction to the performance of a
traditional production system.
P3 describe the principles of a pull production system.
production system and the use of
workplace organisation
P4 use suitable flow process analysis charts
and mapping procedures to determine
the current state of a production system
and perform a production levelling
exercise to determine a future state map
of a production system
P5 describe a type of kanban system and a
further kanban system, including kanban
rules

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 UNIT 98: PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 compile a SOP for one element of a
production system
P7 apply the SMED to reduce the change
over time of one element of a production
system
P8 describe total productive maintenance
and the steps required for autonomous
and planned maintenance
P9 gather production data and calculate the
OEE of a production system.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit could concentrate on a particular manufacturing sector and work
area only, eg automotive and assembly. However, a generic approach covering a
range of sectors and work areas is more likely. Centres should determine their
approach through an analysis of their learners’ needs and, in particular, through
consideration of the range of industries that the centre is working with or preparing
their learners for. Whichever approach is taken should enable learners to fully
understand the principles of lean manufacture and apply relevant tools and
techniques to aid production system design in most industrial settings.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and could be delivered sequentially.
Learners will begin to recognise the range of tools and techniques and their function
and use during the design of a flexible production system. It is recommended that a
variety of delivery methods be used including group discussions, team/group and
individual activities, research, industrial visits, presentations and tutor-led learning.
This approach will help give a practical approach, rather than spending too much
time on theory. For example, a short introduction to lean manufacture and areas of
waste found in a production system — followed by an industrial visit for learners to
see real examples of waste at first hand.
A blend of learning materials should be used to help motivate learners and place the
unit in context. These should include CD ROMs, internet research, specific study
packs on lean manufacturing topics, worksheets, industrial case studies, videos/DVDs
and textbooks for extended study where appropriate.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of learning outcomes can be collected from the learners’ workplaces, case
studies, assignments and projects. This should enable learners to demonstrate
knowledge and understanding of the principles of lean manufacture and the design
and analysis of flexible production systems in a manufacturing environment.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must meet all the pass criteria. For P1, they will
need to describe the areas of waste found in a production system when they are
describing the principles of minimising waste. This may be achieved in a number of
ways, eg a short written description of the type of waste or by using suitable
annotated photographs. Learners are not expected to write lengthy descriptions to
achieve this criterion. Learners must also briefly describe the techniques that can be
used to identify part families. Ideally this can be expanded to explain the benefits of
exploiting the similarities of products within families and used for evidence towards
M1.

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P2 requires learners to describe the principles of continuous improvement and

explain how visual management systems can be applied to reinforce and sustain
improvements. An assignment could be developed on the two approaches and then
linked to D1 by asking learners to compare and contrast the incremental approach to
continuous improvement with that of large step changes.
P3 requires learners to describe the principles of pull production and its essential
prerequisite workplace organisation. This could be achieved via a presentation to the
group, or as an annotated poster.
For P4, learners need to use suitable flow process analysis charts to map the current
state of a given production system. They must then perform a production levelling
exercise and determine a future state map of the production system.
Evidence for this criterion could be provided from the learners’ involvement in
continuous improvement activities in the workplace or through a work placement. If
assessed directly by the tutor, suitable evidence from these activities would be
standard documentation and observation records. If assessed during a placement,
witness statements should be provided by a suitable representative and verified by
the tutor. Guidance on the use of observation records and witness statements is
provided on the Edexcel website.
P4 can be expanded to include M2, where learners describe the advantages of
smoothing production. Evidence for this could be gathered either in the form of a
short report or by a short presentation.
P5 requires learners to describe one kanban system and a further kanban system,
including their rules. Tutors could allocate different kanban systems to individual
learners or groups of learners and ask them to feed back to the class through
presentations.
P6 requires learners to compile a standard operating procedure for one element of a
production system. Ideally this should be linked to P4 and be done in the workplace,
or possibly as part of a work placement. Assessment evidence for this criterion could
take a similar format to that for P4.
For P7, learners are asked to apply the SMED approach to reduce the changeover
time of an element of a production system. Standard documentation used to aid the
analysis may be used as evidence for this criterion. As some learners may not have
real access to this form of activity, simulation could be used. Again, learners’
evidence could be in the form of a presentation. M3 could be linked to P7 through
the use of a short report, with learners explaining the importance of set-up reduction
to the performance of a production system.
P8 requires learners to describe total productive maintenance and the steps required
to implement autonomous and planned maintenance. This could be achieved by a
written description that should include areas identified in the unit content, from
major causes of machine breakdowns, to 5C/5S foundations through to prioritisation
and elimination of the ‘6 big losses’ to production.
P9 builds on P8 and asks learners to gather production data and calculate the OEE of
a production system. Assessment evidence for this criterion could take a similar
format to that for P4. Again, as some learners may not have real access to this form
of activity, simulation could be used.

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UNIT 98: PRODUCTION SYSTEM DESIGN

For M1, learners need to explain the benefits of applying group technology. Learners
should be able to provide evidence of an understanding of how parts similarities (in
terms of geometry, size, tolerances, material and method of production) can be
exploited for the benefit of the production system. M2 requires learners to describe
the advantages of smoothing production. To achieve M3 learners need to
independently explain the importance of set-up reduction to production system
performance. Evidence for all the merit criteria is likely to be through written
reports.
To achieve D1, learners have to compare the incremental approach to continuous
improvement with that of large step changes. Learners should consider both the
business and human sides of managing change in terms of improved efficiencies,
working practices, procedures, participation and sustainability of the improvement
process.
D2 requires learners to evaluate the issues encountered when applying lean principles
to develop a flexible production system from a traditional system. It is important
that centres do not make this over-complex, otherwise learners will not have the
time to achieve this. Learners can explain the issues they encountered during their
practical exercises, evaluate their improvement methodology and suggest how this
may alter their approach to future improvement activities. Learners should show an
appreciation of the culture change required to create a modern production system
and the practical, managerial and social challenges this presents.
The assessment of D1 and D2 may be linked and the evidence obtained via a written
assessment or a pictorial presentation with notes (possibly using PowerPoint or OHTs)
and an annotated poster.
All evidence must be generated in a form suitable for inclusion in learners’ portfolios.
This could include standard forms (eg PDCA forms, data gathering forms, analysis
charts, minutes of team meetings etc), images (eg photographs, completed charts,
diagrams, plans and engineering drawings), presentation slides, written reports,
witness statements and solutions to group-set problems.

Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, BTEC

qualifications, other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the Level 3 NVQ in Business Improvement Techniques, particularly:
• Unit 4: Applying Workplace Organisation (5S/5C)
• Unit 6: Creating Flexible Production and Manpower Systems
• Unit 8: Carrying out Lead Time Analysis
• Unit 9: Creating Visual Management Systems
• Unit 11: Applying Set-up Reduction Techniques (SMED — Single Minute Exchange
of Dies)
• Unit 12: Applying Total Productive Maintenance (TPM)
• Unit 15: Applying Flow Process Analysis.

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Essential resources
To deliver this unit centres will need to have an up-to-date reference library with
computer-aided learning resources and appropriate journals.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bicheno J — The New Lean Toolbox (Picsie Press, 2004) ISBN 0954124413
Imai M — Gemba Kaizen — a Commonsense Low Cost Approach to Management
(McGraw-Hill, 1997) ISBN 0070314462
Womack J and Jones D — Lean Thinking (Free Press, 2003) ISBN 0743231643
Journal
International Journal of Operations and Production Management
Magazines
Engineering Technology
Manufacturing Engineer

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• gathering production data N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
and calculating the OEE of a information from relevant sources.
production system.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the principles of C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
minimising waste, techniques least two documents about the same
of group technology and subject.
continuous improvement and Each document must be a minimum of
use of visual management 1000 words long.
systems. These tasks are
C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
likely to need intensive study
each one giving different information
of documents and a written
about complex subjects.
response.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing a type of kanban ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
system and a further kanban text with image, text with number,
system, including kanban image with number.
rules.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using flow process analysis PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
charts to map the current ways of tackling it.
state of a production system PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
and perform a production solving the problem.
levelling exercise to
determine a future state PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
review your approach to problem solving.
map.

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1098 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 UNIT 99: SIX SIGMA QUALITY

Unit 99: Six Sigma Quality

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Most organisations are continually striving to improve quality and reduce both costs
and time. Six Sigma is a proven methodology for delivering consistent incremental
improvement. The term Six Sigma derives from the mathematical use of sigma in
statistics as a standard deviation — the measure of variability. By reducing process
variation, Six Sigma frees the organisation to focus on improving process capability.
The Six Sigma process encompasses all aspects of a business, including management,
service delivery, design, production and customer satisfaction.
This unit aims to give learners a broad understanding of Six Sigma methodologies. It
looks at the principles, infrastructure, metrics and how it is implemented within an
organisation. It then focuses on the DMAIC project model, the foundation of all Six
Sigma projects. DMAIC is an acronym for five interconnected phases: define,
measure, analyse, improve and control. This structured methodology is used by
improvement teams to root out and eliminate the causes of problems, such as
products or processes not meeting customer specification or otherwise performing
inadequately.
The unit then goes on to cover Six Sigma process mapping. This is a diagrammatical
tool used to show the interrelationship between processes and enables teams to
understand where and how improvements might be made.
The unit finally covers the competences required for carrying out a quality function
deployment (QFD). It is widely recognised that customer focus is the key to business
success. QFD is a process used for carrying the ‘voice of the customer’ throughout an
organisation. Achieving customer focus in a product, process or service helps to
minimise changes, improves communication, dramatically increases customer
satisfaction and reduces the development cycle. Identifying priorities based on the
customer’s requirements also enables the most effective use of limited resources.

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand Six Sigma methodologies
2 Be able to apply the DMAIC model to a project
3 Be able to carry out a Six Sigma detailed process mapping activity
4 Know about quality function deployment (QFD).

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Unit content

1 Understand Six Sigma methodologies

Principles: definition; concepts; vision; strategy; philosophy; goals; metrics;

benchmarking
Infrastructure: leadership team; executive leader; champion/sponsor; master
black belts (mentors); black belts (experts); green and yellow belts
Implementation plan (road map): appoint champion; select cross-functional
team; develop quantifiable goals; establish training programme; address data
collection requirements and issues; develop change control programme;
coordinate road map
Metrics: eg sigma level, voice of the customer (VOC) (such as meeting delivery
date or functioning product), critical to quality (CTQ) criteria (such as delivery
schedule achievement or non functioning product), opportunity for defects (such
as one per delivery or number of components within a product), defects per unit
(DPU), defect per opportunity (DPO), defects per million opportunities (DPMO),
sigma scale
Tools: tools to define eg quality function deployment, process mapping, flow
diagrams; tools to measure eg characteristic selection matrix, metric graphs,
measurement system evaluation, check sheets, histograms/tally charts, capability
studies, statistical process control; tools to analyse eg brainstorming, cause and
effect diagram, affinity diagrams, Pareto analysis, scatter diagrams, potential
failure modes and effects analysis, multi-variance studies; improvement tools eg
mean shifting, variability reduction, poka yoke, value analysis, benchmarking,
kaizen/kaizen blitz; tools for control eg standard operating procedures,
workplace organisation, visual management, audits
DMAIC phases: define, measure, analyse, improve, control

2 Be able to apply the DMAIC model to a project

Define: eg team charter, project launch, define project objectives and outcomes,
identify sponsor/key stakeholders, prepare communication plan, define gateways
Measure: eg create high level process map, obtain critical to quality (CTQ)
criteria, characteristic selection matrix, gather primary and secondary metrics
with metric graph, determine current process sigma level, make go/no-go
decisions
Analyse: eg interpret collected data, define benchmarks, define cause and effect
relationships, validate, quantify and prioritise root causes of current performance
Improve: eg activities using Six Sigma tools and techniques, prioritise, implement,
interpret and learn from results, develop control methods, manage change
Control: eg continuously improve by monitoring process using dashboard and
scorecard data, create feedback loops, process meeting customer requirements

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3 Be able to carry out a Six Sigma detailed process mapping activity

Theory: type eg top-level process map, detailed process map, key process input
variables (KPIVs) and key process output variables (KPOVs) (such as big X or
process/input parameters, little x or in-process parameters, big Y or end
product/output parameters, little y or in-process product parameters); functional
relationship Y=f(x); classification of data eg controllable, critical, noise, standard
operating procedures
Procedures: pre-mapping eg select suitable process, define problem statement
and specify goal; mapping process eg walk the process, observe and ask
questions, identify process key stages, identify process input variables, identify
process output variables; mapping outputs eg classify the input and output data,
contribute to the process mapping of the current state, identify the value added
and non-value added steps of the process, identify improvement opportunities

4 Know about quality function deployment (QFD)

Principles: customer dissatisfaction; causes of design problems; definition of QFD;

purpose of QFD; benefits of QFD; QFD requirements; house of quality (HoQ); QFD
phases
Procedures: pre-QFD activity eg define customers, identify customer needs and
expectations, define importance of requirements (wants); applying QFD eg
determine how to satisfy customer wants, complete inter-relationship matrix
(wants versus hows), prioritise the hows, analyse how well competitors meet
customer wants, complete technical attributes and evaluate, define target values

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles of Six Sigma M1 develop Six Sigma metrics for a project D1 describe the issues encountered when
including an outline of its infrastructure and analyse the resultant metric graph to executing a Six Sigma implementation
identify improvement tools plan
P2 explain how to implement a Six Sigma
programme M2 construct a characteristic selection matrix D2 use and evaluate the QFD procedure and
for a project and use this information to HoQ to evaluate a product and its
P3 calculate a range of Six Sigma metrics
identify improvement activities processes.
P4 use one of the Six Sigma tools in each of
M3 evaluate a detailed process map and
the DMAIC phases
develop a future state process map.
P5 define a suitable Six Sigma project within
an organisation
P6 carry out measurement and analysis
phases of a given DMAIC project
P7 carry out improvement and control phases
of a given DMAIC project

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 UNIT 99: SIX SIGMA QUALITY

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 use the theory and procedures of Six
Sigma detailed process mapping to
develop a current state map of a selected
process
P9 describe the principles and procedures of
quality function deployment.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit could concentrate on a particular manufacturing sector and work
area only, eg automotive and assembly. However, a generic approach covering a
range of sectors and work areas is more likely. Centres should determine their
approach through an analysis of their learners’ needs and, in particular, through
consideration of the range of industries that the centre is working with or preparing
their learners for. Whichever approach is taken should provide learners with the
underpinning knowledge and skills needed to fully understand the principles of Six
Sigma and effectively apply the relevant tools and techniques in their area of work.
The learning outcomes are ordered logically and could be delivered sequentially. In
this way, learners will begin to recognise the range of tools and techniques, their
function and use during a DMAIC project. It is recommended that a variety of delivery
methods are used including group discussions, team/group and individual activities,
research, industrial visits, presentations and tutor-led learning. This approach will
help give a more practical approach, rather than spending too much time on theory.
For example, a short introduction to Six Sigma process mapping could be followed by
an industrial visit for learners to walk a process, observe and ask questions, and
identify process key stages, process input variables and process output variables.
A blend of learning materials should be used to stimulate learners and place the unit
in context. These should include CD ROMs, internet research, specific study packs on
Six Sigma topics, worksheets, industrial case studies, videos/DVDs and textbooks for
extended study where appropriate.
Formative assessment will play an important part in learners’ general development,
especially their achievement at merit and distinction grades. Evaluative skills are
required at distinction level; formative work in the delivery phase will encourage
learners to consider how the tools and techniques being applied can be improved.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of meeting criteria can be collected from the learners’ involvement in Six
Sigma activities in their workplace and through case studies, assignments and
projects. This should enable learners to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of
the principles of Six Sigma in a manufacturing environment.
To achieve P1 learners will need to describe the principles of Six Sigma. This could be
done through the use of a written task, or tutors could allocate different areas to
individual learners or groups of learners and ask them to feed back to the class in the
form of a presentation or annotated poster. In these cases it must, however, be
remembered that the presentation skills or poster design skills are not being
assessed.

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P2 requires learners to explain how to implement a Six Sigma programme. An

assignment could be developed on the overall approach and then linked to D1 by
asking learners to describe in more detail the issues encountered when executing a
Six Sigma implementation plan.
For P3 learners have to calculate a range of Six Sigma metrics. The range will depend
on the Six Sigma programme or project under consideration. To determine the
correct metrics, learners must properly define and quantify the unit, defects and
opportunity for defects. The voice of the customer (VOC) is the method of gathering
such information and must be taken into consideration. The critical to quality criteria
(CTQs) can then be translated from these comments, issues and specifications. The
quality characteristics become opportunities for defects when the specification is
set. The total number of opportunities indicates the complexity of the product,
process or service. These can then be converted to defects per million opportunities
(DPMO) and a Sigma value determined for a benchmark. The evidence for this
criterion could be generated by a short written assessment.
P4, P5, P6 and P7 call for the demonstration of practical skills required in a Six Sigma
programme. Evidence for these criteria could be provided from the learners’
involvement in Six Sigma activities in the workplace or through a work placement. If
assessed directly by the tutor, suitable evidence would be standard documentation
and observation records completed by the learner and tutor. If assessed during a
placement, witness statements should be provided by a suitable representative and
verified by the tutor. Guidance on the use of observation records and witness
statements is provided on the Edexcel website. Where learners do not have access to
this form of ‘real’ activity, simulation could be used.
Learners will need to keep an activity log showing evidence of achievement and
witness statements/observation records should be used to verify achievement.
Learners could expand on P7 and generate evidence for M1 by developing Six Sigma
metrics for a project and analysing the resultant metric graph to identify
improvement tools. M1 can be linked to M2 by asking learners to construct a
characteristic selection matrix for a project and use this information to identify
improvement activities.
P8 requires learners to use the theory and procedures of Six Sigma detailed process
mapping to develop a current state map of a selected process. Again, evidence of
this could be provided from the learners’ involvement in Six Sigma activities in the
workplace or through simulation. P8 could then be linked to M3 by asking learners to
evaluate the detailed process map and develop a future state process map.
P9 requires learners to describe the principles and procedures of quality function
deployment. This could be achieved through oral questioning or a short written
assignment. P9 could be linked to D2, where learners are requested to evaluate the
use of the QFD procedure and HoQ to evaluate a product and its processes. This may
be best achieved through a simulated activity.
To achieve M1, learners need to develop Six Sigma metrics for a project and analyse
the resultant metric graph to identify improvement tools. M2 requires learners to
construct a characteristic selection matrix for a project and use this information to
identify improvement activities. For M3 learners need to evaluate a detailed process
map and develop a future state process map.

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To achieve a distinction grade, D1 and D2 could be linked to the tasks or activities

carried out when addressing criteria P2 and P9. For D1 learners are required to
describe the issues encountered when executing a Six Sigma implementation plan.
This could be achieved by linking and expanding on the evidence associated with P2.
D2 could be linked to P9 by asking learners to use the QFD procedure and HoQ to
evaluate a simulated product and its processes.
All evidence must be generated in a form suitable for inclusion in the learners’
portfolio. This could include standard forms (eg process maps, flow diagrams, check
sheets etc), images (eg photographs, scanned images, completed charts, diagrams,
plans and engineering drawings), presentation slides, written reports, witness
statements and solutions to problems set in assignments.

Links to National Occupational Standards and other BTEC units, BTEC

qualifications, other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports the Level 3 NVQ in Business Improvement Techniques, particularly:
• Unit 18: Applying the Six Sigma Methodology to a Project
• Unit 19: Carrying out Six Sigma Process Mapping
• Unit 22: Applying Six Sigma Metrics to a Project
• Unit 23: Producing a Characteristic Selection Matrix.

Essential resources

To deliver this unit centres will need to have an up-to-date reference library with
computer aided learning resources and appropriate journals.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bicheno J — Cause and Effect Lean: Lean Operations, Six Sigma and Supply Chains
(Picsie Press, 2000) ISBN 0951383019
Bicheno J — The New Lean Toolbox (Picsie Press, 2004) ISBN 0954124413
Chen C and Roth H — Big Book of Six Sigma Training (McGraw-Hill Education, 2005)
ISBN 0071443851
Gygi C, DeCarlo N and Williams B — Six Sigma for Dummies (Hungry Minds Inc, 2005)
ISBN 0764567985
Journals
International Journal of Operations and Production Management
Magazines
Engineering Technology
Manufacturing Engineer

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• calculating a range of Six N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
Sigma metrics. stage calculations to do with:
a amounts or sizes
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the principles of C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
Six Sigma, including an C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
outline of its infrastructure. eight minutes using an image or other
support material.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• defining a suitable Six Sigma PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
project within an ways of tackling it.
organisation.

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 UNIT 100: ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT MANUFACTURE

Unit 100: Electronic Circuit Manufacture

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
A diverse range of techniques is used in the manufacture of electronic circuits. The
techniques used for manufacturing prototype electronic circuits are often
significantly different from those used in high volume production. This unit provides
an introduction to prototype manufacture, as well as the techniques used for the
mass production of electronic circuits.
Large-scale electronic manufacture generally involves fully automated assembly
techniques using equipment that can produce complex circuits quickly, accurately, at
very low cost and with minimal human intervention. Alternatively, if only one circuit
is to be built (perhaps for evaluation or testing purposes) then a hand-built prototype
is much more appropriate.
Computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacture (CAM) are now widely
used in the production of electronic circuits. This unit will introduce learners to the
use of modern production methods including printed circuit board (PCB) layout and
computer numerical control (CNC) drilling and mask production.
When an electronic circuit is developed for a commercial application it is usually
tested and proved using computer simulation prior to manufacture. This unit will give
learners an opportunity to develop and test circuits using SPICE (simulation program
with integrated circuit emphasis) software.
The unit will also enable learners to experience the full cycle of design, manufacture
and testing of an electronic circuit assembled on a simple single-layer printed circuit
board.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the design processes and production methods used in the
manufacture of a printed circuit board
2 Understand the use of software techniques and thermal analysis techniques in the
design, simulation and manufacture of an electronic circuit
3 Understand the use and application of surface mount technology in the
manufacture of an electronic circuit
4 Be able to design and manufacture a prototype printed circuit board and use it to
assemble and test an electronic circuit.

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Unit content

1 Understand the design processes and production methods used in the

manufacture of a printed circuit board

Printed circuit board (PCB) design: design strategy eg methodology and

techniques used in its realisation (build type, number of layers, net rules, track
and gap, via size); design tools eg PCB design software, schematic design and
capture, creating and modifying component geometries; creating and modifying
schematic diagrams; design verification and design rule checking for both tracking
and component layout; auto-routing tools; related documents eg parts lists, bills
of materials, machine files, component geometries
PCB production methods: artwork generation; board production eg etching,
masking, drilling, silk screening, cutting; automated production techniques eg
robotics and automated assembly, CNC drilling and mask production; soldering
methods eg wave soldering, automated wave soldering; fabrication and assembly
requirements eg placement on one side, placement on both sides, combination of
surface mount technology (SMT) and through-hole technology (THC); test strategy
eg electromagnetic compatibility (EMC), signal integrity, high frequency
requirements; manufacturability analysis
Types of PCB: laminates eg single and double sided, plated through-hole,
fibreglass-resin laminate; solder mask over bare copper (SMOBC); tinned;
conventional component and surface mount; single, double and multi-layer
boards; gold plated contacts, flexible and membrane PCB, chip-on-board (COB)

2 Understand the use of software techniques and thermal analysis techniques in

the design, simulation and manufacture of an electronic circuit

Computer aided design (CAD) software: simulation program with integrated

circuit emphasis (SPICE) software; direct current (DC) analysis, alternating
current (AC) small-signal analysis; more complex analysis methods eg mixed-mode
analysis, transient analysis, pole-zero analysis, distortion analysis, sensitivity
analysis, noise analysis, thermal analysis; software integration methods eg export
and import data, links with companion software for circuit layout and PCB
manufacture
Thermal analysis: heat dissipation methods; thermal ratings of semiconductor
devices; thermal calculations eg total power dissipation, thermal resistance,
θT = θJC + θCS + θSA, junction temperature, TJ = (PT× θT) + TA, temperature rise
above ambient, ΔT = PT × θT =TJ – TA, de-rating, correct rating for thermal
dissipator/heatsink

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3 Understand the use and application of surface mount technology in the

manufacture of an electronic circuit

Surface mount technology (SMT): types of SMT device eg passive components

(resistors, capacitors, inductors and transformers), active components
(transistors, diodes and integrated circuits), connectors and sockets; surface
mount device (SMD) outlines, packaging and storage; manufacturers’ markings
and supporting data; hybrid circuits and multi-chip modules (MCM)
SMT circuit manufacturing: manufacturing methods eg use of solder pastes, flow
and wave soldering equipment; SMT quality assurance methods eg batch testing,
statistical methods; SMT component reliability and testing of finished SMT
assemblies; assembly-level packaging and interconnection

4 Be able to design and manufacture a prototype printed circuit board and use it
to assemble and test an electronic circuit

PCB design: single-sided printed circuit board for a given electronic circuit design
that includes no more than four active devices eg transistors, diodes and
conventional dual in-line (DIL) packaged integrated circuits; associated passive
components eg PCB mounted resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers; means
of connection eg external controls, connectors, power sources; layout techniques
based on the use of electronic CAD to generate PCB master artwork
PCB manufacture: developing, etching, drilling
Electronic circuit assembly: component mounting, soldering
PCB and circuit testing: functional testing using a supplied test specification to
determine circuit design inputs and outputs eg test-point voltages, output signals

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe typical processes used in the M1 explain the benefits of using automated D1 apply thermal analysis techniques in
design of both a single and a multi-layer techniques for the manufacture of an order to determine the heat dissipation
PCB for electronic circuits of different electronic circuit requirements for an electronic circuit
complexity
M2 use SPICE software to carry out DC and D2 evaluate the design and manufacture of
P2 describe typical production methods small-signal AC analysis of a simple the prototype PCB and circuit and make
used in the manufacture of both a single electronic circuit appropriate recommendations for mass
and a multi-layer PCB for electronic production.
M3 explain the use of typical quality
circuits of different complexity
assurance methods in the manufacture of
P3 explain how computer aided design electronic circuits using SMT.
software can be used in the analysis of
an electronic circuit prior to
manufacture
P4 explain the need for thermal analysis
and the need for effective heat
dissipation for an electronic circuit

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 explain the use of SMT in the
manufacture of an electronic circuit and
give two different examples of the
outlines and packages used for surface
mounted devices
P6 describe the methods used for the
manufacture of an electronic circuit
using SMT
P7 design, manufacture, assemble and test
a prototype printed circuit board for a
given electronic circuit.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit can be delivered as a stand-alone unit or can be co-delivered with Unit 54:
Electronic Measurement and Testing.
A major feature of this unit is its concentration on the design and manufacture of
electronic circuits. In this context, ‘design’ should be taken as referring to the
realisation of an electronic circuit from a given circuit diagram, rather than the more
theoretical aspects of designing an electronic circuit to achieve desired circuit
parameters eg the design of an active filter.
For learning outcomes 2 and 4, learners should be introduced to the use of
appropriate software packages for PCB layout and manufacture and simulation of
electronic circuits prior to manufacture using SPICE software.
In relation to learning outcomes 1 and 3, learners should be given the opportunity to
experience production methods used in large-scale manufacturing of electronic
circuits (including extensive use of integrated CAD/CAM and the use of wave and flow
soldering techniques). Emphasis should be placed on the processes most relevant to
local industrial requirements. Where possible, centres should arrange visits to
industrial sites so that learners can see current manufacturing techniques such as
wave soldering.
All CAD activities and SPICE tests carried out by learners should be recorded in an
appropriate logbook (with the capacity to include relevant printed output and
screen-dumps).
Due to the hazardous nature of some of the processes, materials and chemicals used,
appropriate attention must be given to health, safety and welfare arrangements.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

P1 and P2 are closely related and evidence could be gathered from either an
extended case study or from research and investigation. Case studies and
investigations should ideally be based on production techniques and manufacturing
processes that are used locally. Learners would benefit from visits to local industry to
view the processes in action. An alternative to an extended case study or
investigation might be the use of one or more written essay-type questions. However,
this approach is likely to be less effective in bringing the topic to life.
To achieve P1, evidence should focus on design strategy, design tools (for example,
schematic capture and auto-routing PCB CAD), creating and modifying schematic
diagrams (for example, exchanging logic functions), design verification and design
rule checking for both tracking and component layout.

