English L&L HL 1

Semantic fields: A collection of words or phrases that are related to each other in meaning
and connotation. Example- safety, welcome, support, shelter, structure and warmth all are a
part of the same semantic field in relation to the word home.

Lexical sets: A group of words that are related to each other in meaning for example leaf,
trunk, bark and branch are all part of the same lexical set in relation to the word tree.

Register: Refers to the level of formality in writing. Achieved by carefully considering word
choice or sentence structure.
• Diction: The choice of words. Can be broken down into specific categories. •
Vocabulary: The use of multisyllabic Latin as opposed to jargon and colloquialism reveal
different meanings about the speaker’s personality.
• Denotation vs connotation: Words have both denotative and connotative meanings.
For example- home can mean a house or a feeling.
• Concrete vs abstract words: concrete language refers to things we can physically
observe such as tables, books and the sky. Abstract language refers to intangible
ideas such as truth, sadness and love.
• Syntax: Refers to the rules and principles governing sentence structure and word
order. When analyzing a text’s level of formality refer to sentence structure (simple,
compound etc) and the order of words/phrases/clauses.
• Voice: Comment on why active or passive voices have been used? Also comment on
whether it is interrogative, declarative, exclamatory or imperative.
o Exclamatory- more informal/ excited
o Interrogative- curious/influence someone’s opinion and persuade them in the
case of rhetorical questions.
o Declarative- formal
o Imperative- set of instructions

Persuasive techniques
• Appeal- A persuasive technique split into three types
o Ethos: Appeal to the authority of the writer/speaker. Builds a sense of trust and
credibility within the audience.
o Pathos: Appeal to emotions. Writers/speakers can stir emotions through
diction and figurative language particularly by using words with strong
connotations that can trigger a range of emotions in an audience.
o Logos: Appeal to logic and is achieved by using logical, evidence-based
support.
Note- Most effective arguments use a combination of all three appeals. • Rhetorical
questions: implies an answer to a question/subtly influences them • Repetition:
Draws attention to the repeated phrase
• Enumeration: Creates a cumulative effect. Example- An advertisement using a list of
benefits of purchasing a product.
• Triples (Rule of three): Essentially a type of enumeration.

• Hyperbole: The use of exaggeration makes a situation more dramatic and humorous.
Advertisers may exaggerate the need for an item. Political speakers may exaggerate
the impact of a decision/event.
• Understatement: Opposite of hyperbole but can be very persuasive. An
understatement usually has an ironic effect, as an equally intense response is
expected in severe situations, but the statement in response is the opposite of what
 was expected.
Example- “It was O.K.” – Said by the student who got the highest score.
English L&L HL 2

Propaganda
A form of persuasion. The aim is to promote a political cause or ideology through the use of
information that is often biased or misleading. It can be used to accomplish social ends, as in
campaigns to reduce drunk driving or to win an election. Techniques-
• Glittering generalities: A vague, "feel good" statement that people are predisposed to
want to identify with because of how they see it linking to what they already believe,
or want to believe. They are often used in advertising or political campaign slogans,
sayings or catchphrases. Example- Because I'm Worth It (L'Oreal makeup), The Best
Part of Waking Up (Folgers coffee), Change We Can Believe In (Barack Obama)
• Transfer: A device by which a propagandist links the authority or prestige of something
well-respected and revered such as church/nation to something he or she would have
us accept. Example- To boost cigarette sales, they were called ‘torches of freedom’
for women.
• Testimonial: A technique in which a public figure or celebrity endorses a product,
service or political candidate.
• Plain folks: Sometimes, seeing seemingly regular people endorse a product or service
primes prospects to try it out because they can see it fit into their everyday lives, too.
This is the basic idea behind the plain folks propaganda method. Example- Nutella’s
commercial falls into this category and eventually attracted criticism. The brand was
sued for marketing itself as a “breakfast food” when it is, in all honesty, just a dessert
in a jar.
• Bandwagon: The bandwagon phenomenon creates a sense of isolation and triggers
FOMO in specific people who long to be part of some desirable group. Example- Fyre
Festival’s marketing campaign shows this technique in action.

Rhetorical devices
Language designed to convince or persuade, making good use of compositional techniques.
These compositional techniques are called rhetorical devices.
• Anadiplosis: Repetition of the last word in one sentence at the beginning of the next
sentence. Example- She opened a café, a café that ruined her financially • Analogy: A
comparison between two unlike things, presented as a way of furthering a line of
reasoning or to support an argument. Example- Withdrawal of US troops will become like
salted peanuts to the American Public, the more US troops come home, the more will be
demanded.
• Anaphora: Repetition of a word or expression at the beginning of a number of
sentences. Example- "So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New
Hampshire. Let freedom ring from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom
ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania..."
• Antimetabole: The repetition of words in successive clauses, but in transposed order;
for example, "I know what I like, and I like what I know". It is related to, and
sometimes considered a special case of, chiasmus.
• Chiasmus: One phrase is inverted in the following phrase, such that two key concepts
from the original phrase reappear in the second phrase in inverted order. The
sentence "She has all my love; my heart belongs to her"
• Antithesis: Combination of two opposing ideas in a sentence, to achieve a contrasting
effect. Example- "Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing." - Goethe. "That's one
small step for man, one giant leap for mankind." - Neil Armstrong.
 • Asyndeton: Intentionally eliminate conjunctions between the phrases, and in the
sentence, yet maintain grammatical accuracy. Example- “Are all thy conquests,
glories, triumphs, spoils, Shrunk to this little measure?”
• Hypophora: the writer raises a question, and then immediately provides an answer to
that question. Example- “What made me take this trip to Africa? There is no quick
explanation. Things got worse and worse and worse and pretty soon they were too
complicated.”
English L&L HL 3

