1|P a g e

Experiment No.6:
To demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature for
free and forced convection and determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for
a finned plate.
1. Objective:
 To demonstrate the relationship between surface temperature and heat transfer rate.
 To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat over a finned surface.

2. Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine heat convection along the surface of a finned metal plate.
For this purpose, we will provide heat flux through an apparatus which will heat the metal plate.
The heat is transmitted to the air at ambient temperature which flows over the surface of the
metal. We will vary the heat flux and determine the temperature of the metal surface. We will
also use a fan to change the speed of air and observe the effect on the temperature of the metal
plate and convective heat transfer coefficient. These values can then be used to find the
relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature.

3. Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of different
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Convection:
“Heat transfer which occurs when a large amount of molecule of a fluid gains energy from a hot
body or transfers energy to a cold body is known as convection.”
A cluster of molecules move in case of convection. Convection occurs between a fluid and a solid
body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the heat transfer co-efficient and the type of the flow.
The motion of the flow of fluid can be observed as compared to conduction which occurs at a
microscopic level. The formula which governs convection is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )

Types of Convection:
Following are the types of convection:
i. Natural Convection
ii. Forced Convection

Natural Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface without any external source
forcing the fluid to flow over the hot surface. The density difference causes the motion of the fluid
particles. Since cold particles of the air the air are heavy and hot particles (not at a very high
2|P a g e

temperature) being lighter move upwards. If a hot plate or a fin is in the way of the fluid particles
then the heat transfer occurs between them due the temperature difference present between them.
In case of natural convection, if the fluid is air, then density difference plays the driving role in
movement of the fluid and if the fluid is a liquid, then the gravity plays a major role in the
movement of the particles.

Forced Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface occurs with an external source
forcing the fluid to flow over the hot surface. As a result of forced convection, the rate of heat
transfer increases greatly. This forcing can be done with a ceiling fan, suction device, pump etc.

Heat Input and Temperature Difference:

The formula of convection given by Newtons law of cooling is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )

It shows that temperature difference is proportional to the heat transfer rate. The larger the
temperature difference between the fluid and the wall the more is the heat transfer due to
convection. So, in case of natural convection larger flow rate tends to increase the heat transfer
between the fluid and the fins. It means that if a high flow rate is available heat transfer will be
rapid and at a larger rate.

Thermocouple:
Thermocouples are also temperature sensing devices which calculates the temperature of the body
using voltage unlike thermistor which uses resistance for this purpose. Each thermocouple has its
own sensitivity. They usually have a very thin wire which allows them to sense the temperature
very quickly. The thermal time constant of a thermocouple is defined and the time which a
thermocouple takes to reach 63.2 % of the source temperature is known the sensitivity of the
thermocouple.

4. Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:
 Free and Forced Convection Apparatus
 Heat flux controller
 Temperature Measurement Device
3|P a g e

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

5. Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the metal plate and place inside the apparatus.
 Turn on the heating apparatus and set the value of heat to 30 watts.
 Wait for at least 10 minutes so that the system comes into a steady state.
 Using a thermometer, measure the surface temperature of the metal plate.
 Now change the heat flux to 35, 40,45 watts and take the new temperature values.
 Use these values to determine the relationship between power input and surface temperature.
 Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient.

6. Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Plate Plate Plate Plate

Power Ambient Air Temperature Temperature at Temperature Temperature at
Input Temperature at 𝒗 = 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 at 𝒗 = 𝟏 𝒎/𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
Q 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟎 T1 T2 T3

(Watts) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

30 30 43 41 39 38

35 30 50 47 44 43

40 30 55 50 46 45

45 30 60 56 52 51

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between temperature difference on x-axis and
power input on y-axis.
4|P a g e

In this experiment:
Area of metal plate = 0.127 𝑚2

Ambient Air Temperature = 𝑇𝑎 = 30℃

At v=0 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 0.8861(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 18.0063

𝑑𝑞 35.73 − 31.30
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 0.886
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Using the relation:
𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟔. 𝟗𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

At v = 0.5 m/s:
5|P a g e

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 1.0256 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 18.5256

𝑑𝑞 39.04 − 33.91
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 1.026
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟖. 𝟎𝟖 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲
At v=1 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

6|P a g e

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 1.1816(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 19.4813

𝑑𝑞 43.11 − 37.20
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 1.18
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟗. 𝟐𝟗 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

At v=1.3 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:
𝑞 = 1.1816 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 20.6628

𝑑𝑞 44.29 − 38.39
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 1.182
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Using the relation:
7|P a g e

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟗. 𝟑𝟏 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Convective Heat Transfer

Air Speed
Coefficient
(v)
(h)

(m/s) (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲)

0 6.98

0.5 8.08

1 9.29

1.3 9.31

7. Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated heat convection over the surface of a finned metal
plate. We have observed that the temperature of the plate rises with the increase in power input.
As more heat is transmitted to the plate, it increases its surface temperature.