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It is important that learners demonstrate that they understand the additional

processes required to produce multi-layer boards and that they appreciate the need
for this type of board in conjunction with more complex electronic circuits. For
example, circuits where microprocessor bus systems are realised on different layers
or where power and ground connections are separated from signal tracks.
For P2, learners should be able to describe typical production methods used in the
manufacture of both single and multi-layer types of printed circuit board for
electronic circuits of different complexity.
The explanation of the use of computer aided design software required for P3 should
normally be based on the use of a SPICE package to verify a circuit design before it is
manufactured.
For P4, learners should explain the need for thermal analysis and effective heat
dissipation in terms of the total power dissipated and the maximum junction
temperature ratings for the semiconductor device(s) present. They should explain
that the requirements are satisfied by means of appropriately designed heat
dissipators on which the semiconductor devices are mounted.
To satisfy P5, learners should provide a written or verbal presentation of the use of
surface mount technology (SMT) in the manufacture of electronic circuits. Learners
should be able to state the advantages and disadvantages of SMT and surface
mounted devices (SMD) and should be able to describe the typical outlines and
packages used for SMD.
For P6, learners should describe the typical methods used for the manufacture of
electronic circuits using SMDs. Note that learners are not expected to know how SMDs
themselves are manufactured.
For P7, learners should design, manufacture, assemble and test a prototype printed
circuit board for a given electronic circuit. The electronic circuit should be supplied,
complete with a full component list and component supplier’s references. Learners
will be able to use these to determine physical constraints such as lead diameter, pin
spacing and package outlines as well as any specialised mounting requirements such
as the fitting of a heat dissipator. The circuits chosen should use no more than four
active devices (eg transistors, diodes and conventional dual in-line (DIL) packaged
integrated circuits) and associated passive components (eg PCB mounted resistors,
capacitors, inductors, and transformers). The circuit should have an identifiable
function and should be capable of functional testing without specialised equipment.
In order to carry out this task, learners should be supplied with a simple test
specification based on test-point voltages, output signal levels etc. Centres are
encouraged to provide learners with a standard test-jig in order to carry out these
functional checks.
Typical examples of circuits that learners might develop include:
• a variable pulse generator (based on two 555 timers)
• a function generator (based on a single integrated circuit waveform generator)
• an audio amplifier (based on a complementary symmetrical output stage with
driver and pre-amplifier stage)
• a regulated power supply (based on a bridge rectifier and a three-terminal fixed
voltage regulator).

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Note that these last two examples could require learners to undertake some thermal
analysis and incorporate appropriate arrangements for heat dissipation (extending
the work required for P4 and providing a basis for developing evidence for D1).
Evidence for M1 could be gathered through a written assignment or formal written
test. M2 could be assessed through appropriately designed practical activities and M3
by means of an assignment in which learners investigate modern industrial processes
used for the high-volume manufacture of electronic circuits.
Learners can achieve D1 by means of an extended assignment involving thermal
analysis and the design of a heat dissipator (for example, a heatsink for fitting to a
three-terminal integrated circuit voltage regulator).
For D2, the exercise carried out to satisfy P7 could be developed further as learners
evaluate their designs and make appropriate recommendations for mass production
(based on the understanding that they have evidenced in relation to P1 and P2).
These recommendations will typically include size reduction (including the use of
miniaturised or equivalent surface mounted components), the use of multi-layer
boards and the use of appropriate interconnecting technologies (for example the use
of multi-pole insulation displacement connectors (IDCs) fitted with PCB headers).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
particularly:
• Unit 4: Designing Electronic Circuit Board Layouts Using CAD Tools
• Unit 10: Selecting and Preparing Materials and Components for Manufacturing
• Unit 11: Preparing Manufacturing Systems Equipment for Operations
• Unit 12: Monitoring and Analysing Data from Electronic Circuit Manufacturing
Processes
• Unit 13: Adjusting and Sustaining Electronic Circuit Manufacturing Processes.
The unit can also be successfully delivered alongside Unit 54: Electronic
Measurement and Testing. It also links with Unit 35: Principles and Applications of
Electronic Devices and Circuits, Unit 60: Analogue Electronics and Unit 61:
Construction and Applications of Digital Systems.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to an electronics workshop with a range of electronic

manufacturing equipment sufficient to meet the needs of the grading criteria (eg
developing tanks, heated etching baths, PCB drilling equipment, soldering and wiring
equipment). Centres will need to provide sufficient electronic test equipment to
confirm the functionality of printed circuit boards and provide access to PCs
equipped with PCB CAD and SPICE simulation packages.
Learners will also need to be provided with relevant personal protective equipment
(eg goggles, gloves, protective clothing) when manufacturing circuit boards, handling
chemicals, soldering etc.

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Indicative reading for learners

Sinclair I — Practical Electronics Handbook, Fifth edition (Newnes, 2000)

ISBN 0750645857
Tooley M — Electronic Circuits: Fundamentals and Applications, Third Edition
(Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750669233

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• applying thermal analysis N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
techniques in order to information from relevant sources.
determine the heat N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
dissipation requirements for stage calculations to do with:
an electronic circuit
a amounts or sizes
• using appropriate production
b scales or proportion
methods to assemble and
test a prototype electronic c handling statistics
circuit. d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing processes used in C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
the design and manufacture C3.1b Make a formal presentation of at least
of a typical printed circuit eight minutes using an image or other
board for an electronic support material.
circuit
C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
• explaining the use of and least two documents about the same
methods of manufacture for subject.
surface mount technology in
Each document must be a minimum of
electronic circuits
1000 words long.
• describing each of the stages C3.3 Write two different types of documents
in the design and each one giving different information
manufacture of a printed about complex subjects.
circuit board for a prototype
electronic circuit. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Improving own learning and performance Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using appropriate methods to LP3.1 Set targets using information from
design and produce master appropriate people and plan how these
artwork for a simple single- will be met.
sided printed circuit board LP3.2 Take responsibility for your learning,
for a prototype electronic using your plan to help meet targets and
circuit improve your performance.
• using appropriate production LP3.3 Review progress and establish evidence of
methods to produce a simple your achievements.
single-sided printed circuit
board for a prototype
electronic circuit
• using appropriate production
methods to assemble and
test a prototype electronic
circuit using a simple single-
sided printed board.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using SPICE to carry out PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
analysis of an electronic ways of tackling it.
circuit PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
• applying thermal analysis solving the problem.
techniques in order to PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
determine the heat review your approach to problem solving.
dissipation requirements for
an electronic circuit.

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 UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Unit 101: Mechanical and Thermal

Treatment of Metals
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
There are a range of processes and techniques that are used in the fabrication of
products made from metals and alloys. These can vary from mechanical processes
such as extrusion (squeezing the metal under high pressure into the desired form), to
powder metallurgy (where the metal is powdered, passed through a die and treated
with heat, pressure or long setting times).
Heat treatment processes such as annealing and quenching, are also used as they are
an efficient way of manipulating the properties of metals and alloys through heating
the metal and controlling the rate of cooling.
This unit aims to provide learners with a broad overview of the important processes
used in the mechanical shaping and heat treatment of metals and alloys. Learners
will also develop an understanding of the process controls used and the characteristic
defects typically found in wrought and heat-treated products.
The unit can be effectively linked with other metallurgical units which consider the
properties of materials in greater detail. It can be used, in conjunction with these
other units, to illustrate the relationships between the structure and properties of
metals and alloys and the mechanical shaping and heat-treatment processes used in
the manufacture of products.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand working processes for product manufacture
2 Know about powder metallurgy techniques for component manufacture
3 Understand the applications of heat-treatment furnaces and ancillary equipment
4 Understand process controls and typical defects in wrought and heat-treated
products.

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UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Unit content

1 Understand working processes for product manufacture

Function of mechanical working: effect on shape, structure and properties of

material; classification of processes as primary (the production of standard
intermediate shapes from cast ingot/billet), or secondary (the production of
finished shapes); choice of hot or cold working; effect of temperature on
properties
Mechanical working processes: eg
- forging: open and closed die methods, use of forging hammers and presses
(drop and press forging), upset forging, methods for primary and secondary
forms, choice of temperature, typical product characteristics and effect on
macrostructure; directionality/fibre
- rolling: flat and section rolling, mill configurations such as, two, three and four
high mill stands, single stand and continuous mills, examples of primary mills
(conversion of cast products to intermediate forms) and secondary mills (for
production of rod, bar, section, sheet and strip), choice of rolling temperature,
typical products
- extrusion: direct and indirect extrusion, production of continuous solid and
hollow sections, impact extrusion, cold extrusion
- rod and wire drawing: use of single and multiple dies, role of inter-stage
annealing
- sheet metal forming: deep drawing and pressing, bending, spinning

2 Know about powder metallurgy techniques for component manufacture

Manufacturing processes: types and production of metal powders; powder

compaction and sintering; secondary processing and finishing
Key characteristics: advantages and disadvantages of manufacture using powder
metallurgy; component design methods; suitable materials and typical component
applications eg bearings, automotive parts

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 UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

3 Understand the applications of heat-treatment furnaces and ancillary

equipment

Function and reasons for heat treatment: typical treatment cycles

(heat/soak/cool) and applications eg homogenising, annealing, normalising,
hardening, tempering, stress relieving, solution treatment and aging; typical
metals and alloys eg plain carbon steels, copper and its alloys, aluminium and its
alloys; cooling media, quenchants and their properties; role of protective
atmospheres
Heat-treatment furnace: choice of fuel and method of heating (direct/indirect);
batch and continuous furnaces; construction and use of commonly used furnaces
eg box, pit, bogie hearth, sealed quench, salt bath, fluidised bed, moving or mesh
belt, shaker/roller/rotary hearth, walking beam; uses of above furnaces in heat-
treating intermediate and finished products
Pyrometry: temperature scales; operating principles of pyrometer and
construction; practical applications eg expansion thermometers, resistance
thermometers, thermistors, thermocouples, optical and total radiation
pyrometers
Surface hardening: principles, techniques and application eg carburising,
nitriding, carbonitriding, flame and induction hardening

4 Understand process controls and typical defects in wrought and heat-treated

products

Control of wrought processes: importance of control of temperature, rate and

degree of deformation, dimensional accuracy, surface finish
Control of heat-treatment processes: importance of control of temperature,
time, heating and cooling rates, atmosphere
Defects in wrought products: characteristic defects in rolled, forged, extruded or
pressed products eg internal and external cracking, poor impression, dimensional
defects
Defects in heat-treated products: eg overheating/burning, quench-cracking,
distortion, scaling, decarburisation

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1123

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe the function of M1 identify and compare the advantages and D1 evaluate key variables in a mechanical
mechanical working processes disadvantages of hot and cold working working, powder metallurgy and heat-
processes treatment process and the control
P2 select and describe mechanical working
methods used to maintain product
processes required for the manufacture M2 identify and compare possible forging,
quality
of given products rolling or extrusion techniques that could
be used in the manufacture of a product D2 identify and justify methods used to
P3 describe the manufacturing processes
reduce defects in mechanical working
required for the production of a M3 explain the use of bulk and surface heat-
and heat-treatment processes.
component using powder metallurgy treatment processes for given products.
P4 identify key characteristics of a product
manufactured using powder metallurgy
techniques
P5 explain the function and reasons for heat
treatment of given metals and alloys
P6 select and describe the required heat-
treatment furnace (including pyrometry)
for the heat treatment of given materials
and products

1124 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the process of surface
hardening for a given component
P8 explain the methods used to control
processes when producing both wrought
and heat-treated products
P9 recognise and describe defects in
wrought and heat-treated products.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1125

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

A wide range of possible resources and delivery methods could be used, depending
upon availability. This is particularly so in relation to laboratory-based practical
activities, demonstrations and industrial visits. However, there is a reasonable
amount of video material, computer based and text-based information readily
available.
Use of case studies, particularly if based on processes with which learners are
familiar from their places of work, is a valuable way of delivering much of this unit’s
content.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of achievement could take the form of individual or group assignment

reports on specific processes or groups of processes, or on work related to particular
products and the way(s) in which they may be manufactured and/or heat treated.
However, care must be taken when using group work to ensure that assessment and
grading evidence is authentic and at an individual level, as collective or group
evidence would not be acceptable.
Case study work and unseen tests could also form part of an assessment strategy. In
cases where practical work, demonstrations or industrial visits have formed part of
the delivery method, reports on these activities could also be structured to provide
assessment and grading evidence.
To achieve a pass, learners should appreciate the principal methods of shaping
metals by mechanical working and by the consolidation of powders. They should be
able to identify key features of the industrial plant and equipment used and describe
in outline the important characteristics of the resulting products. Learners should
also be able to demonstrate an understanding of the role of heat treatment in
manufacturing, identifying the most common types of heat treatment process and
the plant and equipment used to carry them out. Additionally, the learner should be
able to explain the methods used to control mechanical working and heat treatment
processes and recognise the typical defects that may occur due to such processes.
To achieve a merit, learners should be able to identify and compare the possible
methods of manufacture of products using forging, rolling or extrusion techniques
and the advantages and disadvantages associated with hot and cold working as
alternatives. Learners should also be able to explain the use of bulk and surface heat
treatment processes for given products.

1126 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

To achieve a distinction, learners should be able to evaluate key variables within a

mechanical working, powder metallurgy or heat treatment process and the control
methods used to maintain product quality. The learner should also be able to identify
and justify methods used to reduce defects in mechanical working and heat
treatment processes.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

It is expected that the unit will be studied alongside (but not necessarily concurrently
with) Unit 37: Structure and Properties of Metals and Unit 41: Liquid Metal
Processing and should precede the study of Unit 38: Industrial Alloys. The unit can
also be linked with Unit 39: Metallurgical Techniques and Unit 40: Extraction and
Refining of Metals.

Essential resources

Resources should include examples of products made by the processes referred to in

the unit content along with, if possible, some containing typical defects.
Manufacturers’ brochures and literature should be available as should access to
CD ROM and internet-based information, eg TALAT (Training in Aluminium
Technologies) CD ROM available from the European Aluminium Association.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Schey J A — Introduction to Manufacturing Processes (McGraw Hill, 2000)
ISBN 0070311366
Timings R L — Manufacturing Technology — Volume 1 (Longman, 1998)
ISBN 0582356938
Timings R L — Manufacturing Technology — Volume 2 (Longman, 2000)
ISBN 0582357977
Website
European Aluminium Association www.eaa.net

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1127

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UNIT 101: MECHANICAL AND THERMAL TREATMENT OF METALS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• identifying and describing C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
the influence of hot and cold least two documents about the same
working on the subject.
microstructure and Each document must be a minimum of
properties of a metal 1000 words long.
• describing the functions and C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
characteristics of different each one giving different information
mechanical working about complex subjects.
processes.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting appropriate heat PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
treatment processes for ways of tackling it.
given products PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
• identifying causes and solving the problem.
remedies for defects in
different processes and
products.

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 UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Unit 102: Structure and Properties of

Metals
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
In order to successfully work with and process metals, technicians need to have an
understanding of the material properties of a range of different metals and alloys.
The structure of a metal and how it reacts at different temperatures and under
working will determine the choice of metal for different applications.
The purpose of this unit is to provide learners with knowledge and understanding of
the relationship between the structure and properties of metals. Learners will gain a
knowledge of grains and grain boundaries and common types of metal crystal
structure. They will be able to read and construct a thermal equilibrium diagram and
define the terms used to describe the mechanical properties of metals. The unit will
also enable learners to describe the effect of working on a metal’s structure and
properties.
The unit provides a level of knowledge of physical metallurgy relevant to the needs
of a metallurgical technician and will enable learners to better understand the
processing of metals.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the crystal and grain structure of metals
2 Be able to construct and read the thermal equilibrium diagram of a binary alloy
3 Know the meaning of terms used to describe the properties of a metal
4 Understand how hot and cold working affects the structure and properties of
metals.

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Unit content

1 Know about the crystal and grain structure of metals

Crystal structures: atomic arrangement types (body-centred cubic, face-centred

cubic, close-packed hexagonal); structure of the more common metals; physical
properties of the metal relating to crystal structure
Grain structures: atomic arrangement around grain boundaries; nucleation and
growth during solidification; formation of chill, equiaxed and columnar crystals;
influence of cooling rate on grain size; effect of superheat on the structure of
castings and ingots
Solid solutions: substitutional; interstitial; size factor; ordered and disordered
solutions; effects eg strength, ductility, Hume-Rothery rules on solubility (size
factor, crystal structure, electronegativity and valency)

2 Be able to construct and read the thermal equilibrium diagram of a binary

alloy

Binary thermal equilibrium diagrams: cooling curves for pure metals and alloys;
phase equilibrium; liquidus and solidus; construction of diagrams; tie lines; lever
rule; solid solubility; partial solid solubility; eutectic and eutectoid systems;
development of two phase microstructures during cooling; effect of non-
equilibrium cooling (coring, changes to precipitation)
Iron/iron carbide diagram: phases (ferrite, cementite, austenite, pearlite, delta
ferrite); construction of diagram up to 1.7 per cent carbon

3 Know the meaning of terms used to describe the properties of a metal

Properties of metals: tensile and compressive properties eg stress/strain, yield,

elastic and plastic deformation, Young’s modulus; use of load/extension curve to
record test results and illustrate behaviour; hardness eg Vickers, Brinell,
Rockwell, Rebound; further property definitions eg toughness/impact, fatigue
strength, creep strength

4 Understand how hot and cold working affects the structure and properties of
metals

Influence of hot and cold deformation: changes (microstructure, ductility,

strength and hardness); effect of annealing heat treatment on properties and
microstructure

1130 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to
P1 identify and describe the common types M1 explain the effect of crystal type on D1 assess the factors affecting solid
of metal crystal structures metal properties solubility (Hume-Rothery rules)
P2 describe the formation of grains and M2 describe the effect of cooling rate and D2 evaluate microstructures in relation to
grain boundaries during the heat extraction on grain size and shape their thermal equilibrium diagram and
solidification of metals their cooling history.
M3 identify and describe the relationship
P3 describe the atomic arrangement and between the structure and properties of
properties of given types of solid a metal
solutions
M4 describe and explain the relationship
P4 construct a binary thermal equilibrium between percentage cold work and the
diagram from cooling curves response to annealing heat treatment.
P5 describe the cooling of an alloy from the
liquid to solid state and use the lever
rule to calculate phase proportions and
compositions from tie lines

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to
P6 describe the phases in an iron/iron
carbide phase diagram
P7 define the terms used to describe the
mechanical properties of metals
P8 identify and describe the influence of
hot and cold working on the
microstructure and properties of a
metal.

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 UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The teaching and learning strategies used to deliver this unit must enable the learner
to understand the relationship between structure and properties of metals. The
emphasis should be placed on well-planned and structured activities that
complement and reinforce the theory.
The work on thermal equilibrium diagrams will need to be supported by microscopic
examination of samples from the alloys being covered.
This unit underpins much of the subject matter in Unit 36: Mechanical and Thermal
Treatment of Metals, Unit 38: Understanding Industrial Alloys and Unit 39:
Metallurgical Techniques and as such examples and activities should be chosen that
reinforce these links.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could be achieved by using a mixture of laboratory reports,

assignments and time constrained tests.
The pass grade specifies the minimum acceptable level required by the learners. The
assessments must cover all of the learning outcomes and the associated pass criteria.
Achievement of a merit or distinction grade will require the learner to demonstrate a
deeper understanding of the relationship between thermomechanical history,
structure and properties.
To achieve a pass, learners should be able to describe the atom arrangement in
common metallic crystal structures. They will be able to describe the formation of
grains and grain boundaries during solidification and the atom arrangement and
resulting properties of solid solutions. Learners will be able to construct a binary
equilibrium diagram and explain the phases present in the iron carbon phase
diagram. They will also be able to describe the cooling of an alloy from the liquid to
solid state and use the lever rule to calculate phase proportions and compositions
from tie lines. They will also be able define terms used to describe the mechanical
properties of metals and describe the effect of working on structure and properties.
To achieve a merit the learner should be able to explain the effect of the crystal
structure on the properties of metals. They need to be able to predict and describe
the effect of cooling rate on grain structure, and explain the effect of working on the
structure and properties of metals and their response to heat treatment.
To achieve a distinction the learner should be able to assess the factors which
determine the solubility of one metal in another with reference to crystal structure,
atomic size, elecronegativity and valency. The learner should also be able to apply
their understanding of ph diagrams to interpret from microstructures of binary alloys
their approximate composition and thermal history.

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UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit contains many of the fundamental principles required for the understanding
of other metallurgy units. As such it is recommended that this unit is completed early
in the programme along with Unit 4: Mathematics for Technicians and Unit 6:
Mechanical Principles and Applications.

Essential resources

Access to facilities and equipment for the microscopic examination of metals is

essential for this unit. Learners should also have access to the internet and a range of
manufacturing product data.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Higgins R — Engineering Metallurgy, Applied Physical Metallurgy (Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1993) ISBN 0340568305
Higgins R — Materials for Engineers and Technicians (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750668504

1134 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 102: STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES OF METALS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• plotting and reading N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
compositions and proportions information from relevant sources.
from thermal equilibrium N3.3 Interpret the results of your calculations,
diagrams. present your findings and justify your
methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• describing the cooling of an C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
alloy from the liquid to solid least two documents about the same
state and using the lever rule subject.
to calculate phase Each document must be a minimum of
proportions and compositions 1000 words long.
from tie lines
C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
• describing the phases in an each one giving different information
iron/iron carbide phase about complex subjects.
diagram.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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1136 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Unit 103: Industrial Alloys

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Alloys are a huge part of engineered materials and have a broad range of properties
that find widespread application in today’s technological society. A compound of two
or more metals, an alloy is usually designed to have characteristics that are very
different from its components. Mixing metals together can affect properties such as
density, strength, fracture toughness, electrical conductivity and environmental
degradation. For example, adding a small amount of iron to aluminium will make it
stronger, or adding some chromium to steel will slow the rusting process but will
make it more brittle. An understanding of alloys and their properties is vital when
considering which alloy should be used for a specific purpose.
This unit aims to provide a broad understanding of the different metallurgical alloys
that are commonly used within the engineering and manufacturing industries. The
unit will introduce learners to a range of metals and alloy systems, the role of atomic
structures and their effects on microstructures and metallurgical/mechanical
properties of the materials.
Learners will be introduced to different industrial alloy systems. An integrative
learning approach will enable them to select metals and alloys for a range of
industrial applications. The unit also introduces learners to the importance of
technical data, specifications, standards and their relationship to the microstructure
and mechanical properties.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the metallurgical factors that affect the selection, use and
classification of common ferrous metals and alloys
2 Understand the metallurgical factors that affect the use and selection of common
non-ferrous metals and alloys
3 Understand how equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermal transformations affect
microstructure and mechanical properties of ferrous and non-ferrous metals and
alloys.

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Unit content

1 Understand the metallurgical factors that affect the selection, use and
classification of common ferrous metals and alloys

Chemical compositions: carbon steels and alloying elements eg silicon,

manganese, sulphur, carbon range; alloy steels and alloying elements eg
chromium, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten; cast irons eg role of carbon,
silicon, manganese, chromium, nickel, copper and other residual elements
Classification, selection and use: classification systems, eg low, medium and high
carbon steels — grey, white, spheriodal, malleable cast irons, ferritic, austenitic,
martensitic stainless steels; the effect of different cooling rates eg formation of
graphite, formation of pearlite; typical industrial selection and use eg low carbon
steel wire (for bed springs), high carbon (for taps and dies), grey cast iron (for
brake drums)
Technical data, specifications and standards: metallurgical, mechanical
properties and other technical data for ferrous metals and alloys eg establish
‘nominal’ data, acceptable ranges and limits; relationship between the data,
specifications and standards with the industrial and customer requirements

2 Understand the metallurgical factors that affect the use and selection of
common non-ferrous metals and alloys

Chemical compositions: light alloys eg aluminium, magnesium, zinc alloys; high

temperature alloys eg titanium, nickel/chromium alloys; copper-based alloys eg
oxygen-free, arsenical, brasses, bronzes, aluminium bronze; the role of residual
elements
Selection, use and classification: classification systems eg wrought and cast,
heat-treatable and non-heat treatable alloys, single or duplex phase,
solution/precipation hardening materials; industrial selection and use eg
aluminium/silicon alloys for engine blocks, titanium, aluminium and vanadium
alloy for turbine blades, copper/zinc alloy for cartridge cases
Single and duplex phases: effects of alloy additions eg role of interstitial and
substitutional solid solutions formation, changes in atoms arrangement; effects of
heating and cooling eg changes in alpha and alpha/beta alloys and the effects on
transformed beta/martensite in titanium alloys; industrial selection and use eg
turbine blades and rings in aircraft engines
Technical data, specifications and standards: metallurgical, mechanical
properties and other technical data for non-ferrous metals and alloys eg establish
‘nominal’ data and acceptable ranges/limits; relationship between the data,
specifications and standards with the industrial and customer requirements

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 UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

3 Understand how equilibrium and non-equilibrium thermal transformations

affect microstructure and mechanical properties of ferrous and non-ferrous
metals and alloys

Microstructure, matrix and mechanical properties: micro-examinations eg

identification of matrix, martensite, alpha phase in copper system; range of
associated data for different metal/alloy systems eg yield and tensile strength,
hardness, impact, fatigue and creep resistance; variation in mechanical
properties due to different methods of manufacture eg wrought, cast etc;
changes in microstructure and matrix classification eg comparison of ‘as cast’
single phase magnesium aluminium alloy with a ‘cold worked’ single phase
copper/zinc alloy, or quenched and tempered alloy steel
Equilibrium and non-equilibrium cooling: relationship between microstructure,
grain size, cooling rate and matrix formation/classification due to rapid cooling
eg making comparisons to annealing, normalising heat treatments and identifying
the differences between solution treatment, precipitation hardening, quenching
and tempering; changes and effects on metallurgical and mechanical properties
due to different heat treatment, eg hardness, ductility, toughness
Phase transformation: changes to the microstructure and variations in mechanical
properties of non-equilibrium and equilibrium cooling; time temperature
transformation (TTT), continuous cooling transformation (CCT) and thermal
equilibrium diagrams (TED); effects of phase transformation eg formation of
martensite or bainite on quenching plain carbon steels; role of ageing/tempering;
role of solution treatment in the production of aluminium bronze alloys; solution
treatment and precipitation hardening in nickel-based supper alloys

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1139

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain the importance of chemical M1 explain how differing carbon and D1 select and justify the choice of a ferrous
composition and the effect on the alloying additions change the and a non-ferrous material for given
classification, selection and use of metallurgical and mechanical properties industrial applications based on
ferrous metals and alloys of ferrous material and how this will metallurgical and mechanical properties
affect its industrial use
P2 explain the importance of chemical D2 evaluate TTT, CCT and TED diagrams and
composition and the effect on M2 explain how alloying changes the explain how they can be used to identify
classification, selection and use of non- metallurgical and mechanical properties the relationship between
ferrous alloys of a given non-ferrous metal, and how microstructure, properties and industrial
this may affect its industrial use requirements.
P3 explain how alloying additions contribute
to the formation of single and duplex M3 use micro-examination to evaluate the
phases and the effect on the industrial changes in microstructure, matrix,
use of non-ferrous metals metallurgical and mechanical properties
due to the heat treatment of an alloy.
P4 identify, select and use technical data,
specifications and standards to
determine the properties and
applications of given ferrous and non-
ferrous metals and alloys

1140 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 carry out micro-examinations and
identify the role that microstructure and
matrix have on the metallurgical and
mechanical properties of a given ferrous
and non-ferrous alloy
P6 explain the relationship between
equilibrium cooling, non-equilibrium
cooling, and phase transformations.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1141

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UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Practical work and appropriate theory, coupled with demonstrations and research,
will form an essential part of the teaching and learning process. This is likely to be
through learners conducting a series of micro-examinations of metals and alloys,
examining the grain structure/size and phases present and the changes in the
metallurgical properties.
Case studies comparing microstructure and technical data will also provide learners
with opportunities to match industrial standards and specifications to micro and
mechanical properties. Use of international standards relevant to the learner’s own
industry, and the identification of how this metallurgical and technical data can be
transferred to industrial alloys, will help bridge the gap between microstructure and
properties.
Some of these activities will be undertaken in small groups and others individually.
This approach will support both team working and individual accountability, which
are professional requirements for an engineering technician at this level.
A mixture of formal tutor-led learning alongside practical experience and elements of
self-study and research are essential for effective coverage of all the learning
outcomes. Industrial visits will provide added value to learners’ experiences and will
allow centres to maximise the learning opportunities that exist in the workplace.
Centres that have heat treatment facilities could provide further opportunities for
learner-centred activities. Access to a range of mechanical testing equipment (eg
hardness, tensile and impact testing etc) would also enrich the learning experience.
This unit will be best placed in the second year of a two-year programme of study.
This will allow learners to use knowledge and prior learning from other units to
maximise industry-based learning opportunities.