• Parallelism: It may feature repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis, or it can be

used as a literary device to create a parallel position between opposite ideas through
grammatical elements as a means of emphasizing contrast. Parallelism takes many
forms in literature, such as anaphora, antithesis, asyndeton, epistrophe, etc.
Parallelism is a literary device in itself, but it is also a category under which other
figures of speech fall, such as those mentioned previously. Therefore, these other
literary devices and figures of speech are specific types of parallelism. Example-
“where there is smoke, there is fire.” “When the going gets tough, the tough get
going.” “It takes one to know one”, “he that will cheat at play, will cheat you anyway”
• Polysyndeton: Several coordinating conjunctions are used in succession in order to
achieve an artistic effect.Example- Let the white folks have their money and power
and segregation and sarcasm and big houses and schools and lawns like carpets,
and books, and mostly–mostly–let them have their whiteness.”
• Rhetorical question: Rhetorical question is asked just for effect, or to lay emphasis on
some point being discussed when no real answer is expected. A rhetorical question
may have an obvious answer, but the questioner asks it to lay emphasis on the point.
In literature, a rhetorical question is self-evident and used for style as an impressive
persuasive device. Example- “Who knows?” “Are you stupid?”

Visual texts
Composition: Refers to everything that is included or omitted from an image. An image will
be constructed of many tools outlined below-
• Rule of thirds: A compositional
technique used in photography
whereby the photograph (or image)
is
divided into thirds, with the
dominant
part of the image (the subject, or
focus) positioned at one of the
points
of intersection.
• Negative space: In the photograph,
there is deliberate negative space
to
draw attention to the animal on the
right. The dominant expanse of the
landscape in the foreground which
takes up roughly two-thirds of the
image, emphasizes the animal’s solitude.
• Salience: Refers to the dominant part of the image, or that which first attracts the eye’s
attention. An image can be made salient through a combination of features such as
placement, colour or size.
 • Camera angle: A certain angle may
emphasize part of the image, suggest
relationships between subjects,
establish
tensions or create a dramatic effect.
Common angles are shown on the right.
• Juxtaposition: Contrast of two unrelated
objects, images or ideas placed next to
each other.
• Symbols: As in a literary text, images
often contain objects which represent
certain ideas.
• Allusion: Similar to literary devices, it is a reference to other works of literature, art,
history or religion.
• Colour: Can have an emotional impact on us and depending on the context can give a
symbolic purpose. Example- Red can be used to symbolize danger. They can
English L&L HL 4

influence mood and are effective in advertising, marketing etc. The meaning of the
major colours are given
o Red: Passion, Love, Anger
o Orange: Energy, Happiness, Vitality
o Yellow: Happiness, Hope, Deceit
o Green: New Beginnings, Abundance, Nature
o Blue: Calm, Responsible, Sadness
o Purple: Creativity, Royalty, Wealth
o Black: Mystery, Elegance, Evil
o Gray: Moody, Conservative, Formality
o White: Purity, Cleanliness, Virtue
o Brown: Nature, Wholesomeness, Dependability
o Tan or Beige: Conservative, Piety, Dull
o Cream or Ivory: Calm, Elegant, Purity
• Perspective: Refers to the depth and spatial relationships between objects. Achieved
through a combination of elements such as camera angles, framing, lines, size and
positioning. Using perspective in photos allows you to evoke a sense of scale and
depth by changing the camera's angle and position
and
using creative compositions.
• One Point linear perspective: uses two parallel
lines that converge at a single point in the
horizon to
create the illusion of depth within an image.
• Diminishing scale perspective: Our brains
perceive objects that are smaller to be farther
away
than close ones. As such, varying the sizes of
elements in a composition can effectively add
depth.
Consider the example image. The buildings in the
foreground are larger and perceived to be closer by
the viewer. As the buildings gradually become
 smaller, they start to seem farther away.
• Forced Perspective: This technique
involves
strategically positioning objects on a
single plane
at various distances. A classic
example of forced
perspective in photography is an
image of
someone pretending to support the Leaning
Tower of Pisa with the palm of their hand.

Graphic Novels
Note- Graphic novels and comic books are different. A comic
book tends to be a part of a longer series and is usually structured sequentially around a
simple storyline. A graphic novel involves a more complex plot structure, often divided into
chapters with deeper themes.

