THERMODYNAMICS

LectureNotes

What is Thermodynamics?

❖ Thermodynamics is a science dealing with

Energy and its transformation and its effect on
the physical properties of substances.
❖It deals with equilibrium and feasibility of a
process.
❖ Deals with the relationship between heat and
work and the properties of systems in
equilibrium.

Scope of Thermodynamics:

❖ Steam power plant

❖ Separation and Liquification Plant
❖ Refrigeration
❖ Air-conditioning and Heating Devices.
❖ Internal combustion engine
❖ Chemical power plants
❖ Turbines
❖ Compressors, etc

The principles of thermodynamics are

summarized in the form of four thermodynamic
laws:
 The Zeroth Law deals with thermal
equilibrium and provides a means for measuring
temperatures.

The First Law deals with the conservation of

energy and introduces the concept of internal
energy.

The Second Law of thermodynamics provides

with the guidelines on the conversion of internal
energy of matter into work. It also introduces the
concept of entropy.

The Third Law of thermodynamics defines

the absolute zero of entropy. The entropy of
a pure crystalline substance at absolute zero
temperature is zero.
Different Approaches of Thermodynamics:

Write the difference between Macroscopic and Microscopic approach of Thermodynamics:

Macroscopic Approach Microscopic Approach

1.Macroscopic approach is known as Classical 1. Microscopic approach is known as

Thermodynamics. Statistical Thermodynamics

2. Attention is focussed on a certain quantity of 2.A knowledge of the structure of matter

matter without taking into account the events under consideration is essential.
occuring at molecular level.
3.Only a few variables are used to describe the 3.A large no. of variables are required for a
state of the matter under consideration. complete specification of the state of matter
under consideration.

4.The values of the variables used to describe 4.The variables used to describe the state of
the state of the matter are easily measurable. matter cannot be measured easily and precisely

Define Thermodynamic System?

A thermodynamic system is defined as a definite quantity of matter or a region of space within a

prescribed boundary upon which attention is focussed in the analysis of a problem.

Surrounding: Everything external to the system is Surroundings.

Boundary:

▪ The surface which separates the system from the surrounding.

▪ System and surrounding interact through boundary in the form of Heat and Work.

▪ Boundary can be real (or) imaginary.

▪ Boundary can be fixed (or) moving.

System and Surrounding put together is known as Universe

Interaction Between System and Surrounding
Based on the type of interaction, the systems are classified as
• CLOSED SYSTEM

• OPEN SYSTEM

• ISOLATED SYSTEM
CLOSED SYSTEM (Control Mass) : It is also termed as control mass or fixed mass analysis.

There is no mass transfer across the system boundary but energy in the form of Heat or Work
can cross the system boundary.

Eg. A certain amount of gas enclosed in a cylinder piston arrangement.

Open System(Control Volume): The open system is one in which both mass and energy can
cross the boundary of the system.

Open system is also termed as control volume analysis.

Write down the concept of Control Volume:

A large engineering problems involve mass flow in and out of a system and therefore, are
modeled as control volumes.

Control volume refers to a definite volume on which attention is focussed for energy analysis.

Examples: Nozzles, Diffusers, Turbines, Compressors,

Heat Exchanger, De-superheater, Throttling valves,
I.C engine etc.

Control Surface: The closed surface that surrounds the control volume is called CONTROL
SURFACE. Mass as well as energy crosses the control surface. Control surface can be real or
imaginary.

Isolated System: The isolated system is one in which there is no interaction between the system
and the surroundings that neither the mass nor the energy interactions. Therefore it is of fixed
mass and energy.
Note:

Energy
Mass Transfer Type of System
Transfer

No Yes Closed System

Yes Yes Open System

No No Isolated System

Yes No Impossible

What do you mean by Property?

Any observable characteristics required to describe the conditions or state of a system is known
as Thermodynamic property of a system.

Properties

Intensive Extensive
(Independent of mass) (Depends on mass)
Differentiate Intensive and Extensive Property?

Extensive Property Intensive Property

1.Extensive properties are dependent on the mass 1. Intensive properties are independent of
of a system. the mass of a system.

2.Extensive properties are additive. 2. Intensive properties are not additive.

3. Its value for an overall system is the sum of its 3. Its value remains the same whether one
values for the parts into which the system is considers the whole system or only a part
divided. of it.
4.Example:mass(m),volume(V),Energy(E),Enthalp 4.Example:Pressure(P),Temperature(T),De
y(H) etc. nsity etc.

5. Uppercase letters are used for extensive 5. Lowercase letters are used for intensive
properties except mass. properties except pressure(P) and temp.(T)
Specific property= Extensive property/mass.
Example: Specific volume (v) = Volume(V)/mass(m)

Specific enthalpy (h) = Enthalpy(H)/mass(m)

Specific entropy (s) = Entropy(S)/mass(m)

State:
⮚ It is the condition of a system as defined by the values of all it’s properties.

⮚ It gives a complete description of the system.