Assessment

Assessment of this unit could use a mixture of laboratory work, technical reports,
project assignments, case studies and research. The use of practical assignments that
are linked with appropriate theory, alongside the use of case studies and research,
will enable learners to use and develop a range of different learning techniques. The
development of this type of approach to tasks and activities will be useful when
transferred into the workplace.
The pass criteria specify the minimum acceptable level for each learner.
Achievement of a merit or distinction will require them to demonstrate a greater
breath and range of understanding of the principle industrial alloys.
To achieve a pass, learners should identify the importance of chemical compositions,
the role of atomic structure, identify microstructures, phases, and the formation of
metallic and non-metallic inclusions and compounds. They should be able to explain
the relationship between microstructures and mechanical properties and be able to
explain the changes that take place in these prior to and after heat treatment.

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 UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Learners should also be able to use technical data and standards to determine if a
metal or alloy is suitability for given industrial applications.
To achieve a merit, learners must be able to explain the role that carbon and/or
alloying elements have in changing the metallurgical and mechanical properties in
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and therefore their industrial use. They must also
apply micro-examination techniques to evaluate changes in microstructure, matrix,
metallurgical and mechanical properties due to the heat treatment of an alloy.
To achieve a distinction learners must be able to demonstrate how the relationships
between microstructure and mechanical properties work by using evaluative skills to
make an appropriate selection of a ferrous and a non-ferrous material for given
industrial applications. It is expected that at this level learners will make use of all
the skills developed in the unit — understanding of microstructure, micro-
examination and reference to technical data, specifications and standards. Learners
should also be able to use their evaluative skills to examine TTT, CCT and TED
diagrams and explain how they can be used to identify the relationship between
microstructure, properties and industrial requirements.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit builds on the understanding of microstructure and properties gained from
the other metallurgy units, such as Unit 36: Mechanical and Thermal Treatments of
Metals and Unit 37: Structure and Properties of Metals. It is recommended that both
of these units should be completed prior to starting this unit.
Unit 39: Metallurgical Techniques complements this unit and they could be delivered
concurrently in the second year of a two-year programme of study.

Essential resources

Access to facilities and equipment for the metallurgical testing and examination of
metals is essential for the delivery of this unit. Learners will benefit enormously from
hands-on experience of micro preparation and use of an optical microscope. The
range of ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgical samples/material should reflect the
range of metals identified in the unit content.
Centres will also need to make technical and primary source information available,
alongside current specifications and standards.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bolton W — Materials for Engineering (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2000)
ISBN 0750648554
Higgins R A — Engineering Metallurgy, Applied Physical Metallurgy (Butterworth-
Heinemann, 1993) ISBN 0340568305
Higgins R A — The Properties of Engineering Materials (Butterworth-Heinemann,
1994) ISBN 0340600330
Timings R L — Engineering Materials (Longman, 1998) ISBN 0582319285

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1143

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 103: INDUSTRIAL ALLOYS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• using technical data, N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
specifications and standards information from relevant sources.
• plotting and reading N3.2 Use this information to carry out
compositions and proportions multi-stage calculations to do with:
from thermal equilibrium a amounts or sizes
diagrams, to determine
b scales or proportion
different phases’ changes
c handling statistics
• presenting technical data
from a variety of sources d using formulae.
which could show the N3.3 Interpret the results of your
relationship between calculations, present your findings
mechanical properties, and justify your methods.
chemical composition and
grain structure.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• analysing the relationship PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify
between microstructure and different ways of tackling it.
mechanical properties for an PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way
industrial alloy for a specified of solving the problem.
industrial application
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved
• comparing technical data, and review your approach to problem
specifications and standards solving.
to identify different industrial
alloys for specified industrial
applications.

1144 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Unit 104: Metallurgical Techniques

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
For every metal product or application, the choice of metal or alloy used and the
means by which it is processed depends on its properties. In order to make the
correct choice, technicians need to be able to examine and test metals and alloys to
find out their characteristics. These include the mechanical properties (such us
strength and hardness) and the microscopic and macroscopic mechanisms that cause
a metal or alloy to behave in the way that it does (ie the changes that occur on an
atomic level that affect the metal’s properties).
This unit aims to develop learners’ understanding of the range of techniques used for
testing and examining metals. Learners will gain the knowledge and skills needed to
measure the properties of alloys using mechanical testing techniques. They will be
introduced to the macro analysis of metals and will learn how to prepare samples and
use a metallographic microscope to assess a metal’s structure.
The unit covers chemical analysis and learners will gain knowledge of the principles
and procedures involved and the limitations of spectroscopic methods. Finally,
learners will develop a knowledge of the defects found in metals and the means of
detecting them using non-destructive testing techniques.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Be able to use mechanical testing methods to measure the properties of an
industrial alloy
2 Be able to prepare samples for macro and micro-examination and carry out a
metallographic examination
3 Know the principles and procedures used in the chemical analysis of metallic
materials
4 Know about non-destructive testing techniques that can be used to reveal defects
in metallic components.

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UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Unit content

1 Be able to use mechanical testing methods to measure the properties of an

industrial alloy

Measurement of mechanical properties: tensile, hardness, impact tests;

application and use of national and international standards eg BS, EN, ISO
Special purposes: other mechanical tests eg creep, fatigue, Erichsen cupping test,
compression tests, torsion tests

2 Be able to prepare samples for macro and micro-examination and carry out a
metallographic examination

Macroscopic examination: sample selection and preparation; procedures and

etching reagents for macro-etching; principles and procedures for sulphur printing
Microscopic examination: sample selection and preparation; construction and
operation of metallurgical microscope; identification of defects; determination of
cleanliness; typical etchants for common industrial alloys; identification of grain
structures and phases; measurement of grain size and phase proportions

3 Know the principles and procedures used in the chemical analysis of metallic
materials

Chemical analysis: principles, applications, and limitations of spectroscopic

methods eg spark emission, inductively coupled plasma, glow discharge, atomic
absorption, atomic fluorescence, x-ray fluorescence

4 Know about non-destructive testing techniques that can be used to reveal

defects in metallic components

Manufacturing process defects: nature, origin and influence on properties and

performance of metallic components; types of defects and their causes eg
porosity, shrinkage, segregation, inclusions, lamination, cracking
Non-destructive techniques: principles and applications of non-destructive testing
(NDT) methods eg visual, dye penetrant, magnetic particle, eddy current,
ultrasonic and radiographic inspection

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 UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe and use suitable methods to M1 identify and explain the procedures that D1 analyse the uncertainty in the
measure the mechanical properties of ensure a specified mechanical test is measurement of a selected mechanical
an industrial alloy performed accurately and reproducibly property
P2 select and describe a method to M2 compare methods used for the chemical D2 evaluate the processing history of an
measure the suitability of an industrial analysis of industrial alloys industrial alloy from an analysis of its
alloy for a given special purpose structure
M3 explain the origin and effect of a defect
P3 describe and carry out a procedure for observed in a metallic component D3 select and justify a suitable NDT
the macroscopic examination of an technique to evaluate the quality of a
M4 compare the advantages and limitations
industrial alloy metallic component.
of two alternative NDT techniques in
P4 measure, record and identify the assessing the quality of a metallic
features observed in the microstructure component.
of an industrial alloy
P5 describe a method used for the
chemical analysis of a given industrial
alloy

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1147

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 identify and describe manufacturing
process defects in a given metallic
component
P7 describe a suitable NDT technique that
could be used to assess the quality of a
given metallic component.

1148 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The teaching and learning strategies used to deliver this unit must enable learners to
understand the scientific principles involved in testing and examining metals.
Learners will need to be aware of the applications and limitations of the test
methods, be able to undertake basic mechanical testing and metallographic
examination of metals, and be aware of standard test procedures for the testing and
examination of metals.
Practical work and demonstrations will therefore form an essential part of the
teaching and learning process. These may be undertaken in small groups or
individually, since both team working and individual accountability are professional
requirements of an engineering technician in this field.
Learners will benefit enormously from hands-on experience of carrying out
destructive and non-destructive testing of industrial alloys, although the limited
availability of specialist equipment (such as that used for chemical analysis) may
mean that demonstrations are sometimes necessary.
Direct practical experience is essential to complete learning outcomes 1 and 2. In
completing learning outcomes 3 and 4, use may be made of demonstrations. Where a
centre does not have ‘in-house’ access to the techniques listed in the unit content,
the centre should consider arranging visits to industrial laboratories so that learners
can see the techniques first hand.
It is also important that techniques are practised on common industrial alloys rather
than simple or ideal metallic systems. The type and range of alloys is not specified in
the unit; they should be chosen to reflect the needs of local industry. In learning
outcome 4, use should be made of industrial metallic components containing
representative defects.
Learners should experience the full range of metallurgical techniques although
achievement of the assessment and grading criteria may allow learners to focus on a
selected few in their assessed work.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

This unit can be assessed using a mixture of laboratory work and assignments/case
studies. A suitable case study could involve learners in selecting, specifying and
explaining suitable metallurgical techniques to evaluate a given metallic component.

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UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

To achieve a pass, learners should be able to describe and carry out routine
mechanical testing (tensile, hardness and impact testing), working to relevant
national and international standards. Learners will need to select and describe more
specialised mechanical tests to measure such properties as formability, toughness
and resistance to creep and fatigue loading. Additionally, learners should be able to
carry out and describe the macroscopic and microscopic examination of an industrial
alloy, including the selection and preparation of a sample. During these processes,
learners should be able to record and describe the macroscopic and microscopic
structures that are seen. Learners should also be able to describe a method used to
determine the chemical analysis of a given industrial alloy. Finally, learners should
be able to identify and describe manufacturing process defects in a given metallic
component and describe a suitable non-destructive testing technique that could be
used to assess the quality of such a component.
To achieve a merit learners must be able identify and explain how to measure
mechanical properties accurately and reproducibly. They should also be able to
explain both the benefits and limitations of macro-etching and sulphur printing and
be able to evaluate methods used for the instrumental chemical analysis of metals.
Finally, they should have an understanding of the cause and effect of metal defects
and be able to evaluate the alternative non-destructive methods used for revealing
surface and internal defects in metallic components, taking into account defect type,
component design and the alloy used in its manufacture.
To achieve a distinction, learners must be able to estimate the size and cause of
uncertainty in the measurement of mechanical properties. They will be able to
evaluate the macrostructural and microstructural features seen in metal samples to
determine the condition of the metal (as-cast/hot worked, cold worked, heat
treated) and if the metal has been worked. Learners should also be able to select and
justify a technique for the non-destructive examination of a metallic component,
having regard for the type of defect likely to be found, its likely location, the alloy
type and the shape and size of the component.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit requires an understanding of mechanical properties and phase equilibria

gained by previous completion of Unit 37: Structure and Properties of Metals. There
are also links with Unit 36: Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals and
Unit 41: Liquid Metal Processing, which introduce the origin and nature of defects in
the casting and forming of metals. Coverage of these other units before this one is
useful but not essential.

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 UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Essential resources

Access to facilities and equipment for the metallurgical testing and examination of
metals is essential for the delivery of this unit. Facilities are also required for the
metallographic examination of industrial alloys using macro-etching and optical
microscopy, including the ability to prepare the samples. Throughout, use should be
made of samples of industrial alloy systems, including examples containing ‘real’
defects that can be examined visually, non-destructively and metallographically.
Learners should also have access to relevant national and international standards (BS,
EN, ISO and ASTM) for the testing and inspection of metals.

Indicative reading for learners

Higgins R — Materials for Engineers and Technicians (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750668504
Ineson P — Introduction to Practical Ore Microscopy (Longman, 1989)
ISBN 0582301408
Timings R L — Engineering Materials, Volume 1 (Longman, 1998) ISBN 0582319285

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UNIT 104: METALLURGICAL TECHNIQUES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• applying methods used to N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
measure the mechanical information from relevant sources.
properties of an industrial N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
alloy stage calculations to do with:
• measuring and recording the a amounts or sizes
features in the
b scales or proportion
microstructure of an alloy.
c handling statistics
d using formulae.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• describing suitable C3.1a Take part in a group discussion.
techniques for measuring the C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
mechanical properties of least two documents about the same
alloys subject.
• describing chemical analysis Each document must be a minimum of
and non-destructive testing 1000 words long.
techniques.

Working with others Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• working in the metallurgical WO3.1 Plan work with others.
or chemical laboratory in
small teams to carry out a
specified metallurgical
investigation.

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 UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Unit 105: Extraction and Refining of

Metals
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
In order for metals or alloys to be used in the manufacture of castings or products,
the ore needs to be prepared and processed before the metal is extracted.
Depending on the type of ore, different extraction processes are used and metals
technicians need to understand the chemical reactions that take place. The metal is
then refined and impurities are removed.
This unit will enable learners to understand the origins and nature of many of the
metals used within the metallurgical industries. The unit aims to provide learners
with the knowledge and understanding of the laws of chemical reaction, plus metal
production technology relevant to the needs of metals technology technicians.
Learners will be able to appreciate the origin and nature of metallic ores and how
these affect the processes used to extract and refine them.
The unit also provides an opportunity for learners to understand the relationship
between extraction and refining processes and therefore it will support their
understanding of subsequent manufacturing processes covered in other units.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the use of ore preparation processes for the ores of common metals
2 Understand the physical chemistry of extraction and refining of metals
3 Understand the techniques used in the extraction of metals
4 Know the processes used in the refining of metals.

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UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Unit content

1 Know about the use of ore preparation processes for the ores of common
metals

Types of ore: ores of common metals eg iron, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium,
titanium, tin, magnesium; chemical form eg oxides, sulphides, oxy-salt;
geographical distribution; factors affecting their economic value
Preparation processes (dressing of ores): comminution, concentration (gravity
separation, magnetic separation, froth flotation) and agglomeration processes
(sintering) of metals eg iron, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium

2 Understand the physical chemistry of extraction and refining of metals

Chemical reactions: energy changes; entropy; free energy/temperature

(Ellingham) diagrams and their limitations; reactions involved in smelting eg
slag/metal, combustion, redox reactions
Extraction and refining: chemical reactions involved in the extraction and
refining of the common metals eg iron, copper, lead, zinc, aluminium, titanium,
tin, magnesium

3 Understand the techniques used in the extraction of metals

Classification of extraction processes: pyrometallurgical eg processes for iron,

copper, lead, zinc, tin, titanium; hydrometallurgical eg for copper and zinc;
electrometallurgical eg for aluminium and magnesium
Extraction processes: extraction of metals eg iron, copper, aluminium, nickel,
zinc, lead and tin; processes (blast furnace, pyrometallurgical and
hydrometallurgical extraction, electrolytic reduction)

4 Know the processes used in the refining of metals

Key stages: removal of impurities by preferential oxidation and preferential

deposition in electrolysis
Refining processes: eg pyrometallurgical refining of iron (to form steel), lead and
nickel, fire refining of blister copper, electrolytic refining of aluminium copper,
nickel, zinc and lead, electric arc steel making

1154 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the chemical form, M1 compare and contrast different D1 evaluate the effectiveness of an ore
geographical distribution and factors processes used when preparing ores for preparation process
affecting the value of three ores of extraction
D2 use free energy/temperature (Ellingham)
common metals
M2 predict the rate and extent of reactions diagrams for oxide formation to explain
P2 identify and describe ore preparation extraction and refining processes.
M3 justify the use of different extraction
(dressing) processes for three common
processes when extracting metal from
metals
the ore
P3 explain the laws of chemical reaction
M4 compare and contrast the refining
governing the extraction and refining of
processes for given metals.
metals
P4 predict extraction and refining reactions
by using the laws of chemical reaction
P5 classify extraction processes as
pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical or
electrometallurgical

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1155

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 select and explain the extraction
processes used for a given metal
P7 identify and explain the key stages in the
refining process of a ferrous and a non-
ferrous metal.

1156 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

It will be useful to adopt a variety of delivery methods in this unit. Some parts would
benefit from an investigative approach, particularly those that involve factors
affecting the economic value of ores/metals. Information on the origins, nature, cost
and availability of metallic ores should be made available and internet access would
be advantageous.
The learners’ knowledge of chemistry should be developed to a level that will allow
the understanding and application of the laws governing extraction and refining of
metals.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the unit content is to give an indication and illustration
of the breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows
an ‘eg’ needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of the learning outcomes may be collected from well-planned investigative

assignments, case studies and unseen tests. A suitable case study would involve
learners reviewing suitable preparation, extraction and refining techniques for a
given metal.
To achieve a pass, learners must know and understand the techniques used to
produce metals from their ores. They must be able to describe ore preparation
processes and explain the laws of chemical reaction governing the extraction and
refining of metals. They will need to show that they can apply laws of chemical
reaction in order to predict extraction and refining reactions, classify extraction
processes as pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical or electrometallurgical, and
explain various processes used in the extraction and refining of metals.
To achieve a merit, learners must compare and contrast the processes used in ore
preparation and in the refining of metals. They should be able to justify the use of
different extraction processes and predict the rate and extent of chemical reactions
occurring in both the extraction and refining of metals.
To achieve a distinction, learners must evaluate the effectiveness of appropriate ore
preparation process in terms of particle size and concentration of metallic species.
They must demonstrate the ability to use free energy (Ellingham) diagrams.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 36: Mechanical and Thermal Treatment of Metals, Unit 37:
Structure and Properties of Metals, Unit 38: Industrial Alloys, Unit 39: Metallurgical
Techniques and Unit 41: Liquid Metal Processing.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1157

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Essential resources

Learners will need access to samples of metallic ores and a range of product data
(eg comminution machines’ input/output size range).

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Higgins R — Materials for Engineers and Technicians (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750668504
Moore J J — Chemical Metallurgy (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1993) ISBN 0750616466

1158 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 105: EXTRACTION AND REFINING OF METALS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using and rearranging N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
formulae for chemical stage calculations to do with:
reactions involved in a amounts or sizes
smelting, extraction and
refining. b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1159

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
1160 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Unit 106: Liquid Metal Processing

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Casting is a process used throughout the engineering and manufacturing industries to
produce a wide variety of products, for example vehicle engine blocks and cylinders
and aerospace engine turbine blades. The process involves introducing liquid metal
into a mould where it then solidifies into the required shape. It is then removed to
produce the fabricated object or component.
In order for castings to be produced correctly, metals technicians need to have an
understanding of the different casting processes that can be used and the way that
metals and alloys are prepared for casting.
This unit aims to provide learners with an understanding of liquid metal processing to
produce castings. It introduces learners to a range of casting processes and provides
them with a deeper understanding of the more common ones. The unit covers the
main systems that are used to produce sand moulds and cores and the equipment
used in die casting. The main types of equipment used to melt metal for casting are
introduced, and some of the metallurgical treatments and controls that are required
for different ferrous and non-ferrous alloys are also covered.
Due to the potentially hazardous nature of melting and casting metals the unit also
covers the health and safety aspects and environmental considerations of working in
the casting industry.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand casting processes and the selection of suitable processes for given
applications
2 Know the main furnace types and melt procedures used in the preparation and
treatment of common casting alloys
3 Know about defects in castings and their possible causes
4 Know the health, safety and environmental issues that relate to casting
processes.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1161

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UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Unit content

1 Understand casting processes and the selection of suitable processes for given
applications

Casting processes: non-permanent moulds eg greensand, chemically bonded sand

systems; permanent moulds/dies eg die casting — gravity, low and high pressure;
other processes eg ingot, continuous, investment (lost wax), lost foam, shell,
centrifugal, squeeze casting; use of terminology eg casting simulation, cope,
drag, pattern, mould cavity, runner system, sprue, feeder, core, dies
Specified alloys: eg cast steels, grey and ductile cast iron, aluminium casting
alloys, copper-based alloys, nickel casting alloys, magnesium casting alloys, zinc
casting alloys
Typical components or applications: automotive eg alloy wheels, engine blocks,
cylinder heads, ignition cases, locks; aerospace eg turbine blades, wheels, engine
cases; medical eg orthopaedic implants; street furniture eg bollards, manhole
covers, garden furniture; telecommunications eg mobile phone cases, automated
teller machines (ATMs); other general engineering applications eg machine tool
beds, pumps, valves
Post-casting operations: non-permanent moulds eg knockout, shot blasting, de-
gating, fettling; permanent moulds/dies, eg degating, fettling

2 Know the main furnace types and melt procedures used in the preparation and
treatment of common casting alloys

Metal melting furnaces: eg cupola, electric induction, channel induction, electric

arc, crucible, gas fired, rotary
Metal preparations and melt treatments: ferrous and non-ferrous metals
eg steel, grey and ductile/spheroidal graphite (SG) cast irons, aluminium, copper;
preparation eg charge calculation, alloy additions, deoxidation, desulphurisation,
degassing; treatment eg inoculation, nodularisation, grain refinement,
modification, addition rates

3 Know about defects in castings and their possible causes

Monitoring molten metal quality: melt monitoring and control tests eg test bars,
temperature measurement, chemical composition, gas content
Defects in castings: cavities eg blowholes, sinks, internal shrinkage
(macro/micro), pinholes; projections and incomplete castings eg misrun, flash,
scab, cold lap; metallic and non-metallic inclusions eg shot, oxide skin, sand
inclusion, dross

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4 Know the health, safety and environmental issues that relate to casting
processes

Hazards: process related hazards eg due to mould and core making, casting,
fettling and mechanical handling; personal safety and the safety of others eg
personal protective equipment (overalls, gloves, boots, gaiters, face and eye
protection, ear protectors); environmental impact of casting processes eg use of
energy and raw materials, beneficial re-use of waste, air pollution and toxic
waste
UK and EU health, safety and environmental legislation and regulations:
legislation eg Health and Safety at Work Act 1974, Fire Precautions Act 1971;
regulations eg Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999,
Provision and Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, Control of
Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002, Personal Protective
Equipment at Work Regulations 1992, Control of Noise at Work Regulations 2005,
Reporting of Injuries, Diseases and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)
1995, Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981; integrated pollution
prevention and control (IPPC) eg control of air, water and land pollution, noise
and energy efficiency

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the principles of casting M1 explain the advantages and limitations of D1 evaluate the factors that lead to the
processes different casting processes selection of a particular casting process
route for a given component
P2 select and describe a casting process M2 justify the selection of a particular
suitable for a specified alloy and a given furnace for a given alloy D2 evaluate the quality implications that
component or application stem from a lack of process control
M3 compare the metal preparation processes
P3 identify and describe post-casting and melt treatments for two different D3 evaluate the impact of a casting process
operations alloys on the environment and suggest ways
that this impact could be reduced.
P4 select a particular metal melting furnace M4 carry out a risk assessment for a given
for a given alloy casting process and identify the steps
that could be taken to minimise risk.
P5 identify and describe the metal
preparations and melt treatments
required to prepare an alloy for casting
P6 describe the control tests that are used
to monitor molten metal quality
P7 identify and describe defects in given
castings

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 UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 identify the hazards associated with
casting processes
P9 identify and describe the aspects of UK
and EU health, safety and environmental
legislation and regulations that apply to
casting processes.

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UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The teaching and learning strategies used to deliver this unit must enable learners to
understand the principles and processes involved in making castings. Tutors will also
need to make them aware of the applications and limitations of the different casting
processes. Learners should also understand the procedures required to prepare metal
for casting and the tests and procedures used to control the metal quality in order to
produce quality castings.
A wide range of delivery methods and resources could be used including practical
work and demonstrations, DVDs/videos, computer-based and text-based information
and industrial visits. The use of case studies, based on processes that learners are
familiar with from either their place of work or work placement, would be a valuable
means of supporting the delivery of learning outcomes 1 and 2. These case studies
could be used alongside visits to industrial sites where different alloys and casting
processes are in use.
Whilst learners will benefit most from first-hand experience, health and safety issues
and the limited availability of some specialist equipment used for mould making,
melting metal and metal treatments may prevent this. However tutor-led
demonstrations, CD ROM and video materials can all be used, where appropriate.
Examples, as well as photographs, of defective castings and pre-prepared sections of
castings can be valuable in supporting the teaching and learning activities for
learning outcome 3.
The importance of health, safety and environmental issues relating to liquid metals
and casting processes should be highlighted throughout the unit. As such, the unit
content relating to learning outcome 4 could be delivered in parallel to the relevant
sections of content from the other three learning outcomes.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence could be generated through a variety of methods, such as tutor-led

assignments, case studies, learner-led research and testing. For example, a suitable
case study could require learners to select, specify and explain a casting process,
furnace type and melt treatments and controls to produce a component in a
particular alloy. Learners should be encouraged to cross-reference their evidence to
the individual learning outcomes and grading criteria.
The pass criteria specify the minimum acceptable level required by learners. The
assessments must cover all of the learning outcomes and assessment criteria.
Achievement of a merit or distinction grade will require the learner to demonstrate a
deeper understanding of the principles being described.