Structural Features-
• Panel: the box or segment that contains the image and text. A page may be made up
of several panels or of a single panel if the graphic novelist's intention is to emphasize
the action in that one panel.
• Frame: the border that surrounds the panel. In some cases, there may be no frame
around the panel; if this is the case, the graphic novelist will have had a reason for
omitting this feature.
• Gutter: the space between the panels. The audience is invited to 'read' between the
lines of each panel and imagine what may occur in the space between each image
(the gutter).
• Bleed: when an image goes beyond the borders of the page. A bleed may be used to
emphasize a particular panel, the absence of a border often serving as a symbol.
English L&L HL 5

• Graphic weight: the heaviness or intensity of a line or block of shading for visual focus.
The bolder the graphic weight, the greater the visual focus, making that element more
salient in the scene.
• Caption: a box or section of text which gives details of the scene in the panel; captions
function as narration or voice-over.
• Speech bubble: a shape (usually a bubble) that contains the dialogue spoken by
different characters within a scene.
• Thought bubble: similar to the speech bubble, this shape (usually that of a cloud)
contains the internal monologue of a character.
• Emanata: lines or graphics which indicate the emotions of the figures or characters on
the page.
• Special effects: the use of onomatopoeia (CRASH BOOM! for example) or other
sound devices to create a dramatic effect on the page.
• Layout: when we refer to the layout of a graphic novel (or any visual text, for that
matter), we are talking about how all of the elements are composed on the page and
how those elements work together to create meaning. Layout is a general term; when
you are analysing a page from a graphic novel, you need to be specific about which
aspects of the layout achieve specific effects.
 • Punchline: This feature is typical of comic strips, as they tend to build up to a single
phrase or word which makes one want to laugh.

Main Text Types

• Advertisement

• Problem and benefit: also called ‘benefit and need’, the success of any advert
depends upon appealing to the desires of its readers.
• Image: a major component of modern advertising, images often tell visual
narratives, or employ tactics such as ‘shock value’ which is a type of
advertising that "deliberately, rather than inadvertently, startles and offends its
audience by violating norms for social values and personal ideals".
• Slogan and copy: as the image is so important in ads, the text is kept to a
minimum. Slogans should be short, catchy, memorable and should have a
relationship with the image; this is called anchoring. Look for typographical
features such as bold fonts, underlined words and the like.
• Association: ads sell products… but also sell values. You should be alert to the
abstract concepts that the advert is associating with its product and brand.
Understand that objects, settings, people and so on are symbolic.
• Testimonial: adverts often include the satisfied quotations of customers who
already used the product and are delighted with their purchase. Some ads
feature celebrity testimonials.
• Advertising claims: favourites include the use of weasel words, scientific
claims, vague language, or bandwagon claims. There are many more for you
to look out for, and you might also keep an eye out for jargon that sounds
impressive, but doesn’t communicate meaning.
• Persuasion: adverts are always persuasive. Even ads that are not trying to sell
you a product or service might be asking you to think about something,
change your behaviour or help someone. Look out for any and all kinds of
persuasive devices in advertising.
• Tagline: Catphrase that leads the advertisement and is generally memorable. •
Slogan: Phrase used by the brand for all of its marketing purposes. • Magazine Covers
• Title: The type of font and its use of colour comment on the nature of the
magazine and the context of its readership. Consider how some magazines
place their titles in front of the subject while others place them behind their
subjects.
English L&L HL 6

• Ears and Teasers: The upper left and right corners are known as the ‘ears’ of
the cover. Headlines in the ears are also called ‘teasers’, as they invite
readers to look inside the magazine or newspaper.
• Headlines and captions: These are statements, questions or phrases which
capture the reader’s attention and lead the articles. Which lines stand out the
most? It can help you figure out the genre of the magazine as well.
• Photograph: Most magazine covers include photographs of people or people’s
heads (headshot). Consider the camera angle- looking down may make them
appear weak and looking up the subject may make them appear strong.
• Symbols: What goes into the composition? Objects tend to symbolize ideas. •
Lighting and colour: Is the lighting crisp or warm? Is there high or low contrast?
Mention the use of colours.
 • Encyclopedia entry
o Well-Organized: Readers depend on an encyclopedia to enable them to find
information quickly and easily. Can be alphabetic/thematic.
o Vast: Encyclopedias represent an array of knowledge contained in one place;
even encyclopedias composed to address one theme or topic will typically
have many entries that go into great detail.
o Authoritative: People turn to encyclopedias to answer questions, and so
encyclopedias need to be a source of facts and clearly articulated
explanations that can settle disputes and help readers. Encyclopedias are
thus written in as clear and direct a way as possible to avoid confusing the
reader. Some encyclopedias also become known for providing answers to
certain kinds of questions.
o Expert Contributions: In many cases, encyclopedias are compiled by experts
in a particular field, who write each entry and ensure that the facts contained
within are correct.
• Appeal
o Headings: look for headings and subheadings that contain impactful and
emotive language.
o Visuals: like conventional advertising, charity appeals rely on visual elements
such as photographs to quickly convey relevant information. Look out for body
language and facial expressions that reveal need.
o Statistics: in order to convey not only the scale of the problem but also how
the organization has helped in the past. May be presented in summary or
graphical form.
o Metonymy: social problems like hunger and poverty are too large for one
person to help solve; so charity ads often introduce you to a single individual
who represents all those whose donation goes towards helping.
o Pathos: charity ads appeal to your emotions by trying to make you
sympathetic; by feeling sorry for someone you are more likely to help.
o Persuasive: charity adverts are strongly persuasive, so look out for all kinds of
rhetorical features including direct address, use of imperatives, modals and
more.
• Parody
Parody is often confused with a spoof or a satire. However, these three terms are
different.
o A parody is a comical imitation of another work. It stops at mocking or making
fun of one work. For example, Pride and Prejudice With Zombies is a parody
of Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice.
o A spoof mocks a genre rather than a specific work. For example, the Scary
Movies series is a spoof because it mocks the horror genre rather than one
specific film.
English L&L HL 7

