energies

Review
Stray Load Loss Valuation in Electrical Transformers: A Review
Bonginkosi A. Thango * and Pitshou N. Bokoro

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Technology, University of Johannesburg,

Johannesburg 2006, South Africa; pitshoub@uj.ac.za
* Correspondence: bonginkosit@uj.ac.za; Tel.: +27-65-564-7287

Abstract: The electricity production opus in South Africa has transformed over the last few years
from predominantly coal power generation to a blend of renewable energy generation. The necessity
emerges to ascertain whether electrical transformer design philosophies in local manufacturers are
contemporary in reference to customer specifications, under increasing penetration of harmonics and
distortion as a result of increasing deployment of decentralized power systems. Accurate computation
of transformer stray load loss is imperative in localizing the hotspot regions and design of adequate
insulation system and consequently cooling system. This loss must also be met by manufacturers
based on the customer specifications to avoid penalties. The review of current scientific works affirms
the ongoing interest in utilizing the advancement of computational power for painstaking evaluation
and management of stray load loss in electric transformers. This article confers overview research,
evolution and application of diverse computer-based tools for analyzing the stray load loss based on
over 60 published scientific works. Mathematical formulations that can be practically employed by
transformer designers during the design phase under normal and harmonic load current conditions
are discussed.

Keywords: transformer; stray load loss; hotspot; harmonics






Citation: Thango, B.A.; Bokoro, P.N. 1. Introduction
Stray Load Loss Valuation in
At the design stage, electrical designers normally design electrical transformers such
Electrical Transformers: A Review.
that minimal losses occur at the fundamental frequency (50 Hz), the rated system voltage
Energies 2022, 15, 2333. https://
doi.org/10.3390/en15072333
and current. However, the inception of harmonics within the renewables such as solar
photovoltaic and wind power plants culminate in increased levels of distorted harmonic
Academic Editor: Pawel Rozga voltage and current as a result of nonlinear loads, viz. switching power supplies, frequency
Received: 27 January 2022
converters, inverters, et cetera [1–5]. This distortion ensues transformer harmonic losses
Accepted: 22 February 2022 which result in a temperature rise, loss-of-life and high operational cost. These transformer
Published: 23 March 2022 stray load losses during transformer service life can be identified as the stray winding
losses and the loss in structural parts as outlined in Figure 1.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
The electric transformer holds a prominent position within an electric grid, being
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
a critical link between the generated energy and point of utilization. It increases the
published maps and institutional affil-
generated output to a more suited voltage level. Their construction comprises a laminated
iations.
core carrying the magnetic flux linked to windings [6–10]. Alongside reducing the noise
levels, thin core laminations and better core grades such as amorphous steel reduce the
hysteresis loss and eddy losses by approximately one third compared with cold rolled
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. grain oriented (CRGO) silicon steel. The horizontal portion of the core, viz. the core limb,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. is surrounded by windings and the remaining top and bottom portions are referred to as
This article is an open access article the yoke [11–15]. The core laminations are kept intact by the clamping structure and the
distributed under the terms and flitch plates. These components are enclosed in a tank and immersed in oil, which is used
conditions of the Creative Commons as a coolant as illustrated in the FEM simulation carried out by the authors in Figure 2.
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).

Energies 2022, 15, 2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15072333 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

 Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
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Figure 1. Classification of transformer losses.

Figure 1.
Figure Classification of
1. Classification of transformer
transformer losses.
losses.

Figure2.2.Three-dimensional
Figure Three-dimensionalFEM
FEMmodel
modelofofstep-up
step-uptransformer
transformeractive
activepart
partcomponents.
components.
Figure 2. Three-dimensional FEM model of step-up transformer active part components.
The
Themost
mostcommon
commonwindingwindingtypestypesusedusedininelectrical
electricaltransformers
transformersare are helical,
helical,continu-
contin-
ous The
disk most
and common
layer winding
windings as types
shown inused
Figure in electrical
3. Helical
uous disk and layer windings as shown in Figure 3. Helical winding comprises transformers
winding are
comprises helical, contin-
multi-parallel
multi-
uous diskwinding
winding
parallel and layer
conductors windingsseparated
separated
conductors as
by shown
spacers.byinspacers.
Figure
This 3. Helical
winding
This winding
is utilised
winding comprises
in high-current
is utilised multi-
appli-
in high-current
cations
parallel such as
winding
applications the
such LV winding.
conductors
as the The disc
LVseparated
winding. winding
byThe
spacers. findswinding
This
disc winding mostfindspreference
ismost
utilised for high voltage
in high-current
preference for high
requirements
voltage requirements it contains many conductors connected in series and it isinwound
applications it
such contains
as the many
LV conductors
winding. The connected
disc winding in series
finds and
most it is wound
preference a radial
for highin
direction.
voltage In the
requirements axial direction,
it contains the
many wounded conductors
conductors connected are separated
in series
a radial direction. In the axial direction, the wounded conductors are separated by spacers. by
and spacers.
it is woundUnlikein
alayer windings,
radial direction. no Inspacers
the are
axial required
direction, in
the the axial
wounded direction.
conductors The
Unlike layer windings, no spacers are required in the axial direction. The design of this design
are of
separated thisbywinding
spacers. is
to regulate
Unlike layer the HV
windings, winding voltage at different tap positions. The configuration of these
winding is to regulate no thespacers
HV windingare required
voltageinatthe axial direction.
different tap positions.The design of this
The configura-
windingsison
winding to aregulate
step-up the transformer
HV winding appears in the
voltage at subsequent
different tap chapters.
positions. The configura-
tion of these windings on a step-up transformer appears in the subsequent chapters.
tion ofThe usewindings
these of paper-covered rectangular
on a step-up copperappears
transformer conductors in theis subsequent
usually the most preferred
The use of paper-covered rectangular copper conductors is usuallychapters.
the most pre-
for these
Thefor windings
use [16–21]. In operation,
of paper-covered rectangular the winding
copper conductors
conductors are notthe
is usually physically in-
ferred these windings [16–21]. In operation, the winding conductors are notmost pre-
physically
terconnected
ferred for these but rather electromagnetically
windings [16–21]. In operation, linked
the by the conductors
winding magnetic field are carried
not by the
physically
interconnected but rather electromagnetically linked by the magnetic field carried by the
core. The voltage
interconnected buton on the electromagnetically
rather windings is induced by the
linked bylinkage of common
the magnetic field time-varying
carried by elec-
the
core. The voltage the windings is induced by the linkage of common time-varying
electromagnetic
core. The voltage flux.
on The
the number
windings of
is conductors
induced by determining
the linkage ofhow
commonthe individual
time-varying windings
elec-
tromagnetic flux. The number of conductors determining how the individual windings
are comprised
tromagnetic flux.determines
The number the of
proportion
conductors of determining
the voltage magnitude to their respective
how the individual windings
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 21

Energies 2022, 15, 2333 3 of 21
are comprised determines the proportion of the voltage magnitude to their respective
number of turns. In the case of high current requirements for a winding, the continuously
are comprised determines the proportion of the voltage magnitude to their respective
transposed cable (CTC) conductors
In the caseare
the case used current
of high
high to reduce the windingfor
requirements eddywinding,
losses. Thermally
number of turns. In of current requirements for aa winding, the continuously
the continuously
upgraded insulation can be used to control the step-up transformer hotspot
winding (HS)losses.
eddy temper-
Thermally
transposed cable (CTC) conductors are used to reduce the winding eddy losses. Thermally
ature and to reduce the predicted
insulation beloss
can be usedofto
tolife. For cooling
control purposes,
the step-up
step-up the main
transformer insulation
hotspot (HS)temper-
temper-
upgraded insulation can used control the transformer hotspot (HS)
between the windings comprises oil ducts formed by appropriately positioned insulating
ature and to reduce the predicted loss of life. For cooling purposes, the main insulation
former cylinders.
between the The description
windings of the windings
comprises is imperative
oil ducts formed in this work
by appropriately to establish
positioned insulating
the common
former windings used
cylinders. The by manufacturers
description of theat the design
windings is stage to meet
imperative in the work
this customer
to establish
former cylinders. The description of the windings is imperative in
technical specification.
the common
common windings
windings used
used byby manufacturers
manufacturers at at the
the design
design stage
stage to
to meet
meet the
the customer
customer
the
technical specification.
technical specification.