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To achieve a pass, learners should be able to describe casting processes involving

non-permanent and permanent moulds and be able to give an outline description of
other casting processes. They should know how to select a casting process for a
particular alloy and component and be able to identify the process steps required in
the production of a cast component, including post-casting operations. Learners will
need to select a metal melting furnace and identify and describe the necessary metal
preparation and melt treatments. They should know the main control tests used in
the preparation of molten metal for casting and be able to recognise the most
common defect types that occur in castings. They should be able to identify the
major health and safety hazards and the legislation and regulations associated with
the different stages in the casting process.
To achieve a merit, learners should be able to explain the advantages and limitations
of different casting processes and melting furnaces used for different alloys, types of
component and applications. They should have a knowledge and understanding of the
different metal preparations and treatments to molten metals prior to casting into
the mould/die and why these are carried out and be able to calculate the charge,
where appropriate, and any addition/treatment rates required. They should
understand the main factors that can lead to the production of defective castings and
be able to complete a health and safety risk assessment for a particular casting
process understanding the measures that can be taken to minimise risk to themselves
and others.
To achieve a distinction, learners should have an understanding of the factors that
influence the selection of a particular casting process for a component part. They
should be able to evaluate the effects of process variables within a casting process on
the characteristics of the casting and on the likely incidence of characteristic
defects, and how process control can lead to the production of quality castings. They
should be able to suggest ways in which the risk of defects occurring can be
minimised. They should also be able to evaluate the environmental impacts of casting
processes and how these may be minimised.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit builds on the knowledge gained in other metallurgy units and it is
recommended that Unit 37: Structure and Properties of Metals and Unit 38:
Industrial alloys are completed before this unit. There are also links with Unit 39:
Metallurgical Techniques.

Essential resources

Learners will benefit enormously from access to facilities and equipment for casting
metal into moulds/dies. Examples of patterns, dies and industrial castings in a range
of alloys and sizes — including examples containing a range of real defects that can
be examined visually and metallographically (perhaps as ready prepared samples) —
should be made available. Learners should also have access to relevant national and
international standards (BS, EN, ISO and ASTM) for cast alloys and health and safety
materials.

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UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Beeley P — Foundry Technology, 2nd Edition (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001)
ISBN 0750645679
Brown J — Foseco Foundryman’s Handbook (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999)
ISBN 075064284X
Brown J — Foseco Non-ferrous Casting Handbook (Butterworth-Heinemann, 1999)
ISBN 0750642866
Campbell J — Castings (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2003) ISBN 0750647906

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 UNIT 106: LIQUID METAL PROCESSING

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out a charge N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
calculation or a metal stage calculations to do with:
treatment or addition rate for a amounts or sizes
a given alloy.
b scales or proportion
c handling statistics
d using formulae.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence
• describing the principles of C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
casting processes, metal at least two documents about the
preparations and melt same subject.
treatments Each document must be a minimum of
• identifying and describing the 1000 words long.
aspects of UK and EU health C3.3 Write two different types of
and safety and environmental documents, each one giving different
legislation that apply to information about complex subjects.
casting processes.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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 UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Unit 107: Monitoring and Fault Diagnosis

of Engineering Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Condition monitoring and quality control techniques are used to detect potential
failure symptoms in engineering systems. The methods used by engineering
technicians range from fully automated monitoring down to the use of the human
senses. This unit provides learners with an understanding of the fundamentals of
engineering system monitoring and fault diagnosis and explains the basic concepts of
condition monitoring. The unit examines the development of engineering system
monitoring and fault diagnosis and how modern technology, quality control and
environmental issues have affected current thinking.
The unit will provide learners with an understanding of the precautions required to
protect themselves and others in the workplace and will focus on the safety measures
needed when carrying out monitoring activities, especially those for isolating
equipment.
Learners will understand how to use a range of condition monitoring equipment and
will develop the skills and knowledge required for the location and identification of
faults in engineering systems. Learners will be required to select the appropriate
monitoring technique and equipment based on the type of plant or equipment being
monitored and the conditions checked.
The unit will enable learners to check and set up monitoring equipment before using
it to carry out diagnostic condition monitoring on engineering systems, in accordance
with approved procedures. Learners will be expected to use a variety of fault
diagnosis methods and techniques, and utilise a number of diagnostic aids and
equipment. From the evidence gained they will then identify the fault and its
probable cause.

Learning outcomes
Upon completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about health and safety requirements relevant to monitoring and fault
diagnosis of engineering systems
2 Know about system monitoring and reliability
3 Be able to describe and use monitoring and test equipment
4 Be able to describe and carry out fault diagnosis on engineering systems.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1171

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UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Unit content

1 Know about health and safety requirements relevant to monitoring and fault
diagnosis of engineering systems

Legislation: appropriate statutory acts and regulations eg Health and Safety at

Work Act 1974, Management of Health and Safety Regulations 1999, Provision and
Use of Work Equipment Regulations (PUWER) 1998, Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2002, Reporting of Injuries, Diseases
and Dangerous Occurrences Regulations (RIDDOR)1995, Lifting Operations and
Lifting Equipment Regulations 1998, Manual Handling Operations Regulations
1992, Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations 1992, Confined Spaces
Regulations 1997, Electricity at Work Regulations 1989, Control of Noise at Work
Regulations 2005, Health and Safety (First Aid) Regulations 1981; specific safety
requirements eg company rules, permit to work procedures, risk assessment,
environmental issues; health and safety procedures eg response to alarms, use of
safety equipment, reporting of accidents, reporting of hazardous items of plant or
equipment; personal safety eg appropriate dress, protective clothing, appropriate
or protective headgear, protective gloves and footwear, eye protection, face
masks and respirators, appropriate use of barrier creams, personal cleanliness,
prompt attention to injuries
Hazards and practices: workplace hazards eg compressed air, hydraulic fluid,
gases, hot surfaces, electrical equipment, unfenced machinery, toxic substances
and fumes, falling objects, liquid spillage, untidy work area, badly maintained
tools and test equipment; safe working practices eg isolation procedures,
methods of immobilising equipment, precautions to be observed when operating
or working on live equipment, permit to work, use of danger tags, warning
notices, safety barriers, cones and tapes
Engineering systems: process monitoring and control; fault diagnosis; systems eg
mechanical, fluid power, electrical, process control, environmental systems (such
as fume extraction or air conditioning), medical (such as cardiovascular,
anaesthetic and ventilation, medical imaging)

2 Know about system monitoring and reliability

Monitoring terminology: condition monitoring methods eg offline portable

monitoring, sampled monitoring, continuous monitoring, protection monitoring,
human sensory monitoring; monitoring techniques eg vibration analysis,
temperature analysis, flow analysis, particle analysis, crack detection, leak
detection, pressure analysis, voltage/current analysis, thickness analysis, oil
analysis, corrosion detection, environmental pollutant analysis

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 UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Failure and reliability: calculations concerning failure eg degrees and causes of

failure, failure rate, failure modes, functional failure, primary and secondary
functions, mean time between failures (MTBF), reliability; factors affecting
reliability eg design, operation, environment and manufacture, reduction in
system/device failure eg routine servicing, adjustments; data eg defects
examination, statistical process control (SPC), quality

3 Be able to describe and use monitoring and test equipment

Monitoring and test equipment: use of fixed and portable monitoring equipment
for on and offline monitoring including continuous and semi-continuous data
recording eg vibration monitoring of bearings, self-diagnostics (such as
PLCs/smart sensors, computerised data acquisition, data logging, electrical data,
gas analysis); use of handheld instruments eg meters, thermal imaging; test
equipment for taking measurements of parameters eg temperature, pressure,
viscosity, speed, flow, voltage, current, resistance, sound, vibration
Procedures: practical methods eg crack detection, leak detection, corrosion
detection, flow analysis, vibration analysis, pressure analysis

4 Be able to describe and carry out fault diagnosis on engineering systems

Diagnostic terminology and techniques: terminology (definitions and explanations

of symptoms, faults, fault location, fault diagnosis and cause); techniques eg six
point, half-split, input–output, emergent problem sequence, functional testing,
injection and sampling, unit substitution
Diagnostic aids: test and measuring equipment; other aids eg plant personnel,
manufacturers’ manuals, system block diagrams, circuit and schematic diagrams,
data sheets, flow charts, maintenance records/logs, self-diagnostics, software-
based test and measurement, trouble shooting guides

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UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe aspects of health and safety M1 identify and describe four factors which D1 analyse the environmental effects on
legislation that apply to monitoring and influence either failure or reliability in a reliability of temperature, humidity,
fault diagnosis of an engineering system given engineering system vibration and pressure for a given
engineering system
P2 describe the workplace hazards and safe M2 identify and describe the environmental
working practices relevant to specific conditions which affect the reliability of D2 analyse monitoring/quality control data
monitoring and fault diagnosis situations the components in given items of and information to predict/detect
equipment congruent potential failures in given engineering
P3 explain a condition monitoring method
systems.
and technique related to a given M3 evaluate the quality of measurements
engineering system made and the limitations of given items
of condition monitoring equipment
P4 use given data to calculate failure rates
for a range of components and M4 demonstrate a logical approach to
equipment finding faults by identifying and
distinguishing between symptoms, faults
P5 describe the factors affecting reliability
and causes.
for a given engineering system
P6 describe the monitoring and test
equipment used for measuring given
system condition parameters

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Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
 UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 use procedures to carry out system
monitoring on two separate engineering
systems
P8 explain the terms and two different
techniques related to fault diagnosis
P9 use diagnostic techniques, test and
measuring equipment and aids to locate
faults on two separate engineering
systems where two malfunction
symptoms are evident on each system.

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UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit should be delivered using lectures, tutor-led demonstrations/tests and

practical fault finding on a complex engineering system.
Since most learners are unlikely to have had prior experience in this area of work, it
is essential that some formal introduction to the unit content is given. The unit can
then be regarded as investigative in nature. Learners should be given the opportunity
to examine a range of complex engineering systems and tutors should encourage an
investigatory approach throughout.
The unit can be delivered in an electronic, electrical, mechanical or instrumentation
context. However, it would be advantageous to choose a system which involves
combined areas of engineering, since this is more likely to be encountered by
learners at work.
The engineering system used for practical work should be complex enough to allow
for a logical approach and have all relevant supporting monitoring and fault finding
aids. The use of rigs would allow learners to carry out practical investigation. The
following are examples of such systems:
• fluid power system
• a machine tool
• electrical system
• an audio/video product
• a position/speed/process control system
• a small PLC network
• an environmental control system
• a material transfer system.
Learners will require instruction in the use of simple condition monitoring tools and
test equipment, eg equipment for monitoring temperature, physical and electrical
effects. It should be possible to place data obtained from the system in a software
context and undertake analysis. Visits are encouraged to industrial sites where
sophisticated condition monitoring is used.
The delivery approach used will be best determined through an analysis of learners’
needs and in particular through consideration of the range of industries that the
centres are working with or preparing their learners for. Whichever approach is taken
should provide learners with an understanding of engineering system monitoring and
fault diagnosis in most industrial settings.
The learning outcomes are logically ordered and it would be a reasonable approach
to develop them sequentially. In this way, learners will be able to understand system
monitoring, fault diagnosis methods and procedures and be able to carry out
monitoring and fault diagnosis safely.

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 UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of achievement of the learning outcomes and grading criteria may be

obtained from well-planned investigative assignments or reports of workshop
activities. Alternatively, it may be accumulated by learners building a portfolio from
investigations and monitoring and fault diagnosis operations in the workplace or
through realistic exercises and tests. In either case the opportunity should exist for
merit and distinction grades to be achieved with relevant and sufficient evidence to
justify the grade awarded.
Assuming that the unit is delivered in the same order as the learning outcomes, a
first assignment could provide an opportunity to achieve the criteria for learning
outcome 1 (P1 and P2). This assignment could be a written or practical task requiring
learners to identify health and safety legislation and carry out specific safety
requirements, such as a risk assessment relevant to monitoring and fault diagnosis of
an engineering system. In doing so they should identify appropriate health and safety
procedures and personal safety requirements for that engineering system. Such a
system might be mechanical, fluid power, electrical, process control or an
environmental system (such as fume extraction or air conditioning).
Learning outcome 2 could be assessed through a written or time-constrained
assignment requiring learners to calculate, from given data, failure rates for a range
of components and equipment. These could be pumps, actuators, compressors, air
receivers, accumulators, valves, generators, motors, transformers, switch gear,
machine tools, engines or gearboxes (P4). The assignment could contain a task
requiring learners to discuss factors affecting reliability (P5), and to describe
monitoring methods and techniques (P3).
A third task could be added to cover M1, requiring learners to identify and describe
four factors that influence either failure or reliability in a given engineering system.
A further task requiring learners to identify and describe environmental conditions
affecting the reliability of components in items of equipment and analyse the effects
of the environment on component/asset reliability could enable achievement of M2
and D1. The range of components and equipment should be sufficient to allow these
higher grading criteria to be achieved. However, the range required for pass criterion
P4 would need to be at least one mechanical type, one electrical type and one fluid
type system. Therefore a range of data for each is required to be given to learners.
Assessment of learning outcome 3 could be by a well-planned practical investigative
assignment covering criteria P6, P7 and M3. This would require learners to carry out
monitoring activities on two separate engineering systems, such as bearing vibration
analysis, temperature, flow, particle, oil, pressure, voltage/current corrosion,
environmental pollutant, crack and leak detection. Such systems may be mechanical,
fluid power, electrical, process control or environmental systems. This could be
supported by written evidence that shows the learner is able to describe the use of
monitoring and test equipment and evaluate the quality of measurements and the
limitations of given items of monitoring equipment. Witness statements and
annotated photographs would be suitable evidence to support the use of procedures
to carry out system monitoring.

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UNIT 107: MONITORING AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

Learning outcome 4 is best suited to practical investigation. For P8, learners need to
explain the terms and two different techniques from those in the unit content, such
as six-point, half-split, input-output, emergent problem sequence, functional testing,
injection and sampling and unit substitution. For P9 they need to use diagnostic
techniques, test and measuring equipment (such as dial test indicators, torque
instruments, logic probes, multimeters etc) and aids to locate faults on two separate
engineering systems where two malfunction symptoms are evident on each system.
The assignment to cover this could have a task requiring learners to carry out fault
diagnosis on a given engineered system. This could be either in a simulated situation
or in the workplace using evidence gathered in a logbook containing items such as
equipment used, tests carried out and measurements taken. This could be supported
by the inclusion of witness statements.
Learners must describe typical fault conditions and find faults independently on
equipment, which exhibits symptoms of more than one function failure. For example,
a pump can have two functions, one to pump water at a given rate, the other to be
free of water leaks whilst pumping. To achieve M4 learners must demonstrate a
logical approach to fault finding and be able to distinguish between symptoms, faults
and causes. A second task supported by written evidence would enable learners to
demonstrate that they are able to analyse data and use this information to
predict/detect potential failures in given engineering systems D2.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 44: Engineering Maintenance Procedures and Techniques.
The unit has been mapped against the SEMTA National Occupational Standards and
current NVQs at Level 3. Achievement of the learning outcomes of this unit will
contribute skills, knowledge and understanding towards several units of the Level 3
NVQ in Engineering Maintenance, particularly:
• Unit 5: Carrying out Fault Diagnosis on Mechanical Equipment
• Unit 10: Carry Out Condition Monitoring on Plant and Equipment
• Unit 11: Carrying Out Fault Diagnosis on Electrical Equipment and Circuits
• Unit 16: Carrying Out Fault Diagnosis on Electronic Equipment and Circuits
• Unit 19: Carrying Out Fault Diagnosis on Fluid Power Equipment and Circuits
• Unit 23: Carrying Out Fault Diagnosis on Engineered Systems.

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Essential resources

This unit is intended to provide learners with a practical introduction to monitoring

and fault diagnosis methods and techniques. Therefore, it is essential that learners
have access to:
• actual complex engineered systems or test rigs designed for monitoring/fault
finding
• data books and manufacturers’ specifications
• system manuals and functional flow charts and system diagrams
• computer software for data logging and self-diagnostics
• appropriate test equipment and tools
• maintenance records.

Indicative reading

Textbook
Yardley E — Condition Monitoring — Engineering the Practice (Professional
Engineering Publishing, 2002) ISBN 9781860583612

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Application of number Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting, setting-up and N3.1 Plan an activity and get relevant
using monitoring equipment information from relevant sources.
for measuring condition N3.2 Use this information to carry out multi-
parameters, eg vibration, stage calculations to do with:
temperature, pressure
a amounts or sizes
• computing failure rates and
b scales or proportion
reliabilities etc for a range of
components and equipment c handling statistics
• presenting information. d using formulae.
N3.3 Interpret the results of your
calculations, present your findings and
justify your methods.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching issues relating to C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
manufacturers’ manuals, at least two documents about the
specifications and statutory same subject.
legislation Each document must be a minimum of
• describing or explaining 1000 words long.
monitoring and fault finding C3.3 Write two different types of
terms and techniques. documents each one giving different
information about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

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Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• finding single component PS3.1 Explore a complex problem, come up
faults, by identifying and with three options for solving it and
finding faults and symptoms justify the option selected for taking
evident on two engineering forward.
systems.

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 UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Unit 108: Principles and Applications of

Engineering Measurement
Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
There are now a wide range of systems and methods that are used to measure
performance and operations within engineered systems.
This unit is designed to develop learners’ knowledge and understanding of the use of
measurement and testing in engineered systems whilst providing them with
opportunities to explore both traditional and modern methods. The unit explains the
physical principles used in transducers and shows the way that these principles are
exploited in practice across a range of industrial measurement applications.
The selection of correct measurement systems is key to the optimum performance
and operation of an industrial plant. Therefore, the unit provides learners with an
insight into the main elements of a measurement system and shows how these
elements working together provide a required function.
The unit describes recording and display devices and their operational
characteristics, so that learners will be able to use and make informed choices
between similar devices on technical grounds. Modern display and recording
techniques are discussed and learners’ are provided with the opportunity to use and
design virtual instrumentation systems using computer software.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about the applications of common measurement systems
2 Understand the operation of transducers, the conversion process of signal
converters and the use of a signal processor
3 Be able to use test, recording and display equipment for a measurement
application
4 Be able to test and calibrate a measuring system.

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UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Unit content

1 Know about the applications of common measurement systems

Main purpose of measurement: producing or obtaining data; carrying out

inspection and testing; monitoring health and safety; checking outputs eg
meeting specifications, quality control, condition monitoring; controlling
processes; carrying out statistical analysis
Measurement system elements: block diagrams; elements eg transducers, signal
conversions, signal conditioning, recording and display, transmission links;
common measurement systems eg pressure transmitter, level transmitter,
temperature transmitter, flow transmitter
Measurement system performance: performance terms eg accuracy, error,
linearity, reliability, repeatability, sensitivity, resolution, range, transfer
function, static and dynamic characteristics, electrical noise, calibration

2 Understand the operation of transducers, the conversion process of signal

converters and the use of a signal processor

Transducer types: output of common measurement transducers eg temperature,

pressure, flow, level, vibration, weight, displacement; physical principles eg
resistive, capacitive, piezo-electric, inductive, opto-reflective, static pressure,
elasticity
Signal converters: conversion process eg voltage to current, pressure to current,
current to pressure, frequency to voltage, analogue to digital (ADC), digital to
analogue (DAC); signal converter types eg Wheatstone bridge, V/I converter, P/I
converter, I/P converter, F/V converter, ADC, DAC
Signal processors: types eg voltage and current amplifiers, mechanical amplifiers,
simple signal filters, multiplexers, decoders; specification requirements eg
voltage amplitude, current amplitude, signal frequency, noise reduction

3 Be able to use test, recording and display equipment for a measurement

application

Test equipment: electrical/mechanical types eg multimeters, handheld

oscilloscope, signal generator, logic testers, earth loop impedance meter,
pressure injector, 4-20mA loop calibrators, insulation tester, optical alignment;
safety; functions and operation; specification eg output, input, range of
operation, resolution
Recording and display devices: computer elements in monitoring and recording eg
data acquisition, interface cards, software; specification eg acquisition speed,
resolution, input type; plotters and chart recorders
Virtual instrumentation: software available eg NI LabVIEW, Visual Basic,
Discovery; mimics; trending; alarms

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 UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

4 Be able to test and calibrate a measuring system

Test and calibrate: calibration of measurement equipment eg pressure, level,

temperature, flow, nucleonic, position, speed; calibration parameters
(component specification, system requirements)
System specification and function: measurement system specifications;
characteristics and limitations of measuring systems eg operating range,
environment

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UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: must show that, in addition to the pass must show that, in addition to the pass and
criteria, the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the main purpose of measurement M1 design a common measurement system D1 analyse and evaluate the performance of
and confirm that it meets a customer’s a given common measurement system.
P2 use block diagrams to help describe the
requirement specification
main elements within three given common
measurement systems M2 design a graphic display for a system
using a given software package.
P3 describe the performance of a given
common measurement system
P4 explain the operation of three different
types of transducer in terms of their
physical principles
P5 describe the conversion process that takes
place within three given signal converters
P6 select a signal processor to meet a given
specification
P7 use appropriate test equipment to test the
function and operation of a common
measurement system against specification

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 UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P8 identify an appropriate recording or
display device to meet a given
specification
P9 use virtual instrumentation software to
mimic a measurement system in terms of
recording, displaying and trending an
output from a given measurement
system
P10 test and calibrate a given common
measurement system to meet the
requirements of the system specification
and ensure its performance limitations
are not exceeded.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered as a stand-alone unit or integrated with others in the
qualification. Wherever possible, a practical approach should be adopted in which
the underpinning knowledge is consolidated using practical workshop investigations
and demonstrations.
It is expected that learners will have access to industrial standard process rigs and
measurement systems or educational equivalents. Practical workshop activities
should be used extensively to ensure that learners have experience of industrial
standard measurement equipment and measurement methods.
It is important that learners are given opportunities to use computer software that
enables them to explore modern measurement techniques and to develop bespoke
measurement solutions. Examples of such software include LabVIEW.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for the first six pass criteria (P1–P6) could be produced through
a written assignment. After describing the various purposes of measurement systems
(P1), learners could be asked to describe the main elements of three different
measurement systems using block diagrams (P2), given manufacturers’ data sheets
for each of the given systems.
The block diagram could provide learners with a basis to explain, select and describe
the functionality and performance of the transducer, signal converter and signal
processor elements (P3–P6). The assignment must include reference to common
performance terminology.
A practical workshop assessment could be used to assess pass criteria P7 and P10.
Firstly, learners could be provided with a measurement system and data sheets. They
could then be provided with details of the required output tests that must be carried
out to ensure it can be checked for function and operation. Learners will need to
select an appropriate test instrument that meets the test requirements, and perform
the test(s). A written report could be produced presenting the results clearly with
appropriate conclusions. A witness statement/observation record could be used to
confirm the safe use of the test equipment for P7 and that testing and calibration
was carried out successfully (P10).
The final assessment could be a combined practical and written assignment which
asks learners to use a computer with previously produced screen mimics and
interfaces to record and display data from the output of a measurement system (P9).
Learners could then be asked to compare this display/recording/trending system with
alternatives, select an alternative and provide reasons for the selection (P8).

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Assessment evidence for M1 is likely to be an extension to the assignment covering

pass criteria P1–P6. Learners could be asked to design a new measurement system
(block diagram form may be sensible) to meet a given measurement specification.
The specification will need to include a transducer, a signal converter and a signal
processor. This type of activity could be supported through simulation software to
confirm that the specification has been met.
Assessment evidence for M2 could be achieved through an extension to the
assignment covering criteria P8 and P9. Learners will need to be provided with a
computer interfaced to the previous measurement system. They could then be asked
to design a software graphic, input the measured data and display in an appropriate
form to meet a given specification.
Assessment evidence for D1 could be achieved through an extension of the
assignment covering criteria P1–P6 and M1. Learners could be asked to evaluate the
performance of a measurement system that is measuring a variable within an
industrial process plant. This evaluation will consider the operation and performance
of the system. Learners could be asked to suggest improvements to the system or
suggest an alternative, having identified and discussed advantages and limitations.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 24: Industrial Process Measurement and Unit 48:
Industrial Plant and Process Control and lays the foundation for further study at BTEC
Higher National level. The unit can also contribute skills, knowledge and
understanding towards the evidence requirements in several units of the following
Level 3 NVQ qualifications:
• Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance — Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation
and Control Systems
• Level 3 NVQ in Installation and Commissioning — Unit 24: Commissioning
Instrumentation and Control Equipment and Systems.

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Essential resources

Process rigs and associated measurement and test equipment are essential for the
delivery and assessment of much this unit. Learners should have access to relevant
workshop or laboratory facilities including:
• process plant or system simulators
• measurement and data acquisition software
• measurement and data acquisition hardware (PCs and interface cards)
• data books and manufacturers’ specifications
• measurement and test equipment manuals
• appropriate tools.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbook
Bolton W — Instrumentation and Control Systems (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750664320

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 UNIT 108: PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following
key skills evidence:
• using virtual instrumentation ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
software to record and derive new information.
display the output from a ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
given measurement system text with image, text with number,
• designing a graphic display image with number.
for a system using a given
software package.

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 UNIT 109: ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANT SERVICES AND OPERATIONS

Unit 109: Engineering and Process Plant

Services and Operations
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
There is a wide range of plant and equipment within modern engineering and process
industries, and the technicians responsible for them need to ensure that they are
properly run and maintained. This unit will provide learners with a broad introduction
to the types of plant services likely to be encountered in the plant and process
industries.
Learners will be introduced to the basic utilities and will demonstrate how these
utilities are developed to meet the in-house needs of plant and process industries.
Particular attention is paid to the types of plant and equipment involved in either the
use of utilities or the generation of additional services, eg compressed air or chilled
water.
It is essential that the user of any plant service and/or service distribution is made
aware of the environmental impact that could arise from such a service, or product
resulting from the service process. The unit therefore covers potential sources of
pollution along with an introduction to energy management.
The correct procedure for the installation and commissioning of any plant or piece of
equipment is important to its successful and continuous operation, as is monitoring
and maintenance. Learners will develop an understanding of the requirements of
plant installation and the need for monitoring to ensure they become familiar with
good practice associated with plant and equipment operation.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about utilities distribution and plant services associated with plant and
equipment
2 Know about combustion processes, pollution and energy management
3 Understand the requirements associated with plant installation and
commissioning
4 Know about the need for monitoring and maintaining plant in the plant and
process industries.

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UNIT 109: ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANT SERVICES AND OPERATIONS

Unit content

1 Know about utilities distribution and plant services associated with plant and
equipment

Utilities distribution (in-house): distribution of natural gas, electricity (AC and

DC), electricity sources, water; use of colour coding regulations
Plant for services: types of plant and equipment eg steam turbines, gas turbines,
compressors, fans, refrigeration/chiller units
Service distribution (in-house): types; layout eg industrial heating, lighting,
ventilation, compressed air, treated water, hot water, steam; precautions

2 Know about combustion processes, pollution and energy management

Combustion processes: fuel types; fuel handling; basic combustion process; basic
equations; products of combustion
Pollution sources: waste disposal; incineration; air pollution; environmental
impact
Energy management: energy audit; energy sources and energy losses in relation to
plant for services and service distribution

3 Understand the requirements associated with plant installation and

commissioning

Installation: requirements eg services, procedures, schedules

Commissioning: requirements eg acceptance tests, start-up, shut down, full- and
part-load operation, decommissioning, dismantling
Health and safety precautions: isolation procedures; permit to work; safety rules
eg specific, in-house/company

4 Know about the need for monitoring and maintaining plant in the plant and
process industries

Monitoring: need eg improvement in safety, reduction in environmental hazards,

extended equipment life, cost reduction; techniques and data collection eg
condition monitoring, routine servicing, planning systems, data recording and
presentation
Maintenance: types eg planned, preventative, scheduled, corrective; need eg
plant liability, plant availability, improved safety, reduction in environmental
damage

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 UNIT 109: ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANT SERVICES AND OPERATIONS

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 explain how natural gas, electricity and M1 explain in detail the types of plant for D1 carry out a detailed evaluation of the
water are distributed within an industrial services, providing power generation, plant for services and the service
plant complex compressed air and refrigeration to distribution, including aspects of
particular plant processes installation and commissioning, in
P2 describe the types and purpose of plant
relation to engineering plant or plant
and equipment for given service M2 evaluate the quality of measurements
processes
distribution types, including layout and made and the limitations of given
associated precautions condition monitoring equipment D2 analyse given condition monitoring
and/or quality control data to predict
P3 describe the combustion process for M3 justify the selection and suitability of
specific plant/equipment failure.
given fuels and their products of particular types of maintenance for
combustion specific applications.
P4 perform calculations involving basic
combustion equations of given fuels and
their products of combustion
P5 identify and describe the most common
sources of pollution associated with
industrial plant and processes

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UNIT 109: ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANT SERVICES AND OPERATIONS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 use outcomes from an energy audit to
help identify and describe the likely
sources and losses of energy encountered
within a plant or plant processes industry
P7 explain the requirements for the
installation and commissioning and/or
decommissioning and dismantling of
engineering plant and equipment in the
plant services and operation field,
including health and safety precautions
P8 explain the need for monitoring and
describe the techniques and data
collection used in the monitoring of
particular plant and equipment
P9 describe the different types of
maintenance and explain the need for a
particular type in relation to given items
of plant and equipment.