 We have also observed that the value of convective heat transfer coefficient increases as we
increase the air velocity. This is due to the fact that with the increase in air speed, more
molecules pass over the plate surface and transmit more heat with them so h increases as a
result.

 Also, we have observed that the value of convective heat transfer for air in contact with finned
metal plate is smaller as compared to flat metal plate. This is due to the fact that under the same
conditions, the surface area of the metal plate has greatly increased. As a result, the value of h
decreases.
8|P a g e

Experiment No.7:
To demonstrate the relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature for
free and forced convection and determine the convective heat transfer coefficient for
a pinned plate.
1. Objective:
 To demonstrate the relationship between surface temperature and heat transfer rate.
 To study the convective heat transfer mode of heat over a finned surface.

2. Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine heat convection along the surface of a pinned metal plate.
For this purpose, we will provide heat flux through an apparatus which will heat the metal plate.
The heat is transmitted to the air at ambient temperature which flows over the surface of the
metal. We will vary the heat flux and determine the temperature of the metal surface. We will
also use a fan to change the speed of air and observe the effect on the temperature of the metal
plate and convective heat transfer coefficient. These values can then be used to find the
relationship between heat transfer and surface temperature.

3. Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of different
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Convection:
“Heat transfer which occurs when a large amount of molecule of a fluid gains energy from a hot
body or transfers energy to a cold body is known as convection.”
A cluster of molecules move in case of convection. Convection occurs between a fluid and a solid
body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the heat transfer co-efficient and the type of the flow.
The motion of the flow of fluid can be observed as compared to conduction which occurs at a
microscopic level. The formula which governs convection is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )

Types of Convection:
Following are the types of convection:
iii. Natural Convection
iv. Forced Convection

Natural Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface without any external source
forcing the fluid to flow over the hot surface. The density difference causes the motion of the fluid
particles. Since cold particles of the air the air are heavy and hot particles (not at a very high
temperature) being lighter move upwards. If a hot plate or a fin is in the way of the fluid particles
9|P a g e

then the heat transfer occurs between them due the temperature difference present between them.
In case of natural convection, if the fluid is air, then density difference plays the driving role in
movement of the fluid and if the fluid is a liquid, then the gravity plays a major role in the
movement of the particles.

Forced Convection:
In this type of convection, the fluid flows over the heated surface occurs with an external source
forcing the fluid to flow over the hot surface. As a result of forced convection, the rate of heat
transfer increases greatly. This forcing can be done with a ceiling fan, suction device, pump etc.

Heat Input and Temperature Difference:

The formula of convection given by Newtons law of cooling is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )

It shows that temperature difference is proportional to the heat transfer rate. The larger the
temperature difference between the fluid and the wall the more is the heat transfer due to
convection. So, in case of natural convection larger flow rate tends to increase the heat transfer
between the fluid and the fins. It means that if a high flow rate is available heat transfer will be
rapid and at a larger rate.

Thermocouple:
Thermocouples are also temperature sensing devices which calculates the temperature of the body
using voltage unlike thermistor which uses resistance for this purpose. Each thermocouple has its
own sensitivity. They usually have a very thin wire which allows them to sense the temperature
very quickly. The thermal time constant of a thermocouple is defined and the time which a
thermocouple takes to reach 63.2 % of the source temperature is known the sensitivity of the
thermocouple.

4. Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:
 Free and Forced Convection Apparatus
 Heat flux controller
 Temperature Measurement Device
10 | P a g e

Figure 6: Free and Forced Convection Apparatus

5. Procedure:
 Measure the dimensions of the metal plate and place inside the apparatus.
 Turn on the heating apparatus and set the value of heat to 30 watts.
 Wait for at least 10 minutes so that the system comes into a steady state.
 Using a thermometer, measure the surface temperature of the metal plate.
 Now change the heat flux to 35, 40,45 watts and take the new temperature values.
 Use these values to determine the relationship between power input and surface temperature.
 Calculate the convective heat transfer coefficient.

6. Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Plate Plate Plate Plate

Power Ambient Air Temperature Temperature at Temperature Temperature at
Input Temperature at 𝒗 = 𝟎 𝒎/𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔 at 𝒗 = 𝟏 𝒎/𝒔 𝒗 = 𝟏. 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔
q 𝑻∞ 𝑻𝟎 T1 T2 T3

(Watts) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

30 30 47 36 33 31

35 30 51 47 44 43

40 30 55 53 50 49

45 30 62 61 57 56

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between temperature difference on x-axis and
power input on y-axis.
11 | P a g e

In this experiment:
Area of metal plate = 0.054 𝑚2

Ambient Air Temperature = 𝑇𝑎 = 30℃

At v=0 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 0.9980(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 13.7984

𝑑𝑞 35.75 − 33.76
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 22 − 20

𝑑𝑞
= 0.995
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Using the relation:
𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟑 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

At v = 0.5 m/s:
12 | P a g e

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 0.6086 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 25.7851

𝑑𝑞 37.96 − 34.91
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟑𝟎 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

At v=1 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

13 | P a g e

The equation of the graph is:

𝑞 = 0.6290(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 27.4355

𝑑𝑞 40.02 − 36.87
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 0.63
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟔𝟕 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

At v=1.3 m/s:

Graph between power input and temperature difference

The equation of the graph is:
𝑞 = 0.6013 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) + 28.6303

𝑑𝑞 40.66 − 37.65
=
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ ) 20 − 15

𝑑𝑞
= 0.602
(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
Using the relation:

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )
14 | P a g e

𝑞
ℎ=
𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ )

𝒉 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟏𝟓 𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Convective Heat Transfer

Air Speed
Coefficient
(v)
(h)

(m/s) (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲)

0 18.43

0.5 11.30

1 11.67

1.3 11.15

Comparison between Flat, Finned and Pinned Plate:

We now combine the graphs of flat, finned and pinned metal plates and compare the results. The
graphs and the final results are as follows:

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=0)

15 | P a g e

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=0.5)

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=1)

16 | P a g e

Graph for flat, finned and pinned plate (v=1.3)

For Flat Plate For Pinned Plate For Finned Plate

Convective Heat
Convective Heat Convective Heat
Air Speed Transfer
Transfer Coefficient Transfer Coefficient
(v) Coefficient
(h) (h)
(h)
(m/s) (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲) (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲) (𝑾/𝒎𝟐 𝑲)

0 42.32 18.43 6.98

0.5 46.36 11.30 8.08

1 59.45 11.67 9.29

1.3 65.88 11.15 9.31

7. Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated heat convection over the surface of a pinned metal
plate. We have observed that the temperature of the plate rises with the increase in power input.
As more heat is transmitted to the plate, it increases its surface temperature.
17 | P a g e

 We have also observed that the value of convective heat transfer coefficient increases as we
increase the air velocity. This is due to the fact that with the increase in air speed, more
molecules pass over the plate surface and transmit more heat with them so h increases as a
result.

 On comparing the result of convective heat transfer coefficient of air at different plates, we
conclude that more is the surface area of a plate, less will be the convective heat transfer
coefficient. The area of finned plate is maximum. So, its convective heat transfer coefficient is
minimum. Pinned plate lies in between flat and finned plate. This is due to the fact that under
the same conditions, the surface area of the metal plate is greater. As a result, the value of h
decreases.
18 | P a g e

Experiment No.8:
To perform an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric
tube heat exchanger in parallel flow conditions at different rates.
1. Objective:
 To understand the working of concentric tube heat exchangers.
 To study the effect of flow rate on the efficiency of heat exchanger.

2. Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine the working of a concentric tube heat exchanger. We will
change the flow rate of cold fluid through the heat exchanger and allow it to come in steady
state. Then we will measure the temperature of fluid at different points during its flow through
the heat exchanger. The temperatures can then be used to apply energy balance and determine
the overall efficiency of the heat exchanger. We will change the flow rate of cold water and see
the effect of mass flow rate on the efficiency of the heat exchanger.

3. Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of different
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Convection:
“Heat transfer which occurs when a large amount of molecule of a fluid gains energy from a hot
body or transfers energy to a cold body is known as convection.”
A cluster of molecules move in case of convection. Convection occurs between a fluid and a solid
body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the heat transfer co-efficient and the type of the flow.
The motion of the flow of fluid can be observed as compared to conduction which occurs at a
microscopic level. The formula which governs convection is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )
Heat Exchanger:
Put simply, a heat exchanger is a device which transfers heat from one medium to another. A
hydraulic oil cooler for example will remove heat from hot oil by using cold water or air.
Alternatively, a swimming pool heat exchanger uses hot water from a boiler or solar heated water
circuit to heat the pool water. Heat is transferred by conduction through the exchanger materials
which separate the mediums being used. A shell and tube heat exchanger passes fluids through
and over tubes, where as an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a core of fins to cool
a liquid.

Working Principle:
A heat exchanger works on the simple principle of second law of thermodynamics; the heat flow
from a body to another in respect of their temperature difference. The heat under natural state will
move from a hot body to a cooler one. In shell and tube type heat exchanger the cooling medium;
19 | P a g e

whether water, steam, ethanol or polypropylene glycol is passed through the tubes within the shell
structure.

On other hand the medium to be cooled around these tubes is within shell structure. In most
scenarios the cooling medium say sea water enters from the bottom or rear header based on design
and leaves from top or front header passing through aluminum brass tubes. Similarly, the cooling
medium say lube oil enters through the inlet nozzle to leave via exit passing through baffles within
shell structure. These baffles help improve the efficiency by creating turbulence in the flow
avoiding creation of hot and cold pockets within the medium.

It also can have either concurrent, counter concurrent or cross flow arrangement based on design
and requirement. The temperature of the output fluid medium is controlled using a bypass valve
i.e., increasing or decreasing flow of the cooling medium. Similarly, to protect the fluid medium
from intermixing due to leakage, the pressure of cooling medium is kept lower than that of the
fluid medium to be cooled. This allows the fluid such as lube oil from being contaminated even in
event of any leakage.