Figure 3. Step-up transformer winding design.

Figure 3. Step-up
Step-up transformer
transformer winding design.
It is well accepted, that an electric transformer comprises complex geometries and
commercial 2-D/3-D
It is
is well FEM software packages can be utilised for optimisation and geometries
the reli-
It well accepted,
accepted, that
that an
an electric
electric transformer
transformer comprises complex
comprises complex geometries andand
able enhancement
commercial of2-D/3-D
the transformer.
FEM The largest
software portion
packages of be
can theutilised
load losses
for is occupied byand the
optimisation
commercial 2-D/3-D FEM software packages can be utilised for optimisation and the reli-
the copper losses
reliable followed byofthe
enhancement winding EddyThe
losses as presented inthe
Figure 4.losses
This dis-
able enhancement of the the transformer.
transformer. largest
The largest portion
portion of
of the loadload
losses is occupied
is occupied by
tribution considers
by the copperthe losses
losses at the
followedfundamental
by the frequency.
winding Eddy losses as presented in Figure 4. This
the copper losses followed by the winding Eddy losses as presented in Figure 4. This dis-
distribution
tribution considers
considers thethe losses
losses at the
at the fundamental
fundamental frequency.
frequency.

Figure 4. Transformer stray load loss components.

Figure 4. Transformer stray load loss components.
2. Stray Load Loss Components
Figure 4. Transformer stray load loss components.
2. Stray LoadItLoss
can beComponents
well established that an electrical transformer is structured as a three di-
mensional
It can be well (3D) complex
established
2. Stray Load Loss system;
that therefore,
an electrical
Components 3D modelling
transformer is normally
is structured mandatory
as a three dimen-in order
to permit
sional (3D) complexall impelling parameters
system; therefore, for optimalissolutions.
3D modelling normally However,
mandatory3D inFEM
ordersimulation
to
It can be well established that an electrical transformer is structured as a three dimen-
requires a cutting-edge simulation program and longer computational
permit all impelling parameters for optimal solutions. However, 3D FEM simulation re- time. Common
sional (3D) complex system; therefore, 3D modelling is normally mandatory in order to
quires aalternatives including
cutting-edge part-modelling,
simulation program andthe selection of mesh size and
longer computational 2D modelling
time. Common may be
permit all impelling parameters for optimal solutions. However, 3D FEM simulation re-
employed to subdue these drawbacks. By employing 2D modelling, the error of estimate
quires a cutting-edge simulation program and longer computational time. Common
between calculated and measured results can be significantly reduced given that FEM
considers parameters that analytical formulations neglect. In the case of a 2D FEM model,
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 21

alternatives including part-modelling, the selection of mesh size and 2D modelling may
be employed to subdue these drawbacks. By employing 2D modelling, the error of esti-
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 4 of 21
mate between calculated and measured results can be significantly reduced given that
FEM considers parameters that analytical formulations neglect. In the case of a 2D FEM
model, the magnetic field parameters in the z-axis are omitted and the main parts of the
the magnetic
step-up field subject
transformer parameters in the flux
to leakage z-axis
areare omitted as
presented and the main
shown parts 5.
in Figure of the step-up
transformer subject to leakage flux are presented as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5. 2D geometry of main parts subjected to leakage flux.

Figure 5. 2D geometry of main parts subjected to leakage flux.
The computation of losses in the 2D FEM model is achieved without considerable loss
The computation of losses in the 2D FEM model is achieved without considerable
of precision. Accurate computation of the transformer losses is crucial for manufacturers
loss of precision. Accurate computation of the transformer losses is crucial for manufac-
as they are generally stated in the contract by the purchaser (utility owner). Designers
turers as they are generally stated in the contract by the purchaser (utility owner). Design-
are challenged to optimise the transformer design such that minimum losses occur under
ersharmonic
are challenged to optimise
load current the transformer
conditions in the case ofdesign such that
renewables andminimum
in order tolosses
avoidoccur
paying
under harmonic
penalties. loadthe
During current
design conditions in the case ofrely
stage, manufacturers renewables
heavily on andthein multiple
order to benefits
avoid
paying penalties.2D,
of integrating During
3D andthe analytical
design stage, manufacturers
methods to presentrely heavily on the estimation
a comprehensive multiple
benefits of integrating 2D, 3D and analytical methods to present a comprehensive
and optimal transformer losses. The simulation variables are statistically fitted estima-
based
tion and optimal transformer losses. The simulation variables are statistically
on field and factory acceptance test (FATs) measurements. The benefits of applying fitted basedthis
oncomputational
field and factory acceptance
power test (FATs) measurements.
in the investigation of transformer The benefits
design of applying
parameters this
that would
computational
have not been power in the investigation
previously possible are not of transformer design
only restricted parameters
to the reductionthat would
in cost and
have
computation time but also an in-depth understanding of the literal processes thatcom-
not been previously possible are not only restricted to the reduction in cost and occur
putation
duringtime but also an in-depth understanding of the literal processes that occur during
operation.
operation.
2.1. Winding Eddy Losses
2.1. Winding Eddy Losses
The winding Eddy current losses are a result of the axial and radial stray fields
impinging upon Eddy
The winding the surface of losses
current the conductors. Information
are a result of the axialabout the axial
and radial andfields
stray radialim-
flux
densityupon
pinging segments of the of
the surface leakage field is crucial
the conductors. for electrical
Information aboutdesigners
the axialtoand
optimally select
radial flux
the axial
density and radial
segments conductor
of the dimensions.
leakage field is crucial for electrical designers to optimally select
Inand
the axial 1966, Dowell
radial [22] derived
conductor a method for calculating Eddy currents using analytical
dimensions.
methods
In 1966,for single-layer,
Dowell multilayer
[22] derived and for
a method sectionalise
calculatingwindings. The method
Eddy currents is based on
using analytical
discretising the winding into portions to attain the respective d.c resistances
methods for single-layer, multilayer and sectionalise windings. The method is based and leakage
on
inductances. Dowell derived factors also presented as curves from theoretical
discretising the winding into portions to attain the respective d.c resistances and leakage expressions
for the variation
inductances. Dowell ofderived
frequency and conductor
factors dimensions
also presented as curvesnecessary in obtaining
from theoretical the corre-
expressions
forsponding a.c parameters.
the variation of frequencyThese parameters
and conductoraredimensions
then referred to respective
necessary windingsthe
in obtaining and
summed to give the overall winding resistance and leakage inductance of each winding
portion. However, this method suffers from considerable computation due to the iteration
required to calculate the d.c leakage inductance and the lack of experimental validation.
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 5 of 21