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 UNIT 109: ENGINEERING AND PROCESS PLANT SERVICES AND OPERATIONS

Essential information for tutors

Delivery

This unit could be delivered using lectures, assignments, tutor-led laboratory

demonstrations and, where appropriate, unseen timed examinations. Teaching and
learning strategies and learning outcomes may be generated from well-designed
assignments or case studies, in addition to a mini-project if this is thought relevant.
Case studies could be based on a site where the learner is currently working. Visits to
a industrial sites where process plant or engineering plant is involved in power
generation and associated services would be of considerable benefit to learners in
supporting the unit content.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence of criteria can be collected from assignments, case studies and mini-
projects. These should be designed to develop learners’ understanding of plant
services including aspects of maintenance and health and safety in the workplace.
To achieve a pass grade, learners must be able to explain how natural gas, electricity
and water are distributed within an industrial complex (P1). They will be able to
describe items of plant associated with given services and the layout and general
precautions to be taken with service distribution (P2). It would be appropriate to give
at least two service distribution types. As such, both these criteria could be achieved
through written tasks.
Learners will need to show knowledge of the combustion processes and associated
sources of pollution for common types of fuel (P5) encountered in the plant and plant
process industries. They will apply such knowledge and understanding to describe the
combustion process for given fuels and their products of combustion (P3). This will be
consolidated through the setting of a calculation for at least two different fuels (P4).
They must also describe the energy sources and energy losses encountered in the
plant and plant process industries, and typical sources of pollution. This could be
done by giving a range of outcomes from an energy audit. If this is not available from
a ‘real’ audit, outcomes can be simulated to give sufficient scope to achieve criteria
P6.
Learners must explain the requirements associated with the installation and
commissioning and/or decommissioning of engineering plant, together with the
health and safety procedures when undertaking these activities (P7). They need to
explain why it is necessary to monitor engineering and process plant and be able to
describe the techniques and data collection used in such monitoring activities (P8).
Learners must also explain why particular items of plant and equipment need
maintenance and why there are various types of maintenance (P9).

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Most if not all of these activities could be achieved through written tasks addressing
each criteria respectively.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must demonstrate a sound knowledge of the types
of plant associated with the provision of power generation, compressed air and
refrigeration. They must be able to explain in detail the items of equipment for
services providing power generation, compressed air and refrigeration to particular
plant processes. A written task to build on the tasks to achieve P1 and P2 would be
appropriate.
For M2 a written task could be set where a range of measurements from condition
monitoring equipment is given and learners evaluate the quality of the
measurements, their usefulness and their limitations. They must also select
appropriate types of maintenance for specific equipment and plant and justify their
selection in terms of benefits and limitations of the type chosen (M3).
To achieve a distinction, learners must carry out a detailed evaluation of the plant
for services and of the service distribution (D1). Learners must be able to make a
critical evaluation of the installation and commissioning of the plant. They will
demonstrate a comprehensive knowledge of plant monitoring and maintenance and
be able to analyse given monitoring or control data, to predict potential failure in
particular engineering plant or equipment (D2).

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 50: Installing and Commissioning Engineering
Equipment.
The unit contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the following units
from the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards in Installation and
Commissioning:
• Unit 4: Handing Over and Confirming Completion of Installation or Commissioning
Activities
• Unit 7: Installing Equipment to Produce an Engineered System
• Unit 22: Commissioning Engineered Systems
• Unit 24: Commissioning Instrumentation and Control Equipment and Systems.

Essential resources

Not all centres will have dedicated plant services or equipment to support the
delivery of the unit. Two or three visits by learners to companies concerned with, or
orientated towards, plant engineering or process plant should, where possible, be
used to give learners a better insight into, and grasp of, plant services and/or service
distribution.
It would be useful for learners to undertake a gas sample analysis using the
appropriate equipment, thus confirming the existence of particular products of
combustion.

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Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Eastop T D and McConkey A — Applied Thermodynamics for Engineering Technologists
(Longman, 1998) ISBN 0582091934
Hiley J, Brown K and McKenzie I — Electrical and Electronic Technology (Prentice
Hall, 2004) ISBN 0131143972

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing or explaining C3.3 Write two different types of documents
many of the required each one giving different information
features of plant services and about complex subjects.
operations activities. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using outcomes from an PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
energy audit to help identify review your approach to problem solving.
and describe the likely
sources and losses of energy
encountered within a plant
or plant processes industry.

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 UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Unit 110: Industrial Process Measurement

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will introduce learners to the principles involved in the operation, selection
and calibration of transducers and signal processors used to measure a range of
common industrial process variables. The methods of system and device construction
and their specifications are investigated along with relevant calibration and
documentation processes.
Learning outcome 1 considers the performance, operation and application of
industrial transducer systems and the relationship between the physical principles of
a transducer to its selection and application. Often there are requirements for signal
processing once a transducer has been selected to ensure that the measurement
system output meets specification. This unit provides a thorough background in the
operation of signal processors and details the current systems that are available.
In many industrial process plants the process being measured can be some distance
from the display systems, for example in a control room. Therefore signal
transmission is required over distance. This unit identifies the variety of transmission
systems and standards that are used within industrial plant.
For the purposes of this unit, measurement systems are assumed to consist of a
transducer, signal processor and transmitter. Learning outcome 4 of this unit relates
to the requirements and techniques of system calibration. Learners will be able to
use industrial procedures and standards in order to correctly calibrate such
measurement systems.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about and select industrial transducer systems
2 Know about the operation and application of signal processing systems
3 Be able to examine a range of signal transmission and recording systems
4 Be able to select and use a range of equipment to test and calibrate instruments
on process plant.

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UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Unit content

1 Know about and select industrial transducer systems

System performance: accuracy; error; linearity; reliability; sensitivity; resolution;

range; static and dynamic characteristics eg dead time, time constant, hysteresis,
steady state
Transducer types and operation: pressure eg diaphragm capsule, bellows,
Bourdon tube, piezo-electric, manometers; level eg pressure gauges, DP cell
transmitters, purged dip pipes, capacitive probes, ultrasonic, nucleonic, load
cells, level switches; temperature eg thermocouples, metallic resistance
thermometers, thermistors; flow eg Venturi, orifice plate, Pitot static tube, DP
cell, conventional/smart electronic and pneumatic types, variable area, vortex,
ultrasonic; nucleonic analysers eg alpha, beta, gamma, neutron; speed eg
tachogenerator, radar; position eg linear/rotary potentiometer,
absolute/incremental digital encoder, Linear Variable Differential Transducer
(LVDT), resolver
Applications: selection of appropriate transducer in terms of process variable,
system performance, environment and constraints

2 Know about the operation and application of signal processing systems

Signal converters: resistance to voltage eg potential divider, Wheatstone bridge;

voltage to current; pressure to current; current to pressure; analogue to digital
eg counter type, integrator type
Signal conditioners: signal standards eg 4-20 mA, 1-5 V, 3-15 psi, 20-100 Kpa;
amplification eg simple op-amp arrangements, difference amplifier; attenuation;
lineariser eg square root extractor; filters eg low pass, high pass
Applications: selection of appropriate signal processing system to meet system
specification in terms of signal input and signal output

3 Be able to examine a range of signal transmission and recording systems

Transmission requirements: systems eg pressure transmission, analogue electrical

transmission, digital transmission; electrical standards eg RS232, RS422;
transmission devices eg multiplexers; selection of appropriate medium for
transmission
Recording and display devices: analogue meters eg voltmeter, ammeter, pressure
gauge; trend indicators eg hand held oscilloscope, chart recorder; computer
system eg Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA), Distributed Control
Systems (DCS); specifications eg acquisition time, update speeds, resolution

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 UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

4 Be able to select and use a range of equipment to test and calibrate

instruments on process plant

Selection and use of equipment: instrumentation specifications to determine the

system inputs and outputs (range, zero requirements, span); test and calibration
equipment eg multi-meters, oscilloscope, data acquisition system
Test and calibrate: calibration of process transmitters eg pressure, level,
temperature, flow, nucleonic, position, speed; calibration parameters
(component specification, system requirements); recording and presentation of
test and calibration results; calibration process eg standards, accuracy, methods,
documentation
Systems: process measurement eg vessel level, vessel pressure, air-flow supply in
a bubbler system, furnace temperature

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UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 define the terms relating to system M1 justify the choice of transducer to meet D1 evaluate the performance of an
performance a given specification industrial transmission and recording
system
P2 describe a transducer type and its M2 design a signal processing system to
operation for each of pressure, level, meet a given specification D2 document calibration results and
temperature, flow, nucleonic, speed and evaluate the overall error in the
M3 justify the choice of standard equipment
position process variables measuring systems based on the
for the calibration of given measuring
individual accuracies of each element in
P3 select a transducer to meet a given systems.
the system.
application
P4 describe the operation and application of
five different types of signal converter
used in process measurement
P5 describe the operation and application of
two common signal conditioning systems
that can be found within process
measurement
P6 identify and explain the signal
transmission requirements for two
different types of transducers

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 UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 select two common recording and display
devices that will meet given
specifications
P8 select the equipment required to test
and calibrate a given process
measurement system
P9 test and calibrate a given process plant
instrumentation system.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1205

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UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered as a stand-alone package or integrated with other units
within the qualification. Wherever possible, a practical approach should be adopted
in which the underpinning knowledge is consolidated using a structured programme
of laboratory and workshop practical investigations and demonstrations. It is
expected that learners will have access to industrial standard calibration and process
equipment. Whilst lectures and case study material can provide the underpinning
background knowledge, they should be used to support the practical activities and
not replace hands-on experience.
Learners could work on suitably constructed rigs which model real systems or be
encouraged to produce suitable evidence from their workplace.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for the first three pass criteria (P1–P3) could be produced
through a written report. After defining relative terms (P1) learners will need to
consider seven process variables (pressure, flow, level, temperature, nucleonic,
speed and position) and describe the performance and operation of a transducer for
each variable (P2). Learners could then be asked to select an additional transducer
that will meet the needs of a given application (P3).
Evidence for pass criteria P4–P7 could be produced through an assignment that asks
learners to describe the signal conversions required to enable five different
transducers to provide specific signal output types. These will include voltage,
current (from both voltage input and pressure input), pressure and digital (P4). Two
of these systems can require the signal outputs to be conditioned to a predefined
state. Typical specifications are ranged in the unit content. In each case learners
could be asked to identify and describe the operation of the signal conditioning
system (P5). The range of transducers that could be used for pass criterion P6 is
ranged under learning outcome 1. For each system learners could select an
appropriate display or recording device that will give a specific record and display
output (P7).
For pass criteria P8 and P9 assessment evidence could be produced through a
practical activity in which learners calibrate a given process measurement system.
Learners could produce a report on the practical activity that includes details of their
selection of calibration and test equipment and describes the physical calibration
procedure that was used. Observation records or witness statements could be used to
provide additional process evidence.

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Assessment evidence for M1 could come from an extension of the assessment report
covering pass criteria P1, P2 and P3. An additional task could ask learners to justify
their choice of the transducer selected for P1.
Assessment of M2 could be achieved through an extension to the assignment covering
criteria P4–P7. Learners could be asked to design a signal processing system to meet a
given specification. This may be in the form of a block, signal or circuit diagram.
For M3, evidence could be collected during the practical activity and report covering
criteria P8–P9. A written task or oral questioning could be used to ask learners to
justify their selection of equipment when undertaking the calibration of a given
process measurement system.
Assessment of D1 could be achieved through an extension of the assignment covering
criteria P1, P2, P3 and M1. Having selected and explained the choice of a signal
processing system, learners could be asked to include a given transmission system to
transmit the measured variable to a given recording device. Learners could then be
asked to evaluate the performance of the transmission and recording device through
a practical activity. This evaluation can be presented as a short evaluative report.
For D2, assessment evidence could build upon that gathered as part of the practical
task covering criteria P8, P9 and M3. Having calibrated a given process measurement
system, learners could be asked to fully document the calibration process using
industrial documentation standards. Within this documentation learners could
evaluate the calibration data and determine the overall system error performance
relative to known system parameters.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 46: Principles and Applications of Engineering Measurement
Systems and Unit 48: Industrial Plant and Process Control.
The unit will contribute skills, knowledge and understanding towards the evidence
requirements of several units within the Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance,
particularly:
• Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation and Control Systems
• Unit 42: Maintaining Environmental Control Equipment.
The unit also supports the following unit in the Level 3 NVQ in Installation and
Commissioning:
• Unit 24: Commissioning Instrumentation and Control Equipment and Systems.

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UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Essential resources

Industrial process measurement, calibration and test equipment is essential for this
unit. Learners should have access to a relevant workshop or laboratory facilities
including:
• industrial plant, rigs or system simulators
• signal processing hardware or simulation software
• signal transmission hardware
• data books and manufacturers’ specifications
• paper-based or IT-based data logging systems
• appropriate tools.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Anderson A — Instrumentation for Process Measurement (CRC Press, 1998)
ISBN 0849398711
Fraser R — Process Measurement and Control (Pearson Higher Education, 2000)
ISBN 0130222119

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 UNIT 110: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS MEASUREMENT

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing transducer types C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
and their operation least two documents about the same
subject.
• describing the operation and
application of different types Each document must be a minimum of
of signal converter used in 1000 words long.
process measurement C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
• describing the operation and each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
application of signal
conditioning systems that can One document must be at least 1000
be found within process words long.
measurement.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• selecting two common PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
recording and display devices ways of tackling it.
that will meet given PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
specifications solving the problem.
• selecting the equipment
required to test and calibrate
a given process measurement
system
• testing and calibrating a
given process plant
instrumentation system.

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 UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Unit 111: Industrial Plant and Process

Control
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Modern industrial plant would fail to operate effectively without appropriate process
control systems and methods. Engineers play a vital role in designing, installing and
operating such systems.
The aim of this unit is to introduce learners to the principles and techniques involved
in the control of industrial process plants. The methods of process control are
investigated, along with the industrial techniques that are employed to ensure that
plant is controlled to meet given specifications.
The unit starts by considering the basic principles of control in terms of open and
closed loop systems and the elements that are required as part of the loop. Further
areas of closed loop control are discussed and simple analysis techniques are
considered.
Having identified a control system the unit then considers the main controller types
that are available. Emphasis is placed on the widely used two step and three term
controllers. These controllers are examined in some depth with opportunities to
extend knowledge of controllers through standard tuning methods.
Modern large industrial process plants are controlled using hierarchical control
systems. This unit allows learners to consider hierarchical control strategies such as
supervisory control and distributed control systems. The philosophies of these
systems are discussed and reference to the physical structure is covered.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand basic process control concepts
2 Know about common modes of control and their effect on control system
performance
3 Be able to apply tuning methods to three term controllers to improve control
system performance
4 Know about hierarchical and advanced process control systems.

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Unit content

1 Understand basic process control concepts

System components: block diagrams; control loops eg open, closed; accuracy and
stability; elements eg detecting, measuring, comparing, controlling, correcting
Transfer functions: block diagrams; transfer functions for simple closed loop
systems derived; closed loop gain determined using derived transfer function;
block diagram reduction techniques
System characteristics: inherent regulation; time constant; initial reaction rate;
exponential growth and decay eg equations (simple first order) for process
systems, curves; lags eg transfer, distance velocity, dead time; measurement of
process dead time

2 Know about common modes of control and their effect on control system
performance

Two-step control and terminology: applications of two-step control eg

temperature control, level control; definition of two-step control; functional
attributes eg effect of process lag, overlap, effect of the degree of overlap on
process response
Three-term control and terminology: applications of three-term control eg flow
rate control, positional control; types of control (proportional (P), integral (I),
derivative (D), PID)
Three-term control parameters and system response: responses eg under P
control, under PI control, under PID control; parameters eg proportional band,
proportional gain, integral gain, integral action time, derivative gain, derivative
action time

3 Be able to apply tuning methods to three term controllers to improve control

system performance

Tuning methods: methods (process reaction curve, ultimate cycle, frequency

response); plant under three-term control eg flow rate control, positional control

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4 Know about hierarchical and advanced process control systems

Hierarchical control: pyramid of control, process instrumentation layer,

supervisory layer, management layer
Types of hierarchical control systems: applications of distributed control systems
(DCS) eg petrochemical, nuclear, paper mill; architecture of DCS; multi-loop
structure eg plant interfaces, process managers, operator stations, history
modules, control networks, management networks; applications of supervisory
control and data acquisition (SCADA) eg machine control, assembly line
production, sequential manufacture; architecture of SCADA eg remote terminal
units, programmable logic controllers, control networks, remote input/output,
supervisor stations
Advanced control: cascade control; feed-forward control (applications and
improvement of response time)

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1213

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UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the main system components of M1 design a block diagram of a single D1 evaluate the performance of a given
a given process control system closed-loop process control system to process control system.
meet a given specification in terms of
P2 explain the operation of a given process
transfer function and system
control system using block diagrams and
characteristics
transfer functions
M2 design and explain a structure for a
P3 identify and explain process control
hierarchical control system to meet a
system characteristics
given requirement.
P4 for a given application, describe the
functional attributes of a two-step
controller, using controller terminology
P5 describe an application of a three-term
controller and explain the meaning of
the four types of control
P6 record control system output responses
relating to various values of three-term
parameters

1214 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 use three tuning methods to improve the
performance of a plant under three-term
control
P8 explain the pyramid of control for
hierarchical control systems
P9 describe two types of hierarchical
control system
P10 explain how two types of advanced
control can improve plant performance.

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UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit may be delivered as a stand-alone unit or integrated with others in the
qualification. Wherever possible, a practical approach should be adopted in which
the underpinning knowledge is consolidated using a structured programme of
workshop practical investigations and demonstrations.
Industrial visits could be used to provide learners with opportunities to experience
industrial standard process control rigs and controllers.
Case study material can be used to support the lectures and provide an opportunity
to lead onto structured practical activities.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for pass criteria P1, P2 and P3 could be produced through a
written assignment. After describing the main components (P1) learners would then
need to consider a single closed-loop process control system and explain its
operation. Block diagrams and transfer function calculations should be used to aid
the explanation (P2). The use of simulation software within the assignment should
also be encouraged to identify the system characteristics of the single control loop.
Hard copy printouts using the simulation software could form part of the evidence for
P3 within the assignment.
Assessment evidence for pass criteria P4, P5 and P6 could be produced through a
combination of a practical assignment and written tasks that will enable learners to
describe the functional attributes of a two-step controller (P4) through a practical
application (eg the control of liquid level within a tank). The assessment could then
require learners to control liquid flow or shaft position (P5) and record the responses
of the system under three-term control.
Various three-term controller parameters should be used within the practical activity
and context given, and a report produced concluding on the various response results
(P6). The practical activity could be extended to include the tuning of a three-term
controller to improve the performance of the plant (P7). All three tuning methods
should be used and conclusions clearly stated identifying the most suitable technique
in terms of final system improvement.
Assessment evidence for pass criteria P8 and P9 could be produced through a written
assignment relating to case studies of hierarchical control systems. The assignment
could require learners to explain and describe the operation of given schematics of an
industrial SCADA and a DCS. Evidence for pass criteria P10 could also be considered
within the same assignment. Learners could be asked to consider a single loop within
one of the given hierarchical systems and provide a written explanation of how both
feed forward and cascade control can improve the performance of the loop.

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Assessment evidence for M1 is likely to be an extension to the assignment that covers

P1, P2 and P3. Learners could be asked to design a new control loop in block diagram
form to meet a given control specification. This specification can be addressed
through the design and identification of control system elements whose transfer
functions will contribute to an overall system transfer function. This type of activity
could be supported through the use of simulation software to confirm that the
specification has been met.
Assessment evidence for criteria M2 could be achieved through an extension to the
assignment covering criteria P8, P9 and P10. Learners could be asked to design a
hierarchical control structure to meet a given specification, in terms of plant size
and plant operation. This design may be in the form of a block diagram supported by
an explanation for the choice of system and constituent elements.
Assessment evidence for criteria D1 is likely to be achieved through an extension of
the assignment covering criteria P8, P9, P10 and M2. Learners could be asked to
evaluate the performance of a system that is controlling a given industrial process
plant. This evaluation will consider the operation and performance of the system and
learners could be requested to suggest improvements to both the structure and the
selection of control method.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit links to Unit 24: Industrial Process Measurement and Unit 46: Principles and
Applications of Engineering Measurement Systems and provides essential knowledge
for study at BTEC Higher National Level.
This unit can contribute skills, knowledge and understanding towards the evidence
requirements of several units in the SEMTA Level 3 National Occupational Standards
in Engineering Maintenance, particularly:
• Unit 27: Maintaining Process Controller Equipment within Engineered Systems
• Unit 39: Maintaining Process Control Systems
• Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation and Control Systems
• Unit 42: Maintaining Environmental Control Equipment.
The unit also contributes towards the knowledge and understanding of Unit 24:
Commissioning Instrumentation and Control Equipment and Systems within the
Level 3 National Occupational Standards in Installation and Commissioning.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1217

Engineering – Issue 1 – July 2008 © Edexcel Limited 2008
UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Essential resources

Learners should have access to a relevant workshop or laboratory facilities including:

• industrial plant, rigs or system simulators
• control system simulation software
• data books and manufacturers’ specifications
• process rig schematics
• appropriate tools.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bolton W — Instrumentation and Control Systems (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750664320
Boyer S — SCADA: Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (Instrumentation
Systems, 2004) ISBN 1556178778

1218 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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 UNIT 111: INDUSTRIAL PLANT AND PROCESS CONTROL

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing the main system C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
components of a given least two documents about the same
process control system and subject.
explaining the operation of a Each document must be a minimum of
given process control system 1000 words long.
using block diagrams and
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
transfer functions
each one giving different information
• explaining the pyramid of about complex subjects.
control for hierarchical
One document must be at least 1000
control systems and words long.
describing two types of
hierarchical control system
and explaining how two types
of advanced control can
improve plant performance.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• using three tuning methods PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
to improve the performance ways of tackling it.
of a plant under three-term PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
control. solving the problem.

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1219

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1220 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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 UNIT 112: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CONTROLLERS

Unit 112: Industrial Process Controllers

NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Control engineering plays an important role in ensuring that process plant and
machine controlled systems function correctly and with optimum performance. This
unit provides learners with an opportunity to gain knowledge and experience of the
industrial process controllers that are the main elements within a controlled system.
The unit starts with basic control and the comparison of common control
technologies and applications. It then proceeds to examine the traditional three-term
controllers that are still widely used in industry and the principles required to tune
and set up these controllers.
The unit then develops the knowledge and practical skills that are essential to
configure and program a programmable logic controller (PLC). Various instruction
types are described and learners will be required to write programs to perform a
range of control applications.
Learners will also gain a knowledge of fault finding techniques and tools and will be
able to write and fault find programmable logic controllers.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about control system types and their applications
2 Know about the operating principles and tuning of three-term controllers
3 Know about the types and operation of programmable logic controllers
4 Be able to write and fault find programmable logic controller programs.

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UNIT 112: INDUSTRIAL PROCESS CONTROLLERS

Unit content

1 Know about control system types and their applications

Control loops: open loop systems; elements of closed loop control (controller,
error, correction, process, measurement, comparator); signal flow diagrams
(transfer function, calculation of steady state error)
Control system types and applications: sequential control eg component sorting,
product assembly; continuous control eg flow, level, temperature, displacement,
velocity; batch control eg chemical mixing, bottling plant, brewery

2 Know about the operating principles and tuning of three-term controllers

Operating principles: proportional controller (proportional band, gain, steady

state error, rise time, overshoot); proportional-integral (PI) controller (Kp,
integral action time, integral gain, responses); proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) controller (kp, Ki, derivative action time, responses)
Controller tuning methods: process reaction curve eg level, velocity; ultimate
cycle eg flow, displacement; lambda eg paper mill, large holding tanks; adaptive;
auto tuning

3 Know about the types and operation of programmable logic controllers (PLCs)

Programmable controller types: unitary; modular; rack-mounted; selection to

meet specification eg application, cost, versatility
Operational characteristics: central processing unit (CPU) (Arithmetic Logic Unit
(ALU), flags, registers); input/output (I/O); memory organization; scanning
System hardware and software: specification of I/O units eg digital, analogue;
power supply; operating system; configuration of I/O; number systems eg binary,
octal, hexadecimal, binary-coded decimal (BCD)
External input and output devices: mechanical switches; relays eg
electromechanical, solid state; input transducers eg temperature, pressure, flow,
smart sensors; output devices eg motors, pumps, valves

4 Be able to write and fault find programmable logic controller programs

PLC programs: program applications eg on-off process control, washing machine,

traffic lights, conveyor control with component sorting
PLC instructions: ladder relay instructions; bit instructions; branches; timers;
counters; logical instructions; arithmetic instructions
Test and debug programs: software debug instructions; diagnostic indicators; data
monitors; search and force facilities

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe control loops in terms of their M1 select and apply an alternative tuning D1 analyse a given PLC control program and
individual elements method to that of a given method so as identify improvements that can be made
to improve the performance of a given to improve control system performance.
P2 determine transfer functions and values
process controller in terms of its system
for steady state error from closed loop
response
signal flow diagrams
M2 produce a structured design that will
P3 describe the three different control
minimise the code of an existing control
system types and identify an application
system whist maintaining existing
for each type
capability.
P4 describe the operating principles of a
three-term controller in terms of its
three constituent parts
P5 identify and describe an appropriate
tuning method for three different
applications

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 describe three types of PLC and select an
appropriate type to meet a given
specification
P7 describe the four main components that
identify the operating characteristics of
a PLC
P8 select system hardware and software
elements that will be required to meet a
given specification
P9 describe the four different types of
external input and output devices that
can be connected to a PLC for plant
control or monitoring
P10 write and document a PLC program using
the seven different instruction types that
will control a given application
P11 use common debugging tools to faultfind
a PLC program.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Wherever possible, a practical approach should be adopted when delivering this unit.
Ideally the underpinning knowledge would be consolidated using a structured
programme of laboratory and workshop practical investigations and demonstrations.
It is expected that learners will be exposed to industrial controllers or educational
equivalents.
The learning outcomes should be delivered in sequential order. Learning outcome 1
will provide learners with an introduction to control system types and applications,
providing the underpinning knowledge needed for the other learning outcomes.
Learning outcome 2 will enable learners to apply the knowledge gained in learning
outcome 1 through the use of three term controllers. Learning outcome 3 will give
learners an understanding of PLC architecture and operating characteristics essential
for writing PLC programs.
The range of equipment used should expose learners to both three term and
programmable logic controllers. Software simulators should be used where
appropriate, particularly to cover the breadth of controller application.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence for pass criteria P1–P3 could be produced through a written
assignment. The first part of the assessment could ask learners to describe, with the
aid of signal flow diagrams, the difference between an open loop and a closed loop
system (P1). The second part of this assessment could ask learners to calculate the
overall system transfer function of a given closed loop system (eg velocity control)
and then calculate the steady error using the transfer function result (P2). The final
part of the assessment could look at types of control systems in terms of application
(P3). For example a computer-controlled washing machine could be given and
learners asked to identify and describe the type of control system and the control
processes that will occur.
Pass criteria P4 and P5 could be assessed through a combined written and practical
assignment. This could ask learners to consider a given control system and determine
and describe the operating principles of the controller using practical investigations
(P4). As a second part of the assessment learners could be provided with three
different control systems. They could then be asked to select a tuning method for
each system and tune the controller to provide adequate control for each system.
Learners should record the controlled responses for each tuned system and describe
the appropriate method for each of the three different applications (P5).