o A satire, on the other hand, uses irony and humour to mock political or
religious views. A political cartoon would be an example of a current satire.
You might also see the tv show, The Daily Show, as a pop-culture example of
a satire.
o Imitation: A key trait in parody is an imitation of the subject or work being
referenced. For a parody to be effective, it must evoke the original work
enough for the audience to recognize it, but in such a way that enables the
author or performer of the parody to exaggerate the style, tone or other
characteristics of the original work, making it appear ridiculous.
o Genre Satire: Some parodies poke fun at broader literary or artistic genres
while still referencing specific works. The history of film, for example, contains
many instances of comic films that parody entire genres.
 o Social and Political Commentary: Many writers, filmmakers and other artists
use parody as a form of satire to comment on broader political and social
trends.
• Pastiche
Pastiche is a literary piece that imitates a famous literary work by another writer.
Unlike parody, its purpose is not to mock, but to honour the literary piece it imitates. This
literary device is generally employed to imitate a piece of literary work light heartedly but
in a respectful manner. The term pastiche also applies to a literary work that is a broad
mixture of things – such as themes, concepts, and characters – imitated from different
literary works. For instance, many of the pastiche examples are in the form of detective
novels that are written in the style of the original Sherlock Holmes Stories. It features
either Sherlock Holmes or a different main character that is like him. • Blog
o Imperative verbs: Blogs often offer advice or help, especially the ‘how to’
blogs.
o Anecdote: Blogs can be like public diaries or journals in this sense. o Topical:
Popular blogs are often topical, meaning they are about current affairs that
people care about.
o Voice: Popular bloggers have a style that followers recognise and like. It can
be rather personal. Generally speaking, a good blog should be informal
without sounding chatty, punchy but not terse, focused but relevant to a larger
audience, and short but not thin on content.
o Examples: For an opinion, blog readers will expect to learn about real-life
examples as evidence to support the arguments.
o Opinion: Many blogs clearly state the writer’s opinion
• Brochure/leaflet
o Cover: A cover that catches the eye of a potential customer or client. Such a
cover has an uncluttered design and typically consists of three elements: ▪ an
image that stands out
▪ the company’s logo

▪ a phrase that captivates the reader to learn more.

o Compelling Text: The cover design might cause people to pause, but the
phrase on the cover is the invitation to pick up the brochure and read it. o Tone
with Color: Color is used to set the mood of your message. If a business is fun
and whimsical, bright colours will help to enhance this perception. Neutral hues
are better suited for a more serious business message.
o Font and Font Size: Different sizes are used to highlight the importance of the
information. The most important information should be in the largest size with
subheadings in a smaller font. Different sizes also help to provide visual
interest.
o Strategic use of White Space: This is empty space that is as important as
images and text. Strategic use of white space keeps your brochure from
looking cluttered and overdone. White space can be used to draw attention to
key images and/or information.
English L&L HL 8

o Organized with Boxes: Boxes are another means of drawing attention to key
images and/or information.
• Cartoon
o Caricature: Cartoonists often exaggerate facial features like a comment on a
person’s character. (generally in political cartoons)
o Topical: Cartoons tend to critically comment on a current affair.
o Symbolism: Cartoons must succinctly communicate abstract ideas through
concrete objects. Icons and symbols do this effectively.
 o Labelling and Captions: Cartoons often use labels and captions in order to
make their message and any use of symbolism clear.
o Irony: Many cartoons highlight the irony of a particular situation. The irony is
when one means the opposite of what one says. Situational irony occurs when
one’s actions have the opposite of the intended effect.
o Other features have been discussed under the visual text section.
• Diary
o Viewpoint: as one of the most personal text types, diaries are written in the
first person and always express thoughts and feelings.
o Perspective: diaries are written to be private as the reader and writer are the
same people. A confessional is a particular form of diary writing that reveals a
secret.
o Structure: diaries function as records of the day’s events and are largely
chronological. Look out for flashbacks when the writer begins at the end, then
goes back to explore how and why an event happened.
o Register and tone: most diaries are written in an informal or semi-formal
register, using language the writer feels comfortable with. Look out for
language which reveals the attitude of the writer (tone): it is not uncommon for
diaries to be thoughtful and reflective, scathing and caustic… or anything in
between.
o Colloquialism: the writer might write as if he or she is talking and may use
figures of speech in an original or entertaining way.
• Infographic
o Laws of Hierarchy: The laws of hierarchy in the design space are a large
factor in how layouts look, flow and feel for the viewer. Hierarchy is extremely
important for an infographic, especially since there is so much information to
relay in a small space.
▪ The word hierarchy literally means “a visual system where things are
organized in order of importance.”
o Gestalt Principles: It’s easy to find a relationship between design and
psychology. After all, viewers will look at a design and feel either attracted to
or repelled by it.
▪ These principles are derived from Gestalt Psychology, which dictates
that the human brain perceives objects differently when seen in groups
than when seen on their own.
o Colour Harmonies: In order to choose the right colour for your infographic,
you need to take a moment and consider the message and the viewer. o Font
Pairing: Fonts need to work together as a whole and not compete with each
other. One is usually the stronger contender, taking the other as a companion or
complement.
o Visual Unity: Consider all the bits and pieces inside an infographic – the text,
icons, illustrations, data widgets and shapes. All these elements together are
coloured, sized and placed in a shared space. They need to have a visual
unity with each other.
o Visual Balance: A well-designed infographic must look appealing at first sight.
o Focal Point and Flow: A focal point is a visually attractive section in the design
which calls attention to the viewer. Focal points follow the flow of the hierarchy.
English L&L HL 9