In 1967, Stoll [23] described an approach for determining the Eddy currents in trans-
former winding conductors by utilizing the finite-difference method of successive over-
relaxation treated by a digital computer. The method considers the vector potential of Eddy
currents in the conductors concerning time and space. Here, the time axis is discretised into
a considerable number of time steps and considerable integration computation is required
to attain the spatial solution. Stoll reports that relatively large fields must reduce the num-
ber of nodes such that the length of the mesh is minimal within the winding conductor and
around the Eddy current zone. This is also economical and saves considerable computer
memory. Rodger et al. [24] present an approach to model emaciated skin depth Eddy
currents in 3D equipment by employing the magnetic potential vector. An analytic solution
of the electromagnetic fields in the emaciated skin depth is employed to establish a surface
impedance that fulfils the function of a surface integral at the faces of components that
synthesize with the emaciated skin Eddy current zone. The approach has been carried out
through classical nodal variable finite elements.
On the IEEE standard [25], a technique was formulated to ascertain the efficiency of
an in-service transformer to operate under non-sinusoidal load currents, the Eddy current
losses are presumed to transform with the square of the root mean square current and the
square of the harmonic frequency. This presumption is acceptable for transformers with
shorter winding conductors and exposed to low harmonic orders. For large conductors
and high harmonics, such an assumption leads to a conservative result. Given the depth
of skin effect, the electromagnetic flux might not utterly perforate the copper conductors
in the windings at high harmonic orders. Consequently, a power of two deployed in the
computation inclines to be conservative [26,27].
Makarov and Emanuel [28] conducted a study to find the corrected harmonic loss
factor under harmonic conditions using an analytical approach for conductors with large
dimensions. Here, they use the approximation method [29] to ascertain that winding Eddy
losses are symmetrical to the square of the hth harmonic order if all their dimensions
are less than 3 mm. Cheng [30] presents an approach to determine the winding Eddy
losses utilizing the matrix modelling technique. The model attempts to present all winding
conductors as small filaments in order of their skin depth. Cheng also uses the model
filament in modelling the eddy current distribution within the winding and obtaining
the equivalent impedance. The practical results show good accuracy of the model in the
frequency region 1 kHz and 1 MHz.
Kulkarni and Khaparde [31] published a book describing a method for Eddy current
losses of a square conductor formulated from the Maxwell equations and consider an
infinitely long winding conductor in the x-direction along a time-varying magnetic field in
the y-direction. The variation of the field quantities viz. current density and intensity of a
magnetic field, noting that copper conductors have constant permeability, are simplified
to yield a diffusion equation. However, this method ignores the radial magnetic field in
the winding end zones. In [32], Bachinger et al. describe a numerical method to treat
harmonic eddy currents in conductors using the Multiharmonic solution technique. This
method considers the nonlinear correlation between the flux and induction in conductors.
The time-dependency of harmonic Eddy currents are taken into consideration by time
discretisation using the truncated Fourier series expansion. In this paper, the errors due to
the truncated Fourier series expansion, spatial discretisation and regularisation parameters
are thoroughly estimated.
A principal indicator of the effects impelled by the harmonic load currents on the
winding Eddy losses is the harmonic factor.
A. Elmoudi et al. [33] present a corrected harmonic loss component for winding Eddy
losses which consider the depth of penetration. Elmoudi concludes that conservative results
lead to higher losses than the factual losses owning to the neglected depth of penetration
for conductors with large dimensions at higher harmonic orders. The real magnetic field
encroaching on the winding conductors will be slighter as a consequence of the skin effect.
A. Van den Bossche et al. [34] reports a practical method for calculating eddy current
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 6 of 21

losses which attempt to improve the classical loss calculation by instituting a loss factor. A
graphical approximation of the loss coefficient as a function of wire diameter, frequency,
layer number and copper packaging factors are attained by comparing the analytical
approach with FEM simulations and substantiated by designing various transformers.
In [35,36], an algorithm to determine Eddy currents in square conductors with source
currents employing the integral equation method is formulated. This method considers the
finite length of conductors and the cross effect between orthogonal conductors to examine
the proximity effect. In the algorithm, the Biot–Savart integral is incorporated to calculate
the generated magnetic fields. In comparison with 3D FEM simulations, this algorithm
yielded a reduced number of unknowns in the Eddy current calculations upon the winding
discs with insignificant error in the 3D topology of the magnetic fields. Larsson [37] also
applied the integral equation method to calculate the Eddy currents in conductors. The
magnetic fields impinging upon the conductor surfaces are generated by integral relations
derived from Green’s function technique. Larsson here incorporates numerical integration
to obtain the solution.
The magnetic field solution given by the use of FEM simulation produces a common
leakage flux where the flux is axially streaming up along windings through the conduc-
tors and then bends radially across the winding end zones. This is a critical point in a
transformer as the conductors are susceptible to prone axial and radial flux constituents.
Through local magnetic field density encapsulated in transformer design FEM models, the
Eddy loss density at hotspot regions can be evaluated.
In a book published by Del Vecchio [38], a geometry for calculating Eddy current losses
on account of flux impinging upon the surface of the conductor is presented. The method
assumes a square conductor transverse area and the magnetic field vector is disintegrated
into elements parallel to the axial and radial dimensions of the conductor. The computation
of the losses associated with magnetic fields are performed separately and the results
are added. This method is important in such a way as the Eddy currents coupled with
respective flux components by no means overlay.
In other recent attempts, Yin and Wei [39] consider Maxwell’s equations and Poynting’s
theorem in studying the winding behaviour under harmonics and introduce an AC winding
coefficient to establish a winding eddy loss calculation model.

2.2. Winding Circulating Current

The asymmetrical linkage of the leakage field between adjacent strands of the winding
with multiple stranded conductors (e.g., helical winding) induces circulating current losses.
This loss is highly dependent on the interspace of each strand within the leakage field.
During the design stage, the windings are optimised so that the leakage flux is symmetrical
within the adjacent strands. The latter is achieved through the continuous transposition of
conductors (CTC) at predetermined locations along with the winding height.
Kaul [40] described an analytical procedure to determine circulating current losses
in layer and conventional disc windings. Kaul here assumes a voltage slope for the stray
current as an arithmetic total of resistive and reactive decrease in electrical potential. The
main limitation of this method is that it only considers the axial leakage flux and ignores
the radial leakage flux. The results show significant calculation error in large, medium
and distribution transformers. Kappikar [41] extended this work by developing a 2D
FEM transformer model using MagNet software. Detailed modelling of various winding
conductors is carried out as case studies. This approach considers the impact of field
response on the main leakage field and radial leakage magnetic field at the winding
terminals. However, the drawback of this approach is that it does not independently
calculate the circulating current losses but rather as a percentage of the copper losses.
Dexin et al. [42] proposed a numerical method to optimise the winding transposition
design. The method is based on a multi-section 2D quasiaxi-symmetrical scheme and direct
field-circuit coupled method to obtain the actual 3D magnetic fields and to integrate the
multi-parameter circuit, respectively. The test result of a 720 MVA double-helical winding
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 7 of 21

indicates that in comparison with physical transpositions the multi-section method yields
better results in comparison with the conventional uniform axisymmetric field method.