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Evidence for pass criteria P6–P9 could be produced through a short research project.
Learners could be asked to research the types of PLC (P6), PLC operating
characteristics (P7) and PLC hardware/software (P8) that would be required to meet
a given specification. This specification could include information regarding system
type, I/O requirement, interface, software requirements and communication system.
The project report should include a description of the three types of PLC (unitary,
modular and rack mounted) and identify the most appropriate for the given
specification (P6).
The response for P7 should include a description of the four component parts listed in
the unit content of the operational characteristics (CPU, I/O, memory organisation
and scanning). The last part of the report should include the hardware and software
requirements to meet the given specification (P8).
A final task within the research project could ask learners to describe a mechanical
switch, a relay, an input transducer and an output device (P9) that could be part of
the selected solution for the given specification. The given specification needs to be
carefully thought through before it is given to learners to ensure that all pass criteria
can be evidenced.
A final assignment covering pass criteria P10 and P11 could be in the form of a
practical PLC workshop. Learners could be given access to a process rig and be asked
to identify the input and output devices found on the rig (eg sensors and motors) and
connect the PLC to these devices. It is important that these devices include a
mechanical switch, a relay, an input transducer and an output device as listed in the
unit content. Once the PLC is connected to the rig, learners could be asked to write,
document, debug and fault find a PLC program that will provide rig control (P10 and
P11). A witness statement/observation record may be the best way to record the
evidence for criteria P10 and P11 supported by annotated photographs and the
documented PLC program.
Assessment evidence for M1 is likely to collected as an extension to the assignment
covering criteria P4 and P5. Having selected a tuning method and tuned a process
controller for three different systems, learners could be provided with a given tuned
system with an identified tuning method. They could then be asked to select and
apply an alternative tuning method that will improve the original system response.
Criterion M2 could be achieved through an extension to the assignment covering
criteria P10 and P11. Having written a PLC program to meet a specification, learners
could be asked to redesign the program to meet a new specification that identifies
the maximum number of lines of code. This will require learners to produce an
elegant program structure. The program would still be required to meet
specification.
Assessment of D1 could be achieved through an extension of the assignment covering
criteria P10, P11 and M2. Learners could be asked to analyse the performance of a
given short PLC control program and identify improvements to the program operation
in terms of operating speed and memory use. Learners could then be asked to alter
the program and measure its performance against the original.

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit covers some of the knowledge and understanding associated with the SEMTA
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance, Unit 40: Maintaining Instrumentation and
Control Systems. It also supports the SEMTA Level 3 NVQ in Installation and
Commissioning, Unit 24: Commissioning Instrumentation and Control Equipment and
Systems.
The unit can also be linked to Unit 25: Selection and Application of Programmable
Logic Controllers.

Essential resources

Centres will need to provide access to process controllers, process rigs, data books
and manufacturers’ specifications.

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Bolton W — Instrumentation and Control Systems (Newnes, 2004) ISBN 0750664320
Bolton W — Programmable Logic Controllers (Newnes, 2006) ISBN 0750681128

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Staff should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• writing and documenting a PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
PLC program using the seven ways of tackling it
different instruction types PS3.2 Plan and implement at least one way of
that will control a given solving the problem
application
PS3.3 Check if the problem has been solved and
• using common debugging review your approach to problem solving.
tools to fault find a PLC
program.

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 UNIT 113: INSTALLING AND COMMISSIONING ENGINEERING EQUIPMENT

Unit 113: Installing and Commissioning

Engineering Equipment
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
The correct installation and commissioning of engineering equipment is a vital aspect
in preventing its failure at a later date. This unit gives learners an insight into how
both mechanical and electrical/electronic equipment is installed and commissioned.
Learners will have a chance to demonstrate their practical skills in installing and
commissioning a piece of engineering equipment used on an engineering system. The
system worked on can be from any of a variety of industry sectors, ranging from
traditional mechanical systems to one found in the medical sector.
Before an installation/commissioning engineer leaves the equipment in the hands of
its new owner, they need to ensure correct handover has taken place. The last part
of this unit will give learners the opportunity to show that they are aware and know
about this process.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know how to install and commission mechanical equipment
2 Know how to install and commission electrical/electronic equipment
3 Be able to install and commission equipment used on an engineered system
4 Know how to hand over an installation after commissioning an engineered system.

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Unit content

1 Know how to install and commission mechanical equipment

Installation procedure: procedures to include:

- pre-installation activities eg site accessibility, utilities availability, installation
consumables, documentation availability
- during installation activities eg adhering to risk assessment, COSHH and other
relevant safety standards, authority to carry out the installation activities,
providing safe access and working arrangements, safe isolation of services,
disposing of waste items in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner,
leaving the work area in a safe condition
- methods and techniques eg marking out of locating and securing positions,
drilling and hole preparation, fitting inserts, positioning equipment, aligning
equipment, levelling equipment, shimming and packing, fitting anti-vibration
mountings, securing by using mechanical fixings, applying screw fastening
locking devices
- using moving equipment eg slings, cranes, fork lift, portable lifting devices,
block and tackle, rollers/skates, hoists, jacks
- using instruments eg straight edges and feeler gauges, engineer’s levels, dial
test indicators, measuring instruments, plumb lines and taut wires, alignment
telescopes, laser equipment, self-diagnosis equipment
- making connections eg mechanical, electrical wired, fluid power, utility
service
- testing that the installation works
- checking and testing activities eg six point, half-split, input-to-output,
functional testing, self-diagnostics, emergent problem sequence, injection
and sampling, unit substitution
- completing relevant paperwork eg installation records, company specific
paperwork, job card
Types of mechanical equipment: eg machine tools, industrial compressors,
conveyors, turbines, elevators, processing plant, hoppers or large storage vessels,
lifting and handling equipment, engines, process control equipment

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Commissioning procedure: procedures to include:

- pre-commissioning activities eg site accessibility, checking installation, ensure
documentation is available
- using methods and techniques eg start-up procedures, confirming that the
equipment/system meets specifications, running equipment at the
recommended initial settings, checking for leaks during operations, making
sensory checks, running through the operating sequence, checking for correct
functioning, loading the system incrementally, making any necessary
adjustments to settings to achieve the specification parameters, conducting a
trial run of the equipment at full power/speed/flow, confirming that the final
product/process outcomes meet specifications, monitoring and recording
measurements and observations, shutting down/isolating the
equipment/installation to a safe condition
- using instruments/devices eg alignment, levelling, linear measuring, speed
measuring, multimeter, continuity tester, bleeding equipment, pressure
testing, flow testing, diagnostic aids, PLC/PC equipment
- completing relevant paperwork eg commissioning log/record, job sheet,
company specific paperwork, handover report

2 Know how to install and commission electrical/electronic equipment

Installation procedure: procedures to include:

- pre-installation activities eg site accessibility, utilities availability, installation
consumables, documentation availability
- during installation activities eg adhering to risk assessment, COSHH and other
relevant safety standards, authority to carry out the installation activities,
providing safe access and working arrangements, safe isolation of services,
disposing of waste items in a safe and environmentally acceptable manner,
leaving the work area in a safe condition
- methods and techniques eg marking out of location positions for
components/modules, positioning and securing of equipment and components,
securing by using mechanical fixings, securing by using masonry fixings,
drilling and hole preparation, levelling and alignment
- connecting to electrical supplies eg single phase, three phase, direct current,
low voltage (up to 115v), combination power circuits
- using test instruments eg multimeter, watt meter, voltmeter, ammeter,
insulation resistance tester, light meter, earth-loop impedance tester
- making cable terminations eg sealing and protecting cable connections,
making mechanical/screwed/clamped connections, soldering and de-
soldering, attaching suitable cable identification, routeing and securing wires
and cables, heat shrinking, crimping, stripping cable insulation/protection,
adding cable end fittings
- testing that the installation works

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- checking and testing activities eg six point, half-split, input-to-output,

functional testing, self-diagnostics, emergent problem sequence, injection
and sampling, unit substitution
- completing relevant paperwork eg installation records, company specific
paperwork, job card
Types of electrical/electronic equipment: module/components eg switchgear,
alarm devices, programmable controllers, power factor correction devices,
motors and starters, luminaries, panels or sub-assemblies, control devices,
communication equipment, cable connectors, encoders or resolvers, conduit, bus
bars, safety devices, emergency/standby batteries, overload protection devices,
sensors and actuators, electronic modules/units, trunking, tray work; cable types
eg mineral, armoured, data/communication, fibre optics, PVC, screened,
loom/harness
Commissioning procedure: procedures to include:
- pre-commissioning activities eg site accessibility, checking installation,
ensuring documentation is available
- methods and techniques eg start-up procedures, confirming
equipment/system meets specification, running equipment at recommended
initial settings, checking electrical integrity, making sensory checks, running
through the operating sequence, checking for correct functioning, loading the
system incrementally, making necessary adjustments to settings to achieve
specification parameters, conducting a trial run of the equipment at full
power/speed/flow, monitoring and recording measurements and observations,
shutting down/isolating the equipment/installation to a safe condition; using
instruments/devices eg multimeter, watt meter, voltmeter, ammeter,
insulation resistance tester, light meter, earth-loop impedance tester
- completing relevant paperwork eg commissioning log/record, job sheet,
company specific, handover report

3 Be able to install and commission equipment used on an engineered system

Installation activity: activities to include:

- methods and techniques eg marking out positions, drilling and preparing
holes, moving and positioning, aligning and levelling, shimming and packing,
fitting anti-vibration mountings, securing items
- using test instruments eg alignment devices, linear measuring devices,
electrical measuring equipment, fluid/power testing equipment,
instrumentation test equipment, PLC/PC test equipment
- checking and adjusting eg making visual checks of the installation for
completeness and freedom from damage, topping up fluid/oil reservoirs,
ensuring that all bolts are correctly torqued and locking devices are fitted to
fasteners, ensuring that all electrical connections are correctly made, earth
bonding is secure and connections covered, ensuring that all pipe connections
are correctly made, secure and leak free, ensuring that all moving parts are
guarded and clear of obstruction, checking that the system operates to the
installation specification, making sensory checks of the system

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- checking and testing activities eg six point, half-split, input-to-output,

functional testing, self-diagnostics, emergent problem sequence, injection
and sampling, unit substitution
- completing relevant paperwork eg installation records, company specific
paperwork, job card
Engineering system: equipment/components eg mechanical (such as machine
tool, processing plant, turbine engine, transfer equipment, heat and ventilation),
electrical/electronic (such as switchgear, distribution panels, motors, starters,
luminaries), fluid power (such as compressors, pumps, accumulators, filters,
regulators), process controller (such as PLCs, data communication links),
instrumentation and control (such as pressure, flow, temperature, speed,
weight), medical (such as cardiovascular, physiological monitoring and infusion,
anaesthetic and ventilation, medical imaging, mechanical and electromechanical
assistive technology)
Commissioning activity: activities to include:
- pre-start up eg checking for damage, correct positioning, correctly secured,
utilities operative, appropriate fluid levels, clear of obstructions, correct
labelling, guards, fences and safety systems operative
- methods, techniques and procedures eg running system (low speed), checking
for leaks, sensory checks, incrementally load, conducting trial run, monitoring
and recording measurements, shutting down and isolating
- using instruments eg devices (such as alignment, measuring), testing,
electrical measurement
- completing relevant paperwork eg commissioning log/report, corrective
action report, job sheet, customer-specific documentation, handover report

4 Know how to hand over an installation after commissioning an engineered

system

Handover procedures: run the installation; confirm all safety procedures are
working; give instructions eg modifications, unusual features, operating
instructions, service/maintenance requirements; handover documentation;
people involved eg commissioning engineer, maintenance supervisor,
production/process supervisor; complete all relevant paperwork eg job card,
installation and commissioning report, handover paperwork; confirm handover of
responsibility for the equipment

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe an installation procedure for a M1 explain the differences and similarities D1 explain the importance of correct
given type of mechanical equipment when installing mechanical and installation, commissioning and handover
electrical/electronic types of procedures.
P2 describe a commissioning procedure for
equipment, including safety
a newly installed given type of
considerations
mechanical equipment
M2 describe how a given piece of equipment
P3 describe an installation procedure for a
used on an engineering system was
given type of electrical/electronic
installed and commissioned.
equipment containing five different
modules/components and two different
types of cable
P4 describe a commissioning procedure for
a given newly installed type of
electrical/electronic equipment
P5 carry out an installation activity for a
given piece of equipment used on an
engineering system

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 carry out a commissioning activity for a
given piece of equipment used on an
engineering system
P7 describe how to hand over an
engineering system after installation and
commissioning.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

When delivering this unit tutors should ensure that learners have a sound
understanding of the underpinning installation and commissioning procedures before
starting the practical work in learning outcome 3.
The first two learning outcomes are about the knowledge required to install and
commission mechanical and electrical/electronic types of equipment. Equipment in
this sense is listed within the unit content and includes such things as conveyors or
pumps for learning outcome 1 and electrical/electronic equipment that contains both
a range of modules/components and cable types for learning outcome 2. An example
of a suitable electrical engineering system might involve switchgear, starter, cable
connectors, conduit and emergency/stand-by batteries, requiring both armoured and
PVC cable types. Learners need to understand that pre-installation and pre-
commissioning activities are important and support the limitation of risk.
The activities in learning outcomes 1 and 2 could be developed through a series of
workshop demonstrations underpinned by classroom discussion and teaching.
Handouts and recorded notes to support what learners have done or learned are also
important. Learners should be given an opportunity to work with or know about as
wide a range of mechanical and electrical/electronic types of equipment as possible.
Centres should try to ensure that learners become fully aware of any differences and
similarities between the mechanical and electrical/electronic activities. This should
also be kept in mind when carrying out practical work.
Learning outcome 3 is about being able to carry out installation and commissioning
activities for a simple piece of equipment used on a wider engineering system. This
piece of equipment should be simple and does not need to have both mechanical and
electrical/electronic requirements. However some of the engineering systems that
could be used, such as medical equipment, will have such a dual requirement.
When delivering learning outcome 4 centres should ensure that learners are aware of
all of the requirements of handover procedures listed in the unit content. Discussion
should also include reasons why hand over sometimes goes wrong and the causes of
this.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence can be generated through a variety of methods such as, assignments,

practical activities and in-class written assessments.

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To achieve a pass grade, learners must be able to describe installation and

commissioning procedures for both mechanical and electrical/electronic types of
equipment. They will also need to demonstrate, through a practical activity, that
they can install and commission a simple piece of equipment as used on an
engineering system. Finally, they need to demonstrate that they know how to hand
over an engineering system that has been installed and commissioned, although
actual handover is not required. The criteria associated with learning outcomes 1, 2
and 4 relate to equipment in its wider sense, whereas the criteria associated with
learning outcome 3 relate to simpler equipment that is likely to be found on more
complex engineering systems.
To achieve a merit grade, learners must show that they understand the differences
and similarities when installing mechanical and electrical/electronic types of
equipment, including safety considerations. They will also be able to describe how a
given piece of equipment used on an engineering system was installed and
commissioned. This piece of equipment and installation and commissioning could
relate to that carried out as a practical activity for some of the pass criteria
requirements.
To achieve a distinction grade, learners must show they understand the importance
of correct installation, commissioning and handover procedures.
This unit could be assessed through the use of three assignments. The first
assignment could cover the pass criteria associated with learning outcomes 1 and 2
(P1, P2, P3 and P4). Written tasks could be given that ask learners to describe an
installation procedure for a given type of mechanical equipment and describe a
commissioning procedure for a given newly installed type of mechanical equipment
(P1 and P2). Because the type of mechanical equipment is given, different learners
can be given different types of mechanical equipment according to their preferred
area. Whilst examples are given in the unit content, this list is not exhaustive.
A similar set of tasks could be given for P3 and P4. Whilst again there is freedom of
choice for the type of electrical/electronic equipment given, it must include five
different modules/components and two different types of cable.
For all four criteria evidence is likely to be in the form of a written response. If any
descriptions are given verbally then a very detailed record of this needs to be kept,
supported by a witness statement/observation record.
A second assignment could address criteria P5, P6, M1 and M2. Again, individual tasks
could be set to target each criterion. Physical resources need to be made available to
support the practical activity carried out for P5 and P6. Again, the given engineering
system can be based on the learner’s preferred area of work. Whilst examples are
given in the unit content this list is not exhaustive. Centres should not make the
practical task too complex.
Evidence for P5 and P6 is likely to be in the form of a witness statement/observation
record supported by supplementary records such as pre-start check sheets, annotated
photographs and completed documentation etc.
Further written tasks could be set to cover criteria M1 and M2. Responses and
evidence are likely to be in the form of a written report.

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The final assignment could address criteria P7 and D1. This could ask learners to
describe how to hand over an engineering system after installation and
commissioning (P7). This could be based on the practical activity carried out in the
second assignment. The assignment could also ask them to explain the importance of
correct installation, commissioning and handover procedures (D1). It is important
that this assignment is attempted last as it relies on understanding gained from the
other assignments and activities.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked to Unit 47: Engineering Process Plant Services and Operations.
It contributes towards the knowledge requirements for the following units in the
Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards for Installation and Commissioning:
• Unit 4: Handing Over and Confirming Completion of Installation or Commissioning
Activities
• Unit 5: Installing Mechanical Equipment
• Unit 6: Installing Electrical/Electronic Equipment
• Unit 7: Installing Equipment to Produce an Engineered System
• Unit 20: Commissioning Mechanical Equipment and Systems
• Unit 21: Commissioning Electrical/Electronic Equipment and Systems
• Unit 22: Commissioning Engineered Systems.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit will require access to a variety of instruments used in
installation and commissioning work along with relevant industrial standard
documentation. A range of both mechanical and electrical/electronic equipment
types are required, particularly engineering system equipment/components as listed
in the unit content.

Indicative reading for learners

Because of the diverse nature of this unit it is difficult to suggest particularly

relevant texts. However, the books listed support certain aspects relating to the
installation of electrical equipment.
Textbooks
Blaus J — Electrical Installations (Butterworth-Heinemann, 2005) ISBN 0435401998
Linsley T — Advanced Electrical Installation Work (Newnes, 2005) ISBN 0750666269

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing installation and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
commissioning procedures for least two documents about the same
a given type of mechanical subject.
and electrical/electronic Each document must be a minimum of
equipment 1000 words long.
• describing how to handover C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
an engineering system after each one giving different information
installation and about complex subjects.
commissioning. One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• carrying out an installation PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
activity and a commissioning ways of tackling it.
activity for a given piece of
equipment used on an
engineering system.

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 UNIT 114: FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

Unit 114: Function and Characteristics of

Railway Signalling Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the evolution of railway signalling
systems and their use within the railway system as a whole. This will include how
signalling developed into the various types in use today and will enable learners to
appreciate the foundations from which our modern day signalling technologies have
been derived.
Learners will gain an understanding of the way signalling is used to control train
movements and the various factors that influence the signalling used today. This will
include an understanding of the components that are controlled by a signalling
system as well as the physical parts that affect the signalling system itself. Learners
will explore the interface between the signalling system and those who have to use it
and the consequences of when it goes wrong.
The unit will also give learners an underpinning knowledge of the principles of safe
and high integrity systems, as they apply in the railway environment. This will
include the study of the system life-cycle for signalling equipment and the
application of various concepts used to ensure that system integrity is maintained.
Learners will gain an understanding of the many abbreviations and symbols used in
relevant railway documentation and how documentation is updated and controlled.
The unit also covers the various bodies that provide information and that control the
standards to which the rail industry is required to work.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Understand the railway as a system and the role of rail signalling systems within it
2 Understand the principles of safety and high integrity systems as applied to a
railway signalling system
3 Know the functions and characteristics of lineside signalling elements
4 Know the major sources and categories of controlled documentation, signalling
information, notation and terminology.

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UNIT 114: FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

Unit content

1 Understand the railway as a system and the role of rail signalling systems
within it

Historical landmarks for signalling: history of railway operations eg hand control

of movements, space interval, block system; signals eg fixed, colour light,
multiple aspect; multiple train movement; impact of speed
Scope of a signalling system: detection; separation of trains; use of points; route-
setting; signal formation and permanent way eg interface between ballast, track,
traction systems (electrification — catenary, third rail), train braking systems;
signalling and control methods eg staff and competence, rules and regulations
(control of train movements), capacity planning (headway, basis of timetable);
signalling and external interfaces eg level crossings, other infrastructure owners
Man-machine interface: the driver and signaller interface; warning and advisory
systems eg advanced warning system (AWS), train protection warning system
(TPWS), automatic train protection (ATP), accidents and preventive measures,
automation
Main lineside elements: eg control cabinets, signal posts/gantries, ground signals,
route displays (feathers, theatre boxes), power systems, illumination
systems/lamps

2 Understand the principles of safety and high integrity systems as applied to a

railway signalling system

Signalling system lifecycles: design; construction; commissioning; life span of

equipment; maintenance; repair; operation; decommissioning
High-integrity systems: principles eg fail-safe, wrong-side, right-side, failures,
resilience, graceful degradation; components of signalling system eg control
circuitry (logic control and computing systems), lamps/bulbs, relays
Application of principles throughout lifecycle: reliability, availability,
maintainability and safety (RAMS); concept of redundancy; inherent safety
characteristics; independent checks

3 Know the functions and characteristics of lineside signalling elements

Function of elements: relationship between points, signals, train detection,

communications and power; interfacing with signaller and driver
Consequences of failure/incorrect commissioning: concepts of protected and
unprotected failures; concept of as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)
Risks and mitigation: design and construction features; testing and
commissioning; preventive maintenance

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 UNIT 114: FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

4 Know the major sources and categories of controlled documentation,

signalling information, notation and terminology

Obtaining information: Government sources eg Her Majesty’s Railway

Inspectorate (HMRI), infrastructure controller (Network Rail national records
group); contractors (manufacturers’ operations manuals); professional bodies eg
Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), Institution of Railway Signal
Engineers (IRSE); role of IRSE licensing; Rail Safety and Standards Board (RSSB)
Railway Group Standards(RGSs); company standards and instructions eg
specifications, drawings and records
Document control: categories of documents eg signalling plans, content
identification; issue and distribution control, authorisations and signatures;
correction systems; feedback from site after alterations; change control eg asset
registers, management of versions (especially software), compatibility and
obsolescence effect
Signalling abbreviations, symbols and definitions: abbreviations eg Advanced
Warning System (AWS), Solid State Interlocking (SSI); symbols eg semaphore
signal, point machine, multiple aspect signal, ground signal; definitions eg vital,
non–vital

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the historical landmarks for M1 identify and describe the sequence of D1 analyse and evaluate the strengths and
signalling in the rail industry events as blocks of track are occupied weaknesses of a railway signalling system
and released as a whole explain and the compromise
P2 describe the scope of a signalling system
between safety and reliability
M2 explain the RAMS issues relating to
P3 explain the man-machine interfaces,
railway signalling elements D2 analyse and evaluate the concepts and
their problems and how they are
techniques of risk mitigation.
addressed M3 explain the need for personal
competence associated with
P4 define and describe the main lineside
documentation and change control.
elements of a typical railway signalling
system
P5 describe a signalling system lifecycle
from design to decommissioning
P6 explain the principles of high-integrity
engineering with reference to the
components of a signalling system

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 UNIT 114: FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 describe the application of principles
throughout the signalling lifecycle
P8 explain the function of elements,
consequences of failure and risk
mitigation for a given signalling
application
P9 describe how information is obtained and
the importance of documentation control
P10 identify and explain signalling
abbreviations, symbols and definitions.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

The underpinning knowledge for this unit is likely to be delivered in a classroom

environment allowing learners to gain a general overview of railway signalling
systems. It is essential that the person delivering this unit has first hand experience
of control systems and can relate the unit content directly to the railway
environment.
Although the unit content has been broken down for ease of reference, delivery
should concentrate on the integrative nature of all the elements of signalling.
Delivery should ensure that learners gain an overall understanding of signalling as an
integrated system, rather than just learning about any one element by rote. Safety,
the potentially catastrophic impact of systems failure and the importance of
effective signalling systems must be a continuous underlying theme throughout this
unit.
Some learners will be working in, or have experience of, railway installations and
tutors should make as much use of this prior knowledge as possible. Learners with
little knowledge of such systems should be encouraged to undertake a considerable
amount of self-study of relevant standards and handbooks. Wherever possible, site
visits should be arranged to ensure that all learners gain first hand experience and
begin to appreciate the scope, scale and complexity of railway signalling systems.
Video/internet footage may also be a useful way of illustrating the application of
signals and signalling systems.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

The learning outcomes of this unit are ordered logically and assessment is likely to
follow this order. However, as stated above, it is important that the assessment
instruments used do not fragment the learning but rather encourage an
understanding of the unit content as a whole. To achieve this, each assessment
activity could make clear in its introduction the relationship between the work being
undertaken for the set activity and the other assessment activities being used. This
could help learners appreciate the interrelationships between the learning outcomes
and the importance of signalling systems as a critical part of efficient and safe
operation of a railway system.
There are a number of possible assessment strategies, although the one described
below assumes the use of three assessment instruments, which may or may not be
interlinked with a common theme. Where a common theme is used then the
approach would be similar to an extended project but it is important to build in
points (as described below) to monitor progress and provide staged feedback.

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 UNIT 114: FUNCTION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

Because of the interrelationships between the four learning outcomes and the need
for a coherent approach to the unit content, testing or examinations are not
considered appropriate for this unit.
For learning outcome 1, learners will need to produce satisfactory evidence for P1,
P2, P3 and P4. This could be achieved through a single piece of work in the form of a
case-study. Learners would need to describe (within the context of the case study)
the historical landmarks for signalling in the rail industry (P1). Then (still within the
same context), describe the scope of a signalling system (P2) and explain the man-
machine interfaces, their problems and how they are addressed (P3). Finally, the
case-study should be chosen to ensure sufficient scope for learners to then define
and describe the main line-side elements of a typical railway signalling system (P4). A
case-study approach of this type would mean that individual learners could
investigate and prepare their evidence based on quite different sections of the
railway network, ensuring individual work. The assessment activity could also include
an opportunity for learners to address M1. Again, this could be set within the same
context as that used for the pass criteria.
In order to achieve learning outcome 2 learners will need to meet the requirements
of P5, P6 and P7. Once again, a single piece of work could be considered to cover all
of these criteria. It may also be beneficial to include P8 (and hence, learning
outcome 3) within the same piece of work. This would reinforce the
interrelationships between principles of safety and the functions and characteristics
of the line-side signalling elements.
To achieve P5 learners must be able to describe a signalling system lifecycle from
design to decommissioning. Their description should cover, for a given system, the
design, construction, commissioning, life span of equipment, maintenance, repair,
operation and decommissioning processes for that system. For P6, learners must
explain the principles of high-integrity engineering with reference to the components
of a signalling system. This should include the principles being applied and the
components of the signalling system.
Assessment of P5 and P6 could be set within the description carried out for P7. This
should include a description of the reliability, availability, maintainability and safety
(RAMS), concept of redundancy, inherent safety characteristics, and independent
checks for the systems considered. It would be a natural extension then for learners
to consider and explain the function of elements, consequences of failure and risk
mitigation for a given signalling application (P8). Once again, to ensure an integrative
approach, learners should also be encouraged to consider M2, D1 and D2 at this point.