Types of Heat Exchangers:

On the basis of flow, heat exchangers are of the following types as explained below:

 Parallel Flow:
This is the type in which two fluids enter from the same end and exit from the same end means
the direction of flow is same for both the fluids i.e. .travel parallel to one another when either
enter or leaves the tube. With parallel flow the temperature difference between the two fluids is
large at the entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures
approach each other. The overall measure of heat transfer driving force, the log mean
temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat exchanger surface area
requirement will be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet
temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

Fig. 1: Parallel Flow HE

 Counter Flow:
In this exchanger fluids flowing in the tube are in opposite direction. Counter Current heat
exchanger is quite a bit more efficient than the parallel one as avg. Temperature difference along
any unit length is higher. For efficiency, fins or corrugations are introduced which increases the
20 | P a g e

surface area and may channel fluid flow resistance or turbulence. As for efficiency we increase
the surface area, while minimizing the resistance to flow through exchanger.

Fig. 2: Counter Flow HE

 Cross Flow:
A crossflow heat exchanger is designed so that the two fluids flow perpendicular to one another.
This is typically utilized when one fluid is a liquid and the other is a gas, as in a car radiator in
which hot water flowing left and right is cooled by air moving up or down, Bright Hub
Engineering explained. Crossflow exchangers are also common in steam condensers, in which a
liquid transform into a gas by the end of the process.

Fig. 3: Cross Flow HE

4. Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:
 Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus
 Temperature measurement device

Figure 4: Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus

21 | P a g e

5. Procedure:
 Turn on the flow rates of cold and hot fluids and start the apparatus.
 Allow the apparatus to come in steady state for a few minutes.
 Now measure the flow rate of hot and cold water through the flow-meter.
 Keep the flow rate of one of the fluids fix and vary the flow rate of other fluid.
 Keeping the flow rate of hot fluid at 1.5 L/min, vary cold water flow rate to 1, 1.5 and 2 L/min.
 Measure the temperature of the fluid at different points using thermometers on the apparatus.
 Use these values to determine the overall efficiency of the heat exchanger.

6. Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Flow Rate Flow Rate

(L/min) (𝑳/𝒎𝒊𝒏) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

1.5 1 56 48 26 38 50 33

1.5 1.5 53 45 25 35 47.5 30

1.5 2 56 48 25 34 50 30

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between fluid temperature on y-axis and distance
covered by fluids on x-axis. We calculate the value of emitted heat for hot water first. The flow
rate of hot water remains the same during the experiment.

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 52℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 987.13 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 𝑚∙ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑚∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌
22 | P a g e

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

Putting values:

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 987.13 ∗ 4180 ∗ (56 − 48)

𝑸𝒆 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾

At 1 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 1: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1 L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 32℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 995.05 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑚∙ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑚∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 1.67 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 995.13 ∗ 4180 ∗ (38 − 26)

23 | P a g e

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟒 𝒌𝑾

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒 ∙

0.834
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.825

𝜂𝑡ℎ = 100 %

At 1.5 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 2: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1.5 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1.5L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 30℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 995.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 995.67 ∗ 4180 ∗ (35 − 25)

24 | P a g e

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟒 𝒌𝑾

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒 ∙

1.04
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.825

𝜂𝑡ℎ = 126 %

At 2 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 3: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 2 L/min)

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 2 L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 29.5 ℃
At this temperature:
𝜌 = 995.82 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 3.33 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 995.82 ∗ 4180 ∗ (34 − 25)

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟒𝟖 𝒌𝑾
25 | P a g e

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∙ ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒

1.248
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.825

𝜂𝑡ℎ = 151 %

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Overall heat exchanger

Cold water flow rate
efficiency
(𝑽∙ )
(𝜼)

(L/min) (%)

1 100

1.5 126

2 151

7. Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger. We have observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger increases with the flow rate
of cold water. Keeping the hot water flow rate constant, since more mass of cold-water flows
through the tubes at higher flow rate, hence more heat energy is convected by this cold water.
So, efficiency of heat exchanger increases.

 We have also observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger comes out to be more than 100%.
The error in efficiency may be due to fault in thermometers/flow meters or due to any human
error.

 Another reason for more than 100 % efficiency could be that heat is gained by cold water from
the surrounding environment as well. As the surrounding air temperature is higher than cold
water temperature, it also gains some heat from the surrounding. As a result, more heat is
absorbed by cold water as compared to the heat rejected by hot water. Hence, we may get
efficiency of more than 100 % for heat exchanger which is actually not its accurate overall
efficiency.
26 | P a g e

Experiment No.9:
To perform an energy balance and calculate the overall efficiency of a concentric
tube heat exchanger in counter flow conditions at different rates.
1. Objective:
 To understand the working of concentric tube heat exchangers.
 To study the effect of flow rate on the efficiency of heat exchanger.

2. Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine the working of a concentric tube heat exchanger. We will
change the flow rate of cold fluid through the heat exchanger and allow it to come in steady
state. Then we will measure the temperature of fluid at different points during its flow through
the heat exchanger. The temperatures can then be used to apply energy balance and determine
the overall efficiency of the heat exchanger. We will change the flow rate of cold water and see
the effect of mass flow rate on the efficiency of the heat exchanger.