2.3. Stray Loss in Other Structural Parts

Stray load losses in the various transformer active components are primarily results
of the main leakage magnetic field culminating radially from the winding surface. Steel
tank losses are also on account of the Eddy currents derived from the magnetic fields of
the winding leads carrying relatively high current passing nearby and in parallel to the
tank walls.
In 1997 [43], Koppikar and Kulkarni et al. described an analytical method to calculate
Eddy current losses in the tank walls (mild steel) due to nearby parallel current-carrying
conductors. The method considers 2D current distributions including single and three-
phase currents and square winding conductors. Stray load loss in tank steel walls is
sheltered by an electromagnetic screen is taken into consideration by modifying the an-
alytical formulae. In comparison with the 2D FEM analysis and laboratory experiments,
the calculated losses yielded an error of approximately 10%. At large, this paper is still
fundamental in developing analytical methods for stray loss calculations in a tank.
Del Vecchio [44] also presented an analytical approach to evaluate the stray loss in
tank walls. This method is based on placing current filaments at the corner and centre of
each bus bar. In comparison with the variety of rectangular bus bar configurations carrying
currents of different magnitudes and phases that were modelled using FEM, the calculated
losses produce good results within 1% or 2%. The drawback of this method is that it does
not consider the Eddy current redistribution within the bus bars which might lead to a
significant error.
Due to the complex nature of the tank geometries, it is of greater interest to use 2D/3D
FEM simulations that emerged as early as the 2000s by Kulkarni. In [45], Olivares et al.
collaborated with Kulkarni to present a numerical method based on 2D time-harmonic
FEM analysis of losses produced in the steel tank walls enclosing high-current bushings. In
this publication, the eddy current losses are reduced by inserting a “T” shaped plate near
high current phases. The collaboration was also extended for an improved insert geometry
in [46] by using 3D time-harmonic FEM solver. The simulation results yielded an error of
7.5% against practical measurements.
In other attempts, Ho et al. [47] formulated a numerical method for a 720 MVA/500 kV
to calculate the 3D open boundary eddy current fields impinging upon the tank walls.
The method applies the preconditioned complex bi-conjugate gradient method to generate
mesh, stiffness matrix and the solution via a source program developed in FORTRAN.
After identifying hotspots in the tank walls, Ho et al. find that their choice to select low
magnetic permeability steels around the high current carrying bus bars and windings
significantly reduced the stray loss in the tank. Ferreira da Luz et al. [48] examined stray
loss in a tank due to high current leads using a sub-problem finite element method. The
surface impedance technique which reduces computation time is used in modelling the
tank geometries.
Measures for stray loss control in the tank can be achieved by mounting magnetic
shunts to shield eddy currents on the surface of the tank. The shunts are erected by
ferromagnetic laminated steel components that steer the magnetic fields emerging from the
bus bars.
Duc et al. [49] described a method to predict stray loss in tank walls by placing
shields in the predicted hotspot region. The method optimises the tank shielding using
3D Magneto-thermal coupled simulation. In comparison with the measured values, the
simulation results yield a reduction in total stray losses by 11.3% with the highest reduction
on the HV tank wall of 52%. Kralj and Miljavec [50] developed a time-harmonic 3D FEM
model using a commercial software package Cedrat Flux 3D [51] to compute the magnetic
leakage field under nominal load case conditions. The losses are calculated based on
the nonlinear surface impedance method which considers the nonlinear magnetic B (H)
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 8 of 21

characteristic of tank material. A more optimised shielding method using magnetic wall
shunts modelled with nonlinear high permeability and related stray losses are introduced
by Najafi et al. [52] using 3D FEM. The flux shunting properties of this shield allow the
electromagnetic flux from the electromagnetic source to be directly drawn into the magnetic
material. Wiak et al. [53] present a methodology to eliminate Eddy losses in the tank by
introducing an approach of effective tank screening by magnetic screen covers using 3D
FEM calculations. The tank losses are computed as being integral to the current density and
field strength for each subdomain. Magnetic shielding of the tank was also employed by
Li et al. [54]. where the stray losses and Eddy current field are calculated using the MagNet
software. The results indicate that a maximum stray loss and loss density of the core clamp
is reduced by 48.9% and 43.1%, respectively. Li et al. [55] also employed the 3D MagNet
software to calculate the stray losses in tank walls and yoke clamps by considering the
nonlinear magnetic B (H) characteristic of tank material. The analysis of the electromagnetic
fields in the model is based on the T-Ω method which represents the magnetic field as the
sum of scalar potential gradient, and in the winding conductors, an additional vector field
represented by Whitney edge elements.
In other attempts, Krasl et al. [56] present a 3D FEM approach to calculate losses
in a transformer tank and frame produced by a stray magnetic field from the windings.
Due to the large surface area-efficient cooling seldom develops and the frame losses are
calculated using the Finite Difference Method (FDM). Another but less accurate method
that makes use of the 3D Reluctance Network Method is mentioned. Krasl et al. propose a
reduction in losses by using laminated and resistivity material, reduction in flux density in
the component by diverting the incident flux by the use of a shielding plate and the use of
material with lower permeability. Yan et al. [57] present a method with less computational
time that integrates 3D FEM and analytical techniques for calculating the stray losses. The
magnetic flux and Eddy current density impinged on the surface of the metallic part are
obtained by FEM and then utilised to calculate stray losses using the analytical approach.
An improved method with less computational effort is also described by Yan et al. [58]
using double Fourier series to represent the magnetic flux density. The least mean error
accompanied by a curve fitting technique and an optimisation algorithm is used to compute
the coefficients of the Fourier series. The resultant eddy losses are attained by analytical
formulae based on the theory of Maxwell equations. A similar study based on the double
Fourier series expansions was carried out by Moghaddami et al. [59] on a 200 MVA power
transformer using 3D FEM in COMSOL Multiphysics. A Parametric FEA is carried out
to find the optimised position to place the horizontal shunts on the tank walls. Stray
load losses on the tank walls and yoke beams are calculated using a surface impedance
boundary condition.
Losses in the core fittings such as flitch plates and core edges are due to the leakage
flux emerging from the inner surface of the windings.

3. Theoretical Foundation of Eddy Currents

3.1. Generation of Electromagnetic Fields in Conductors
In core-type transformers, the HV and LV windings are cylinders with a common
centre encircling vertical magnetic core limbs with circular cross-sections [60]. The vertical
magnetic core limbs and the horizontal core yoke components are made of thin laminated
sheets and provide a magnetic flux circuit. On the top and bottom core yokes, there
are core clamping structures that stabilise the LV and HV windings assembly on the
magnetic steel core. The active part components of oil-immersed transformers are enclosed
with rectangular steel tank walls as illustrated in Figure 6. If load current flows within
the winding copper conductors, a loss (I2R) will be generated. The individual current-
carrying conductors are encompassed by alternating electromagnetic fields with an intensity
proportional to the load current [60]. The field composition generated by the load current
is illustrated in Figure 6, which is a two-dimensional model of the transformer active part
components as indicated [60]. Individual winding conductors encompassed by alternating
 steel core. The active part components of oil-immersed transformers are enclosed with
rectangular steel tank walls as illustrated in Figure 6. If load current flows within the
winding copper conductors, a loss (I2R) will be generated. The individual current-carry-
ing conductors are encompassed by alternating electromagnetic fields with an intensity
Energies 2022, 15, 2333
proportional to the load current [60]. The field composition generated by the load current
9 of 21
is illustrated in Figure 6, which is a two-dimensional model of the transformer active part
components as indicated [60]. Individual winding conductors encompassed by alternat-
ing electromagnetic fields encounter an internally induced voltage that triggers the gen-
electromagnetic fields encounter an internally induced voltage that triggers the generation
eration of the winding Eddy currents to flow in respective winding conductors [60]. These
of the winding Eddy currents to flow in respective winding conductors [60]. These currents
currents bring out losses in the conductors and are dissipated inherently as heat, generat-
bring out losses in the conductors and are dissipated inherently as heat, generating a rise in
ing a rise in temperature in the conductors and surrounding metallic structures. The ad-
temperature in the conductors and surrounding metallic structures. The additional losses
ditional losses outside the copper loss are by and large described as the stray losses. Even
outside the copper loss are by and large described as the stray losses. Even though the
though the additional losses are Eddy current losses, only the fraction in the windings is
additional losses are Eddy current losses, only the fraction in the windings is described as
described as the “winding Eddy loss”, and the remaining loss component is contributed
the “winding Eddy loss”, and the remaining loss component is contributed by the metallic
by the metallic active parts and can be described as the “other stray losses” [60].
active parts and can be described as the “other stray losses” [60].