• Interview
o Format: most interviews are either presented in question and answer format or
as an article with responses embedded inside narration. Check to see if the
balance of content is evenly split or if the focus is on the interviewee. If the
interviewer’s own thoughts and feelings are apparent this is called authorial
intrusion.
 o Register: as a record of a spoken conversation, a written interview is likely to
contain examples of language that is more like speech. Look out for
colloquialisms, idioms, contractions and even jokes.
o Quotation: almost all interviews will feature direct quotations. Something the
interviewee said might even provide the title. The writer may also use reported
speech, either for brevity or as a stylistic device.
o Structure: it is not uncommon to see a question-answer interview sandwiched
between an introduction and conclusion written by the interviewer. The
interview may be focused on one issue or may range across various topics.
o Perspective: the interview presents a one-sided view on a topic or person, so
is likely to be highly subjective. The interviewee may use assertive statements
which present opinions as if they are facts. Don’t forget to analyze the
language used by the interviewer in the article or questions to see how the
writer can lead your opinion or create bias.
• Letter (formal/informal)
o Name and address: formal letters are posted to the recipient, so they normally
contain both the sender and receiver’s address, allowing the recipient to reply.
The sender’s address is traditionally placed on the right-hand side, with the
date below it.
o Purpose: people send letters for all kinds of reasons; to complain, to seek
advice, to connect with a loved one or even to pass gossip. The purpose of
this text type is completely flexible.
o Register: letters can be formal or informal depending on the purpose and
relationship between the sender and receiver. The tone can vary widely too:
compare a formal letter of complaint with an intimate letter between lovers.
o Salutation: a direct address to the recipient. Depending on the context, they
can vary from the formal ‘Dear…’ or even ‘To whom this may concern…’ to a
quick ‘Hi…’
o Sign off: you can tell a lot about the relationship between the reader and the
writer from the way the letter ends. Formally, ‘yours sincerely’ is used if the
recipient’s name was used and ‘yours faithfully’ is used when the writer does
not know the name of the receiver. Non-conventional sign-offs can be used for
a variety of reasons; check the end of the letter to see if the writer expects a
reply.
• Magazine/news article
o Photograph: News articles, especially on front pages, are accompanied by
photographs. Headshots are particularly common.
o Headlines and subheadings: Headlines capture the main sentiment of an
article. Subheadings are often used to outline key aspects of longer articles. o
Newsworthiness: Readers look for news stories that are either relevant to their
lives, extraordinary, negative or any combination of these things.
o Quotations: Direct quotations from people add to the stories’ reliability as well.
o Source: Every news story needs a source for it to be deemed reliable. o
Facts: Numbers, statistics, dates and names all help news articles build a factual
report of events.
o Context: Most new stories go beyond facts and quotations to give more
contextual information that accounts for events.
English L&L HL 10