3. Theory:
Heat Transfer:
Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation, use, conversion,
and exchange of thermal energy (heat) between physical systems. Heat transfer is classified into
various mechanisms such as thermal conduction, thermal convection, thermal radiation, and
transfer of energy by phase changes. Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of different
chemical species (mass transfer in the form of advection), either cold or hot, to achieve heat
transfer. While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics, they often occur simultaneously
in the same system.
Convection:
“Heat transfer which occurs when a large amount of molecule of a fluid gains energy from a hot
body or transfers energy to a cold body is known as convection.”
A cluster of molecules move in case of convection. Convection occurs between a fluid and a solid
body. The rate of heat transfer depends upon the heat transfer co-efficient and the type of the flow.
The motion of the flow of fluid can be observed as compared to conduction which occurs at a
microscopic level. The formula which governs convection is as follows:
𝒒 = 𝒉𝒄 𝑨(𝑻𝒘 − 𝑻∞ )
Heat Exchanger:
Put simply, a heat exchanger is a device which transfers heat from one medium to another. A
hydraulic oil cooler for example will remove heat from hot oil by using cold water or air.
Alternatively, a swimming pool heat exchanger uses hot water from a boiler or solar heated water
circuit to heat the pool water. Heat is transferred by conduction through the exchanger materials
which separate the mediums being used. A shell and tube heat exchanger passes fluids through
and over tubes, where as an air-cooled heat exchanger passes cool air through a core of fins to cool
a liquid.

Working Principle:
A heat exchanger works on the simple principle of second law of thermodynamics; the heat flow
from a body to another in respect of their temperature difference. The heat under natural state will
move from a hot body to a cooler one. In shell and tube type heat exchanger the cooling medium;
27 | P a g e

whether water, steam, ethanol or polypropylene glycol is passed through the tubes within the shell
structure.

On other hand the medium to be cooled around these tubes is within shell structure. In most
scenarios the cooling medium say sea water enters from the bottom or rear header based on design
and leaves from top or front header passing through aluminum brass tubes. Similarly, the cooling
medium say lube oil enters through the inlet nozzle to leave via exit passing through baffles within
shell structure. These baffles help improve the efficiency by creating turbulence in the flow
avoiding creation of hot and cold pockets within the medium.

It also can have either concurrent, counter concurrent or cross flow arrangement based on design
and requirement. The temperature of the output fluid medium is controlled using a bypass valve
i.e., increasing or decreasing flow of the cooling medium. Similarly, to protect the fluid medium
from intermixing due to leakage, the pressure of cooling medium is kept lower than that of the
fluid medium to be cooled. This allows the fluid such as lube oil from being contaminated even in
event of any leakage.

Types of Heat Exchangers:

On the basis of flow, heat exchangers are of the following types as explained below:

 Parallel Flow:
This is the type in which two fluids enter from the same end and exit from the same end means
the direction of flow is same for both the fluids i.e. .travel parallel to one another when either
enter or leaves the tube. With parallel flow the temperature difference between the two fluids is
large at the entrance end, but it becomes small at the exit end as the two fluid temperatures
approach each other. The overall measure of heat transfer driving force, the log mean
temperature difference is greater for counter flow, so the heat exchanger surface area
requirement will be larger than for a counter flow heat exchanger with the same inlet and outlet
temperatures for the hot and the cold fluid.

Fig. 1: Parallel Flow HE

 Counter Flow:
In this exchanger fluids flowing in the tube are in opposite direction. Counter Current heat
exchanger is quite a bit more efficient than the parallel one as avg. Temperature difference along
any unit length is higher. For efficiency, fins or corrugations are introduced which increases the
28 | P a g e

surface area and may channel fluid flow resistance or turbulence. As for efficiency we increase
the surface area, while minimizing the resistance to flow through exchanger.

Fig. 2: Counter Flow HE

 Cross Flow:
A crossflow heat exchanger is designed so that the two fluids flow perpendicular to one another.
This is typically utilized when one fluid is a liquid and the other is a gas, as in a car radiator in
which hot water flowing left and right is cooled by air moving up or down, Bright Hub
Engineering explained. Crossflow exchangers are also common in steam condensers, in which a
liquid transform into a gas by the end of the process.

Fig. 3: Cross Flow HE

4. Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is listed as follows:
 Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus
 Temperature measurement device

Figure 4: Concentric tube heat exchanger apparatus

29 | P a g e

5.Procedure:
 Turn on the flow rates of cold and hot fluids and start the apparatus.
 Set the valves according to the diagram on the apparatus to set it in counter-flow arrangement.
 Allow the apparatus to come in steady state for a few minutes.
 Now measure the flow rate of hot and cold water through the flow-meter.
 Keeping the flow rate of hot fluid at 1.5 L/min, vary cold water flow rate to 1, 1.5 and 2 and
2.5 L/min.
 Measure the temperature of the fluid at different points using thermometers on the apparatus.
 Use these values to determine the overall efficiency of the heat exchanger.

6. Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Hot Fluid Cold Fluid

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6
Flow Rate Flow Rate

(L/min) (𝑳/𝒎𝒊𝒏) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃) (℃)

1.5 1 40 37 28 24 36 25

1.5 1.5 45 39 29 24 40 25

1.5 2 47 40 30 26 41 26

1.5 2.5 49 40 31 27 43 28

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between fluid temperature on y-axis and distance
covered by fluids on x-axis. We calculate the value of emitted heat for hot water first. The flow
rate of hot water remains the same during the experiment.
At 1 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 1: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1 L/min)
30 | P a g e

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 38.5℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 992.81 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 𝑚∙ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

𝑚∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

Putting values:

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 992.81 ∗ 4180 ∗ (40 − 37)

𝑸𝒆 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟏𝟏 𝒌𝑾

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1 L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 26℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 996.79 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑚∙ 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑚∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 1.67 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 996.8 ∗ 4180 ∗ (28 − 24)

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝒌𝑾
31 | P a g e

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒 ∙

0.278
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.311

𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟖𝟗. 𝟒 %

At 1.5 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 2: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 1.5 L/min)

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 42℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 991.47 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )

Putting values:

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 991.47 ∗ 4180 ∗ (45 − 39)

32 | P a g e

𝑸𝒆 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐 𝒌𝑾

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 1.5L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 26.5℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 996.67 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 996.67 ∗ 4180 ∗ (29 − 24)

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟐𝟏 𝒌𝑾

0.521∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.622

𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟖𝟑. 𝟕𝟔 %

At 2 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 3: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 2 L/min)

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

33 | P a g e

𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 43.5℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 990.86 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 990.86 ∗ 4180 ∗ (47 − 40)

𝑸𝒆 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟐𝟓 𝒌𝑾

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 2 L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 28 ℃
At this temperature:
𝜌 = 996.25 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 3.33 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 996.25 ∗ 4180 ∗ (30 − 26)

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟓𝟓 𝒌𝑾

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∙ ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒

0.555
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.725

𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟓𝟓 %
34 | P a g e

At 2.5 L/min flow rate of cold water:

Graph 4: Graph between fluid temperature and covered distance (at 2.5 L/min)

At the flow rate of 1.5 L/min for hot water:

𝑇1 + 𝑇2
𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 44.5℃

At this temperature:
𝜌 = 990.45 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾

𝑄𝑒 ∙ = 2.5 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 990.45 ∗ 4180 ∗ (49 − 40)

𝑸𝒆 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟑𝟏 𝒌𝑾

Similarly for cold water flow rate of 2.5 L/min:

𝑇𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 29 ℃
At this temperature:
𝜌 = 995.96 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑘𝐽
𝐶𝑝 = 4.18
𝑘𝑔. 𝐾
35 | P a g e

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 𝑉 ∙ 𝜌𝐶𝑝 (𝑇4 − 𝑇3 )

𝑄𝑎 ∙ = 4.167 ∗ 10−5 ∗ 995.96 ∗ 4180 ∗ (31 − 27)

𝑸𝒂 ∙ = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟗𝟒 𝒌𝑾

𝑄𝑎 ∙
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∙ ∗ 100
𝑄𝑒

0.694
𝜂𝑡ℎ = ∗ 100
0.931

𝜼𝒕𝒉 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟓 %

We now conclude all the results in the table below:

Cold water flow Heat absorbed by Heat emitted by Overall heat

rate cold water hot water exchanger efficiency
(𝑽∙ ) 𝑄𝑎 ∙ 𝑄𝑒 ∙ (𝜼)

(L/min) (kW) (kW) (%)

1 0.278 0.311 89.40

1.5 0.521 0.622 83.76

2 0.555 0.725 76.56

2.5 0.694 0.931 74.50

Comparison of Parallel and Counter flow heat exchanger:

Now we compare the overall efficiency of parallel and counter flow heat exchangers from this
and the previous experiment. The table containing the efficiencies is given below:
36 | P a g e

Overall heat exchanger Overall heat exchanger

Cold water flow rate efficiency in parallel flow efficiency in counter flow
(𝑽∙ ) condition condition
(𝜼𝒕𝒉 )𝒑𝒇 (𝜼𝒕𝒉 )𝒄𝒇

(L/min) (%) (%)

1 100 89.40

1.5 126 83.76

2 151 76.56

7. Comments:
 In this experiment, we have investigated the overall efficiency of a concentric tube heat
exchanger. We have observed that the efficiency of heat exchanger decreases with the increase
in flow rate of cold water. Keeping the hot water flow rate constant, when the mass flow rate
of cold-water through the tubes is increased, the efficiency of the heat exchanger should also
increase. This is because more mass flow rate of water means more molecules are flowing
through the area per unit time resulting in more exchange of heat. But we observed an opposite
trend in this experiment.