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Magnetic
Magnetic field
field generation
generation in
in aa transformer.
transformer.

The
The winding
winding EddyEddy losses
losses are
are directly
directly proportional
proportional to to the
the load
load current
current that
that produces
produces
the
the electromagnetic
electromagnetic fields
fields and
and the
the square
square ofof the
the fundamental
fundamental frequency
frequency (50 (50 Hz)
Hz) [60].
[60]. The
The
other stray losses
other stray lossesbybythethe transformer
transformer manufacturer’s
manufacturer’s in-house
in-house statistical
statistical surveys surveys are
are largely
largely proportional
proportional to the
to the load load current
current to an exponent
to an exponent slightly slightly
less thanless than 1, considering
1, considering that the
depth
that theofdepth
penetration by the fields
of penetration by theinto theinto
fields other
themetallic structures
other metallic is proportional
structures to the
is proportional
field
to theintensity [60]. In
field intensity theInevent
[60]. of high
the event of harmonic
high harmonicload load
currents, the magnetic
currents, flux may
the magnetic flux
not wholly
may permeate
not wholly the surface
permeate of theofwinding
the surface conductors
the winding whatsoever,
conductors a conventional
whatsoever, a conven-
approach
tional is to conservatively
approach presume that
is to conservatively the winding
presume that theEddy losses are
winding proportional
Eddy losses are to
the harmonic order. When the unit in-service is exposed to considerable harmonic load
current components, the additional winding Eddy losses and other stray losses will yield a
rise in temperature beyond admissible temperature at rated conditions [60].
Experience has indicated that the transformer winding conductors are the most critical
active components in evaluating the admissible operational temperature of the trans-
former. Consequently, the manufacturers are challenged with obviating the winding
losses under harmonic conditions from surpassing the losses of the unit operating at a
fundamental frequency.
The LV winding generally has a higher winding Eddy loss in comparison with the
HV winding, owing to the fact that the magnetic flux has an increasing tendency to ruffle
in the direction of the lesser reluctance pathway of the core limbs [60]. In addition, the
 Experience has indicated that the transformer winding conductors are the most crit-
ical active components in evaluating the admissible operational temperature of the trans-
former. Consequently, the manufacturers are challenged with obviating the winding
losses under harmonic conditions from surpassing the losses of the unit operating at a
fundamental frequency.
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 10 of 21
The LV winding generally has a higher winding Eddy loss in comparison with the
HV winding, owing to the fact that the magnetic flux has an increasing tendency to ruffle
in the direction of the lesser reluctance pathway of the core limbs [60]. In addition, the
greatest
greatest local
local Eddy loss normally
Eddy loss normally materialises
materialises towards
towards the nearer end
the nearer end winding
winding conductors
conductors
of
of the
the LV
LV winding
winding in in view
view ofof the
the fact
fact that
that the
the area
area of
of concentrated
concentrated magnetic
magnetic flux
flux radial
radial
lines (Figure 6) passes through the radial direction of the individual winding
lines (Figure 6) passes through the radial direction of the individual winding conductor conductor
dimensions.
dimensions. TheThe inherent
inherent nature
nature of the winding
of the winding Eddy
Eddy current
current loss distribution computed
loss distribution computed
by the authors is shown in Figure
by the authors is shown in Figure 7. 7.

1.2

1
Eddy current loss (p.u)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Winding Conductors (mm)

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Eddy
Eddy current loss distribution
current loss distribution on
on the
the inner
inner winding.
winding.

Considering that
Considering that in
in practice
practice the
the conductor
conductor width
width is
is approximately
approximately 3.1
3.1 to
to 5.5
5.5 times
times the
the
conductor thickness
conductor thickness and
and the
the winding
winding Eddy
Eddy loss
loss is
is proportional to the
proportional to the winding
winding conductor
conductor
dimensions, significant loss rises
rises in
in the
the near-end
near-end conductors
conductors of
of the
the winding.
winding.

3.2. Eddy Current Loss Formulation in Time-Varying

Time-Varying Fields
Fields
To analyse thetheimpact
impactofofleakage
leakage flux
flux in in
thethe winding
winding losses,
losses, a single
a single rectangular
rectangular con-
conductor that may be a member of a Continuously Transposed Cable
ductor that may be a member of a Continuously Transposed Cable (CTC), which is com- (CTC), which is
composed of several rectangular [60], PVF (polyvinyl formal) enamelled
posed of several rectangular [60], PVF (polyvinyl formal) enamelled copper copper conductors
assembled into a bundle may be studied. The magnetic flux at the location of the winding
conductor
conductor will point in a particular direction
direction with
with respect
respect to
to the conductor’s position.
position. This
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 21
vector
vector can
can be
be disintegrated
disintegrated into
into axial
axial and
and radial
radial parts
parts parallel
parallel to
to each face of
each face of the
the conductor
conductor
as
as illustrated
illustrated in
in Figure
Figure 88 [60].
[60].

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Magnetic
Magneticflux
flux in
in the
the location
location of
of the
the winding
winding conductor.
conductor.

The loss
The loss related
related to
to an
an individual
individual component
component of of the
the magnetic
magnetic flux
flux must
must be
be evaluated
evaluated
independently and sum the results of the individual components. This may
independently and sum the results of the individual components. This may provide someprovide some
accuracy such that the Eddy currents related to the respective field components
accuracy such that the Eddy currents related to the respective field components do not do not
intersect [60]. In order to derive the winding Eddy losses, we may consider the radial
losses intricately connected to the y-component of the external field as illustrated in the
coordinate system in Figure 9 [60]. We assume the length of the winding conductor is in
the Z-direction. In this regard, the fields are independent of the no z-component and an
 Figure 8. Magnetic flux in the location of the winding conductor.

Energies 2022, 15, 2333

The loss related to an individual component of the magnetic flux must be evaluated11 of 21
independently and sum the results of the individual components. This may provide some
accuracy such that the Eddy currents related to the respective field components do not
intersect [60]. In order to derive the winding Eddy losses, we may consider the radial
intersect [60]. In order to derive the winding Eddy losses, we may consider the radial
losses intricately connected to the y-component of the external field as illustrated in the
losses intricately connected to the y-component of the external field as illustrated in the
coordinate system in Figure 9 [60]. We assume the length of the winding conductor is in
coordinate system in Figure 9 [60]. We assume the length of the winding conductor is in
the Z-direction. In this regard, the fields are independent of the no z-component and an
the Z-direction. In this regard, the fields are independent of the no z-component and an
assumption is made that they only have the y-component.
assumption is made that they only have the y-component.

Figure 9. 9.
Figure Reference coordinate
Reference system
coordinate forfor
system loss computation.
loss computation.