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Learning outcome 4 is covered by P9 and P10. A single piece of work could again be
used to cover both criteria. For P9, learners must be able to describe how
information is obtained and the importance of documentation control. This should
include references to government sources, contractors (manufacturers’ operations
manuals), professional bodies, RSSB Railway Group Standards and company standards
and instructions. Learners’ understanding of document control should include the
various categories of documents (eg signalling plans, content identification, issue and
distribution control, authorisations and signatures), how documents are corrected,
feedback from site after alterations and change control methods. Finally, and as part
of their work with documents for P9, learners must identify and explain signalling
abbreviations and symbols for P10. M3 is a natural extension to the work undertaken
for P9 and P10 and there is an opportunity for learners to meet this within the same
assignment.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

The unit supports some aspects of the Level 3 National Occupational Standards in
Signal Engineering.
This unit may also be effectively linked with Unit 5: Electrical and Electronic
Principles, Unit 52: Electrical Technology and Unit 56: Installing, Commissioning,
Testing and Maintenance of Railway Signalling Systems.

Essential resources

There are no essential resources for this unit, however centres will find it difficult to
deliver this unit without access to either ‘live’ examples of relevant signalling
systems or at least suitable video footage. Centres will need to provide learners with
access to relevant sources and categories of controlled documentation and signalling
information.

Indicative reading for learners

Goddard E — Signal and Control within the Railway System (The 11th IET Professional
Development Course On Railway Signalling and Control Systems)
Kerr D and Rowbothan T — Introduction to Railway Signalling (IRSE Publications,
2001) ISBN 0902390139
Mitchell I — Mainline Signalling Control (The 11th IET Professional Development
Course On Railway Signalling and Control Systems)

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching, describing and C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
explaining aspects of railway least two documents about the same
systems and signalling. subject.
Each document must be a minimum of
1000 words long.
C3.3 Write two different types of documents
each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
One document must be at least 1000
words long.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning, researching and ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
presenting written sources, and multiple search criteria in at
assignments on railway least one case.
signalling systems,
ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
equipment and safety.
derive new information.
ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
text with image, text with number,
image with number.

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 UNIT 115: RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

Unit 115: Railway Infrastructure

Construction and Maintenance
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit will give learners an understanding of the stages involved in the planning,
construction and maintenance of railway infrastructure.
Learners will examine the preparatory phase of railway construction and will focus on
the legal and financial frameworks. This will include primary legislation, the funding
of new railways and the procedures for land acquisition.
Learners will also consider the type of earthwork activities that are required. They
will gain an understanding of site preparation and the processes that follow, such as
forming railway cuttings and embankments and dealing with drainage.
The design principles of different forms of railway construction (eg light and heavy
rail applications) will be covered, along with the respective construction methods,
materials and quality control methods.
Finally the unit will cover the processes used for track maintenance and the possible
defects that can arise. This includes the issues that affect maintenance such as
defects in the materials used and seasonal/environmental problems such as leaves on
the track, extremes of temperature and flooding. Learners will gain an insight into
the identification of railway infrastructure defects and the effective remedial
treatments to ensure an efficient operational railway.
The unit assumes no prior knowledge of the industry but learners would benefit most
if they are currently working in the railway industry (such as an apprentice) or a
closely related support industry. Alternatively, learners would need to gain access to
suitable railway construction sites to enable them to appreciate the scale, scope and
complexity of the subjects covered by this unit.

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Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner must:
1 Understand the preparatory activities required for the construction of railway
track infrastructure
2 Understand the scope of earthwork activities that may be undertaken in
association with railway track infrastructure
3 Understand the forms of construction and material specifications used in railway
track infrastructure
4 Understand track maintenance processes used to identify and correct defects in
railways.

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Unit content

1 Understand the preparatory activities required for the construction of railway

track infrastructure

Legal and financial framework: primary legislation eg Railways Act, regulations;

funding of new railways eg design, build, finance and operate (DBFO), private
finance initiative (PFI); procedures to acquire land eg compulsory, compensatory
New build or renewal development process: route considerations eg need for
service, number of tracks required, impact on the environment (noise, vibration,
aesthetic, pollution, sustainability), stability, infrastructure integrity, associated
structures (bridges, tunnels and level crossings); public consultation eg public
enquiries, protests, environmental regulation, parliamentary approval; health,
safety and welfare eg work force and public, legislation/regulations (Health and
Safety at Work Act, Construction (Design and Maintenance) Regulations), method
statements and safe methods of work, railway safety systems, industry standards
(Network Rail, Railway Safety and Standards Board); contract administration eg
legal process, selection of contract, contract conditions, methods of
measurement

2 Understand the scope of earthwork activities that may be undertaken in

association with railway track infrastructure

Earthworks project methodology: site preparation eg advance fencing, geological

survey, stripping topsoil, material disposal, haul road; cut and fill eg site specific
problems and solutions, use of explosives, borrow pits; embankment construction
eg suitable/unsuitable materials for fill, procedures and testing of soil properties
as work proceeds; treatment of weak areas eg stabilisation, replacement and
drainage techniques; ground water control eg methods of water table control
(including vegetation), stability of slopes; forms of subsoil drainage eg patterns
used, types of drainage (collector/carrier, open channel, use of interceptors,
typical cross sections used); disposal of collected water eg open channel,
soakaways, watercourses and drains via catchpits, discharge legislation
(Environment Agency)

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3 Understand the forms of construction and material specifications used in

railway track infrastructure

Design principles: forms of construction eg light/heavy rail, specification

selection (Network Rail (NR) Track Construction Standard SP/TRK 102); typical
forms of track eg cross-sections of track types, formation specifications, sand
blanket, geotextile; tunnels; walkways; track design considerations eg
conventional passenger speed, enhanced passenger speed, transitions, curves,
clearances, rolling stock; design standards eg Technical Specification for
Interoperability, Track Design Manual (NR/SP/TRK/049), Track Construction
Standard (NR/SP/TRK/102)
Construction methods: renewal methods and plant utilisation eg high output,
conventional; methods of maintaining gauge clearance and track position
(conventional and absolute track geometry); component fixity; stressing of rails;
consideration of associated structures
Materials and quality control: sampling and testing of materials and component
parts; product specification and approval processes; sustainable sourcing; waste
material disposal eg ballast disposal, track recycling systems

4 Understand track maintenance processes used to identify and correct defects

in railways

Maintenance issues: fatigue defects eg rail defects; seasonal/environmental eg

leaf fall, low/high temperature, snow, flooding; track component failure eg rail,
sleeper, fastening; instability of sub-grade or ballast
Identification of rail infrastructure defects: inspection eg visual, vehicles; high
speed testing/examination; review of outputs and application of maintenance
standards; special inspections eg bridges, tunnels; rail defect classification
Remedial treatments: replacement of failed components; weld repair; grinding;
leaf fall removal; remedial correction of defective ballast eg manual/mechanical
methods to stabilise weak sub-grade

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 UNIT 115: RAILWAY INFRASTRUCTURE CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe the legal and financial M1 evaluate the pre-production and D1 justify the pre-production, legislative
framework applicable to a project for a legislative processes that may be and earthworks processes that have been
new section of railway infrastructure required for a given rail infrastructure used for a given rail infrastructure
project project
P2 describe the development process
required for a new build or renewal M2 compare two given railway track D2 analyse a given rail infrastructure failure
within a railway environment earthworks projects and identify the root cause and effect of
the failure.
P3 describe the methodology used for a M3 explain the need for overall asset
railway track earthworks project, inspection, management, effects of
including the plant and equipment failure and the appropriate remedial
required for a standard track cross actions.
section
P4 explain the essential design principles
for track geometry

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Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P5 describe the construction methods for
initial placement and subsequent
maintenance activities to ensure track
position and geometry
P6 describe the materials and quality
control processes required to ensure the
provision of suitable and sustainable
track construction material and waste
material disposal
P7 describe the maintenance issues that
need to be considered to determine rail
infrastructure integrity
P8 explain how rail infrastructure defects
are identified and the prescribed
remedial action for each.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

It is likely that centres will deliver the learning outcomes in sequence. This will
ensure that learners gain an understanding of the preparatory activities required for
the construction of a railway track before going on to consider the scope of the
earthworks required, the design principles of railway track infrastructure and track
maintenance processes.
It is recommended that traditional teaching methods are combined with more
learner-centred investigations to encourage exploration of the subject. For example,
a case study/project might be used to explore the construction of a new section of
track from its initial preparation through to its commissioning and use. If possible,
case studies should be based on a site where learners are working, as this can add
significant vocational reality and relevance. In such cases, learners may need to
formulate and agree with their tutor the scenario and the terms of reference for the
case study/project.
Whatever delivery method is used, it is critical that learners gain an understanding of
the scale and scope of railway infrastructure, its construction and maintenance.
Although the use of video footage might help learners gain an appreciation of the
scale and complexity of such works, it is strongly recommended that each learner
gains at least some first hand experience on a working site. This may be achieved
through the learner’s work-based experience (eg apprenticeship) or through
organised site visits arranged by the centre. Such visits can be of great value and will
enable learners to appreciate the range and scale of typical tasks undertaken during
a railway new build, renewal or during maintenance operations.

Assessment

The approach to assessment will be very much dependent on the degree of access
that learners have to actual railway infrastructure construction and maintenance
activities. Where learners have access to ‘live’ sites, evidence could be generated
through work-based activities. Where this is not practicable a case-study, developed
through project style investigations could be used. Although it may be possible to
construct suitable test/examination type questions to meet the requirements of the
assessment criteria, this is not considered to be the best approach.

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For P1, learners must describe the legal and financial framework applicable to a
project for a new section of railway infrastructure. This needs to include reference
to the primary legislation that must be followed, the relevant funding required for a
new section of railway infrastructure and the procedures used to acquire land.
Learners must also describe the development process required for a new build or
renewal within a railway environment (P2). The choice of either new build or renewal
can be decided either by the learner or the tutor. If a new build is chosen, P2 could
be linked with P1. Otherwise, if the learner considers a renewal, a separate piece of
work would be needed for P2. The work associated with P1 and P2 should be linked,
where possible, with that for M1 and D1. The respective evaluation and justification
should be based on the legal, financial and development processes considered at pass
level.
Learning outcome 2 has only one related pass criterion, P3. To achieve this learners
must describe the methodology used for a railway track earthworks project including
the plant and equipment required for a standard track cross section. Although only a
single criterion, the range of content to be covered will make this a substantial piece
of work. The description will need to refer to site preparation, cut and fill
operations, embankment construction, treatment of weak areas, ground water
control, forms of subsoil drainage and disposal of collected water. For each of these,
learners must also consider the plant and equipment required. Linking this criterion
with M2 (comparison of two railway track earthworks) may provide more scope to
cover all the content by examining two earthwork projects rather than trying to do
this through the investigation of just one.
P4, P5 and P6 cover learning outcome 3. Centres may choose to design a single
assessment activity based on a given section of railway track to cover all three
criteria. To achieve P4, learners must explain the essential design principles for track
geometry including the form of construction, form of track, track design
consideration and use of relevant design standards. For P5, they must describe the
construction methods for initial placement and subsequent maintenance activities to
ensure track position and geometry. Finally, for P6, learners must describe the
materials and quality control processes required to ensure the provision of suitable
and sustainable track construction material and waste material disposal.
P7 and P8 relate to learning outcome 4, and require learners to examine the
maintenance processes used for railway infrastructure. These also link to M3 and D2
and centres should consider the design of the assessment instrument used to ensure
that all four criteria are achieved through a single assessment activity. To achieve
P7, learners must describe the maintenance issues that need to be considered to
determine rail infrastructure integrity. This must cover all the maintenance issues
included in the respective content section - fatigue defects, seasonal/environmental
issues and track component failure. This can be done as part of the learner’s
explanation of how rail infrastructure defects are identified and the prescribed
remedial action for each (P8). This should include inspection methods, high speed
testing/examination, review of outputs and applications of maintenance plus the
related remedial treatments. This work can be further developed to achieve M3
through an explanation of the need for overall asset inspection and management that
recognises the effects of failure and remedial actions. Finally, a ‘what if’ type
scenario could be used for analysis of a given rail infrastructure failure and
identification of the root cause and effect of the failure (D2).

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Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

Qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit can be linked with Unit 49: Function and Characteristics of Railway
Signalling Systems and Unit 56: Installing, Commissioning, Testing and Maintenance
of Railway Signalling Systems.

Essential resources

There are no major essential resources for this unit, however, centres will find it
difficult to deliver this unit without access to either ‘live’ construction and
maintenance sites or at least suitable video footage. Centres will need to provide
access to relevant legislation/regulations and design standards for reference.

Indicative reading for learners

Selig E and Waters J — Track Geotechnology and Substructure Management (Thomas

Telford Ltd, 1994) ISBN 0727720139

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• gathering information on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from at
railway infrastructure least two documents about the same
construction and subject.
maintenance procedures and Each document must be a minimum of
practice 1000 words long.
• describing the legal and C3.3 Write two different types of documents
financial frameworks, each one giving different information
development processes and about complex subjects.
methodology, etc. of railway
One document must be at least 1000
infrastructure construction words long.
and maintenance.

Information and communication technology Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• searching for information on ICT3.1 Search for information, using different
railway infrastructure sources, and multiple search criteria in at
construction and least one case.
maintenance procedures and ICT3.2 Enter and develop the information and
practice derive new information.
• preparing and presenting ICT3.3 Present combined information such as
information on the legal and text with image, text with number,
financial frameworks, image with number.
development processes and
methods of railway
infrastructure construction
and maintenance.

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Unit 116: Installing, Commissioning,

Testing and Maintenance of
Railway Signalling Systems
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
This unit is designed to give learners an understanding of railway signalling systems
and the stages required to maintain these systems in an operational state. Learners
will look at the functions of the various sub-systems that make up the signalling
system and will gain an understanding of the system’s life-cycle, from design through
to construction, installation, testing and maintenance. The impact of other systems
on the signalling system will also be explained.
The unit will give learners an opportunity to use the tools and instruments associated
with railway signalling and learners will consider the limitations of such equipment in
relation to system maintenance requirements.
A main focus of the unit will be to ensure that learners appreciate the implications of
scheduling signalling work on the railway track. Specifically, it will introduce learners
to safe systems of working for both individuals and teams.
The unit will also introduce learners to the principles of signal design and how to use
specific tools in the design process. This will be applicable to the various types of rail
operations such as heavy rail, metro and light rail.

Learning outcomes
To achieve this unit a learner must be:
1 Understand the sub-systems and components of the main lineside equipment
types
2 Be able to use railway signalling maintenance and testing equipment
3 Understand how safe working procedures apply to signalling equipment operations
4 Understand signalling design processes.

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Unit content

1 Understand the sub-systems and components of the main lineside equipment

types

Lineside equipment types: heritage systems eg mechanical signalling, lever

frames, semaphore signals, block instruments, single line instruments; points;
signals; relay interlocking; computer-based interlocking; vital radios; track
circuits; axle counters; balises; train protection and warning; train control
systems
Structure and design: functional elements of signalling system; reliability,
availability, maintainability and safety (RAMS) characteristics; use of schematic
illustration (block diagrams)
Construction and implementation: choice of materials, ‘fail-safe/right-side’
properties; circuit design; evolution based on accidents and lessons learned
Installation, testing and commissioning: independent check (consequences of
poor techniques or procedures); formal procedures eg hand over, licensing of
organisations/individuals, routines and procedures to check compliance (go-live
procedures)
Maintenance and repair: effects of intrusive testing; potential impact of testing;
difference of working on new installations and live signalling systems
Related systems and effects: level crossing principles and types eg fully
automatic, half barrier, closed circuit TV; hot axle box detectors;
electromagnetic interference (EMI); electromagnetic compatibility (EMC); impact
on systems eg alternating and direct current, immunisation; silver migration;
insulation degradation

2 Be able to use railway signalling maintenance and testing equipment

Types of railway signalling maintenance and testing equipment: multi-meter,

AWS flux-meter; Megger test instrumentation; track circuit shunt box; point
gauges; crimping tools; torque wrench; data recorder; SSI error rate detector;
LED light measuring tool
Precautions in use: purpose and limitations eg precision, accuracy, consistency
and tolerances; effect on the system of introducing the instrument; adjusting tool
settings; instrument ranges; competence and certification requirements for
instruments eg heat shrink gun, crimping tool; interpreting and recording results
eg orders of magnitude, significance, recording methods
Care: calibration and testing eg standards and calibration frequencies,
preservation of performance; damage and its avoidance; identifying tool or
instrument failure

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 UNIT 116: INSTALLING, COMMISSIONING, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

3 Understand how safe working procedures apply to signalling equipment

operations

Safe methods of working (SMOW): formalities and practicalities of SMOW;

personal and system safety eg role of controller of site safety (COSS), personal
track safety (PTS) competence; taking and giving up ‘possessions’ (railway
infrastructure); appreciation of plan of works eg safety implications of time,
people, materials
Testing methods, records and personal accountability: correlation of records to
actual site installation; testing and commissioning plans and procedures eg use of
standard technician handbooks; records and correct completion of mandatory and
company records; personal accountability eg competence and certification on
specific equipment, procedures for independent checks, signatures and
authorisations

4 Understand signalling design processes

Stages of signalling system design process: planning eg scheme plans, layouts,

control tables, circuit drawings; implementation eg choice of equipment,
appropriateness of design to size of installation; applications eg heavy rail,
metro, light rail
Components of a control table: the components that make up a control table eg
signal positioning, sighting distances, relationships between line speed and signal
spacing; effect of gradients; effect of junctions

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe an application of each type of M1 compare the elements, implementation, D1 analyse the factors affecting the
lineside equipment installation and testing of two different integrity of signalling systems and any
signalling systems interrelationships
P2 explain the structure and design of a
signalling system using a block diagram M2 explain the consequences of using D2 justify the design of a signalling system
approach inappropriate tools/equipment in terms of its application.
P3 describe the principal elements of M3 describe the interdependencies between
construction and implementation of a the installation, testing and
signalling system commissioning processes.
P4 explain the installation, testing and
commissioning a of signalling system
P5 describe the principle processes of
maintenance and repair
P6 describe and explain an application of
each of the range of related systems and
the effects that may impact on each
system

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 UNIT 116: INSTALLING, COMMISSIONING, TESTING AND MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAY SIGNALLING SYSTEMS

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 use three different types of railway
signalling maintenance and testing
equipment and describe their purpose,
the precautions in use and care for each
P8 explain the need for safe methods of
working when working on signalling
equipment
P9 explain the need for testing methods,
records of work and personal
accountability when working on
signalling equipment
P10 describe the stages of a signalling system
design process for a given application
P11 describe the component parts of a
control table and the sources from which
these are drawn.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

This unit is likely to be delivered predominantly in a classroom environment allowing

learners to gain an overview of signalling systems procedures. However, for learning
outcome 2 learners will require access to a suitable workshop so that they can work
with and railway signalling maintenance and testing equipment.
Before starting this unit learners should have already completed Unit 49: Function
and Characteristics of Railway Signalling Systems, or have sufficient background
knowledge form their own industrial experience with railway signalling. It is the
responsibility of the centre to ensure that learners have sufficient underpinning
knowledge and experience before undertaking this unit. Learners with little
knowledge of such systems will need to be encouraged to undertake a considerable
amount of self-study of relevant standards and handbooks.
Although the unit content has been broken down for ease of reference, delivery
should concentrate on the integrative nature of all the elements of signalling.
Delivery should ensure that learners gain an overall understanding of signalling as an
integrated system, rather than just learning about any one element by rote. Safety,
the potentially catastrophic impact of signalling systems failure and the importance
of effective signalling systems must be a continuous underlying theme throughout
this unit.
Although this unit could be delivered as a stand-alone package, it would also benefit
from being integrated with other electrical and railway units to achieve a more
holistic approach for the learner’s study.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

A variety of assessment methods could be used for this unit. However it is

recommended that centres try and apply a ‘hands-on’ approach and should consider
the best way of capturing work-based evidence where available.
Learning outcome 1 has six pass criteria (P1–P6) relating to it and as such acts as a
foundation for the other learning outcomes.
For P1 learners need to describe an application of each type of lineside equipment.
This must include at least one heritage system plus the remaining systems listed in
the unit content. Although this could be achieved through a stand-alone test, ideally
it would be covered in a more integrative way.

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The remaining criteria relating to learning outcome 1 (P2–P6) could be combined into
one assignment that first requires learners to explain the structure and design of a
signalling system using a block diagram approach (P2). Then, for that signalling
system, they should describe the principal elements of construction and
implementation (P3). Learners could then explain the installation, testing and
commissioning of the same signalling system (P4) and describe the principle processes
of maintenance and repair (P5) within the context of the system being considered.
Finally, they could describe an application of each of the range of related systems
(that would more than likely be integral to the system considered anyway) and the
effects that may impact on each system. M1 can be effectively linked with the work
for P3 and P4 and the assignment should provide an opportunity for learners to
achieve this merit criterion.
P7 relates to learning outcome 2. In order to achieve this learners need to carry out
relevant practical work that enables them to use three of the items listed in the unit
content (ie multi-meter, AWS flux-meter, Megger test instrumentation, track circuit
shunt box, point gauges, crimping tools, torque wrench, data recorder, SSI error rate
detector, LED light measuring tool). Any three items would be sufficient, although
ideally the evidence would include both maintenance and test equipment. For
example, it is recommended that a single piece of maintenance equipment is
selected (eg crimping tool) and two test instruments (eg multimeters and point
gauges).
More critical than the choice of items used, is the context within which they are used
and the clarity with which learners explain the purpose, precautions in use and care
of each item. As a minimum, learners should include the purpose and limitations,
effect on the system of introducing the instrument, adjusting tool settings,
instrument ranges, competence and certification requirements for instruments and
interpreting and recording results. They should also be able to describe and explain
calibration and testing procedures, typical damage and how it can be avoided and
identify typical tool or instrument failures. Again, these should be relevant to the
piece of equipment.
P8 and P9 relate to learning outcome 3. A case study may be the most appropriate
form of assessment for this learning outcome. Wherever possible, centres should
consider whether work-based evidence could be used for this criterion. M2, which
also relates to SMOW, could be effectively linked with the work done for P8.
P10 and P11 relate to learning outcome 4 and ideally would be assessed together
through one assessment activity. For P10, learners must describe the stages of a
signalling system design process for a give application. This must include the planning
and implementation issues for a given application (eg heavy rail, metro, light rail).
The term ‘given’ is this context is intended to mean one of the three or similar
applications, but it can be chosen by the tutor or the learner.
P11 requires learners to describe the component parts of a control table and the
sources from which these are drawn. Their evidence should include, for a given
control table, a description of all the relevant components (eg signal positioning,
sighting distances, relationships between line speed and signal spacing) and the
effect of gradients and junctions. The control table used could be chosen by either
the centre or the learner. In either case, the control table must allow all the content
to be covered. In terms of the quantity of assessment evidence for this last criterion,
the control table should typically deal with at least all of the components listed as
examples in the unit content (plus cover at least one gradient and two junctions.

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Although there are opportunities to integrate assessment of the merit and distinction
criteria into that covering the pass criteria, it may be as well to have separate pieces
of work that the learner presents for evidence. The merit criteria require learners to
bring together the individual parts of the unit by considering the elements,
implementation, installation, testing and commissioning of a signalling system as a
whole. The work done for M1 could be used as the main focus through which the
other two merit criteria could also be met.
The work for the merit criteria may also provide scope for achievement of D1 and D2,
although again it may be that a specific piece of work/research is used to meet the
requirements of each individual criterion. It is important however, that irrespective
of the approach taken, evidence for the merit and distinction criteria should
demonstrate that learners are capable of careful, thorough and coherent thought
with respect to the railway signalling applications considered.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit supports some aspects of the Level 3 National Occupational Standards in
Signal Engineering, particularly:
• Unit 3: Determine requirements for safe access to work locations for signal
engineering
• Unit 8: Carry out planned preventative maintenance of signalling equipment
• Unit 13: Conduct specific testing of signalling assets.
The unit may be linked with other BTEC National units including Unit 5: Electrical
and Electronic Principles, Unit 49: Function and Characteristics of Railway Signalling
Systems and Unit 52: Electrical Technology.

Essential resources

Learners will need access to real or demonstration signalling equipment, sub-systems

and components. Centres must also provide access to a range of railway maintenance
and testing equipment and relevant suitable documentation.

Indicative reading for learners

Nuck O — Railway Signalling (IRSE Publications, 2001) ISBN 0902390155

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Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• researching information on C3.2 Read and synthesise information from
the construction of signalling two extended documents about a
equipment, correct use of complex subject. One of these documents
tools and equipment and should include at least one image.
signalling system design C3.3 Write two different documents about
processes, etc complex subjects.
• writing their reports to One piece of writing should be an
describe or explain signalling extended document and include at least
applications. one image.

Information technology level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• planning, researching and IT3.1 Plan, and use different sources to search
collecting information on for, and select, information required for
railway signalling two different purposes.
applications IT3.2 Explore, develop and exchange
• preparing their reports on information, and derive new information
railway signalling to meet two different purposes.
applications. IT3.3 Present information from different
sources for two different purposes and
audiences.
Your work must include at least one
example of text, one of images, and one
example of numbers.

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 UNIT 117: STOCK PREPARATION AND MILL SERVICES FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE

Unit 117: Stock Preparation and Mill

Services for Paper Manufacture
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
Paper manufacture requires the processing of raw materials such as wood pulp, water
and chemicals in order to produce the final product. A knowledge of these different
materials and the treatments and properties used to prepare them for papermaking is
important for anyone wanting to work in the paper manufacturing industry.
This unit is concerned with the principles involved in manufacturing pulp from wood
and preparing papermaking stock from fibrous raw materials. Apart from wood and
lesser fibre sources, it covers the reclamation of papermaking fibres from
wastepaper, pointing out the benefits and disadvantages and developing solutions to
the latter.
The unit also covers the use and treatment of freshwater and the way that solid and
liquid effluents are treated before discharge into the local environment.
The unit will provide learners with an understanding of the plant and processes
involved and how these interact along the process line to influence the subsequent
papermaking process and the final product quality.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about fibrous raw materials used in pulping and papermaking processes
2 Understand the major pulping processes used to prepare fibrous raw materials for
subsequent papermaking operations
3 Know about the operations involved in papermaking stock preparation
4 Understand the operations involved in treatment of source water and effluent.

