University Of Punjab

ALI SALEEM
FUEL & COMBUSTION

23’OCT’2023
Ma’am Madiha Rashid
 Which products are produced from our local oil refineries? List
them based on their ascending production order.

Pakistan has five oil refineries that process crude oil produced in Pakistan and from
other countries. They produce a range of refined petroleum products. The following
are the products they produce:

1. High Speed Diesel (HSD)

2. Motor Gasoline (MS)
3. Furnace Oil (FO)
4. Light Diesel Oil (LDO)
5. High-Octane Blending Component (HOBC)
6. Jet fuel (JP-1&JP-8)
7. Kerosene
8. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
9. Naphtha
10.Fuel oil
11.Bitumen
12.Petrochemical feedstock
13.Sulphur

NOTE: it is difficult to write them in ascending order because of the amount

produced for each product is unknown. However, the following products are in
high use.

1. High Speed Diesel (HSD)

2. Naphtha
3. Motor Gasoline (MS)
4. Furnace Oil (FO)
5. Kerosene
6. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)
7. Jet fuel (JP-1&JP-8)
 What is the specification of Gasoline and Diesel? Does the specifications of
gasoline and diesel change in summers, and winters? Gather the data of
specifications for gasoline and diesel for both seasons from some of our
mainstream refineries such as Attock Refinery, PARCo, PRL, and NRL.

Gasoline and diesel are both complex mixtures of hydrocarbons, but they have
different specifications due to their distinct applications and the engines they power.

Gasoline Specifications: The typical composition of gasoline hydrocarbons (%

volume) is as follows: 4-8% alkanes; 2-5% alkenes; 25-40% isoalkanes; 3-7%
cycloalkanes; 1-4% cycloalkenes; and 20-50% total aromatics (0.5-2.5% benzene). In
the European Union, the standard for gasoline fuel is EN 590

Diesel Specifications: According to ASTM D975-22: Standard Specification for

Diesel Fuel Oils, there are seven diesel fuel grades: Grade No. 1-D S15; Grade No. 1-
D S500; Grade No. 1-D S5000; Grade No. 2-D S15; Grade No. 2-D S500; Grade No.
2-D S5000; Grade No. 4-D. The distinction here is sulphur content.

Seasonal Changes in Specifications:

The specifications of gasoline and diesel do change in summer and winter.

Refineries adjust their gasoline blends according to the seasons. Summer-grade

gasoline is engineered to have reduced volatility compared to its winter counterpart,
with the aim of curbing the rise in evaporative emissions, which typically occurs in
warmer weather. To meet this objective, refiners must swap out less costly but more
evaporative gasoline components for pricier yet less evaporative ones. Importantly,
the core specifications for gasoline tend to remain constant between summer and
winter, as gasoline is tailored to deliver the required performance attributes across a
broad temperature spectrum. Gasoline, being more volatile than diesel, is formulated
to suit a wide range of temperatures while retaining its specific characteristics.

For diesel, there are two grades: winter-grade diesel and summer-grade diesel. The
blending of diesel is changed during the winter months to improve the cold-weather
performance of the fuel. Winter diesel fuel has a specification called the cold filter
plugging point (CFPP), which is designed to prevent the fuel from becoming too thick
and causing issues in cold temperatures. The maximum CFPP for winter diesel fuel is
usually around -12°C. On the other hand, summer diesel fuel has a maximum CFPP of
around -4°C
 What are the important tests required to standardize the ‘Jet
Fuels’? Explain the importance of each test.
To
standardize Jet Fuels, several important tests are required. These tests ensure the
quality, handling, traceability, and performance criteria of the fuel before it can be
used. In Pakistan, the following tests are commonly conducted:

1. Quality Testing: Quality testing is crucial to ensure that the jet fuel meets the
required specifications and standards. It involves assessing various parameters
such as density, flash point, freezing point, viscosity, and sulfur content. These
tests help determine the fuel's purity, stability, and compliance with safety
regulations.
 Density Test:
Importance: The density of the fuel plays a role in determining
the fuel's energy content and, in turn, influences how the
engine performs. Additionally, it has implications for the
calculations related to the weight and balance of the aircraft.
 Flash Point Test:
Importance: The flash point represents the temperature at
which fuel vapor is capable of catching fire. This factor holds
 critical importance for ensuring safety in scenarios involving
storage, handling, and potential accidents or spills.
 Freezing Point (Cloud Point and Pour Point) Test:
Importance: These tests determine the lowest temperature at
which the fuel can operate without forming crystals or gelling.
Preventing fuel from freezing or gelling in cold conditions is
vital for aviation safety.

 Viscosity Test:
Importance: Viscosity affects the flow of fuel through the
aircraft's fuel system. Proper viscosity ensures efficient fuel delivery and
combustion.
 Cetane Number (for aviation diesel fuels):
Importance: The cetane number is a measure of ignition quality.
Higher cetane numbers indicate better ignition characteristics,
important for diesel-powered aviation engines.
 Sulfur Content Test:
Importance: Reducing sulfur content is essential to minimize
emissions and environmental impact. Low sulfur content is also
necessary to prevent corrosion and extend engine life.
 Distillation Test:
Importance: This test measures the range of temperatures at
which the fuel evaporates. It ensures that the fuel evaporates
correctly in the engine's combustion process.
 Aromatic Content Test:
Importance: High aromatic content can lead to increased
emissions, so controlling aromatics is essential for
environmental reasons.
 Oxidation Stability Test:
 Importance: Jet fuel needs to resist oxidation over time to
maintain its quality and prevent the formation of deposits in the
engine's fuel system.
 Corrosion Test:
Importance: This test ensures that the fuel does not contain
corrosive components that can damage the aircraft's fuel
system.
 Water Separation Test:
Importance: Jet fuel must be kept free from water because the
presence of water can lead to engine issues, such as icing..
 Additive Compatibility Test:
Importance: Numerous additives are employed to enhance fuel
performance, and this test guarantees that these additives do not
induce unfavorable reactions within the fuel.
 Microbiological Contamination Test:
Importance: Detecting and controlling microbial growth is essential to prevent fuel
system contamination and blockages.

2. Handling Testing: Jet fuel must be tested for its handling properties to ensure
safe transportation, storage, and usage. This includes assessing its stability and
compatibility with common materials used in aviation operations. Proper
handling testing prevents fuel contamination, leakage, and other potential
hazards.
3. Traceability Testing: Traceability testing is necessary to establish the origin and
authenticity of jet fuel. It involves analysing specific markers or additives
present in the fuel, which can help trace its source and ensure it is not
adulterated or counterfeit. This test helps maintain the integrity of the fuel
supply chain.
4. Performance Testing: Performance testing evaluates the fuel's efficiency and
effectiveness in powering aircraft engines. It includes measuring parameters
such as calorific value, combustion efficiency, and combustion stability.
Comprehensive performance testing ensures that the fuel delivers optimal
performance while maintaining engine reliability and safety.
These tests are of paramount importance as they guarantee the safe and efficient
operation of aircraft. They ensure that the jet fuel meets the necessary standards,
mitigates the risks associated with fuel handling, prevent fuel-related incidents, and
maintain the overall integrity of the aviation industry. Swift compliance with these
tests is crucial for aviation safety and the smooth functioning of air travel in Pakistan