ByBy applyingMaxwell’s
applying Maxwell’sEquation
Equation(1)(1)inin, the
the following
reference coordinate
differentialsystem above andfor
form equations the
aforementionedmagnetic
time-dependent assumptions,
fieldsthe
in following
the location differential form equations
of the conductors for time-dependent
will apply [60]:
magnetic fields in the location of the conductors will apply [60]:
𝜕𝑩 𝜕𝑬𝒛 𝜕𝑯𝒚
∇×𝑬=− ≫∂B = 𝜇
∇ × E 𝜕𝑡
= − ∂t 𝜕𝑥
 ∂xz =𝜕𝑡
∂H
∂E
µ ∂ty
∂Hy
∇ × H = 𝜕𝑯
J 𝒚 = Jz (1)
∇×𝑯=𝐽 ≫ = 𝑱
∂x
∂H 𝒛
∇ × B = 0𝜕𝑥 y (1)
 ∂y =0
𝜕𝑯𝒚
where ∇×𝑩=0 ≫ =𝟎
𝜕𝑦
E—Electric field strength (V/m)
where B—Flux density (wb/m2 )
𝑬− of material
Electric field strength
µ—Permeability (H/m)
(V/m)
𝑩 H—Magnetic
−Flux densityfield
(wb/mstrength
) (A/m)
𝝁− Permeability
J—Current (A/m2 )(H/m)
of material
density
𝑯In
− Magnetic
the windingfieldconductor,
strength (A/m)
Ohm’s law can be expressed in the form as follows in
𝑱 − Current density
Equation (2) [60]. (A/m )
In the winding conductor, Ohm’s J = law can
σE  Jz be expressed
= σE z in the form as follows in(2)
Equation (2) [60].
where
σ—conductivity (Ω · m) 𝑱 = 𝜎𝑬 ≫ 𝑱𝒛 = 𝜎𝑬𝒛 (2)
where As illustrated in Equation (2), the current density and electric field strength are only
𝜎 − conductivity
dependent (Ω ⋅ m)
on the z-component along the length of the conductor as highlighted on the
reference coordinate system for loss computation. Now, combining Equations (1) and (2),
the results yield Equation (3) [60].

∂ 2 Hy ∂Hy
= µσ (3)
∂x2 ∂t
Here, Hy is a function of the variables x and t with a sinusoidal form as follows in
Equation (4) [60].
Hy ( x, t) = Hy ( x )e jωt (4)
It follows that Equation (4), can then be expressed as shown in Equation (5) [60].

∂ 2 Hy
= jωµσHy = k2 Hy (5)
∂x2
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 12 of 21

Using Equation (5), along the axial direction of the conductor, Hy is solely a function
of the independent variable x and yields the solution in Equation (6) when solved with
the boundary conditions x = ±b/2 in the horizontal direction of the conductor shown in
Figure 9 and Hy = H0 [60].
cos h(kx )
Hy ( x ) = H0 (6)
cos h(kb/2)
Here, H0 is the amplitude of the magnetic field strength and b is the width of the
winding conductor shown in Figure 9. Applying Equation (1), the current density along
the length of the winding conductor can be expressed as follows in Equation (7) [60].

sin h(kx )
Jz = −kH0 (7)
cos h(kb/2)

The Eddy current loss per volume along the length of the winding conductor can then
be expressed as follows in Equation (8) [60].

cH0 |k |2
Z b/2 Z b/2
c
PEC/unit length = |Jz |2 dx = |sin h(kx )|2 dx (8)
2σ −b/2 σ|cos h(kb/2)|2 0

Here, c is the height of the winding conductor along the direction of the field as
shown in Figure 9. The coefficient 12 is derived from obtaining the meantime and applying
maximum values of the field. Applying integration halfway the thickness on the winding
conductor with the limits x = ±b/2 due to symmetry of the integrated function, the
coefficient is cancelled. The latter yields Equation (9) [60].
r r
ωµσ ωµσ
k = (1 + j ) = (1 + j)q; where, q = (9)
2 2

By applying this expression, the hyperbolic functions in Equations (10) and (11)
are obtained [11].
1
|sin h(kx )|2 = [cos h(2qx ) − cos(2qx )] (10)
2
1
|cos h(kx )|2 = [cos h(2qx ) + cos(2qx )] (11)
2
Substituting these hyperbolic functions into Equation (8), finding the integral solution,
and dividing by the cross-sectional area of the winding conductor, the particular winding
Eddy loss (in watts/m3 ) can be expressed as follows in Equation (12) [60].

H0 2 q sin h(qb) − sin(qb)

 
PEC = (12)
σb cos h(qb) + cos(qb)

At low frequency, the value of qb approached infinity and the equation is reduced as
follows in Equation (13) [60].

H 2 q4 b2 π2 π2 f 2 b2 B0 2
   
PEC → 0 = 2 2 2 2
f µ b σH0 = (13)
6σ 6 6 ρ

where
ρ—resistivity of a conductor (Ω · m).

4. Electric Transformer Losses

The total transformer losses are holistically catalogued as a total of the no-load losses,
copper losses, winding Eddy losses and other stray losses as follows in Equation (14).
The no-load losses materialise when the transformer is energised in conformity with the
nameplate ratings. However, the low voltage (LV) winding is open circuited in a way that
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 13 of 21

the no-load current is flowing through the winding conductors. The no-load losses arise
from harmonic voltage excitation of the core steel material [61,62].

PTOT = PNLL + PLL = Pcu + PWEC + POSL (14)

where
PLL —Load loss (in kW)
PNLL —No-load loss (in kW)
Pcu —Copper loss (in kW)
PWEC —Winding Eddy loss (in kW)
POSL —Other Stray loss (in kW)
The load losses can be fragmented into the copper loss and stray losses (the total of
PWEC and POSL ) and are triggered by the time-varying magnetic flux in the tank walls, core
clamping structures, flitch plates, core steel, winding conductors, et cetera. The copper
losses can be evaluated from the measured winding resistance. The stray losses can be
ascertained by subtracting the copper losses from the load losses. The measurement of the
stray losses is not practically feasible. In practice, the percentage distribution of the losses
in various metallic structures can then be computed by FEM simulations. This thesis also
aims to contribute some insights into the stray loss distribution, particularly for solar PV
transformers in the South African grid.

4.1. Copper Loss under Harmonic Conditions

The copper loss can be estimated by multiplying the square of the root mean square
(r.m.s) load current and the measured resistance. Under harmonic load current, the copper
loss can be expressed as follows in Equation (15) [62].
v
uh=max
∑
u
Pcu = Pcu( Rated) ×t I 2 (15)
h
h =1

here,
Pcu —Copper loss under harmonic conditions
Pcu( Rated) —Copper loss at rated conditions
h—Harmonic order
Ih —Harmonic load current
If the effective r.m.s per-unit harmonic load current evaluated according to the supplied
harmonic spectrum increases, then the copper losses will also be increased appropriately.

4.2. Winding Eddy Loss under Harmonic Conditions

The winding Eddy load loss under distorted harmonic currents inclines with the
square of the harmonic load current and has a constant relation with the harmonic order as
in Equation (16).
PWEC = PWEC( Rated) × FHLWEL (16)
It is appropriate to describe a single value to that may which could be applied to
evaluate the transformer capability when delivering power to the connected load. It is this
feature that accounts for the inflated winding Eddy losses and subsequently temperature
rise and generation of hotspots in the winding conductors. From the above, it can be
additionally seen that the proportionality factor FHLWEL is the ratio of the winding Eddy loss
under harmonic conditions and at a fundamental frequency, respectively. The description
of the factor is expressed as follows in Equation (17) [61,62].

h=max  2 h=max  2
Ih Ih
FHLWEL = ∑ h 2
IR
/ ∑ IR
(17)
h =1 h =1
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 14 of 21

Equation (17) allows the harmonic factor to be computed in response to the effective
r.m.s value of the distorted harmonic currents. Harmonic analysers including Tektronix,
Rohde and Fluke allow computations to be carried out in response to the harmonics
standardized to the fundamental harmonic.