⮚ Any operation in which one or more properties of a system change is called change of
state .
Path and Process:
⮚ The series of state through a system passes during a change of state is Path of the system.

⮚ If the path followed by the system during change of state is specified or defined
completely, then it is called a process.
We can allow one of the properties to remain a constant during a process.

Isothermal Constant Temperature (T)

Isobaric Constant Pressure (P)

Isochoric Constant Volume (V)

Isentropic Constant Entropy (s)

Isenthalpic Constant Enthalpy (h)

Cycle: When a system in a given initial state undergoes a series of processes and returns to
initial state at the end of process, then the system is said to have undergone a thermodynamic
cycle.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN POINT FUNCTION VS PATH FUNCTION

Point Function Path Function

1.Any quantity whose change is independent of 1. Any quantity, the value of which depends
the path is known as point function. on the path followed during a change of state
is known as path function.

2.The magnitude of such quantity in a process 2. The magnitude of such quantity in a process
depends on the state. is equal to the area under the curve on a
property diagram.
3. These are exact differential. 3.These are inexact differential. Inexact
differential is denoted by δ

4. Properties are the examples of point function 4. Ex: Heat and work
like pressure(P), volume(V),Temp.(T),Energy
etc.
Thermodynamic Equilibrium

A system is said to exist in a state of Thermodynamic Equilibrium when no changes in

macroscopic property is observed if the system is isolated from its surrounding.

At the state of equilibrium, the properties of the system are uniform and only one value can be
assigned to it.

A system will be in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium, if the condition for following three
types of equilibrium are satisfied.

Thermal Equilibrium (Equality of Temperature):

A state of thermal equilibrium can be described as one in which the temperature of the system is
uniform.

Mechanical Equilibrium(Equality of Pressure):

In the absence of any unbalanced force within the system itself and also between the system and
the surroundings, the system is said to be in a state of mechanical equilibrium.
⮚ Mechanical equilibrium is related to pressure.

⮚ A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there is no change in pressure at any

point of the system .
Chemical Equilibrium(Equality of chemical potential):
⮚ A system is in chemical equilibrium when its chemical composition does not change with
time, that is no chemical reaction occurs.

⮚ It is related to chemical potential.

QUASI-STATIC PROCESS

A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from thermodynamic equilibrium is

infinitesimal.

Characteristics:

▪ Infinite slowness is the characteristic feature of this process.

▪ A quasi-static process is thus a succession of equilibrium states.

▪ It can be represented as a continuous line on the property diagram.

▪ It is also known as a reversible process.

REVERSIBLE PROCESS

Reversible process is one which is performed in such a way that at the end of the process both
the system and surrounding may be restored to their initial state without producing any changes
in rest of the Universe.

Reasons for studying Reversible Process:

1.They are easy to analyze.

2. They served as an idealized process to which actual process can be compared.

3.They are taken for consideration because work producing devices such as steam turbine,
automobile engines etc delivers the max. work and work consuming devices like compressors,
pumps etc consumes the least work.

Characteristics of Reversible Process

✔ A Reversible process is carried out infinitely slowly with an infinitesimal gradient so that
every state pass through by the system is in equilibrium.
✔ It is possible to execute the process in either of the direction.

✔ No dissipative effect such as friction, loss in a resistor, etc are present.

✔ Heat and work interactions of the system and the surroundings in the reverse process are equal
and opposite in direction to the same in the forward process.
Examples:

1. Frictionless isothermal expansion or compression of a fluid.

2. Frictionless adiabatic expansion or compression of a fluid.

3. Elastic stretching of a solid.

4. Electric current with zero resistance.

IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS

An irreversible process is one that is carried out in such a way that the system and surrounding
can not be exactly restored to their respective initial state at the end of the reverse process, that a
net change occurs in the Universe.

Note: In an irreversible the surrounding would always be affected by loss of work and gain of
low temperature heat, which can be considered as waste heat for the surrounding.

Causes of an Irreversibility:

The irreversibility of a process may be due to either one or both of the following.

(i) Lack of Equilibrium.

(ii) Involvement of Dissipative effects.
Lack of Equilibrium(Mechanical,Thermal,Chemical)

The lack of equilibrium between the system and the surroundings or between the two
systems causes a spontaneous change which makes the process irreversible.

Examples:

1. Heat transfer through a finite temperature difference.

2. Compression or Expansion through a finite pressure difference between the

system and the surroundings.

3. Free expansion or Unrestrained

expansion.
4. Mixing of substances.

Dissipative Effects:

Dissipation results in the transformation of work into molecular energy of the system.

Examples:

1. Friction.

2. Flow of electricity through a

resistor.
3. Paddle wheel work transfer.
etc

Characteristics of an Irreversible Process:

1. It can be carried out in one

direction only.
2. It occurs at a finite rate.

3. During an irreversible process, the system is not in equilibrium.

An irreversible process cannot be reversed without causing permanent

changes in the surroundings.
Questions
Syllabus