• Memoir
o Theme: A good memoir will have a tight focus point, an inherent message that
will drive the story toward its intended purpose through the power of reflection. o
Emotional beats: A compelling memoir is an emotional journey that captures its
reader’s heart early on. It brings the reader along to experience these pivotal
inflexion points in the memoir.
 o Initiating incident: An event should initiate the key theme as the story’s driver.
o Obstacles: The challenges faced along the author’s journey are what will resonate
most with the reader. By sharing setbacks and describing how the author overcame
them, he provides knowledge and inspiration to the reader. • Report
o Masthead: a strip across the top of a newspaper front page containing the
name of the newspaper, the date of publication and the price. Tabloid papers
from the UK are called ‘red-tops’ because of the red colour of the masthead.
o Headline: the choice of words in a headline is essential to the tone and angle
of the story. There are many techniques involved in creating headlines and
you should definitely learn: slammer; pun; alliteration; elliptical headlines
(which only include the keywords).
o Visuals: all newspapers make use of photographs to accompany stories.
Tabloid papers are dominated by images while broadsheet papers tend to use
smaller photographs. Look out for pictures of people’s faces, which reveal
emotion and create bias.
o Copy: the main text of the article. Features you should be on the lookout for
are: sensationalism; vague language; emotive language and euphemism. o
Embedded interviews: you can expect to find witness recounts, expert opinions
and statements from authority figures in almost all newspaper reports. o Bias: all
kinds of bias exist in newspaper reports, from selection bias (the choice of what
content to include and what to exclude) to name-calling, to the use of certain
facts and statistics and more.
o Figurative Language: News reports are a rich source of metaphor, simile,
hyperbole, and exaggeration, often distorting reality in some way.
• Screenplay
o Act and scene: Most plays are divided into acts and scenes. Scenes are
significant for framing the dramatic action, dialogue and setting.
o Dialogue: Dialogue refers to the exchange of words between characters. ▪
Monolog is when one character speaks for a longer duration for other characters
to hear but not for them to necessarily respond.
▪ Soliloquy refers to a character speaking aloud to himself or herself
privately, with the audience listening in.
▪ Dramatic aside is when a character speaks directly to the audience,
conscious and aware of their existence.
o Time: The specific time the scene takes place. For example, how would a
scene that takes place in the middle of a winter night compare to a scene that
takes place on a hot afternoon minutes before summer vacation?
o Period: The general or historical time period in which the play is set (e.g., the
Dark Ages, the 1950s, or in the faraway future.)
o Place: The specific place on stage where the action occurs. (e.g., a fancy living
room, a sterile doctor's office, or a ravaged battlefield). Is it an interior or
exterior location? What sort of set pieces could suggest the place for the
audience? How would characters feel or behave in this place compared to
other places?
o Locale: The general region where the play is set (e.g., New York City, the rural
American South, under the sea.) What makes this locale unique compared to
other locales?
o Mood: The atmosphere, or feeling of a scene. (e.g., suspenseful, humorous,
chaotic) What about the scene that causes this mood? Caution: Avoid having
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actors "play the mood," but instead focus on their objective. For example,
many humorous scenes are funny because characters are not getting what
they want. The humour of the scene rings more authentically when the actors
are not focused on "being funny," but are focused on their character's
 objective in the scene.
o Theme: What ideas does this play make you think about? Does it have a
question that it sets out to answer or explore? How do the events of the play
develop these ideas?
o Beat Change: The moment a character decides to switch tactics, or takes on a
new objective. These can be subtle moments, or incredibly dramatic moments
depending on the scene. Either way, it is important to make these beat
changes clear. What causes the character to change tactics? What causes
the character to change objectives?
• Set of instructions
o Purpose: In general, the purpose of an instruction manual is to familiarize the
user with the product and/or to guide the user through a series of steps that
lead to the completion of a task. However, each instruction manual will also
have a more specific outcome. Identifying what that specific outcome is will
help you make more effective rhetorical decisions about content and design
o Audience: Creating a profile of your audience (i.e. the primary intended user
of the document) is integral for making thoughtful choices about scope,
content, and design. It depends on the audience’s familiarity, comfort level,
and approach to learning.
o Context: Think of context as the temporal, social, technological, and cultural
situation surrounding the creation and use of the instruction manual.
o Scope: The rhetorical situation helps determine the amount of detail to include
in an instruction manual.
o Content: Some standard sections of instruction manuals include front matter,
an introduction, a series of steps, a conclusion, and back matter, though some
manuals may not use all of these sections or label them in this way. Extensive
front and back matter, for example, are often found in longer, more complex
manuals.
o Language: The questions about “Audience” and “Context” above can help
guide you in making effective language choices. The following subsections
include explanations of common linguistic features of instruction manuals
along with tips for writing clearly and concisely in this genre.
o Imperative mood: Instructions, like commands, often utilize the imperative
mood. To write in this way, address the audience directly using active voice
and specific verbs.
o Word Choice: When writing instructions, careful consideration of word choice
is important because in some cases, the user’s safety is at risk. For this
reason, strive for clarity and conciseness.
o Consistency and Parallelism: Parallel structure, or parallelism, means using
the same grammatical structure to present information or ideas. Parallelism is
often used to improve readability and create consistency.
• Street Art
o Social commentary: Many graffiti artists aim to make a political statement with
their work.
o Icons and symbols: Street art communicates succinctly through the use of
icons and symbols. Icons are images that look like the concepts they
represent. Symbols are like signs that we have been taught to read.
o Tromple l’oeil: This French phrase for ‘deceive the eye’ is used with reference
to two-dimensional art that gives the viewer a three-dimensional impression.
Many street artists use trompe l’oeil.
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• Speech
 o Ethos: the speaker establishes his or her credibility and may allude to a moral,
social or spiritual leader with whom the audience cannot disagree.
o Logos: clear, reasonable arguments, facts and statistics and quoting experts
in the field are all ways of establishing a logical appeal.
o Pathos: emotive language and imagery are ways of helping the audience
empathize with the feelings of other – often vulnerable – people.
o Persuasive: the speaker attempts to make his or her listener think in a certain
way, believe something or take action.
o Direct address: the speaker tries to draw closer to the listeners by addressing
them as ‘you’ – look out for the use of ‘we’ or ‘us’ to include the speaker and
listener on the same side – and be wary of attempts to compliment the
listener.
o Modality: modal verbs are small but important words (such as ‘must’, ‘need’,
‘should’, ‘might,’ and so on) that reveal the speaker’s degree of certainty and
strength of feeling.
o Rhetorical devices: all kinds of rhythmical, structural, auditory and linguistic
tricks can be employed by a skilled speaker. There are too many to list here,
but rhetorical strategies can be studied and learned.
o Logical Fallacies: also called ‘argumentation fallacies.’ Common fallacies in
speeches are glittering generalizations, simplification and slippery slope.
Others have been mentioned in persuasive techniques.
• Travel writing
o Viewpoint: travel writing often documents the personal experiences of
someone exploring a new place or country so is often first person.
o Perspective: an outsider’s perspective is common when reading travel writing,
particularly if the destination is new, exotic or remote. Alternatively, the piece
might be written from an insider’s perspective and is inviting you to visit or
share an experience in a different part of the world.
o Structure: look out for chronological timelines, past–present structures or a
linear journey of discovery. Guidebooks will have clear headings and
subheadings and will probably include box-outs and the like.
o Information: travel writing often seeks to be informative and can present you
with facts and figures, names and dates, historical or architectural or
geographical information and more.
o Description: if the writer is trying to make the destination tantalizing, or to help
transport the reader, you might find examples of visual imagery, vivid
description, even figurative comparisons, helping you visualize a far-off place.
o Visuals: photographs, maps, or floor plans of famous locations are all visual
features that you might encounter in travel writing, particularly guidebooks. • Extract
o Conflict: At the heart of any story is a conflict, and there are several types of
conflict: individual versus society, individual versus another individual,
individual versus circumstances and individual versus himself or herself.
o Character: Every story needs character. The protagonist instigates the
development of a story. The antagonist stands in the protagonist’s way. And
the foil is a character who is in stark contrast to the protagonist and highlights
his or her defining character traits.
o Setting: Where the story is set is important for reflecting the atmosphere of the
story. In this sense, the setting can act as a mirror of the characters’ problems.
It can also act as a mould in shaping the character’s personalities. Authors
may also engage readers by depicting an escapist setting, which is
fantastically
English L&L HL 13