4.3. Other Stray Loss under Harmonic Conditions

The stray load losses are formed by the stray magnetic fields encroaching above the
covering of various active parts. When a unit in-service is susceptible to harmonic currents,
these losses will tend to also increase. These losses under harmonic load conditions can be
evaluated as follows in Equation (18).

POSL = POSL( Rated) × FHLOSL (18)

The stray load losses in the steel tank walls, silicon steel core clamping structures,
flitch plates, core steel, winding copper conductors et cetera also are inclined to increase
with the harmonic load current. At the same time, these losses will augment at a value
proportional to the exponent 0.8 of the distorted harmonic order. The effective r.m.s heating
resulting from these losses triggers overheating of the insulating oil. This effect may be
evaluated by the other stray loss harmonic factor as expressed in Equation (19) [61,62].

h=max  2 h=max  2
Ih Ih
FHLOSL = ∑ h0.8
IR
/ ∑ IR
(19)
h =1 h =1

The exponent of 0.8 has been substantiated by empirical studies carried out by manu-
facturers based on their in-house best practice and is a mainstream practice in the industry.

4.4. Transformer Maximum Loading Capacity

A method for evaluating the admissible operating conditions of new and in-service
transformers may be based on the computation of the transformer capacity by deriving a
maximum current de-rating factor when supplying a harmonic load current. The winding
loss that will be generated on account of supplying a harmonic load current at a region of
high winding Eddy loss is calculated as follows in Equation (20).
 
PLL = I 2 ( pu) × 1 + FWEC × PEC_R( p·u) (20)

In Equation (21), the calculation of the maximum per-unit r.m.s current under a
harmonic load current is then provided. The latter will facilitate the guarantee that the
concentrated locale of losses in the winding conductors does not surpass the losses at
fundamental frequency conditions.
s
PLL− R ( p·u)
Imax ( pu) = (21)
1 + FWEC × PWEC− R ( p·u)

The product of the rated current and the result of Equation (21) will then yield the
maximum rated current in Amps.

4.5. Winding Eddy Loss Corrective Functions

It is iterated that at high harmonic orders, the magnetic flux may not wholly permeate
the winding conductors. In Section 4.2, the IEEE standard [15] makes the presumption
that the winding Eddy loss is commensurate with the square of the harmonic load current
and the harmonic order. In consideration of the skin effect condensed in the vicinity of the
surface of the winding conductors at high harmonic orders as demonstrated in Figure 10,
the aforementioned presumption does not hold.
 4.5. Winding Eddy Loss Corrective Functions
It is iterated that at high harmonic orders, the magnetic flux may not wholly permeate
the winding conductors. In Section 4.2, the IEEE standard [15] makes the presumption
that the winding Eddy loss is commensurate with the square of the harmonic load current
and the harmonic order. In consideration of the skin effect condensed in the vicinity of the
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 15 of 21
surface of the winding conductors at high harmonic orders as demonstrated in Figure 10,
the aforementioned presumption does not hold.

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Skin Effect in
Skin Effect in aa rectangular
rectangular conductor.
conductor.

When thetheharmonic
harmonicload
loadcurrent
currentflows through
flows through thethe
winding conductors,
winding Eddy
conductors, currents
Eddy cur-
are produced
rents in a pattern
are produced tending tending
in a pattern to impede to the situation
impede the of the magnetic
situation of the field withinfield
magnetic the
winding
within theconductors. The dispersion
winding conductors. of the current
The dispersion of theover the conductor’s
current cross-sectional
over the conductor’s cross-
area and the
sectional areaeffective
and theresistance
effective between
resistance two conductors
between are on that account
two conductors functions
are on that accountof
load current
functions of frequency.
load current When the harmonic
frequency. When load frequencyload
the harmonic increases, the harmonic
frequency increases,load
the
current
harmonic tends
loadtocurrent
be centralised
tends toonbethe conductoronsurface.
centralised This calls
the conductor for a need
surface. Thistocalls
derive
for a
method to accurately estimate the winding Eddy losses under harmonic load
need to derive a method to accurately estimate the winding Eddy losses under harmonic currents.
load currents.
4.6. Emanuel et al. Winding Eddy Loss Correction Function
A correction
4.6. Emanuel functionEddy
et al. Winding for estimating the winding
Loss Correction Function Eddy losses under harmonic con-
ditions was proposed by Emanuel et al. in [63]. Their correction function is based on the
A correction function for estimating the winding Eddy losses under harmonic condi-
expression in Equation (22).
tions was proposed by Emanuel et al. in [63]. Their correction function is based on the
expression in Equation (22).  2
nπ f h B̂x  
∆PEC = √ 1 + δbh 2 β xy 2 γFH (22)
nπfh𝐵
6
∆𝑃 = 1+𝛿 𝛽 𝛾𝐹 (22)
where √6
wheren f —Frequency of the sinusoidal magnetic field
nf − Frequency
γ—Specific of the sinusoidal
conductor magnetic field
conductivity
𝛾b,−h—Width and heightconductivity
Specific conductor of the conductor
𝑏,
B̂xℎ, B̂
−Width and
y —Local height of
induction the and
axial conductor
radial components
δbh b/h—Ratio of width and height of the conductor
FH —Winding Eddy loss correction function
The corresponding correction function is based on the expression in Equation (23).

6 sin hi − sin i
FH = 3
× (23)
i cos hi + − cos i
The conductor dimension in relation to the depth of skin effect can be expressed as
follows in Equation (24). p
i = h πµ0 γn f (24)

4.7. Thango et al. Winding Eddy Loss Correction Function

The presumption that the winding Eddy loss is proportional to the square of the
harmonic load current and the harmonic order is only realistic for winding conductors
with small dimensions. In the case of larger conductor dimensions, the aforementioned
presumptions culminate in a conservative estimation of the winding Eddy loss. In this
thesis, a winding Eddy loss correction function that results in increased accuracy in the
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 16 of 21

projection of the transformer capability under harmonic load currents is formulated. The
corrected function proposed in this thesis is published by the author in the article [60] as
one of the contributions of this thesis is as follows in Equation (25).

π2 f 2 b2 B0 2
 
PEC = (25)
6 ρ

The Eddy current perplexity appertain to the area of quasi-stationary electromagnetic

impacts of conductors, such that the displacement current confined by winding conductors
may continuously be neglected with respect to the conducting current. This is assuredly
the case even at high harmonic orders, considering in practice only winding conductors
including high electroconductivity are utilized. Eddy currents contribute to the irregular
distribution of current density in an investigated transversal section of a conductor. This
intrinsically ignites to rise in joule heating in contrary to the state generated by direct
current (DC). The Eddy currents and associated irregular distribution of the magnetic fields
are recognized as the skin effect. The surge in current density brings about Joule heating in
preference to the DC resistance in addition to a diminution in the inductance. In resolving
the skin effect perplexity, this work espouses and the Maxwell equations are remodelled to
solve the quasi-stationary electromagnetic effects of conductors [60].
Here, the proposed correction function is derived as follows in Equation (26). The
formulation of this correction function is detailed in [60].

3 sin hi − sin i
FH = × (26)
i cos hi − cos i
where
i—Conductor skin depth in relation to the conductor thickness
It follows that the conductor skin depth in relation to the conductor thickness can be
expressed as follows in Equation (27).