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Unit content

1 Know about fibrous raw materials used in pulping and papermaking processes

Fibrous raw materials: wood morphology; non-wood fibres; fibre characteristics

eg chemical properties (such as lignin, cellulose, hemi-cellulose, extractives),
physical properties (such as hardwood, softwood, fibre length, strength, density,
flexibility, coarseness), secondary fibre (such as sources, contamination, bonding,
strength development)
Cellulose fibre: internal structure eg middle lamella, primary, secondary, tertiary
walls; description of cellulose and hemi cellulose eg chemical structure,
crystalline, amorphous

2 Understand the major pulping processes used to prepare fibrous raw materials
for subsequent papermaking operations

Mechanical processes: stone ground wood; thermo-mechanical pulp; pressure

mechanical; chemical addition; unit operations and process control methods eg
temperature, pressure, time, flow, consistency; environmental and economic
impacts
Chemical processes: chemicals used; sulphate pulping; sulphite pulping; soda
process; semi-chemical processes; unit operations; chemical recovery; process
control methods eg temperature, pressure, time, flow, consistency, chemical
strength; environmental and economic impacts
Secondary fibre: waste-paper collection; grading; contaminant removal and
quality control methods eg density, size, orientation, thermal, chemical;
environmental and economic impacts

3 Know about the operations involved in papermaking stock preparation

Components: pulping; cleaning; screening; fractionation; refining; blending

dispersion; ink removal; thickening; chemical treatments and additions
Functions and principles: stock characterisation including physical (such as
consistency, freeness, strength, burst, tear), optical (opacity, brightness, dirt)
and chemical (Kappa number, viscosity); stock preparation equipment eg pulpers,
de-inking cells, centrifugal cleaners, pressure screens, disperger, hollander
beaters, disc refiners, conical refiners, mixers; contaminant removal methods eg
density, size, shape, chemical response, thermal response, electrostatic response
Secondary fibre: waste-paper collection; grading; contaminant removal and
quality control methods eg density, size, orientation, thermal, chemical;
environmental and economic impacts

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4 Understand the operations involved in treatment of source water and effluent

Treatment methods: eg sedimentation, coagulation, filtration, ion exchange, pH

adjustment, chemical methods, biochemical methods, sound abatement
Source water: sources eg borehole, river, surface, artesian; characteristics eg
organic and inorganic contaminants, temporary and permanent hardness,
hydrogen ion concentration (pH), suspended material and mineral content
Effluent control: measurements eg biological oxygen demand (BOD), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), pH, toxicity, turbidity, nitrogen compounds (NOx), sulphur
compounds (SOx), sound intensity (dB); light pollution; emission limits;
measurement of effluent condition

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Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describes the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 identify and describe the fibrous raw M1 explain the differences in fibre D1 evaluate and explain the environmental
materials used in pulping and characteristics resulting from hardwoods and economic benefits of chemical
papermaking and softwoods for mechanical and recovery for a Kraft pulping process
chemical pulping processes
P2 describe the internal structure of a D2 compare and contrast different stock
cellulose fibre M2 describe the influence of pulping method beating and refining methods used to
on the stock characterisation properties achieve desired stock physical and
P3 describe the mechanical and chemical
of the pulp fibres optical properties.
processes used to pulp wood for use as
papermaking fibres M3 compare and contrast the contaminant
removal methods used in the stock
P4 identify and describe the processes
preparation of secondary fibre.
involved in collection and sorting of
secondary fibre
P5 describe the components, functions and
principles of a stock preparation plant
P6 explain the treatment methods used to
purify source water for papermaking
processes

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 UNIT 117: STOCK PREPARATION AND MILL SERVICES FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P7 identify and describe effluent control
and treatment methods for mill process
water before release to receiving
waters.

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Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should enhance the learning experience through the use of
meaningful practical exercises, mill visits and laboratory exercises. The emphasis
should be on developing the learners’ ability to link the various stock preparation
processes to the overall strategies of the papermaking process.
The content of the learning outcomes has been designed to reflect the likely learning
support time spent on them. Learning outcomes 1 and 2 will probably each require
around a third of the overall learning support time dedicated to the unit, the remaining
third of the time being divided equally between learning outcomes 3 and 4.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Assessment evidence may be generated through formal assignments, laboratory

activities and in-class written assessment activities. The pass grade specifies the
minimum acceptable level required by the learner to cover all the learning outcomes
and assessment criteria. Achievement of a merit or distinction grade will require
evidence that reflects the increased breadth and depth of understanding laid down in
the grading criteria.
To achieve a pass, learners must be able to describe the characteristic physical
properties of papermaking fibres and understand the chemical constituents of
papermaking fibres. They must also be able to describe the pulping processes used to
extract papermaking fibres from the natural source.
Learners must also be able to describe the components, functions and principles of a
stock preparation plant and the parameters that need to be controlled in contaminant
removal, purification and the removal of effluent from a papermaking mill.
To achieve a merit, learners must be able to differentiate the fibre characteristics
resulting from hardwoods and softwoods for mechanical and chemical pulping methods.
They must also be able to describe how different pulping processes influence the
character and papermaking potential of fibres. Additionally, they should be able to
analyse and justify methods of separation used to remove contaminants in the recovery
of secondary fibre for reuse as a papermaking raw material.
To achieve a distinction, learners must consider the environmental and economic
benefits of chemical recovery for a Kraft pulping process and evaluate of process
parameters linking refining strategies to optimum paper quality.

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 UNIT 117: STOCK PREPARATION AND MILL SERVICES FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit should be delivered before Unit 58: Paper Manufacturing Processes and
Techniques.
This unit may be used to provide part of the underpinning knowledge for the Process
Awards Authority’s Advanced Certificate in Paper Technology at Level 3.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit will require access to a variety of wood and pulp samples
and, preferably, opportunities for these to be seen in typical industrial environments.
This could be effectively achieved through a range of mill visits
(eg recycling sites, virgin fibre sites, stock preparation facilities, effluent treatment
facilities and chemical laboratories).

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Biermann C J — Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking (Academic Press, 1996)
ISBN 0120973626
Smook G A — Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technology (Atlantic Books, 1996)
ISBN 0969462816

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UNIT 117: STOCK PREPARATION AND MILL SERVICES FOR PAPER MANUFACTURE

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• describing chemical and C3.3 Write two different types of documents,
mechanical pulping processes each one giving different information
about complex subjects.
• explaining the treatment
methods used to purify water One document must be at least 1000
words long.
• identifying and describing
effluent control and
treatment methods.

Problem solving Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the following

key skills evidence:
• explaining the treatment PS3.1 Explore a problem and identify different
methods used to purify ways of tackling it.
source water.

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 UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Unit 118: Paper Manufacturing Processes

and Techniques
NQF Level 3: BTEC National
Guided learning hours: 60

Note: references to page numbers and links to other units within this unit relate
to the source specification and not this qualification.

Unit abstract
From ancient Egyptian papyrus to the invention of the continuous paper making
machine, paper has been manufactured for thousands of years. Modern paper
manufacturing techniques now enable a wide range of paper products to be made
with uses in all aspects of modern life.
This unit is concerned with the principles involved in the manufacture of paper from
pulp and chemicals to the finished product. It covers the transition from the
prepared stock to paper, surface treatments that may be applied to the paper and
converting processes used to make the end products.
The unit will provide learners with an understanding of paper web structures and the
plant and processes involved in modern industrial papermaking and how these
interact. Learners will gain the underpinning knowledge needed to operate and
optimise the performance of paper manufacturing plant.

Learning outcomes
On completion of this unit a learner should:
1 Know about web structure characteristics and end-product properties
2 Understand papermaking, finishing and converting processes
3 Know about papermachine parameters and web structure control
4 Know about paper testing methods and how they are used.

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UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Unit content

1 Know about web structure characteristics and end-product properties

Web structure and end-product properties: origins of papermaking eg origins in

China and Egypt and industrial developments — Fourdrinier, Donkin, continuous
papermaking process and large-scale production methods; physical properties eg
endurance, printability, waterproofing, stiffness, strength, extensibility,
absorbency, hygiene, toughness, flexibility, cleanliness; appearance eg
smoothness, gloss, whiteness, brightness, colour and web structure eg caliper,
density, bulk, openess, formation, two sidedness, fibre orientation, MD/CD
Paper products: eg printing and writing, newsprint, packaging, tissue, board,
speciality and industrial papers

2 Understand papermaking, finishing and converting processes

Process steps: cleaning; screening; approach flow; paper forming; pressing;

drying; short circulation; backwater systems; headbox; wire section; dewatering
elements; press configurations; vacuum systems; clothing; rolls; doctors; steam
systems; condensate handling; hooding; dryer configurations; drive components
Chemical additives: process control additives eg retention control, drainage aids,
defoamers, wet strength, starch, biocides, hydrogen ion concentration (pH);
product quality additives eg brightening agents, dry strength, dyes, adhesives,
fillers
Finishing and converting: eg sizing, machine glazing, creping, calendering, super-
calendering, reeling, winding, slitting, sheeting, folding, coating, corrugating,
embossing, laminating, impregnation

3 Know about papermachine parameters and web structure control

Papermachine control: control principles; material and flow balances eg mass,

water, chemical; consistency and retention calculations; chemical addition;
control methods eg flow control, pressure control, consistency and level control;
efflux ratio; machine direction (MD) variation; turbulence; slice control;
dewatering strategies; moisture profiling press loading and strategies; web
handling
Control of web structure: moisture profiling; web control; moisture variations;
dimensional stability; faults; steam properties; energy from steam; flash steam;
temperature control; blow through; thermo-compressors; cascade system options;
condensers; vacuum pumps; evaporation; humidity; ventilation; reel control;
cross-machine direction (CD) control and monitoring

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 UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

4 Know about paper testing methods and how they are used

Physical paper tests: properties eg grammage, moisture, ash, caliper, bulk,

density, smoothness, permeability, absorbance, extensibility, tensile strength,
fracture toughness, tear, burst, bending stiffness, folding endurance,
delamination, surface strength, absorption
Optical paper tests: properties eg light absorption, reflectance, colour,
fluorescence, whiteness, brightness, gloss, opacity.
External factors: influence on physical and optical paper test results eg
expansion, contraction, cockling, curl and warp; other factors eg humidity and
temperature

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UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Grading grid

In order to pass this unit, the evidence that the learner presents for assessment needs to demonstrate that they can meet all of the learning
outcomes for the unit. The criteria for a pass grade describe the level of achievement required to pass this unit.

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P1 describe web structure characteristics M1 explain how the process steps used to D1 calculate the material and flow balances
and end-product properties of three produce paper influence the web of a papermachine
given paper products structure and appearance of paper
D2 evaluate how the control parameters
products
P2 identify and describe the process steps of used during web formation on a
a modern papermachine and how the M2 explain how chemical additives influence papermachine, including chemical
processes link together to form the paper product quality and process control additives, influence the appearance and
web effectiveness structure of the paper sheet
P3 describe the function and purpose of M3 select and calculate appropriate control D3 explain the connection between material
chemical additives used in a parameters for different flow conditions and flow balances, chemical addition and
papermachine process of a papermaking process overall retention on a papermachine.
P4 identify and describe the process steps of M4 select and justify the choice of paper
a finishing and converting process testing methods for a paper product and
its given end-use properties.
P5 describe the papermachine control
parameters in the control of web
structure

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 UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Grading criteria

To achieve a pass grade the evidence must To achieve a merit grade the evidence must To achieve a distinction grade the evidence
show that the learner is able to: show that, in addition to the pass criteria, must show that, in addition to the pass and
the learner is able to: merit criteria, the learner is able to:
P6 identify and describe the physical and
optical paper testing methods used for
the quality control of given paper
products
P7 describe the ways in which the paper
web reacts to external factors and
explain how they influence the paper’s
physical and optical properties.

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UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Essential guidance for tutors

Delivery

Delivery of this unit should attempt to the use meaningful practical exercises, mill
visits and laboratory exercises. The emphasis should be on developing learners’
ability to link the various papermaking processes to the overall strategies of quality
and function.
The content of the learning outcomes has been designed to reflect the likely learning
support time spent on them. It is envisaged that the time spent on learning
outcome 1 will be less than that of the other learning outcomes. For example, it is
suggested that learning outcome 2 will require around half of the overall learning
support time dedicated to the unit, with about a fifth of the time being spent on
each of the learning outcomes 3 and 4.
Note that the use of ‘eg’ in the content is to give an indication and illustration of the
breadth and depth of the area or topic. As such, not all content that follows an ‘eg’
needs to be taught or assessed.

Assessment

Evidence can be generated through a variety of methods such as assignments,

laboratory activities and in-class written assessments. The pass grade criteria specify
the minimum acceptable level required by learners to cover all the learning
outcomes. Achievement of a merit or distinction grade will require answers that
reflect the increased breadth and depth of understanding laid down in the grading
criteria.
To achieve a pass, learners must be able to describe the web structure
characteristics of paper products. They must also describe the different processes
that are used in the manufacture of the paper web and the finishing processes used
to convert and finish paper to a useable end product. This should include the
function and purpose of chemical additives used in a papermachine process.
The learners should also be able to investigate and the control parameters and
methods necessary in the proper functioning of a papermachine.
Finally, learners should be able to describe physical and optical paper testing
methods and how external factors influence both physical and optical paper test
results.
To achieve a merit, learners must apply a sound knowledge and understanding of the
papermaking processes to evaluate how the desired end-product structure and
appearance is to be achieved. They will be able to analyse how chemical additives to
the papermaking process are used to aid end-product performance and process
productivity. Learners should be able to solve practical problems of papermachine
control by calculating retention and consistency under various operating conditions.
They need to be able to apply a sound knowledge and understanding of the
papermaking processes to discuss the choice of paper testing methods suitable for a
given paper product application.

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 UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

To achieve a distinction, learners must show comprehensive knowledge linking the

papermaking processes to operational considerations and product quality. They must
solve practical problems involving the interactions of all the papermaking processes,
parameters and end-product performance criteria under various operating conditions.
They will need to apply appropriate knowledge and understanding to the critical
analysis of process parameters linking them to overall retention and water and flow
balances on a modern papermachine.

Links to National Occupational Standards, other BTEC units, other BTEC

qualifications and other relevant units and qualifications

This unit has links with and should be delivered after Unit 57: Stock Preparation and
Mill Services for Paper Manufacture.
This unit may be used to provide part of the underpinning knowledge for the Process
Awards Authority’s Advanced Certificate in Paper Technology at Level 3.

Essential resources

Centres delivering this unit will require access to a variety of paper and chemical
samples and, preferably, opportunities for these to be seen through a range of mill
visits (eg virgin paper production, recycled paper production, finishing and converting
facilities and chemical laboratories).

Indicative reading for learners

Textbooks
Biermann C J — Handbook of Pulping and Papermaking (Academic Press, 1996)
ISBN 0120973626
Smook G A — Handbook for Pulp and Paper Technology (Atlantic Press, 1996)
ISBN 0969462816

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UNIT 118: PAPER MANUFACTURING PROCESSES AND TECHNIQUES

Key skills

Achievement of key skills is not a requirement of this qualification but it is

encouraged. Suggestions of opportunities for the generation of Level 3 key skill
evidence are given here. Tutors should check that learners have produced all the
evidence required by part B of the key skills specifications when assessing this
evidence. Learners may need to develop additional evidence elsewhere to fully meet
the requirements of the key skills specifications.

Communication Level 3

When learners are: They should be able to develop the

following key skills evidence
• describing the papermachine control C3.3 Write two different types of
parameters in the control of web documents each one giving
structure different information about
complex subjects.
• identifying and describing the physical
and optical paper testing methods One document must be at least
used for the quality control of given 1000 words long.
paper products
• describing the ways in which the
paper web reacts to external factors
and explaining how they influence the
paper’s physical and optical
properties.

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Annexe A

QCA codes
The QCA National Qualifications Framework (NQF) code is known as a Qualification
Accreditation Number (QAN). This is the code that features in the DfES Funding
Schedules, Section 96 and Section 97, and is to be used for all qualification funding
purposes. Each unit within a qualification will also have a QCA NQF unit code.
The QCA qualification and unit codes will appear on the learner’s final certification
documentation.
The QANs for qualifications in this publication are:
500/3893/X Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Aerospace)
500/3908/8 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Aerospace)
500/3884/9 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Aerospace)
500/3894/1 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Applied Science)
500/3902/7 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Applied Science)
500/3899/0 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Applied Science)
500/3880/1 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Automotive)
500/3903/9 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Automotive)
500/3896/5 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Automotive)
500/3905/2 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Electrical /
Mechanical)
500/3897/7 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Electrical / Mechanical)
500/3895/3 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Electrical /
Mechanical)
500/3898/9 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Manufacturing)
500/3904/0 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Manufacturing)
500/3909/X Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Manufacturing)
500/3906/4 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award in Engineering (Operations and
Maintenance)
500/3901/5 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Extended Certificate in Engineering
(Operations and Maintenance)
500/3900/3 Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Diploma in Engineering (Operations and
Maintenance)

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1288 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in
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Annexe B

National Occupational Standards/mapping with NVQs

The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against
the underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 SEMTA SSC National Occupational Standards.
KEY
Relevant NVQ units are listed where the BTEC unit provides partial coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding
A blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge

NVQ BTEC unit

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and
Electronic Engineering
Level 3 NVQ in Aeronautical Units Units Unit 13 Units Units Units
Engineering 39, 62, 46, 59 13, 26, 135, 146, 156
76 29 136,
155, 159

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NVQ BTEC unit
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Level 3 NVQ in Aeronautical Units Units Unit 76 Unit 134 Units
Engineering 43, 44, 79, 80, 63, 73,
45, 55, 81 85
56, 57,
147,
148,
150, 155
Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Units
Electronic Engineering 15, 17,
18, 24,
25, 26,
27, 28,
30, 31,
32, 33,
34
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Units 4,
Maintenance 10, 12,
13, 15,
17, 18

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended
Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the underpinning knowledge of
the Level 3 NVQ in Laboratory and Associated Technical Activities (LATA).

List of LATA unit titles

2.13 Work in aseptic or clean room conditions

3.1 Maintain a Healthy, Safe and Productive Work Environment
3.2 Create Effective Working Relationships
3.3 Carry out testing operations
3.4 Assess data and produce reports
3.6 Plan delivery of sampling and testing
3.8 Carry out complex sampling operations
3.9 Carry out investigations
3.10 Carry out small scale processing
3.11 Make presentations
3.12 Manage yourself
3.14 Contribute to the Development of Teams and Individuals
3.19 Develop and trial new laboratory methods
3.20 Developing the Research Design

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KEY
 indicates that the Edexcel Level 3 covers all of the underpinning knowledge of
the NVQ unit
# indicates partial coverage of the NVQ unit
a blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge

BTEC unit
NVQ unit
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29
2.13 #
3.1 # # # # # # # #
3.2
3.3 #
3.4 # # # # #
3.6 # #
3.8 # #
3.9 # # # # # # #
3.10 # # # # #
3.11 # # # # #
3.12 # #
3.14 #
3.19 # #
3.20 #

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Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications — mapping against National Occupational Standards (NOS)
(Polymer Processing and Related Operations — Level 3)

BTEC unit
NOS unit
30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39
Unit 35: Contribute to the continuous improvement of the business    
Unit 36: (CWP 6) Rectify process quality problems 
Unit 37: Configure and set processing systems to meet production
 
requirements
Unit 38: (CWP 32) Optimise standard operations which are under process
 
control
Unit 39: Evaluate and modify processing parameters to improve process
    
operations
Unit 40: (CWP 30) Carry out complex manual operations 
Unit 40: Evaluate and adjust manual operations     
Unit 42: (LAATSI 5) Carry out complex sampling operations  

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the
underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 Automotive Skills and SEMTA SSC National Occupational Standards.
KEY
Relevant NVQ units are listed where the BTEC unit provides partial coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding.
A blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding.

NVQ BTEC unit

40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49
Level 3 in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair MR12HV AE4, AE4, AE4, MR13, MR4, AE4, AE4,
AE6, MR6, MR6, MR13HV MR8 MR1, AE6,
MR6, MR7, MR7, MR5 MR7
MR7, MR10 MR10
MR8,
MR11,
MR13,
MR58,
MR59,
MR62,
MR63,
MR64,
MR65,
MR66,
MR67,
MR69
Level 3 in Automotive Engineering 4, 6, 7, 8

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NVQ BTEC unit
50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59
Level 3 in Vehicle Maintenance and Repair MR6, MR3 MR6, MR13, MR1, MR6
MR7, MR8HV MR13HV MR6,
MR11 MR4,
MR8
Level 3 in Automotive Engineering 4, 8, 45, 4, 7, 59, 67
52 52

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the
underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 SEMTA SSC National Occupational Standards.
KEY
Relevant NVQ units are listed where the BTEC unit provides partial coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding.
A blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding.

NVQ BTEC unit

60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 69 70
Level 3 NVQ in Mechanical Manufacturing Engineering Units
6, 9

Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance Units

17, 40

Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Electronic Engineering Units Units

15, 15,
16, 16,
17, 18 17, 18

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NVQ BTEC unit

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 88 89 90
Level 3 NVQ in Mechanical Manufacturing Units Units 5,
Engineering 2, 3, 7, 9, 17,
4, 6, 19, 21,
7, 9 23, 25,
61, 72
Level 3 NVQ in Materials Processing and Units 4, Units 29,
Finishing 5, 6, 7, 30, 31,
8, 9, 22, 32, 33,
24, 50, 34, 35,
51, 52, 36, 37,
53, 54, 40, 41,
60, 61 42, 44,
45
Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Electronic Units Units Units
Engineering 12, 14 1, 34 26,
27,
28,
29, 30
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Maintenance Units
17, 40
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Technical Units
Support 30, 32

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the
underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 e-skills UK National Occupational Standards for Communications Technology Professionals/IT Professionals.
KEY
 indicates that the Edexcel Level 3 covers all of the underpinning knowledge of the NVQ Area of Competence
# indicates partial coverage of the NVQ unit
a blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge

e-skills UK Area of Competence (AoC) BTEC unit

80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87
System Operation # # # # #
Health and Safety in ICT and Contact Centres # # #
Working with ICT Hardware and Equipment # #
Technical Fault Diagnosis #
Testing ICT Systems #

1298 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the
underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards.
KEY
Relevant NVQ units are listed where the BTEC First unit provides partial coverage of the underpinning knowledge and understanding
A blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge

NVQ BTEC unit

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100
Level 3 NVQ in Mechanical Manufacturing Units 4, Units
Engineering 6, 8, 16, 30, 31,
18, 20, 32, 33,
22, 24, 34, 35,
53, 54, 36, 37,
55, 56, 50, 51
57
Level 3 NVQ in Business Improvement Units Units 2, Units Units
Techniques 14, 17, 3, 5, 7 4, 6, 8, 18, 19,
20, 21, 9, 11, 22, 23
25 12, 15
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Leadership Unit 4
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Technical Support Unit
29, 30,
36, 37,
38, 42
Level 3 NVQ in Electrical and Electronic Units
Engineering 4, 10,
11,
12, 13

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The following grid maps the knowledge covered in the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in Engineering qualifications against the
underpinning knowledge of the Level 3 SEMTA National Occupational Standards.
KEY
Relevant NVQ units are listed where the Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma unit provides partial coverage of the underpinning
knowledge and understanding
A blank space indicates no coverage of the underpinning knowledge

NVQ BTEC unit

68 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Units
Leadership 7, 8, 9
Level 3 NVQ in Business Unit Units Unit Unit Units
Improvement Techniques 24 4, 7, 24 24 4, 5,
22, 24 6, 7,
20,
21, 22
Level 3 NVQ in Engineering Units Unit Units Units Unit
Leadership 5, 10, 40 40, 42 27, 40
11, 39,
16, 40, 42
19, 23

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Annexe C

Key skills mapping — summary of opportunities suggested in each unit

Unit 10
Unit 1

Unit 2

Unit 3

Unit 4

Unit 5

Unit 6

Unit 7

Unit 8

Unit 9
Key skills

N3.1   
N3.2   
N3.3   

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2   
C3.3       

ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3 

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1   
PS3.2  
PS3.3  

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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 Unit 11

Unit 12

Unit 13

Unit 14

Unit 15

Unit 16

Unit 17

Unit 18

Unit 19

Unit 20
Key skills

N3.1    
N3.2  
N3.3   

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2    
C3.3      

ICT3.1  
ICT3.2  
ICT3.3  

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1   
PS3.2   
PS3.3   

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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 Unit 21

Unit 22

Unit 23

Unit 24

Unit 25

Unit 26

Unit 27

Unit 28

Unit 29

Unit 30
Key skills

N3.1       
N3.2       
N3.3      

C3.1a       
C3.1b         
C3.2         
C3.3         

ICT3.1        
ICT3.2     
ICT3.3        

LP3.1        
LP3.2       
LP3.3      

PS3.1        
PS3.2        
PS3.3       

WO3.1       
WO3.2      
WO3.3      

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 Unit 31

Unit 32

Unit 33

Unit 34

Unit 35

Unit 36

Unit 37

Unit 38

Unit 39

Unit 40
Key skills

N3.1    
N3.2       
N3.3       

C3.1a         
C3.1b         
C3.2          
C3.3          

ICT3.1    
ICT3.2    
ICT3.3    

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1
PS3.2
PS3.3

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 42

Unit 43

Unit 44

Unit 45

Unit 46

Unit 47

Unit 48

Unit 49

Unit 50
Key skills

N3.1   
N3.2   
N3.3   

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2       
C3.3       

ICT3.1     
ICT3.2     
ICT3.3     

LP3.1  
LP3.2  
LP3.3  

PS3.1    
PS3.2     
PS3.3    

WO3.1  
WO3.2  
WO3.3  

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1305

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Unit 52

Unit 53

Unit 54

Unit 55

Unit 56

Unit 57

Unit 58

Unit 59
Key skills

N3.1    
N3.2    
N3.3    

C3.1a 
C3.1b  
C3.2      
C3.3        

ICT3.1     
ICT3.2     
ICT3.3     

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1   
PS3.2  
PS3.3  

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 61

Unit 62

Unit 63

Unit 64

Unit 65

Unit 66

Unit 67

Unit 68

Unit 69
Key skills

N3.1       
N3.2      
N3.3       

C3.1a
C3.1b 
C3.2    
C3.3    

ICT3.1    
ICT3.2   
ICT3.3   

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1       
PS3.2     
PS3.3     

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 71

Unit 72

Unit 73

Unit 74

Unit 75

Unit 76

Unit 77

Unit 78

Unit 79
Key skills

N3.1    
N3.2     
N3.3     

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2      
C3.3        

ICT3.1       
ICT3.2       
ICT3.3       

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1    
PS3.2    
PS3.3    

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 81

Unit 82

Unit 83

Unit 84

Unit 85

Unit 86

Unit 87

Unit 88

Unit 89

Unit 90
Key skills

N3.1     
N3.2     
N3.3    

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2         
C3.3          

ICT3.1       
ICT3.2       
ICT3.3        

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1  
PS3.2  
PS3.3 

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 101
Unit 91

Unit 92

Unit 93

Unit 94

Unit 95

Unit 96

Unit 97

Unit 98

Unit 99
Key skills

N3.1    
N3.2   
N3.3  

C3.1a  
C3.1b  
C3.2      
C3.3        

ICT3.1 
ICT3.2 
ICT3.3 

LP3.1 
LP3.2 
LP3.3 

PS3.1        
PS3.2      
PS3.3    

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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Unit 104

Unit 105

Unit 106

Unit 107

Unit 108

Unit 109

Unit 110
Key skills
N3.1  
N3.2      
N3.3    

C3.1a 
C3.1b
C3.2     
C3.3     

ICT3.1
ICT3.2 
ICT3.3 

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1   
PS3.2  
PS3.3  

WO3.1 
WO3.2
WO3.3

Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in 1311

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Unit 112

Unit 113

Unit 114

Unit 115

Unit 116

Unit 117

Unit 118
Key skills

N3.1
N3.2
N3.3

C3.1a
C3.1b
C3.2  
C3.3    

ICT3.1
ICT3.2
ICT3.3

LP3.1
LP3.2
LP3.3

PS3.1    
PS3.2  
PS3.3 

WO3.1
WO3.2
WO3.3

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1312 Guidance and units – Edexcel Level 3 BTEC Award/Extended Certificate/Diploma in

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July 2008

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