different from the reader’s own world. Finally, you may want to consider the
degree to which the characters are alienated by their surroundings. Alienation
is a common conflict between character and setting.
 o Exposition: This is the opening part of a story, where the characters, the
setting and the conflict are introduced to the reader.
o Narrative technique: Who is the storyteller or narrator? To whom is the
narrator speaking? Is it a reliable or unreliable narrator? Is it an all-knowing,
omniscient narrator, a single point of view limited narrator or a combination of
the two, a limited omniscient narrator? How does the narrator tell the story?
Which verb tense is used? The narrator might retell the events in reported
speech, or the narrator may act as a fly on the wall and use direct speech,
relying heavily on dialogue and objective accounts of the action.
o Characterisation: How does the writer use language to bring the characters to
life, so that they live in the mind of the reader? Authors can show readers
their characters thoughts, actions and words, besides physical descriptions of
the characters.
o Rising action: This is the part of the story where things become complicated.
The action heightens and the characters become entwined in a conflict of
some kind.
o Climax: This is the turning point of a story, where the events come to a head
and tension has reached its highest point.
o Falling action: This comes after the climax, where the consequences of the
action become clear.
o Denouement: This French word, which means 'unknotting', suggests that the
conflict of the story is entirely unravelled. This is the final part of a story where
lessons have been learnt and the reader feels some sense of closure.
• Poems
o Imagery: Poems are often full of imagery, as they aim to appeal to the senses
to engage the reader.
o Alliteration: Poems are meant to be read aloud. Many poems include
alliteration, the repetition of a consonant at the beginning of words in
sequence. The repetition of the same vowel sound is known as assonance.
The repetition of consonants in the middle of a word is known as consonance.
o Syllables and metric feet: Every word in English consists of one or more
syllables. A syllable is the unit of sound when speaking a word, which usually
has one vowel. Syllables provide the beats of the rhythm of a poem. Some
syllables are stressed, while others are naturally unstressed. When analyzing
poetry, you can look for the clusters and patterns of stresses in a line. Each
unit of stressed and unstressed sound is known as a metric foot).
o Verse and meter. Each line of poetry is called a 'verse", which should not be
confused with sentences. When a sentence carries on over the end of a line, it
is called enjambment (or enjambement), which poets may use for artistic
reasons. The rhythmic structure of each verse is called meter. It may consist
of any number of metric feet.
o Stanza and rhyming scheme: Studying poetry is a study of prosody, which
refers to the patterns of rhythm and sounds used in poetry. To find patterns,
look at the stanzas. They give the reader a sense of structure and
organization. When studying the structure of poems, you may notice the use
of rhyme, sometimes within a verse (internal rhyme) or at the end of each
verse. Many poems, however, do not rhyme at all. Free verse does not
rhyme.
o Volta: Sonnets sometimes take a turn or shift in their message or argument,
which is known as a volta.
o Caesura: Apostrophes, full stops and hyphens can be used to make the reader
take a break or pause while reading the poem aloud. This use of caesura
allows the reader and listener to contemplate the poet's words.
English L&L HL 14