 The wrong trend may be due to some fault in the apparatus, limitation of the instruments, error
while taking the values or any other human error.

 While comparing the parallel and counter flow heat exchangers experimentally, the counter
flow heat exchangers have less efficiency as compared to parallel flow heat exchangers. In
actual counter flow heat exchangers are more efficient due to uniform temperature difference
across the flow and uniform heat transfer rate. Again, the difference may be due to some fault
in the apparatus or due to human error.
37 | P a g e

Experiment No.10:
Visual demonstration of convective, nucleate and film boiling.
Objective:
 To understand the difference between convective, nucleate and film boiling.
 To visually observe the phenomenon of convective, nucleate and film boiling.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine convective, nucleate and film boiling of a liquid in the
boiling heat transfer apparatus. We will slowly increase the heat supply to the liquid and observe
its effect visually on the boiling process.
Theory:
Boiling:
When a heating surface is exposed to liquid, boiling begins when the temperature of the surface
is maintained above the saturation temperature of liquid.
Heat flux in this case depends upon ∆𝑇𝑒 given as:
∆Te = Ts − Tsat
where Ts = Temperature of heating surface
Tsat = Saturation temperature of liquid
If the heating surface is present inside the surface of liquid, then the term used for boiling is
called pool boiling.
Modes of Pool Boiling:
The boiling curve of water subjected to an electrically heated platinum wire at 1atm is shown in
the figure below.

Figure 1: Different phases of boiling

There are 4 different boiling regimes:

 Natural convection boiling
 Nucleate boiling
 Transition Boiling
 Film Boiling
38 | P a g e

All of these regions are indicated in Figure 2.2 and the graph is known as boiling curve.
Although the curve is plotted for water but the same shape of curve is obtained for other liquids.
Natural Convection Boiling:
It is observed experimentally that the boiling of liquid begins when the temperature of heating
surface is slightly above the saturated temperature of liquid. Therefore, the liquid is slightly
heated above the saturated temperature and got evaporated when the vapor reaches the free
surface. In this region, the primary mode of heat transfer between the liquid and heating surface
is convection.
Nucleate Boiling:
In this region, the bubbles start appearing on the surface of heating surface. As we keep on
moving along the boiling curve towards C, the bubbles keep on increasing and forming at
various nucleation sites. The nucleation boiling region can be divided into two portions. In the
region A-B, isolated bubbles are formed at various nucleation sites near the heating surface
which dissipates just after leaving the surface. In this region, the heat flux increases because of
liquid entrainment. In the region B-C, continuous series of bubbles are formed around the
nucleation sites which extends to the free surface. In this region, liquid evaporation and
entrainment are responsible for the increased heat flux. The heat flux is maximum at point C and
is called critical or maximum heat flux.
Transition Boiling:
The heat flux decreases after point C in the transition region because of the cluster of large
number of vapors around the heating surface which act as the thermal insulation because of low
value of k. Transition region is an unstable region between nucleate and film boiling and
operation is not recommended in this regime.
Film Boiling:
A stable film of bubbles is formed around the heating surface at point D where the film boiling
region begins. The low thermal conductivity of vapors is responsible for the decreases in heat
flux and the value of heat flux is minimum at point D and is called Leiden frost point. The heat
flux increases as we cross point because the temperature of heating surface is increased to such a
high vale that the radiation phenomenon begins to take place.
Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is shown in the figure below:

Figure 2: Boiling heat transfer unit

39 | P a g e

Procedure:
 Turn on the main supply and apply a low value of power using the knob.
 Wait for few minutes and then slightly increase the value of power.
 Keep on increasing the power and visualize the physical response of the fluid in order to
observe the nucleate, convective and film boiling.
 Check the water flow meter in order to make sure that the water is flowing through the coil.
Conclusion:
Different regions of boiling curve can be distinguished on the basis of their physical response.
Initially, when no bubbles are formed but convection currents are rising in the liquid then the
boiling regime is convection boiling. In nucleate boiling, bubbles appear around the heating
surface as well as move to the free surface but not completely cover it. In the film boiling phase,
a complete layer of vapors is formed around the heating surface which also results in the
decrease of heat flux. Heat flux is maximum at the end of nucleate boiling region and is
minimum in the film boiling region.
40 | P a g e

Experiment No.11:
To determine the heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.
Objective:
 To understand the difference between convective, nucleate and film boiling.
 To determine heat flux and heat transfer coefficient at constant pressure.

Introduction:
In this experiment, we will examine convective, nucleate and film boiling of a liquid in the
boiling heat transfer apparatus. We will slowly increase the heat supply to the liquid and observe
its effect visually on the boiling process. Side by side, we will also determine the temperature
and flow rate of condenser water to calculate heat flux and heat transfer coefficient.
Theory:
Boiling:
When a heating surface is exposed to liquid, boiling begins when the temperature of the surface
is maintained above the saturation temperature of liquid.
Heat flux in this case depends upon ∆𝑇𝑒 given as:
∆Te = Ts − Tsat
where Ts = Temperature of heating surface
Tsat = Saturation temperature of liquid
If the heating surface is present inside the surface of liquid, then the term used for boiling is
called pool boiling.
Modes of Pool Boiling:
The boiling curve of water subjected to an electrically heated platinum wire at 1atm is shown in
the figure below.