Hconductor
i= (27)
δ
where
Hconductor —Conductor thickness
δ—Winding conductor skin depth
At the fundamental frequency (50 Hz) the conductor skin depth in relation to the
conductor thickness is expressed as follows in Equation (28).
r
ρ
δR = (28)
µπ f

Under harmonic load currents, the conductor skin depth in relation to the conductor
thickness is expressed as follows in Equation (29).
r
ρ δ
δ= = √R (29)
µπh f h

The correction function is demonstrated in Figure 11. It can be observed that for small
values of the conductor skin depth in relation to the conductor thickness, the correction
function yields approximately 1.
 𝜌 𝛿
𝛿= = (29)
𝜇𝜋ℎ𝑓 √ℎ

The correction function is demonstrated in Figure 11. It can be observed that for small
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 values of the conductor skin depth in relation to the conductor thickness, the correction
17 of 21
function yields approximately 1.

Figure 11. The function FH and i3 .

Figure 11. The function 𝐹 and .
ℶ
By applying Equation (29), the conductor skin depth of a rectangular copper conductor
at a By applying Equation
fundamental frequency(29), theHz
of 50 and 75 ◦ C
conductor skin depthmm.
is 10.63 of a rectangular copper conduc-
tor at Under
a fundamental
harmonic frequency of 50 Hz
load currents, the and 75 °C is 10.63
proportionate skinmm.
depth in respect of the rectan-
gularUnder harmonic
conductor load currents,
dimensions can be the proportionate
expressed skin
as follows indepth in respect
Equation (30): of the rectan-
gular conductor dimensions can be expressed as follows in Equation (30):
H √
ih = 𝐻conductor
√ = i R h (30)
ℶ = δR / h = ℶ √ℎ
𝛿 (30)
The additional winding Eddy losses that√ℎwill be yielded under the proposed correction
function which considers the skin depth at high
The additional winding Eddy losses that will harmonic order
be yielded is expressed
under as follows
the proposed in
correc-
Equation (31):
tion function which considers the skin depth at high harmonic order is expressed as fol-
h=max  2
lows in Equation (31): 2 Ih
PWEC = PWEC( Rated) × ∑ FH h (31)
h =1
IR
𝐼
𝑃
Standardising the winding =𝑃 )×
Eddy( loss generated 𝐹
byℎharmonic load current to(31)
the
𝐼
winding Eddy loss under a rated condition leads to a correction harmonic loss factor is
expressed as follows
Standardising thein winding
EquationEddy
(32). loss generated by harmonic load current to the
winding Eddy loss under a rated condition leads
 to2 ah=
correction  harmonic loss factor is
h=max
2 Ih
max 
Ih 2
FHLWEL = ∑ FH h
expressed as follows in Equation (32). / ∑ (32)
h =1
IR h =1
IR

The significance of the loss factor above is illustrated in Figure 12, where the harmonic
loss function is plotted concerning the harmonic order for a winding conductor with a
thickness of 6.4 mm at 75 ◦ C.
It may be observed that the skin effect emerges to have an impact at the fourth
harmonic order. For small winding conductor dimensions, the skin effect is only significant
at high harmonic orders. The IEEE method is observed to approach h2 as the harmonic
order increases as a result of the neglected depth of penetration. The proposed loss
factor considers both the effect of the axial and radial conductor dimensions and the field
impinging upon the surface of the conductor is observed to be less as a result of the
skin effect.
 𝐼 𝐼
𝐹 = 𝐹 ℎ / (32)
𝐼 𝐼

The significance of the loss factor above is illustrated in Figure 12, where the har-
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 18 of 21
monic loss function is plotted concerning the harmonic order for a winding conductor
with a thickness of 6.4 mm at 75 °C.

400

350
Harmonic Loss Function (6.4mm)

300

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Harmonic Order
Proposed Emanuel et al. IEEE Std C57.110-2018

Figure
Figure 12.
12. Comparison
Comparison of
of the
the Winding Eddy loss
Winding Eddy loss correction
correction functions.
functions.

5. Conclusions
It may be observed that the skin effect emerges to have an impact at the fourth har-
monic Inorder. For small winding
the modern-day conductor
South African dimensions,
energy the skinunerring
mixed market, effect is only significant
evaluation and
at high harmonic orders. The IEEE method is observed to approach ℎ as
consequently optimization of electric transformer stray load loss by avant-garde techniques the harmonic
order
such as increases
FEM will as furnish
a result one-upmanship
of the neglected among
depth ofcompeting
penetration. The proposed
transformer loss factor
manufacturers.
considers
This articleboth
has the effect of
examined allthe
the axial and radial
components thatconductor
make up the dimensions
stray loadandlossthe field im-
in electrical
pinging uponfrom
transformers the asurface of theofconductor
perspective assessment is approach,
observed control
to be less
andasalleviation
a result ofofthe skin
hotspot
effect.
regions. In the interest of calculation and controlling stray load loss components in the
winding conductors, namely, the winding Eddy current loss and circulation current loss,
5.
2DConclusions
methods, analytical and numerical methods have been triumphantly employed. En-
deavours
In thecompelled
modern-day forSouth
3D analysis
Africanmay be mixed
energy well-founded, particularly
market, unerring for large
evaluation andpower
con-
rating electric
sequently transformers
optimization where the
of electric amelioration
transformer strayinload
precision
loss by will be considerable.
avant-garde techniques
such Rigorous analysis
as FEM will of loss
furnish of flitch plates
one-upmanship can becompeting
among performedtransformer
by 3D FEM manufacturers.
since analytical
formulations are erroneous on account of numerous approximations.
This article has examined all the components that make up the stray load loss in electrical
Tank lossfrom
transformers evaluation constitutes
a perspective of aassessment
3D problemapproach,
and predominantly
control and transformer
alleviation man-
of
ufacturers have adopted the use of 3D FEM to accurately evaluate and manage
hotspot regions. In the interest of calculation and controlling stray load loss components this loss.
Loss
in theinwinding
Framesconductors,
can be computednamely,withthereasonable
winding Eddyaccuracy by using
current 2Dcirculation
loss and FEM. current
Transformers that are intended to operate in harmonically contaminated
loss, 2D methods, analytical and numerical methods have been triumphantly employed. environments,
the adoptioncompelled
Endeavours of correction factors
for 3D detailed
analysis in this
may be work will particularly
well-founded, aid in alleviating
for largethepower
Eddy
current losses and, subsequently, the hotspot regions. This information
rating electric transformers where the amelioration in precision will be considerable. is critical when
designing a cooling system adequate for the losses that will occur.
Rigorous analysis of loss of flitch plates can be performed by 3D FEM since analytical
Transformers designed for renewable sources known to have harmonics, such as wind
formulations are erroneous on account of numerous approximations.
and solar, will benefit from the methodology discussed herein. These renewables have
Tank loss evaluation constitutes a 3D problem and predominantly transformer man-
proven to have total life cycle gas emissions that are much lower than that of conventional
ufacturers have adopted the use of 3D FEM to accurately evaluate and manage this loss.
coal, particularly in South Africa, with an average of 34.3 and 50.1 g of carbon dioxide
Loss in Frames can be computed with reasonable accuracy by using 2D FEM.
per kilowatt-hour.
In hindsight, this article divulges that a prudent choice of method for evaluating the
various stray load loss components has to be determined by the electrical transformer
designer, wherefore adequate knowledge is furnished in this article.

Author Contributions: B.A.T. conceptualized, carried out the computations, and prepared the article.
P.N.B. is responsible for editing the article. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Energies 2022, 15, 2333 19 of 21

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank local manufacturers, utilities and municipalities
for their contribution in the database.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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