o Zeugma: A literary term for using one word to modify two other words, in two
different ways. An example of a zeugma is, “She broke his car and his heart.”
When you use one word to link two thoughts, you're using a zeugma.
 • Scientific Articles
o Diction: inevitably, writing about science and nature will involve using a
specialist vocabulary of technical and precise terms.
o Comparisons: some scientific concepts are quite abstract or complex, so
writers of scientific articles might use similes and comparisons to make them
easier for a wider readership to visualize.
o Visuals: photographs, diagrams, charts and graphs are all likely to accompany
and illustrate scientific concepts. Look out for examples of simplification. o
Informative: the purpose of scientific writing is to share knowledge, so look out
for informative features such as facts and statistics and clear explanations. Some
articles will also simplify concepts for a more general readership. o Credibility:
research, authoritative sources, and quotations by experts make far-out concepts
more credible.
o Structure: lookout for both linear and non-linear structures and layouts,
depending on the content. A text might provide a timeline or historical
overview. Boxouts, summaries, explainers, glossaries can all help
communicate complicated ideas.
• Opinion Column
o Perspective: as an expression of a personal viewpoint, the first person is most
commonly adopted for opinion pieces. Look out for ‘we’ instead of ‘I’ – a clever
way of implying the viewpoint is commonly held.
o Solid Arguments: an opinion piece might open your eyes to the reality of an
issue, providing facts, statistics and information to help convince you of the
writer’s viewpoint. Expect to see opinions backed up by studies, research or
evidence of some kind. Keep an eye out for assertion, though, where a writer
presents an opinion as to if it were a fact.
o Anecdotes: sometimes a writer will relate a small story from his or her personal
experience in order to demonstrate a thoughtful approach to the topic at hand.
You may find the opinion piece begins with this story, which acts as a kind of
hook into the main article.
o Structure: the writer of an opinion piece is not trying to keep you in suspense
and the opinion is often obvious from the title or first few lines of the article.
The rest of the article should support or develop the writer’s point in a number
of ways. The ending should be strong and certain, perhaps reiterating the
writer’s position.
o Register and tone: you should be especially alert to the writer’s choices in this
regard. Opinion pieces are often formal, but the writer may adopt an irreverent
tone, be passionate, conversational, friendly, challenging, even sarcastic
depending on the tactics used to convince you of a particular opinion.
o Concession: Although similar in many ways, opinion pieces are not quite the
same as persuasive speeches, so the writer is not necessarily trying to
change your opinion. In this case, you might find concessions to the other
side of the argument or even an acknowledgement that the writer’s opinion is
flawed in some way.

Other literary devices

• Adnomination: Repetition of words with the same root. The difference lies in one
sound or letter. A nice euphony can be achieved by using this poetic device.
Examples: “Nobody loves no one.” (Chris Isaak). Someone, somewhere, wants
something.
• Allegory: Representation of ideas through a certain form (character, event, etc.).
Allegory can convey hidden meanings through symbolic figures, actions, and imagery.
English L&L HL 15

Example: Animal Farm by George Orwell is all about the Russian Revolution. And
characters stand for working and upper classes, military forces, and political leaders. •
Alliteration: The repeated sound of the first consonant in a series of words, or the
repetition of the same sounds of the same kind at the beginning of words or in stressed
syllables of a phrase. Examples: A lazy lying lion. Peter picked a peck of pickled
peppers. Sally sells seashells by the seashore.
• Allusion: Reference to a myth, character, literary work, work of art, or event. Example:
I feel like I’m going down the rabbit hole (an allusion to Alice’s Adventures in
Wonderland by Lewis Carroll).
• Antithesis: Emphasizing contrast between two things or fictional characters. Example:
“Love is an ideal thing, marriage a real thing; a confusion of the real with the ideal
never goes unpunished.” (Johann Wolfgang von Goethe)
• Apostrophe: Directed speech to someone who is not present or to an object. Example:
“Work on my medicine, work! Thus credulous fools are caught.” (William
Shakespeare)
• Assonance: Repetition of vowels in order to create internal rhyming. Example: “Hear
the mellow wedding bells.” (Edgar Allan Poe) Related: Consonance. Repetition of
consonants.
• Cataphora: Mentioning the person or object further in the discourse. Examples: I met
him yesterday, your boyfriend who was wearing a cool hat. If you want some, here’s
some cheese. After he had received his orders, the soldier left the barracks.
• Ellipsis: Word or phrase omission. Example: I speak lots of languages, but you only
speak two (languages).
• Euphemism: Replacing offensive or combinations of words with lighter equivalents.
Example: Visually challenged (blind); meet one’s maker (die)
• Epigram: Memorable and brief saying, usually satirical. Example: “For most of history,
Anonymous was a woman.” (Virginia Woolf)
• Irony: There are three types of irony:
o Verbal: using words to express something different from their literal meaning
for ironic effect (”I’m so excited to burn the midnight oil and write my academic
paper all week long”).
o Situational: result differs from the expectation (Bruce Robertson, a character
of Filth, is a policeman. Nonetheless, he does drugs, resorts to violence and
abuse, and so on).
o Dramatic: The situation is understandable for the audience but not the fictional
character/actor (the audience sees that the fictional characters/actors will be
killed now, though the characters don’t expect it).
• Merism: Describing people/objects by enumerating their traits. Example: Lock, stock,
and barrel (gun); heart and soul (entirety)
• Metaphor: Comparing two different things that have some characteristics in common.
Example: “Love is clockworks and cold steel.” (U2)
• Metonymy: Giving a thing another name that is associated with it. Example: The heir to
the crown was Richard. (the crown stands for authority)
• Pun: A kind of wordplay. Here are a few types of puns:
o Antanaclasis: repetition of the same word or phrase, but with a different
meaning (“Cats like Felix like Felix.”—“Felix” cat food slogan).
o Malapropism: usage of the incorrect word instead of the word with a similar
sound (“optical delusion” instead of “optical illusion”).
o Paradox: self-contradictory fact; however, it can be partially true (“I can resist
anything but temptation.”—Oscar Wilde).
o Paraprosdokian: arranging a sentence in such a manner so the last part is
unexpected (You’re never too old to learn something stupid).
 o Polyptoton: repetition of the words with the same root (“The things you own
end up owning you.”—Chuck Palahniuk).
English L&L HL 16

• Synecdoche: Generalization or specification based on a definite part/trait of the object.

Example: He just got new wheels. (car)
• Tautology: Saying the same thing twice in different ways. Example: first priority; I
personally; repeat again