Figure 1: Different phases of boiling

There are 4 different boiling regimes:
 Natural convection boiling
 Nucleate boiling
 Transition Boiling
 Film Boiling
41 | P a g e

All of these regions are indicated in Figure 2.2 and the graph is known as boiling curve.
Although the curve is plotted for water but the same shape of curve is obtained for other liquids.
Natural Convection Boiling:
It is observed experimentally that the boiling of liquid begins when the temperature of heating
surface is slightly above the saturated temperature of liquid. Therefore, the liquid is slightly
heated above the saturated temperature and got evaporated when the vapor reaches the free
surface. In this region, the primary mode of heat transfer between the liquid and heating surface
is convection.
Nucleate Boiling:
In this region, the bubbles start appearing on the surface of heating surface. As we keep on
moving along the boiling curve towards C, the bubbles keep on increasing and forming at
various nucleation sites. The nucleation boiling region can be divided into two portions. In the
region A-B, isolated bubbles are formed at various nucleation sites near the heating surface
which dissipates just after leaving the surface. In this region, the heat flux increases because of
liquid entrainment. In the region B-C, continuous series of bubbles are formed around the
nucleation sites which extends to the free surface. In this region, liquid evaporation and
entrainment are responsible for the increased heat flux. The heat flux is maximum at point C and
is called critical or maximum heat flux.
Transition Boiling:
The heat flux decreases after point C in the transition region because of the cluster of large
number of vapors around the heating surface which act as the thermal insulation because of low
value of k. Transition region is an unstable region between nucleate and film boiling and
operation is not recommended in this regime.
Film Boiling:
A stable film of bubbles is formed around the heating surface at point D where the film boiling
region begins. The low thermal conductivity of vapors is responsible for the decreases in heat
flux and the value of heat flux is minimum at point D and is called Leiden frost point. The heat
flux increases as we cross point because the temperature of heating surface is increased to such a
high vale that the radiation phenomenon begins to take place.
Apparatus:
The Apparatus required for the experiment is shown in the figure below:

Figure 2: Boiling heat transfer unit

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Procedure:
 Turn on the main supply and apply a low value of power using the knob.
 Wait for few minutes and then slightly increase the value of power.
 Keep on increasing the power and visualize the physical response of the fluid in order to
observe the nucleate, convective and film boiling.
 Check the water flow meter in order to make sure that the water is flowing through the coil at
a flow rate which keeps the pressure constant.

Results and Discussion:

The data values obtained from the experiment are shown below:

Source Liquid
Supplied Heat
Temperature Temperature 𝐓𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬
Q
T1 T2

(W) (℃) (℃) (℃)

5 32 25 7

10 43 25 18

15 57 27 30

20 72 26 46

Table No.1: When pressure remains constant

Source Liquid
Supplied Heat
Temperature Temperature 𝐓𝐞𝐱𝐜𝐞𝐬𝐬
Q
T1 T2

(W) (℃) (℃) (℃)

100 64 50 14

150 70 55 15

200 73 57 16

250 76 59 17

Table No.2: When pressure doesn’t remain constant

As the area of the heating element is 0.019 𝑚2 , we divide it with supplied heat rate to get heat
flux. Similarly, the heat transfer coefficient can be found using the expression given below:
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Q."
Heat transfer coefficient = h =
𝑇𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠
The values are calculated in the table below:

Heat transfer
Supplied Heat Heat Flux
coefficient
Q Q."

(W) (𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 ) (𝒌𝑾/𝒎𝟐 . ℃)

5 2.632 0.38

10 5.263 0.29

15 7.895 0.26

20 10.526 0.23

100 52.632 3.76

150 78.947 5.26

200 105.263 6.58

250 131.579 7.74

Using the values in the table, we plot a graph between Texcess on x-axis and heat flux on y-axis.
We take natural log of values both on x and y axis before plotting. The graphs obtained are
shown below:
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Graph No.1: Graph between T excess and Heat Flux for Table 1 values

Graph No.2: Graph between T excess and Heat Flux for Table 2 values
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Comments:
 In this experiment, we have calculated the overall heat transfer coefficient and heat flux at
constant pressure. As expected, we have found that the value of heat flux increases with the
increase in input heat. As more heat energy is provided in a given time, heat flux will ultimately
increase.
 The heat transfer coefficient on the other hand decreases with the increase in heat supply in
constant pressure state. This is due to the reason that at constant pressure, increase in liquid
temperature is high. Hence T excess increase proportionally more than increase in heat flux.
As a result, heat transfer coefficient decreases with the increase in heat input.
 In case when the pressure of the container doesn’t remain same, liquid temperature does not
rise quickly, hence increase in heat flux is more as compared to T excess and it results in an
increase in heat transfer coefficient with the increase in input heat rate.